ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
SEVENTH EDITION.
✓ ,
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
SEVENTH EDITION,
WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES,
AND
* V ; * ^1' * * V ' * .
.. • *OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
' I ?. 1
'•1 k>-v '' "> ’
“‘^ v ' ''INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT, >
A GENERAL INDEX,-
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
■ VOLUME XL
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
M.DCCC.XLII.
.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
G R O T I U S,
Grotius. ROTIUS, Hugo, one of the most illustrious charac-
‘Or ters 0f modern times, was born at Delft on the 10th
of April 1583. His great-grandfather was Coneille Cornets,
a gentleman of Franche-Comte, who settled in Holland,
and married Ermengard the only daughter of Diederik de
Groot, a burgomaster of Delft. Her father stipulated
that the children born of this marriage should assume his
own name, which literally signifies the Great, and is pro¬
nounced like the English word groat. Her son, named
Cornelis de Groot, was distinguished by his learning.
By Eselina van Heemskerck, related to one of the first
families in Holland, he had two sons, Cornelis and Jan,
or John. The younger of these brothers married Alida
van Overschie, who likewise belonged to a very genteel
family, and the issue of this marriage were three sons and
a daughter. Jan de Groot had studied the law, and with
his juridical knowledge he united much elegant erudition.
He was four times burgomaster of Delft, and was one of
the three curators of the university of Leyden. His eld¬
est son, Huig de Groot, commonly known by the more
classical appellation of Hugo Grotius, was a youth of the
most amiable disposition and of the most promising ta¬
lents : so premature indeed was his genius, that he seem¬
ed to pass immediately from the state of infancy to that
of manhood. He was indebted to his father for a pious
as well as a learned education ; and one of the first fruits
of it was a successful attempt, at the age of twelve, to
convert his mother from the Romish faith.
At a very early age, he was sent to school at the Hague,
where he was committed to the domestic care of Uyten-
bogard, a clergyman of great note and influence among
the Arminians ; and to his connexion with this individual,
with whom he contracted a lasting friendship, the colour
of his subsequent life may to a great extent be attributed.
At the age of twelve, he was sent to the university of
Leyden, which about that period was the most learned se¬
minary in Europe. Here he continued for three years, re¬
siding in the house of Junius, a distinguished professor of
divinity, from whom he might perhaps imbibe his decid¬
ed relish for theological studies. Of that university Jo¬
seph Scaliger was then the brightest ornament, and he may
VOL. XI.
indeed be safely characterized as the most learned man in Grotius.
modern times : he was greatly struck with the uncommon y-w/
capacity of this young scholar, and not only encouraged,
but likewise directed his studies. In 1597, when he had
only reached the age of fourteen, he with much applause
defended public theses in mathematics, philosophy, and
jurisprudence, and thus exhibited a maturity of talents
and attainments far beyond his years. He was speedily
regarded as a literary prodigy, and was celebrated as such
by various poets and scholars of that learned age. Dur¬
ing the ensuing year, he accompanied count Justin of
Nassau and the grand-pensionary Oldenbarneveldt, who
were sent on an embassy to the court of France. M. de
Buzanval, formerly ambassador to Holland, presented him
to the king, who received him in a gracious manner, and
gave him his portrait, together with a chain of gold. He
had however to regret that he did not find an opportuni¬
ty of paying his respects to the illustrious president De
Thou; but on his return to Delft, he addressed to him a
letter which produced a very friendly correspondence be¬
tween a venerable judge and a beardless lawyer. In
France he now resided for nearly twelve months; and it
was at this period that he took the degree of LL. D. in
the university of Orleans. He had not then attained the
age of seventeen; but he had doubtless acquired a much
larger fund of learning than has fallen to the share of
many, not to say most, of those who have subsequently-
taken the same degree at a more mature age. On return¬
ing to his native country, he was called to the bar, and
he pleaded his first cause at Delft in the year 1599.
But the practice of the bar, and the study of jurispru¬
dence, did not engage his undivided attention. He con¬
tinued to devote himself with great ardour to the study
of classical literature, and had already distinguished him¬
self by the spirit and elegance of his Latin verses. Among
the earliest of his publications was an edition of the Saty-
ricon of Martianus Capella, which was printed at Leyden
the year 1599. When only fourteen years of age, he had
received from his father a manuscript of this author, and,
on communicating it to Scaliger, had been honoured with
his injunctions to prepare a new edition. This task, which
2 . G R O
Grotius. was by no means easy, he ventured to undertake, and
he not only revised the text, but likewise wrote elaborate
annotations. His edition excited the admiration of those
who were most competent to judge of its merits or de¬
fects ; and if he had not given many other proofs of his
early proficiency, we might have been induced to sup¬
pose that he had received very material assistance from
some scholar of riper years. His Syntagma Arateorum,
printed at the same place in 1600, increased his reputa¬
tion as a classical critic. This includes the Greek verses
of Aratus, the Latin versions, so far as they could be re¬
covered, of Cicero, Germanicus Caesar, and Festus Avie-
nus, together with the annotations of the editor, who was
then seventeen years of age. As this metrical work relates
to astronomy, it afforded him an opportunity of displaying
his science as well as erudition. His brief notes on Lu¬
can, accompanying an edition of the text, made their ap¬
pearance in 1603. Some of his Latin verses had been
printed so early as the year 1598, and others followed in
1599 and 1600. “ Adamus Exul, tragcedia,” was publish¬
ed in 1601 ; but this tragedy he afterwards considered as
too juvenile to be admitted into the general collection of
his poems. The use to which it was applied by Lauder,
in his dishonest attempt to convict Milton of plagiarism,
is well known to the more critical reader.1 His “ Tra¬
gcedia, Christus patiens,” was printed in 1608, and was re¬
ceived with great applause. It was translated into Eng¬
lish by George Sandys, and, at a more recent period, into
German by D. W. Triller. With the former version he
appears to have been much pleased. His third drama,
“ Sophompaneas, tragcedia,” was not published till 1617.
It relates to the history of Joseph, whom he thus describes
by an Egyptian name. Of this tragedy a Dutch version
was undertaken by Vondel, a poet of great note. The li¬
terary reputation of Grotius speedily procured him the
appointment of historiographer to the republic; an ap¬
pointment which he did not himself solicit, though it was
eagerly solicited by several other scholars, and, among
the rest, by Dominicus Baudius, a well-known professor
of eloquence in the university of Leyden.
His first appearance at the bar produced a very favour¬
able impression, and he soon rose to eminence in a pro¬
fession which in most countries is considered as lucrative.
In 1607, that is, at the age of twenty-four, he was pro¬
moted to the important office of advocate general of Hol¬
land and Zeeland. During the following year, he married
Maria van Reygersberg, allied to one of the first families
in Zeeland; and, as one of his biographers has remarked,
it is sufficient commendation to add that she was a wife
worthy of such a husband.2 Their nuptials were com¬
memorated in the verses of many learned poets. About
this period, he was occupied with a professional work,
which appeared in 1609, under the title of “ Mare Libe¬
rum, sive de Jure quod Batavis competit ad Indicana Com-
mercia, Dissertatio,” and produced a controversy of no
vulgar denomination. After an interval of some years, it
was opposed in the “ Mare Clausum” of Selden, an anta¬
gonist worthy of Grotius. The British cause was likewise
maintained by William Wellwood, who had been a pro¬
fessor of law in the university of St Andrews; and his
treatise “ De Dominio Maris” was answered by Gras-
winckel, who published three different tracts in support
of his countrymans positions. Other learned writers en¬
gaged in the same controversy, which however must ul¬
timately be decided by the sword, rather than by the law
of nature and nations. In 1610 he published a work
T I U S.
“ De Antiquitate Reipublicae Batavaeand in the same year Grotius.
a Dutch translation, which was partly executed by his fa-
then The book was afterwards translated into French.
In 1613 Grotius was appointed pensionary, or syndic, of
Rotterdam, and then fixed his residence in that city. In
the course of the same year, he was sent on a mission to
the court of London, for the purpose of remonstrating
against the arbitrary proceedings of the English, who
claimed an exclusive right to the Greenland fisheries.
His diplomatic exertion^ appear to have been attended
with little or no success; but he was very graciously re¬
ceived by the learned monarch, and likewise had the sa¬
tisfaction of forming a personal acquaintance with Isaac
Casaubon, a man of great worth and learning.
The republic was at this time agitated by theological
dissensions. Arminius, an eminent professor in the uni¬
versity of Leyden, had publicly dissented from the doc¬
trines of Calvin respecting predestination and grace. He
was immediately opposed by Gomarus, another professor
in the same university, and many controversial proceed¬
ings flowed from this origin.3 Many of the magistrates
were disposed to adopt the new opinions, but the clergy,
and the great body of the people, very generally adhered
to the established creed. Arminius died in the year 1609 ;
and his adherents soon afterwards obtained the name of
Remonstrants, from the circumstance of their having ad¬
dressed to the states a remonstrance, subscribed by forty-
six ministers, and containing a summary of their distinc¬
tive tenets. It was digested by Uytenbogard, and Gro¬
tius is supposed to have lent his assistance. The Goma-
rists produced a counter-remonstrance, and thus obtained
the name of Counter-remonstrants. In order to allay the
animosities that now prevailed between the two parties,
the states issued an edict which was prepared by Grotius,
but which was too favourable to the Arminians to prove
satisfactory to the Gomarists. It was attacked by Sibrand
Lubert, a professor in the university of Franeker, and was
defended by Grotius, in a work published in 1613, under
the title of “ Ordinum Hollandise Pietas, a calumniis mul-
torum, praesertim Sibrandi Luberti, vindicata.” The pro¬
fessor replied in 1614; and before the close of the year,
his antagonist produced “ Bona Fides Sibrandi Luberti,
ex libro quem inscripsit Responsionem ad Pietatem Hu-
gonis Grotii.” During the same year he likewise pub¬
lished “ Ordinum Hollandiae et Westfrisiae Decretum pro
Pace Ecclesiarum, munitum S. Scripturae, Conciliorum,
Patrum, Confessionum, et Theologorum Testimoniis.” At
this crisis, the learned author was deeply engaged in theo¬
logical studies; and in 1617 he printed his “ Defensio
Fidei Catholicae de Satisfactione Christi, adversus Faus-
tum Socinum Senensem,” which was speedily attacked by
Ravensperger, and was defended by Yossius, an intimate
friend of the author. It was afterwards attacked by Crellius,
a person of no small consideration among the Socinians.
While he was thus exerting his powerful talents, the re¬
public was torn by intestine divisions. With the view of re¬
pressing the seditions which followed these theological al¬
tercations, the grand-pensionary Oldenbarneveldt proposed
to the states of Holland that they should empower the ma¬
gistrates of the province to levy a military force; and al¬
though the proposal was strenuously opposed by Amster¬
dam, Dordrecht, and other three towns where the Goma¬
rists had the chief influence, a decree to that effect was
issued on the 4th of August 1617. Maurice of Nassau
considered such a step as this, taken without his concur¬
rence, to be highly derogatory to his authority as governor
1 Lauder’s Essay on Milton’s Use and Imitation of the Moderns in his Paradise Lost, p. 50. Loud. 1750, 8Vo.
* Burigny, Vie de Grotius, tom. i. p. 42. edit. Amst. 1754, 2 tom. 12mo.
a Brantii Historia Vitae Jacobi Arminii. Amst. 1724, 8vo.
G R O T I U S.
Grotius. and captain general; and he now found an opportunity of
 Y'"-'’ satiating the hatred which he had formerly conceived against
the grand-pensionary. Availing himself of the rancour of
party-feeling, he exerted all his influence in favour of the
Gomarists; and before the close of that year, they were
emboldened to discontinue all communion with the Armi-
nians. His elder brother the prince of Orange died on the
21st of February 1618, and Maurice thus became more
formidable to his opponents. Supported by an armed
force, and accompanied by the deputies of the states gene¬
ral, he made a progress through different provinces, and dis¬
placed the Arminian ministers and magistrates. Grotius
and Hoogerbeetz, pensionary of Leyden, were dispatched
to Utrecht by the states of Holland, for the purpose of en¬
couraging the authorities to oppose the prince in his vio¬
lent attempt upon that city: they accordingly made pre¬
parations for a vigorous defence, but some seditious move¬
ments took place among the soldiers as well as the citizens,
and Maurice becoming master of the city, introduced such
changes as suited his particular views. Having suddenly
called together eight individuals, who described themselves
as the states general, he procured a decree for the arrest of
Oldenbarneveldt, Grotius, and Hoogerbeetz. On the 29th
of August, the grand-pensionary was seized at the Hague,
as he was returning to his own house, after attending a
meeting of the states of Holland. The prince sent for
Grotius and Hoogerbeetz, and when they presented them¬
selves, they were immediately taken into custody, and com¬
mitted to the castle of the Hague. The synod of Dor¬
drecht was opened on the 13th of November 1618 : the
five Arminian articles were there condemned, and sentence
of deposition was pronounced against the Arminian clergy.
The fate of the state-prisoners was next decided. Olden¬
barneveldt, a man distinguished by his talents and patriot¬
ism, was beheaded on the 13th of May 1619, all the prin¬
ciples of justice having been signally violated to remove a
formidable obstacle to the ambition of the prince of Orange.
The trial of Grotius was conducted in the most irregular
manner ; and on the eighteenth day of the same month,
being convicted of divers imaginary crimes, he was con¬
demned to perpetual imprisonment, and all his property
was confiscated. His wife’s fortune, and whatever he had
saved from his public appointments, were absorbed by this
flagitious sentence ; but as his father was still living, he was
not left in a state of destitution. On the 6th of June he was
removed to the fortress of Louvestein, near the town of Gor-
cum in South Holland. His father was denied the consola¬
tion of visiting him in his prison. While he remained at the
Hague, his wife was refused all access to him, and was not
even permitted to attend him during a severe illness. She
was at first admitted to Louvestein under the express con¬
dition of remaining constantly in the fortress, but was af¬
terwards allowed to quit it on obtaining leave for each oc¬
casion, and it was finally conceded that she might quit it
twice a week. The presence of this excellent woman was
a great source of consolation; and a mind regulated like
that of Grotius was habitually sustained by the consola¬
tions of religion. In his literary pursuits, which were so
numerous and diversified, he likewise found unabating de¬
light, and he alternately applied himself to the study of
philosophy, jurisprudence, and theology. Sunday and a
portion of the other days of the week he devoted to his
theological studies. He now wrote some short annotations
on the New Testament, and a work in Dutch verse on the
truth of the Christian religion. For the use of his daugh¬
ter Cornelia, he composed a metrical catechism in the same
language. It was printed at the Hague in the year 1619,
and he afterwards translated it into Latin verse. Another
of his labours during his imprisonment was his introduc¬
tion to the Dutch law, “ Inleydinge tot de Hollandse
Rechtsgelehrtheyt.” It was published in 1631, or perhaps
3
earlier, and underwent many editions, several of which con- Grotius.
tain the additions of Groenewegen, well known for his trea-
tise “ De Legibus abrogatis et inusitatis in Hollandia.”
The course of his literary studies led him to examine the
fragments of Greek poets preserved by Stobaerus, and these
he now began to translate into Latin verse, together with
the reliques of Menander and Philemon. It is impossible to
contemplate these various occupations of a man condemn¬
ed to perpetual imprisonment, without being very deeply
impressed with the value and importance of sound learn¬
ing, united with a religious frame of mind. To an ordi¬
nary lawyer or statesman, under a similar sentence, the
fortress of Louvestein would have proved a very desolate
habitation.
After he had been imprisoned for about twenty months,
his wife, who appears to have possessed a mind not less
firm than tender, devised and executed a plan for his es¬
cape. On the 22d of March 1621, when the commander of
the fortress had gone to Heusden for the purpose of levy¬
ing soldiers, she shut her husband in a large chest, which
had been in common use for sending clothes to Gorcum to
be washed: she had previously ascertained that he was
able to endure this confinement for the necessary length of
time, and had taken the precaution of boring several holes
for the admission of air. During the first year of his im¬
prisonment, the guards had been accustomed to make a
careful inspection of the chest; but having always found
that it contained nothing but books and linen, they at length
suffered it to pass without examination. She had taken oc¬
casion to inform the wife of the commanding officer that
she was about to send away a chest full of books; and that
her husband being in a very feeble state of health, she was
grieved to see him apply so closely to his studies. When
two soldiers took up the chest, they found the weight so
great, that one of them exclaimed, “ There must be an
Arminian in itan expression which for some time be¬
came proverbial. Some demur however took place, but
this precious load was at length deposited in a boat, and
was safely conveyed to Gorcum, under the inspection of a
female servant, to whom the secret had been confided. On
reaching the town, the master of the boat proposed to place
it on a sledge; but the servant informing him that it con¬
tained very brittle ware, and must be conveyed with cau¬
tion, it was supported on a kind of litter carried with two
poles, and was thus conveyed to the house of David Daet-
zelaer, the friend of Grotius, and the brother-in-law of Er-
penius. Here he disguised himself as a mason, and, with
a rule and trowel in his hands-, hastened to embark in a
boat, which landed him at Walwyck in Brabant. He there
made himself known to some Arminians, and hiring a car¬
riage to Antwerp, alighted at the house of Nicolaus Gre-
vinchovius, who had formerly been a clergyman at Amster¬
dam. In the mean time, his faithful wife had acted with
much presence of mind. She at first pretended that her
husband was seriously indisposed; but when her servant
returned with the intelligence that he had been conveyed
across the Rhine, she boldly declared to the guards that their
prisoner had escaped. On the arrival of the command¬
ing officer, she was committed to close confinement. On
the 5th of April she addressed to the states general a peti¬
tion for her release ; and although some individuals had the
baseness to propose she should be retained as a prisoner,
she obtained her liberty two days after this petition was
presented, and she was permitted to remove all her goods
from Louvestein. The escape of this illustrious man fur¬
nished a theme to some of the well-known poets of the time,
particularly to Heinsius and Barlaeus.
Grotius remained for a short while in the city of Ant¬
werp ; where on the 30th of March he wrote a letter to the
states., informing them that he had effected his escape with¬
out either violence or corruption, and that the persecution
G R O T I U S.
4
Grotius. to which he had been subjected would never diminish his
love of his native country. Having resolved to seek an
asylum in France, he was furnished with letters of recom¬
mendation by his zealous friend Du Maurier, the French
ambassador in Holland; and from the president Jeannin he
received a letter, which encouraged him to expect the pro¬
tection of the king, as well as the friendship of the most
distinguished persons in the kingdom. He reached Paris
on the 13th of April 1621, and experienced a very kind
reception from the president and other men of rank and
eminence. One of those who hastened to wait upon him
was Peiresc, who, without being himself an author, has
enjoyed a degree of literary reputation to which but few
authors attain. The states general lost no time in instruct¬
ing their ambassador to exert his diplomatic arts in depress¬
ing the credit of Grotius, who still displayed his greatness
of mind by speaking of his country as became a good citi¬
zen. Such arts were attended with no ultimate success,
but, from the exhausted state of the treasury, a consider*
able interval elapsed before he received any pecuniary aid;
and his wife having joined him in the month of October,
he had been induced to take a house without having any
adequate means of supporting himself in credit and com¬
fort. The king, who had been absent from Paris, return¬
ed about the end of January 1622; and in the ensuing
month of March, Grotius was presented by the chancellor
and the keeper of the seals. His majesty received him
very graciously, and bestowed upon him a pension of three
thousand livres. On this occasion, he was chiefly befriend¬
ed by the keeper of the seals, and by the prince of Conde.
Being placed in a situation of comparative tranquillity,
he now resumed his literary labours. Before the close of
the year 1622, he published an apology for himself and the
party with which he had acted. It bears the title of “ Apolo-
geticus eorum qui Hollandiae, Westfrisiseque, et vicinis qui-
busdam Nationibus, ex legibus praefuerunt, ante mutatio-
nem anni cio ioc xvm ; quo ea referuntur quae adversus
Hugonem Grotium et alios acta judicatave fuerunt.” This
apology, which speedily passed through several editions, he
likewise published in the Dutch language. The statements
which it contains are such as could not be refuted; and, in¬
stead of attempting a refutation, the states general con¬
demned it as a most injurious libel on the sovereign autho¬
rity of the provinces, and on the character of the prince of
Orange: they commanded the author to be seized where-
ever he could be found, and, under the pain of death, pro¬
hibited their subjects from having the book in their posses¬
sion. The violence of these denunciations induced him to
address a requite or petition to the king, from whdm he
obtained a formal letter of protection, dated on the 26th
of February 1623. During this year he published a work
which he had commenced at Louvestein : “ Dicta Poeta-
rum quae apud Joannem Stobaeum exstant, emendata et La¬
tino carmine reddita : accesserunt Plutarchi et Basilii Mag-
ni de Usu Graecorum Poetarum.” Another of a similar de¬
scription, and likewise begun in this prison-house, appeared
in 1626, under the title of “ Excerpta ex Tragoediis et Co-
moediis Graecis, turn quae exstant, turn quae perierunt, em¬
endata et Latinis versibus reddita.” Both these works were
printed at Paris in quarto. Although the order of chro¬
nology is not strictly preserved, it may here be proper to
add, that in 1630 he published, at the same place, but in an
octavo form, “ Euripidis Tragcedia Phcenissae, emendata ex
manuscriptis et Latina facta.” This edition, which is de¬
dicated to the president De Meme, is unaccompanied with
notes, but contains copious prolegomena. His poetical ver¬
sion is inserted in the very elaborate edition of Valckenaer, Grotius.
published at Franeker in the year 1755.
The president had offered him the use of one of his coun¬
try houses ; and at that of Balagni near Senlis he spent the
spring and summer of 1623. Here he was engaged in the
composition of the greatest of all his works, his treatise on
the rights of war and peace. Here likewise he was visited
by several men of eminent learning, and, among others,
by Saumaise and Rigaut, more extensively known by the
names of Salmasius and Rigaltius. In his literary researches
he was greatly benefited by the liberality of Francois de
Thou, who inherited the magnificent library of his father,
and permitted Grotius to use it as his own/ His wife had
occasion to visit Zeeland in the summer of 1624, and dur¬
ing her absence he was attacked by a violent dysentery.
On hearing of his illness, she was so much affected that a
* strong fever supervened ; but as soon as it had abated,
and without waiting to recover her strength, she hastened
to Paris, and by her presence, as well as by her tender
care, he was restored to health after a dangerous malady
of two months. His first labour after his convalescence
was upon his version of the Phoenissae, of which he had
lost some portion before he quitted his prison at the
Hague. He next devoted himself to the completion of
his great work, which was printed at Paris in quarto in the
year 1625: “ De Jure Belli ac Pacis libri tres.” The
plan of such a treatise appears to have been suggested to
him by Peiresc,1 who had evidently formed a very skilful
estimate of his peculiar powers of mind. This work,
which he gratefully inscribed to Louis the Thirteenth, was
crowned with the most signal success: it has passed
through a great variety of editions, and has been translated
into many different languages ; it was at once received as
a standard production, and a mere enumeration of the
writers who have illustrated it with notes or commentaries,
would occupy no small space. It was speedily translated
into the Dutch language. A Swedish version was exe¬
cuted by the command of Gustavus Adolphus. It was
likewise translated into English. There are two French
versions, by Courtin and Barbeyrac ; and a German ver¬
sion was published by Schiitz, with a preface by C. Tho-
masius. Of all these translators, Barbeyrac is the most
celebrated. He was a professor of law in the university
of Groningen, and to his juridical knowledge he added no
inconsiderable fund of general erudition. The notes which
accompany his translation are for the most part able and
judicious; and he likewise published an edition of the
original work, accompanied with Latin notes. Grotius
may justly be considered as the founder of a new science,
that of the law of nature and nations ; for the subject is
much more extensive than the title of his book. His
treatise De Jure Belli ac Pacis will never cease to be re¬
garded as a singular monument of his genius and learning.
The previous labours of Alberico Gentili, and some other
writers of inferior note, had but little effect in smoothing
his path ; but the resources of his own talents and erudi¬
tion were not easily exhausted; and if he has not produced
a perfect work, he has at least produced a work which in
many respects is still unrivalled. “ Grotius,” says Dr
Smith, “ seems to have been the first who attempted to
give the world any thing like a system of those principles
which ought to run through and be the foundation of the
laws of all nations; and his treatise of the laws of war
and peace, with all its imperfections, is perhaps at this
day the most complete work that has yet been given upon
this subject.”2 The copiousness of his classical quotations
Gassendi Yita Nicolai Claudii Fabricii de Peiresc, p. 198. Paris. 1G41, 4to.
Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments, p. 610.
G R O T 1 U S. 5
Grotius. cannot be supposed to be equally relished by readers of
every denomination, but they certainly are not without
their attraction to readers of classical learning and taste ;
and it is necessary to distinguish between such as are in¬
troduced to prove particular facts, and such as are merely
introduced for the purpose of illustration. “ Of what
stamp,” it has been asked by Bentham, “ are the works of
Grotius. Pufendorf, and Burlamaqui ? Are they political
or ethical, historical or juridical, expository or censorial ?
Sometimes one thing, sometimes another : they seem
hardly to have settled the matter with themselves.” In
these suggestions we perceive nothing very ingenious or
original. The principles of natural law are closely blended
with the principles of ethical science, nor is it easy to
make an entire separation between the general principles
of law and politics ; and examples, drawn from the history
of mankind in various stages of society, may certainly find
a suitable place in a work intended to illustrate the law of
nature and nations.1
The treatise of Grotius “ De Veritate Religionis Chris-
tianse,” wras published at Leyden in the year 1627, and
the subsequent editions of this work are very numerous.
It has been translated into almost all the cultivated lan¬
guages of Europe, and into various languages of Asia.
An Arabic version was executed by the learned Dr Po-
cocke.
In the mean time, his residence in France was not en¬
tirely free from inquietude and mortifications. His pen¬
sion had never been paid with any degree of regularity ;
and when the entire management of the state was en¬
trusted to Cardinal de Richelieu, Grotius had too much^
self-respect to recommend himself to the good graces of
that haughty and unprincipled politician. The death of
Maurice prince of Orange, which took place on the 23d of
April 1625, naturally inspired him with the hope of return¬
ing to his native country. Four months after that event,
Hoogerbeetz was permitted to leave the fortress of Louve-
stein, on finding security, to the amount of twenty thou¬
sand florins, that he would not quit the United Provinces ;
but this liberty he did not long enjoy, having died in the
space of about three weeks after he was released from
confinement. Grotius, who relied on the favourable dis¬
position of the new stathouder Frederick Henry, found
that, his enemies being still numerous and powerful, his
return to Holland was opposed by many obstacles. An
action at law however enabled him to recover his pro¬
perty, which had been unduly confiscated. The advice
of his beloved wife, and the encouragement of some dis¬
tinguished friends, at length induced him to take the ha¬
zardous step of returning to a country in which he had
received such unworthy treatment. He began his jour¬
ney in the month of October 1631, and soon presented
himself at Rotterdam, where he met with a reception
less favourable than his former services had led him to
anticipate. Before the close of the year he went to Am¬
sterdam, and was there better satisfied with his treat¬
ment ; but no city ventured to offer him an asylum, and
he found himself environed with difficulties. Conscious
of his innocence, he felt the utmost repugnance to solicit
a pardon from the states general, nor did he seem to have
any prospect of obtaining it without solicitation. With the
view of occupying himself till his fate should be decided,
he adopted the resolution of betaking himself to practice as
a chamber-counsel; but all his plans were speedily discon¬
certed by an ordinance of the states general, which com¬
manded all bailifs to use their endeavour to seize his person. Grotius.
To this ordinance, issued on the 10th of December 1631.
little attention was however paid; and on the 10th of March
1632 it was followed by another, promising a reward of
two thousand florins to any person who should deliver
him into the hands of justice, and containing a threat of
deprivation against any functionary who should neglect to
make the attempt. On the 17th of the same month he
left Amsterdam, and, taking the route of Germany, halted
near the banks of the Elbe. Having spent a few months
in a pleasant district, he fixed his residence at Hamburg
before the close of the year. As he had not brought his
books along with him, he was greatly indebted to the libe¬
rality of Lindenborg, who allowed him the free use of his
library. Here he formed an intimacy with Salvius, vice-
chancellor of Sweden, who was skilled in literature as
well as politics, and who himself conceiving a high es¬
teem for the illustrious exile, contributed to strengthen
.the favourable opinion already entertained by the grand-
chancellor Oxenstiern. Gustavus Adolphus was solicitous
to engage him in the service of the Swedish crown, but
his own brilliant career was arrested at the battle of Liit-
zen, fought on the 6th of November 1632. During the
minority of his daughter Christina, the kingdom was
chiefly governed by Oxenstiern, one of the first charac¬
ters of the age. One anecdote of this great statesman
deserves to be repeated. When his son had expressed
great diffidence in accepting of some public employment
which was offered to him, the chancellor rejoined, “ Go,
my son, and see with how little wisdom the world is go¬
verned.” It appears that several other princes, and the
king of Denmark among the rest, had signified a wish to
obtain the services of Grotius, but he finally listened to
the invitation of the Swedish chancellor; to whom he
first paid his respects at Frankfort on the Main in the
month of May 1634, and experienced a very gracious
reception. After a short interval he was nominated am¬
bassador to the court of France ; and as he had now en¬
tered into the service of another state, he thought it expe¬
dient to make a formal renunciation of all connexion with
his ungrateful country.
About the beginning of the year 1635, he took his de¬
parture from Germany, and soon arrived at St Denis;
but it was not till the 2d of March that he made his
public entry into Paris. The important functions of
an ambassador he appears to have discharged with equal
zeal and ability. The part which he had to perform
was attended with no inconsiderable difficulties. The
death of the victorious king of Sweden had necessarily
impaired the national energies, and the arms of the
protestant confederates experienced a great reverse in
Germany. It had therefore become highly important to
secure the aid of the French monarch against the for¬
midable power of the emperor; and Grotius laboured
with great assiduity and perseverance to fulfil his in¬
structions, but was frequently exposed to the mortifica¬
tion which an honest man must feel in his transactions
with mere politicians, who in all ages of the world have
set honesty at open defiance. The Swedish finances were
at this period in an exhausted condition, and his salary
was but irregularly paid. Neither his public business
nor private mortifications impaired his ardent love of let¬
ters ; and during his diplomatic residence at Paris, he
engaged in a great variety of literary pursuits. His brief
annotations on Tacitus, who wras one of his favourite au-
1 “ Morum disciplina,” says Mosheim, “ quam Christus ejusque legati tradidennit, raefiorem^ U;^id^ ^ntra
varii generis incommoda nacta est, postquam
explanation est. Ducem se in hoc genere pra
quteque ingenia alacriter sequerentur, ipsa rei dignitas
stadh, 1755, 4to.)
6 G R O T I U S.
Giotius. thors, appeared in an edition printed at Leyden in the
w-v-w* year 1640. Reverting to his juridical studies, he pub¬
lished a volume of more than 400 pages, under the title
of “ Florum Sparsio ad Jus Justinianeum.” Paris. 1642,
4to. Of this work, which is still prized by civilians,1
two different editions, both in duodecimo, were printed at
Amsterdam in the course of the following year. It con¬
tains a series of annotations on the body of the civil law,
and, as the title suggests, many of them are philological.
He had long contemplated a poetical version of the An¬
thology, a task sufficiently formidable; and at the begin¬
ning of the year 1645 he had brought it so near a conclu¬
sion that he sent a specimen to Bleau, an eminent printer
of Amsterdam ; but as he soon afterwards quitted France,
and did not long survive, this work was not then con¬
ducted through the press, nor indeed did it make its ap¬
pearance till a very recent period. Another of his labours
was the history of the Goths, likewise a posthumous pub¬
lication ; and a more considerable undertaking was the
history of his native country, which was also published
after the death of the author. To this latter subject he
had naturally directed his attention on being appointed to
the office of historiographer. In the composition of such
a work he appears to have been engaged so early as the
year 1614, but it had probably been laid aside during a
long interval.
At this busy era of his life he completed most of his
theological works. The publication in 1640 of his “ Com-
mentatio ad Loca quaedam Novi Testamenti quae de An-
tichristo agunt aut agere putantur,” exposed him to many
severe animadversions. Here he endeavours to prove
that the pope is not Antichrist, and thus departs from
the common opinion of protestants, an opinion which
seems to be placed on a very solid foundation. His
work was immediately assailed by Des-Marets, Du Mou¬
lin, Cocceius, and Slichtingius. The last of these writers
was a Socinian, and published his tract under the assumed
name of Joannes Simplicius.2 To the first two Grotius
replied in an appendix to a new edition; and Des-Ma¬
rets, or Maresius, who soon afterwards became professor
of divinity at Groningen, defended his own dissertation
in a very copious work, entitled “ Concordia discors, et
Antichristus revelatus ; id est, Hugonis Grotii Apologia
pro Papa et Papismo modeste refutata.” Amst. 1642,
2 tom. 8vo. Jacobus Laurentius, a clergyman of Amster¬
dam, likewise assailed him with great fierceness in a work
of which the title sufficiently indicates the scope and
spirit. “ Hugo Grotius papizans : hoc est, Notae ad quae¬
dam Loca in H. Grotii Appendice de Antichristo, Papam
Romanam, et Doctrinam ac Religionem papisticam spec-
tantia, et in quibus via sternitur ad Papismum Anti-
Christianum.” Amst. 1642, 8vo. The censure which he had
thus incurred did not prevent Grotius from publishing
another volume of a similar tendency : it bears the title
of “ Via ad Pacem Ecclesiasticam.” Amst. 1642, 8vo.
His professed object is to effect what is manifestly im¬
possible, to conciliate the differences between the protest¬
ants and the papists. The principal portion of the volume
consists of Cassander’s consultation on the articles of re¬
ligion controverted between the two parties, with the an¬
notations of the editor subjoined. Both of them were
men of a pacific spirit, and under almost every form the
love of peace is entitled to commendation; but to expect
a union of protestants with catholics, the parties still re¬
maining catholics and protestants, is certainly to expect
what is morally impossible. Is an infallible church to Grotius.
acknowledge itself guilty of error; or is a reformed church -v'O
to stifle the clearest convictions of which the intellect is
susceptible, in order to gain a hollow and miserable sem¬
blance of peace ? Grotius, like Bishop Forbes and other
learned individuals, was led by the spirit of conciliation
to make unwarrantable concessions to the Romanists,
not considering, what however wras abundantly obvious,
that all concessions short of the most absolute submission,
must prove utterly unavailing. Beside the common bond
of Christian charity, protestants can have no spiritual
union with catholics. One of the most extraordinary
projects of union was that which Dr Wake, archbishop of
Canterbury, discussed with Du Pin, an eminent doctor
of the Sorbonne.3 This union was to proceed on the
principle of the respective churches of England and
France retaining the greatest part of their peculiar doc¬
trines : what portion either the one or the other was ex¬
pected to relinquish, does not so clearly appear. Any
advances from a poor protestant church, especially if it
had renounced the name and forms of episcopacy, would
probably have been received with abundant coldness ; but
this popish church was sufficiently rich and splendid to
attract the regard of a primate who evinced no particular
inclination to conciliate the English dissenters.
On the religion of Grotius, the following epigram was
written by Menage :
Smyrna, Ilhodos, Colophon, Salamin, Pylos, Argos, Athenae,
Siderei certant vatis de patria Homeri:
Grotiadse certant de relligione Socinus,
Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Itoma, Lutherus.4
Although he was completely entangled in the cobwebs of
Arminianism, the charge of Socinianism seems to be des¬
titute of foundation, nor do poets very strictly confine
themselves to what is true or probable. But with respect
to the claim of the Romanists, it must be admitted to be
somewhat more plausible. Grotius had found an asylum
in a catholic country: he may in some degree have been
misled by his respect for antiquity, and attracted by the
splendour of the popish hierarchy. He expressed a great
veneration for the church of England, which has like¬
wise dazzled the eyes of more modern presbyterians.
His Via ad Pacem was immediately attacked by several
antagonists, the most formidable of whom was Andre
Rivet, professor of divinity in the university of Leyden.
Grotius defended himself in a work entitled “ Votum pro
Pace Ecclesiastica,” printed in 1642, and Rivet rejoined
in the course of the following year. In 1645 Grotius
published “ Rivetiani Apologetici, pro Schismate contra
Votum Pacis facti, Discussio,” and in 1646 Rivet endea¬
voured to assert the genuine peace of the church against
suspicious mediators. Grotius was about this period en¬
gaged in a theological undertaking of much greater im¬
portance, namely, his annotations on the different books
of the Old and New Testaments. His notes on the Old
Testament and the Apocrypha were printed at Paris in
1644, in three volumes folio. His notes on the gospels had
been published in the same form three years earlier, but
the concluding portions of this great work do not appear
to have been printed before the year 1648. This is one
of the works which have chiefly recommended his name
to posterity; and writers of every denomination have
agreed in ranking him among the ablest of biblical cri¬
tics. “ The learning,” says Dr Campbell, “ as well as
the critical acumen and ingenuity of Grotius, has stamped
1 Schraderi Prodromus Corporis Juris Civilis, p. 262. Berolini, 1823, 8vo.
2 Sandii Bibliotheca Anti-Trinitariorum, p. 128. Freistadii, 1684, 8vo.
9 See Blackburne’s Confessional, p. Ixxvi. 3d edit. Lond. 1770, 8vo.
4 Menagii Poemata, p. 140. edit. Amst. 1687, 12mo.
G R O T I U S.
Srotius. a value upon his commentaries, especially on the gospels,
—which has hardly been equalled by any that has come
after him. Yet I am far from saying he is to be followed
implicitly. He has fallen into gross mistakes, which men
of much inferior genius have detected and avoided.”1
After having long discharged the functions of an am¬
bassador, he at length solicited and obtained his recall.
He had encountered many discouragements in the course
of his negotiations; and the arrival of a Swedish agent,
of whom he entertained a very unfavourable opinion,
seems to have confirmed his wish to retire. This agent
was M. de Cerisante, the son of Dr Duncan, a learned
Scotish physician residing at Saumur. Having embarked
at Dieppe, the ambassador landed once more in his native
country, and was received with due honour at Amster¬
dam. He proceeded by sea to Hamburg, where he arrived
about the middle of May 1645. On reaching Stockholm,
he was very graciously received by the queen, who made
him ample promises, and was anxious to retain him in her
service. He could not however be induced to fix his re¬
sidence in Sweden; and having been presented with a
large sum of money, said to have amounted to twelve or
thirteen thousand imperial crowns, he sailed for the port
of Lubeck on the 12 th of August. The vessel was speedily
overtaken by a storm, and on the 17th was driven ashore
within fourteen German miles'of Dantzig. Travelling in
an open carriage, he arrived at Rostock on the 26th, being
then in a very feeble and exhausted condition. Here he
had recourse to the aid of a physician, who speedily per¬
ceived that his case was hopeless. On requesting the at¬
tendance of a clergyman, he was visited by Quistorpius,
professor of divinity in the university of Rostock, who has
left an account of his last hours,2 and they appear to have
been spent in a manner suitable to his former professions
of Christian piety. He expired on the 28th of August
1645, in the sixty-third year of his age. His remains
were conveyed to Delft, and were deposited in the tomb
of his ancestors.
He had prepared for the press various works which he
did not live to publish. Soon after his death, one of these
appeared under the subsequent title: “ De Imperio Sum-
marum Potestatum circa Sacra.” Lutet. Paris. 1647, 8vo.
This was soon followed by “ Philosophorum Sententiae de
Fato, et de eo quod in nostra est potestate, collectas par-
tim et de Graeco versae.” Paris. 1648, 4to. Amst. 1648,
12mo. Next appeared “ Historia Gotthorum, Vandalo-
rum, et Langobardorum, partim versa, partim in ordinem
digesta.” Amst. 1655, 8vo. His history of his native
country was published not long afterwards : “ Annales et
Historiae de Rebus Belgicis.” Amst. 1656, fol. Amst.
1658, 12mo. This very title at once suggests Tacitus as
the writer’s model, and his style is evidently formed on
that of the ancient historian. Whether this model was
judiciously selected, may perhaps admit of some doubt.
Such a style necessarily partakes of the enigmatical; and
what may be admired in Tacitus is not so easily relished
in his imitators. Notwithstanding the grievous injuries
7
which he had sustained from Prince Maurice, he had the Grotius.
magnanimity to do justice to his character in this work.3 —y-'w'
Another posthumous publication was his tract “ De Eu-
charistia,”4 which was fiercely attacked by Salmasius under
the assumed name of Simplicius Verinus. A very ample
and interesting collection of his letters, consisting of nearly
one thousand pages in double columns, was published by
two of his grandsons : “ Epistolae quotquot reperiri po-
tuerunt; in quibus praster hactenus editas, plurimae theo-
logici, juridici, philologici, historici, et politici argumenti
occurrunt.” Amst. 1687, fol. The poetical version of
the Anthology, on which he had bestowed so much la¬
bour, was not communicated to the public till a century
and a half after his death. The manuscript at length
came into the possession of De Bosch, a man of learning
and taste, who published the work in a splendid form, and
added copious illustrations.5 “ Anthologia Graeca, cum
versione Latina Hugonis Grotii, edita ab Hieronymo de
Bosch.” Ultrajecti, 1795-8, 3 tom. 4to. “ Hieronymi
de Bosch Observationes et Notae in Anthologiam Graecam,
quibus accedunt Cl. Salmasii notae ineditae.” Ultraj. 1810,
4to. “ Hieronymi de Bosch Observationum et Notarum
in Anthologiam Graecam volumen alterum, quod et indL
ces continet. Opus Boschii morte interruptum David
Jacobus van Lennep absolvit.” Ultraj. 1822, 4to.
Grotius was a man of a goodly appearance, large and
vigorous in his person, and possessing an agreeable coun¬
tenance.6 He was uniformly distinguished by the inte¬
grity of his character, and the generosity of his senti¬
ments. That he had acquired uncommon stores of va¬
riegated learning, it seems scarcely necessary to state in
formal terms, after the details which have already been
given ; and it was accompanied with those vigorous powers
of mind, without which, learning cannot be rendered very
available. He was a man of original genius, aided by un¬
wearied industry. As a philosophical jurist, he has no
equal, and among historians he occupies a high rank. His
merits as a theologian have been amply acknowledged by
writers of every communion. As a Latin poet, he is to
be classed among the best of the moderns, and his talents
as a commentator on the ancient classics are of no mean
order. What individual of modern times has exhibited
the same extent and variety of intellectual attainment?
His wife, who lived to deplore his loss, had borne him
three sons and three daughters. The eldest and the
youngest of his sons, Cornelis and Diederik, followed the
profession of arms, without obtaining any considerable
promotion. Pieter, the second son, having chosen the
profession of an advocate, became pensionary of Amster¬
dam, and was employed as an ambassador to Sweden and
France. The only daughter who survived their father
was the eldest, named Cornelia, married to Jean Barthon,
vicomte de Mombas, a nobleman of Poitou.
Gulielmus Grotius, or WRIem de Groot, the brother of
this illustrious man, must not be passed in total silence.
Being bred to the legal profession, he became eminent at
the bar, and was appointed advocate to the East India
‘Campbell’s Lectures on Systematic Theology, p. 239. Lond. 1807, 8vo Dr Lardner, a learned divine of another creed, speaks
of him in the following terms : “ I much prefer Grotius’s interpretations, upon the comparison, above Dr Clarke’s. So far as I am
able to judge, Grotius explains texts better than the professed Socinians. The reason may be, that he had more learning, and parti¬
cularly was better acquainted with the Jewish style. But I am apt to think their late writers have borrowed from him, and im¬
proved by him.” (Letter on the Logos, p. 43.)
Hugonis Grotii, Belgarum Phoenicis, Manes ab iniquis Obtrectationibus vindicati, part. ii. p. 482. Delphis Batavorum, 1727,
2 part. 8vo.—The author of this anonymous work was Lehman, a copious, but not a very exact writer.
3 Gibbon has justly censured the historian for his inconsistency in one very essential particular. “ I am not satisfied with Gro¬
tius (de Itebus Belgicis, Annal. p. 13. 14. edit, in 12mo), who approves the imperial laws of persecution, and only condemns the
bloody tribunal of the inquisition.” (Hist, of the Itoman Empire, vol. x. p. 192.)
4 Several theological tracts of Grotius, which we have not enumerated, are to be found in the collection of his Opera Theologicc.
Amst. 1G79, 3 tom. fol. Of his tracts on other subjects, we have not attempted a complete catalogue.
6 Of the first four volumes, a notice may be found in Wyttenbach’s Philomathia, lib. ii. p. 201.
* Du Maurier, Mdmoires pour servir a PHistoire de Hollande, p. 393. Paris, 1680, 8vo.
8 G R O
Grotto. Company. He was likewise a man of erudition, and the
author of several works. One of these is an “ Enchiridion
de Principiis Juris Naturalis,” in which he illustrates the
principles of a science that was so deeply indebted to an¬
other member of the same family. Another of his works,
which was published after his death, and which is still
held in great estimation by civilians, bears the title of
“ Vitae Jurisconsultorum quorum in Pandectis extant No¬
mina.” Lugd. Bat. 1690, 4to. He appears to have been
a most affectionate brother, and to have sympathized
very deeply in the fortunes of a kinsman whose moral and
intellectual endowments reflected so much lustre on the
family to which he belonged. (x.)
GROTTO^ or Grotta, a large deep cavern or den in
a mountain or rock. The word is Italian, grotta, formed,
according to Menage, from the Latin crypta. Ducange
observes, that grotta was used in the same sense in the
corrupt Latin. The ancient anchorites retired into dens
and grottoes, to apply themselves the more attentively to
meditation.
Amongst the natural caverns or grottoes of England,
Okey-hole, Elden-hole, Peak’s-hole, and Pool’s-hole, are
famous.
The entrance to Okey-hole, on the south side of the
Mendip Hills, is in the fall of those hills, is beset all round
with rocks, and has near it a precipitous descent of near
twelve fathoms deep, at the bottom of which there conti¬
nually issues from the rocks a considerable current of wa¬
ter. The naked rocks above the entrance show them¬
selves about thirty fathoms high, and the whole ascent of
the hill above is about a mile, and very steep. On en¬
tering this vault, you proceed at first upon a level, but
advancing farther, the way becomes rocky and uneven,
sometimes ascending and sometimes descending. The
roof of this cavern, in the highest parts, is about eight fa¬
thoms from the ground, but in many places it is so low
that a man must stoop to get along. The breadth is
not less various than the height, for in some places it
is five or six fathoms wide, and in others not more than
one or two. It extends in length about two hundred
yards. People talk much of certain stones in it, resem¬
bling men and women, and other things ; but there is
little that is curious in these, which are only shapeless
lumps of common spar. At the farthest part of the ca¬
vern there is a good stream of water, large enough to drive
a mill, which passes all along one side, and at length glides
down about six or eight fathoms amongst the rocks, and
then pressing through their clefts, discharges itself into
the valley. The river within the cavern is well stored
with eels, and has in it some trouts; which can scarcely have
come from without, as there is a considerable fall near the
entrance. In dry summers, a great number of frogs are
seen all along this cavern, even to the farthest part of it;
and on the roof of it, at certain places, hang vast numbers
of bats. The cattle that feed in the pastures through
which this river runs have been known to die suddenly
sometimes after a flood; which is probably owing to the
waters having been impregnated, either naturally or acci¬
dentally, with lead ore.
Elden-hole is a huge profound perpendicular chasm,
three miles from Buxton, and ranked amongst the natural
wonders of the Peak. Its depth is unknown. Cotton
tells us he sounded 884 yards, yet the plummet still
drew. But he might easily be deceived, unless his plum¬
met was very heavy; for the weight of a rope of that
length might render the landing of the plummet scarcely
perceptible.
Peak s-hole and Pool s-hole are two very remarkable
horizontal caverns under mountains ; the one situated near
Castleton, and the other close by Buxton. They seem to
have owed their origin to the springs which flow through
G R O
them ; for wfhen the water had forced its way through the Grotto
horizontal fissures of the strata, and had carried the loose i II
earth aw^ay with it, the loose stones would of course fall c'rout-
down; but where the strata had few or no fissures, they wfa< '
remained entire, and thus formed;those very irregular
arches, which are now so much admired for their grotesque
appearance. The water which passes through Pool’s-hole
is impregnated with particles of limestone, and has in-
crusted the whole cavern in such a manner that it appears
as one solid rock.
Grotto del Cani, a little cavern near Pozzuoli, four
leagues from Naples, the air of which is of a mephitical
or noxious quality; whence it is called bocca venenosa, the
poisonous mouth.
Grotto del Serpi, is a subterranean cavern near the
village of Sassa, eight miles from the city of Braccano in
Italy.
Milky Grotto, Crypta Lactea, a mile distant from the
ancient village of Bethlehem, is said to have been thus
denominated on occasion of the blessed Virgin letting fall
some drops of milk whilst suckling Jesus in this grotto;
and hence it has been commonly supposed that the earth
of this cavern has the virtue of restoring milk to women
who have grown drj^, and even of curing fevers.
Grotto is also used to signify a little artificial edifice
made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grotto. The
exterior of these grottoes is usually adorned with rustic
architecture, and the interior with shell-work, fossils, and
the like, finished likewise with jets d’eau or fountains.
GROUND, in painting, the surface upon which the fi¬
gures and other objects are represented.
The ground is properly understood of such parts of the
piece as have nothing painted on them, but retain the ori¬
ginal colour upon which the other colours are applied to
form the representations.
A building is said to serve as a ground to a figure when
the figure is painted on the building.
Ground, in etching, denotes a gummy composition
smeared over the surface of the metal to be etched, to
prevent the aquafortis from eating, except in the places
where this ground is cut through with the point of a nee¬
dle or style.
Ground-Angling, fishing under water without a float,
only with a plumb of lead, or a bullet, placed about nine
inches from the hook. This method of fishing is most
proper in cold weather, when the fish swim very low.
GROUP, in painting and sculpture, is an assemblage of
two or more figures of men, beasts, fruits, or the like, which
have some apparent relation to each other. The word is
formed of the Italian groppo, a knot.
Groups, The, several groups of islands in the South
Pacific Ocean, seen by Captain Cook in 1769, and extend¬
ing from north-west by north to south-east by south about
nine leagues. There are two principal islands, separated
from each other by a channel about half a mile broad, and
surrounded by small islands which are mostly narrow strips
of land ranging in all directions. The southernmost island
is in long. 142. 42. W. and lat. 18. 12. S.
GROUSE, or Growse, Moor-foivl, or Moor-game. See
Ornithology.
GROUTHEAD, or Greathed, Robert, a learned
bishop of Lincoln, was born at Stow in Lincolnshire, or,
according to others, at Stradbrook in Suffolk, towards the
close of the twelfth century. His parents were so poor,
tnat when a boy he was obliged to perform the meanest
offices, and even to beg his bread, until the mayor of Lin¬
coln, struck with his appearance and the quickness of his
answers to certain questions, took him into his family, and
put him to school. Here his ardent love of learning, and
admirable capacity for acquiring knowledge, soon appear¬
ed, and procured him many patrons, by whose assistance
9
GKO
Grove, he was enabled to prosecute his studies, first at Cambridge,
—Y   afterwards at Oxford, and lastly at Paris. In these three
seats of learning he spent many years in the indefatigable
pursuit of knowledge, and became one of the best and most
universal scholars of the age. He was a great master not
only of the French and Latin, but also of the Greek and
Hebrew languages, which was a very rare accomplishment
in those times. We are also assured by Roger Bacon, who
was intimately acquainted with him, that he spent much of
his time for nearly forty years in the study of geometry,
astronomy, optics., and other branches of physical and ma¬
thematical learning, in all of which he very much excelled.
But theology was his favourite study, in which he read
, lectures at Oxford with great approbation. In the mean
while he had obtained several preferments in the church,
and was at length elected and consecrated Bishop of Lin¬
coln in the year 1235. In this station he soon became ce¬
lebrated for the purity of his manners, the popularity of his
preaching, the vigour of his discipline, and the boldness
with which he reproved the vices and opposed the arbitrary
mandates of the court of Rome. Of his independence in
this last respect it may be proper to give one example.
Pope Innocent IV. had granted to one of his own nephews,
named Frederick, who was but a child, an appointment to
the first canon’s place in the church of Lincoln which
should become vacant; and he sent to the Archbishop of
Canterbury, and Innocent, then papal legate in England, a
bull commanding them to see the provision made effec¬
tual, which bull they transmitted to the Bishop of Lincoln.
But that brave and virtuous prelate boldly refused to give
effect to this unreasonable mandate, and sent an answer
to the papal bull containing very severe reproaches against
his holiness for abusing his power. The bishop did not
long survive this noble stand against the corruption and
tyranny of the church of Rome, for he fell sick at his castle
of Bugden that same year; and when he became sensible
that his end was drawing near, he called his clergy into his
apartment, and made a long discourse to them, to prove
that the reigning pope, Innocent IV. was antichrist. With
this exertion his strength and spirits were so much ex¬
hausted, that he soon afterwards expired, on the 9th of Oc¬
tober 1253.
GROVE, in Gardening, a small wood impervious to the
rays of the sun. Groves have in all ages been held in
great veneration. The proseuchce, and high places of the
Jews, whither they resorted for the purposes of devotion,
were probably situated in groves (see Joshua, xxiv. 26).
The proseuchce in Alexandria, mentioned by Philo, had
groves about them; for he complains that the Alexandri¬
ans, in a tumult against the Jews, cut down the trees of
their proseuchce. The ancient Romans had groves near
several of their temples, which were consecrated to some
god, and, as Cicero alleges, called luci, by antiphrasis, a
non lucendo, as being shady and dark. The veneration
which the ancient Druids had for groves is well known.
Modern groves are not only ornaments to gardens, but
also afford shelter from the heat of the sun.
Groves are of two sorts, either open or close. Open
groves are those which have large shady trees, standing
at such distances that their branches approach so near to
each other as to prevent the rays of the sun from pene¬
trating through them. Close groves have frequently large
trees standing in them; but the ground under these is
filled with shrubs or underwood, and the walks are private
and screened from winds; by which means they are ren¬
dered agreeable for walking, at times when the air is
either too hot or too cold in the more exposed parts of
the garden. These are often contrived so as to bound
the open groves, and frequently to hide the walls or other
enclosures of the garden; and when they are properly laid
out, with dry walks winding through them, and on the
VOL. xi.
G R O
sides of these sweet-smelling shrubs and flowers irregu- Grove
larly planted, they have a charming effect. "
Grove, Henry, a learned Presbyterian divine, was born rowt 1
at Taunton in Somersetshire in 1683. Having obtained
a sufficient stock of classical literature, he passed through
a course of academical learning, under the reverend Mr
Warren of Taunton, who had a flourishing academy. He
then removed to London, and studied some time under
the reverend Mr Rowe, to whom he was nearly related.
Here he contracted with several persons of merit, and
particularly with Dr Watts, a friendship which continued
till his death, though they were of different opinions in
several points warmly controverted amongst divines. Af¬
ter two years spent under Mr Rowe, he returned to the
country, where he began to preach with great reputa¬
tion. An exact judgment, a lively imagination, and a
rational and amiable representation of Christianity, de¬
livered in an agreeable and well-governed voice, soon
rendered him generally admired; and the spirit of devo¬
tion which prevailed in his sermons procured him the es¬
teem and friendship of Mrs Singer, afterwards Mrs Rowe,
which she expressed in a fine ode on death, addressed to
Mr Grove. Soon after he began to preach, he married;
and on the death of Mr Warren, he was chosen to suc¬
ceed him in the academy at Taunton. As this obliged
him to reside there, he preached for eighteen years to
two small congregations in the neighbourhood ; and though
his salary from both fell short of twenty pounds a year,
and he had a growing family, he performed his duty
cheerfully. In 1708, he published a piece entitled The
Regulations of Diversions, drawn up for the use of his
pupils. About the same time, he entered into a private
dispute by letter with Dr Samuel Clarke; but as they
were not able to convince each other, the debate was
dropped with expressions of mutual esteem. He next
wrote several papers printed in the Spectator (numbers
588, 601, 626, 635), the last of which was republished, by
the direction of Dr Gibson, bishop of London, in the
Evidences of the Christian Religion, by Mr Addison.
In 1725, Mr James, his colleague in the academy, having
died, he succeeded that person in his pastoral charge at
Fulwood, near Taunton, and engaged his nephew to un¬
dertake the other duties of Mr James as tutor; and in
this situation Mr Grove continued till his death, which
happened in the year 1738. His great concern with his
pupils was to inspire and cherish in them a prevailing
love of truth, virtue, liberty, and genuine religion, without
violent attachments or prejudices in favour of any party
of Christians. He represented truth and virtue in a most
engaging light; and though his income, both as a tutor
and a minister, was insufficient to support his family
without encroaching on his paternal estate, he knew not
how to refuse the call of charity. Besides the pieces
above mentioned, he wrote, 1. An Essay towards the
Demonstration of the Soul’s Immortality; 2. An Essay
on the Terms of Christian Communion ; 3. The Evidence
of our Saviour’s Resurrection considered; 4. Some
Thoughts concerning the Proof of a Future State from
Reason ; 5. A Discourse concerning the Nature and De¬
sign of the Lord’s Supper; 6. Wisdom the first spring
of Action in the Deity; 7. A Discourse on Saving Faith;
8. Miscellanies in prose and verse; 9. Sermons. After
his decease, his posthumous works were published by sub¬
scription, in four volumes octavo.
GROWTH, the gradual increase of bulk and stature
which takes place in animals or vegetables during a certain
period. The increase of bulk in such bodies as have no
life is called expansion, swelling, See.
The growth of animals, nay even of the human species,
is subject to great variations. A remarkable instance of
this was observed in France in the year 1729. At this
B
10 G R U
Grub time the Academy of Sciences examined a boy who was
II then only seven years old, but who measured four feet
' eight inches and four lines in height without his shoes.
His mother observed on him at two years of age, the signs
of puberty, which continued to increase very quickly, and
soon arrived at the usual standard. At the age of four
he was able to lift and toss the common bundles of hay in
stables into the horses’ racks ; and at the age of six he could
raise as much as a sturdy fellow of twenty. But though
he thus increased in bodily strength, his understanding
was not greater than is usual with children of his age, and
their play-things wTere also his favourite amusements.
Many other instances of extraordinary growth might, if
it were necessary, be collected. It is at first sight astonish¬
ing that children of such early and prodigious growth do
not become giants; but when we consider that the signs
of puberty appear so much sooner than they ought, it
seems evident that the whole is only a more than usually
rapid expansion of the parts, as in hot climates ; and ac¬
cordingly it is observed that such children, instead of be¬
coming giants, always decay and die apparently of old age
long before the ordinary term of human life.
GRUB, the English name of the hexapod worms, pro¬
duced from the eggs of beetles, and which are at length
transformed into winged insects of the same species with
their parents.
GRUBENHAGEN, a province called a principality of
the kingdom of Hanover. It consists of three portions,
the most westerly of which is surrounded by Brunswick
and the province of Gottingen ; the centre by the province
of Hildesheim, by Brunswick, and the Prussian territory ;
and the eastern portion by Blankenburg and Brunswick.
It extends over 537 square miles, and contains a popula¬
tion of 83,200 persons. The Hartz Forest forms the larger
portion of the province, some of the hills of which are 2600
feet in height, and covered to their tops with pine woods.
The chief object of the district is mining, which occupies
the labour of most of the inhabitants, to the exclusion of
agriculture, for which purpose the soil is not adapted. The
chief aliments are furnished from the surrounding provinces.
In a few of the warm valleys some cows are kept, and in
others tobacco and hops are raised. The mines yield gold,
silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, vitriol, and sulphur, and there
are some saline springs. There are several manufactories
of iron, copper, and brass utensils ; and the females in win¬
ter spin much linen yarn. The climate is cold, raw, and
gloomy, and the inhabitants are in general in a state of
great poverty. About three fourths are Lutherans, and
one fourth Catholics.
GRUNBERG, a city of Prussian Silesia, the capital of
a circle of the same name. It is a fortified place, contain¬
ing 1145 houses, and 9144 inhabitants. It is also a great
manufacturing place for spinning cotton and linen, and for
woollen cloths. In the neighbourhood are vineyards, which
have been rapidly extending, and produce tolerable wine,
but in some years more vinegar than wine. Fuller’s earth
is found copiously near the city. Long. 15. 26. E. Eat.
51. 57. N.
Gkunberg, a city of the grand duchy of Hesse, in Ger-
many, of the province of Upper Hesse. It stands at the
sources of the river Wetter, and contains 373 houses, with
2342 inhabitants. It is the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, which comprehends one city, one town, thirty
villages, and 9553 inhabitants.
GRUPPO, or Turned Shake, a musical grace, consist¬
ing in the alternate prolation of two tones in juxtaposition
to each other, with a close on the note immediately be¬
neath the lower of them.
GRUS, in Antiquity, a dance performed yearly by the
young Athenians around the temple of Apollo, on the day
of the Delia. The motions and figures of this dance were
G R U
intricate and various, some of them having been intended Grus
to express the windings of the labyrinth in which the Mi- ||
notaur was killed by Theseus. Giuter
Grus, in Astronomy, a southern constellation, not visi- *''*
ble in our latitude.
GRUTER, or Gruytere, Jan, in Latin Janus Gru-
terus, a celebrated philologist and antiquary, was born at
Antwerp on the 3d of December 1560. His father was
burgomaster of that city, but having been banished on
account of religion, he retired into England with his wife,
who was a native of that country. This lady, whose name
was Catherine Tishem, had received an excellent educa¬
tion and made considerable progress in learning ; she spoke
several of the living languages, understood the Latin, and
was so well acquainted with the Greek as to be able to
read Galen in the original. “ There is perhaps not one
physician in a thousand,” says a panegyrist of Gruter,
“ who could do as much.” The English wife of the Ant¬
werp burgomaster was the first instructor of her son. Gru¬
ter continued the studies in which he had thus been ini¬
tiated, at the university of Cambridge ; and at the age of
nineteen he quitted England, and proceeded to Leyden,
where he studied civil law, and took the degree of doctor
in that faculty. In a short time he began to make him¬
self known by his poetical essays ; and as works of a more
solid kind soon extended his reputation, he became suc¬
cessively attached to different universities. In the capa¬
city of professor, he taught at Rostock, at Wittemberg,
and at Heidelberg, in which last city he fixed his resi¬
dence, and had the charge of the palatine librarjq the
manuscripts of which, transported to Rome in the year
1622, had recently been restored to their original locality.
Gruter was called to France and to Denmark, but declin¬
ed the invitations in both instances. The university of
Padua also made him advantageous offers ; but as it would
have been necessary, in the event of accepting these, to
renounce the public exercise of the Protestant religion,
he preferred remaining in Germany. This circumstance
proves that he has been unjustly accused of irreligion, and
that Pareus, who reproached him with being an atheist, and
attaching more importance to a single thought of Petro-
nius or Apuleius than to all the precepts of Jesus Christ, has
published a calumny. Bayle cites another proof of the re¬
ligious sentiments of Gruter. “ This pretended atheist,”
says he, “ replied to those who proposed the alternative,
‘ You must either leave your country or change your re¬
ligion I prefer the former to the latter; if I cannot pass
my days in a town, I will pass them in the fields or the
woods ; God will there supply me with some herbs or roots
which will support the little of life that remains to me.”
For this Bayle refers the reader to the panegyric of Gruter
by Venator. But he is mistaken. It is not to Gruter,
but to Sched, his old and faithful servant, that Venator
attributes this answer. Gruter was very laborious, and
exceedingly anxious to be productive ; nor are there many
learned men to whom Roman literature owes so many obli¬
gations. We shall take a short survey of his works. His
essays in Latin poetry, which have already been mention¬
ed, appeared in 1587, under the title of Pericula, In the
verses of Gruter there is more science than energy. His
Elegies are rugged and dissonant, from the affectation of
employing polysyllabic words in the end of his pentameters.
I his is an imitation of the manner of the Greeks, and of
that of Propertius, particularly in his first book; but it is not
executed with sufficient taste, or a due regard to the mea¬
sure. He next published, under the title of Suspiciones,
conjectures on the Latin authors, in nine books, which he
wished to extend to thirty; but he had not time to exe¬
cute his design, in which, however, he appears to have
made considerable progress. Burmann the second, whose
library was so rich in works of criticism, possessed a large
G R U
Gruter. portion of this inedited supplement. In 1594 Gruter pub-
lished a commentary on Seneca the philosopher, in which,
notwithstanding the saucy remark of Scaliger (labeur
d'escolier ou d'imprimeur), he gave proofs of great accura¬
cy. Seneca the tragic poet, Titus Livius, "Tacitus, Mar¬
tial, and Florus, of which author he published two edi¬
tions ; Statius, on which he left inedited notes, cited by
Taubmann (ad Plaut. Amph. 1. i. p. 83) ; Plautus, which
was the occasion of a long and indecent quarrel between
him and Pareus; Paterculus, Pliny the younger, the Pa¬
negyrists, the writers of the Augustin History, Cicero,
and Publius Syrus, successively occupied his attention.
In the edition of this last author, published by Haver-
camp and Preyger, may be found a posthumous commen¬
tary of Gruter, in which the text of Publius Syrus disap¬
pears amidst an enormous assemblage of parallel passages.
Gruter collected, under the title of Delicice Poetarum Ita-
lorum, Gallorum, Belgicorum, the best Latin poems of the
Italians, the French, the Flemings, and the Dutch, and,
in the title-page of this collection, assumed the name of
Ranutius Gherus, which is the anagram of Janus Grute-
rus. When he published the Delicice. Poetarum Germa-
norum, a collection of the same kind as the preceding, he
concealed himself under the initials A. F. G. G., which,
read backwards, signify Gruterus Gualtheri Jilius, Antuer-
pianus. Lamonnoie on Baillet (tome iv. p. 184) has given
a list of all the poets contained in the fifteen volumes
to which these collections extend. The Pampas sive
Fax Artium Liberalium, is another compilation, in six large
volumes, wherein Gruter has collected a great number of
commentators and critics, who had become rare in his
time, or whose works had not been printed. A table of
their names may be found in the BibliograpJiia Antiqua-
ria of Fabricius (c. 3, sect. 7). In 1737 Palesi commen¬
ced a new edition of this collection, but he died before it
was completed, and only four volumes appeared. To the
six volumes of the original edition, Frankfort, 1603-1612,
a seventh was, after the death of Gruter, added by Pare¬
us in 1634, containing remarks on Plautus, in which Gru¬
ter, who had concealed his name under that of Pflug, in
order to attack Pareus, is, by way of reprisal, outrageous¬
ly insulted. In publishing his Chronicon Chronicorum
he assumed the name of Johannes Gualterius ; but this
was a more honourable disguise ; for the name he assum¬
ed was that of his father, which he no doubt hoped to im¬
mortalise by means of that useful and excellent work. We
are also indebted to Gruter for other vast compilations,
particularly a continuation of the Polyanthea of Langius;
the Bibliotheca Exulum, Strasburg, 1624, in 12mo; and
the Corpus Inscriptionum, Heidelberg, 1601, in folio.
This last work is one of great importance, and of itself
would be sufficient to sustain the literary reputation of
Gruter. It is an immense collection of Greek and Latin
inscriptions, which had been begun by Smetius, and which
he considerably augmented, subjoining the Notce Roma-
norum veterum Tullii Tironis et Anncei Senecce ; but the
only edition now consulted is that of Graevius, 1707, in
four volumes folio. The Emperor Rodolph II., to whom
Gruter had dedicated his Inscriptions, wished to grant
him, as a proof of his imperial satisfaction, the privilege
of publishing all his books, and the title of count palatine ;
but his majesty died before having signed the “ acts,” as
they are called ; and Gruter, who had all the modesty of
true learning, not choosing to bring his claims under the
notice of the new emperor, lost without regret the favours
which he had so well merited. The war which ravaged the
palatinate disturbed his last years, and probably accele¬
rated his end. His books were pillaged, and the palatine
library, where he might have consoled himself for the
loss of his own, was despoiled of its numerous manuscripts.
Exiled, persecuted, and wandering from town to town,
G U A 11
Gruter died on the 20th of September 1627, at the moment Gry
when the university of Groningen had offered him the H
chair of history and of Greek. (a.) ^naV
GRY, a measure containing one tenth of a line. A line
is one tenth of a digit, and a digit one tenth of a foot, and a
philosophical foot one third of a pendulum whose diadromes
or vibrations, in the latitude of forty-five degrees, are each
equal to one second of time, or one sixtieth of a minute.
GUADALAXARA, a city of New Castille, in the king¬
dom of Spain, in latitude 40. 33. It is the capital of a de¬
partment called Alcarria, and is situated near the head of
the river Tajuna, which empties itself into the Tagus. It
gives name to a province which is 163 leagues in extent,
and contains a population of 157,338 souls. The territory
is but slightly provided with grain from its own soil, but it
produces wine and oil; and there are extensive pastures,
on which Merino flocks are fed. In the city there was a
considerable manufactory of the best cloths, but, like most
royal trading concerns, it proved very unprofitable, and, if
restored with the expulsion of the French, must be in a
very languishing condition. It employs 656 looms, and
4800 weavers and spinners ; there is also one house for
soap-boiling, which yearly produces 2250 hundredweight.
This city contains 12,000 inhabitants.
Guadalaxara, an intendancy of Mexico, in South
America. It is bounded on the north by Sonora and Du¬
rango, on the east by Zacatecas and Guanaxuato, on the
south by Valladolid, and on the west, for an extent of coast
of 123 leagues, by the Pacific Ocean. Its length is estimat¬
ed at about 350 miles, its breadth at about 300, and it has
an extent of surface of 9612 square leagues. The eastern
part of the intendancy is all table-land, and the climate is
agreeable. The maritime regions abound in forests afford¬
ing excellent timber for ship-building ; but here the air is
very hot and unhealthy. It is traversed from east to west by
the Rio Grande de Santiago, which communicates with the
great lake of Chapala. This intendancy was reckoned one
of the most valuable in the viceroyalty. Humboldt esti¬
mated the value of its agricultural produce in 1802 to
be about L.500,000, and its manufactures of woollens,
calicoes, tanned hides, and soap, at L.700,000. The chief
mines of Guadalaxara are those of Bolanos, Asientos de
Ibarra, Hostiotipaquillo, Copalo, and Guichichila. This
intendancy contains two cities, six towns, and 322 villages.
Guadalaxara, the provincial capital, is situated on the left
bank of the Rio de Santiago, in latitude 20. 50. north, and
longitude 105. west. It was founded in 1551, and in 1570
was created an episcopal city, the see of Compostella being
removed here. It possesses some flourishing manufactures,
and, according to the latest accounts, the population amounts
to above 70,000. If this be a correct statement, the city
must have made very rapid advancement; for Humboldt,
an accurate observer, states the population in 1803 at only
19,500. Compostella, the other city, claims a higher an¬
tiquity than Guadalaxara. It is situated to the south of
Tepic, in latitude 21. 20. north, and longitude 106. 11.
west; but little else is known of it except its situation.
Indeed, information regarding this intendancy is very scan¬
ty, a considerable portion of it still remaining undescribed.
There is here a volcanic mountain called Colima, which
frequently throws up ashes and smoke. Its elevation is
computed to be 9000 feet above the level of the sea, and it
forms the western extremity of the volcanic chain which
traverses Mexico.
GUADALCANAL, a town of Spain, in the province of
Estremadura. It is the principal mining port of the king¬
dom. The silver mines have been worked by private com¬
panies, most of whom were foreigners. M. Vauquelin, a
French chemist, discovered, in analysing some ore, that it
contained one tenth of its weight in platina, a metal hither¬
to only found in two small spots in South America, and re-
12
G U A
G U A
Guada- cently in Russia. The interruption given to these mining
loupe companies, by the invasion of the French armies, has not
ii yet permitted them to continue their labours ; but at some
Guada- future period they will be resumed, and most probably
with great success; and there are more sanguine hopes
now entertained, from the great success that, within a few
years, the miners for lead have experienced.
GUADALOUPE, an island in the West Indies, belong¬
ing to France, is situated in longitude 62. west, and lati¬
tude 16. 20. north. It consists properly of two islands,
separated from each other by a narrow channel called La
Riviere Salee, which is navigable by vessels of fifty tons
burden. The eastern island or division is called Grande
Terre, and the western Basse Terre. Guadaloupe was dis¬
covered by Columbus, who found it inhabited by a warlike
people ; but they were soon subdued by the Spaniards. In
1635 it was taken possession of by the French, who com¬
menced hostilities against the natives ; but in 164i0 a peace
was concluded between the contending parties. For sixty
years after its occupation by the French, the island made
little advancement; but at length, about the beginning of
the eighteenth century, it began to improve, and made rapid
progress. In 1759 it was conquered by Britain, but restor¬
ed to France in 1763. After this period it was twice taken
by Britain ; but, by the political adjustment of affairs which
took place in 1814, it reverted to France, of which country
it is now a colony.
Grande Terre is about six leagues in breadth and four¬
teen in length, and Basse Terre is fifteen leagues in length
by fourteen in breadth. The small islands Desiderade on
the east, Marie-Galante on the south-east, and the isles
Des Saintes on the south, are subject to the government of
Guadaloupe. The surface of these islands taken together
has been estimated at 334,142 English acres. There are
several volcanic mountains in Basse Terre, one of which,
called La Soufriere, still emits volumes of smoke, and oc¬
casionally sparks of fire. This portion of Guadaloupe is
agreeably diversified by hills, woods, gardens, and enclo¬
sures. It is also copiously watered, and very fruitful. The
wild lemon-tree, the plant which produces gallianum, the
erythrina corallodendrum, and the thorny volkameria, grow
in the enclosures. The sugar-cane, although it reaches a
great height, is of an inferior quality ; and the coffee is not
equal to that which is produced in some other of the West
India islands. The principal town is called Basse Terre.
It possesses many fine buildings, fountains, and public gar¬
dens, and is defended by a fort, which also commands an
open road, having all the advantages of a safe harbour.
Grande Terre is marshy, sterile, and flat, and also labours
under a deficiency of water. The metropolis, which con¬
tains 15,000 inhabitants, is called Pointe a Pitre. It pos¬
sesses a spacious port, and here the principal part of the
trade is carried on. Desiderade is famed for its cotton, and
coffee and sugar are raised on the hills of Marie-Galante.
The exports consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, cotton, cacao,
wood of various kinds, and a little cloves and spices. The
value of the imports into France from Guadaloupe in 1831
was 26,642,222 francs, and the exports from France into
the island amounted to 12,146,853 francs. By the returns
for the same year, 195 ships, of 47,623 tons burden, were
entered, and 194 ships, of 47,772 tons burden, were cleared
out. According to the last census, which was for the year
lk~9, the population amounts to 112,111, consisting of
whites and people of colour.
_ GUADALQUIVIR, a Spanish river which rises in the
Sierra Cazoria, runs for 255 miles through Jaen and Se¬
ville, and falls into the ocean near St Lucar. It is navi¬
gable for fifty-five miles above Seville. Its tributary
streams are the Guadiana el Minor, Almudiel, Guadalbon,
Guadiato, and Xenil.
GUADALUPE, a low chain of mountains in Spain,
Guam.
which nowhere rise higher than 2307 feet. It begins at Guadarn
Tembleque in Toledo, under the name of the Sierra de ma
Marchal, and ends in the Portuguese province of Estrema-
dura, with the mountains of Espichel.
GUADARRAMA, a chain of Spanish mountains, which
begins near Xalon and Tajuna, passes through Castille and
Leon, and extends to the sea in the Portuguese province
of Beira. One of its highest points is the Penaglada,
which is 8502 feet above the level of the sea.
Guadarrama, a Spanish river, which rises on a hill of
the same name, and falls into the Tagus near Mazallabeas.
GUADIANA, a river of Spain, which rises out of the
earth in Mancha, in the Lagunen of Ruidera, runs twenty-
five miles and a quarter north-west, and, after disappearing
under the earth, rises to light again in Estremadura, runs
through a part of Portugal, and falls into the ocean on the
confines of Algarve, near Rebondela. Its whole course is
347 miles, and it is navigable for forty-six miles and a quar¬
ter. Its tributary streams are, Bullaque, Suja, Mutachel,
Guadayra, Ardila, Albarragena, and Chaya.
GUADIN, a small city in the kingdom of Granada, in
Andalusia, in Spain. It is situated on a river of the same
name, which falls into the Guadalquivir. The surrounding
country is productive of fruits, oil, and wine, and near it
are the medicinal baths of Grasna, much resorted to by
invalids. There are manufactories here for sail-cloth, linen,
silks, and clasp-knives. It is the seat of a bishop, and con¬
tains a cathedral. Its population amounts to 8314 souls.
GUALIOR, a strong and very celebrated fortress of
Hindustan, in the province of Agra, in a very elevated si¬
tuation on a hill, one and a half mile in length, but in few
places exceeding 300 yards in breadth. At the north end
the sides are so steep as to be nearly perpendicular, and
its height is 342 feet. It has several reservoirs of good
water, and a small river runs close past it. A stone parapet
extends all round the slope of the hill, behind which are col¬
lected piles of round stones, which form an excellent de¬
fence, and it was judged unassailable until it was stormed
in 1780 by Major Popham. The town, which stands at
the bottom of the hill, is large and populous, and contains
many good houses of stone, which is furnished in abun¬
dance by the neighbouring hills, that form an amphithea¬
tre round the town and fort at the distance of from one to
four miles. The town carries on an extensive trade with
the Mahratta and British territories, and derives also con¬
siderable benefit from the Mahommedan pilgrims, who visit
the town of Ghose al Alum, a celebrated religious person,
who is interred within the fort. Gualior is of such anti¬
quity that its origin is lost in remote tradition. It must
have been at all times a military post of great consequence,
both from its central situation, and its peculiar position,
which in the estimation of the natives rendered it impreg¬
nable. It is first mentioned in authentic history in the year
1023, when it was summoned by Sultan Mahmoud of Ghiz-
ni. It was taken by the Mahommedans in the year 1194,
and was used as a state prison, in which several princes met
their death from opium or the dagger. On the decline of
the Mogul empire, it was taken by the Mahrattas, and af¬
terwards by the British, as mentioned above, in 1780. It was"
subsequently taken possession of by Scindia, and during the
war ot 1804 it again surrendered to the British troops after
a breach was made in the walls. It was not, however, taken
possession of by them, and by the treaty with Scindia in
1805 it was ceded to that chief. The travelling distance
from Delhi is 197 miles, from Lucknow 211, from Benares
355, from Nagpour 480, from Calcutta by Birbhoom 805
miles. Long. 78. 14. E. Lat. 26. 18. N.
GUAM, or Guahon, one of the Ladrone Islands, in the
Eastern Seas. It is a large island, about 120 miles in cir¬
cuit, high and shelving on each side, and fenced with
steep rocks, against which the surf perpetually beats.
G U A
uamanga There is a harbour on the west side, in which there are
li several small bays. The climate is mild and salubrious,
uanaxua-ancj sojj yjgjjg a great profusion of vegetables and
j_tQl, fruits, particularly guavas, bananas, cocoas, oranges, and
limes. Here the bread-fruit tree was first seen by the
Europeans, who have since become more familiar with its
manifold benefits in the islands of the South Pacific Ocean.
Capers are also produced from a shrub which is indige¬
nous to the soil. The native inhabitants of this island are
stout and well made, copper-coloured, and have long black
hair. They are dispersed in twenty-one hamlets or villa¬
ges situated along the coast, the interior being overrun
with woods, and in a state of nature ; and they all pursue
agriculture to the neglect of the fisheries. A town called
Agana, built by the Spaniards, stands on the shore, about
twelve miles from the harbour, which is defended by a
strong battery. The population is uncertain. The island
was discovered by Magellan in 1521, and at that time the
inhabitants, a wild and savage race, were numerous. But
they were greatly reduced, by the barbarity of the Spa¬
nish invaders, from many thousands to about 800 or 900.
The whole are collected in Guam, and by lenient treat¬
ment they had been augmented to 1500. But there is
no recent enumeration of them.
GUAMANGA, a town of Peru, in South America. It
was founded by Pizarro, on the site of an Indian village
of the same name, for the convenience of trade between
Cuzco and Lima. It contains a splendid cathedral, two
parochial churches, seven monasteries, three nunneries,
and about 26,000 inhabitants. Long. 73. 57. W. Lat. 12.
56. S. It is situated in a district or province of the same
name, which is very fertile in green pasture.
GUANAXUATO, a state, formerly an intendancy, of
Mexico, is bounded on the north by San Luis Potosi, on
the east by Mexico, on the south by Mechoacan, and on
the north-west by Guadalaxara and Zacatecas. It lies
wholly on the ridge of the Cordillera, and, according to
Humboldt, its length from the Lake of Chapala to the
north-east of San Felipe is fifty-two leagues, and its
breadth from Celaya to Villa de Leon is thirty-one leagues.
It is one of the finest and most populous states in Mexico,
and is famous for its rich mines. It comprehends three ci¬
ties, four or five towns, thirty-seven villages, and thirty-three
parishes. Guanaxuato has a surface of 911 square leagues,
and the number of inhabitants are estimated at about half
a million. Santa Fe de Guanaxuato, the capital, is ro¬
mantically situated amidst a labyrinth of porphyritic hills,
which environ it completely, and also intersect it. A
narrow defile leads into the city, and when first entered
no idea of its extent can be formed. When viewed from
some neighbouring heights, in some places it is seen spread¬
ing out into the form of an amphitheatre, in others stretch¬
ing along a narrow ridge, whilst the ranges of the houses,
accommodated to the broken ground, present the most
fantastical groups. The city is well built of hewn stone,
and contains three convents, a college, two chapels, and
five hermitages. The mines in the district of Guanaxua¬
to are the most productive in the world. Those of Va-
lenciana were famous for the extent of the excavations and
quantity of precious metal which they produced. Gua¬
naxuato is also an agricultural district. The lands are
fertile, and cultivated to the base of the mountains. The
city, however, suffers from two evils. The only water
which can be had is that collected in cisterns by the
wealthy inhabitants; and those who do not possess these
pi :vate tanks have to purchase the water, at rather a high
rate, from individuals who gain a livelihood by bringing it
from a large reservoir distant about two miles from the
city. During the rainy season, also, the city is liable to
be injured by the torrents which rush from the mountains
down the ravine in which the city stands. According to
g u A 13
Humboldt, the population of Guanaxuato in 1802 was Guanca
within the city 41,000, and in the suburbs and mines sur- Veliea
rounding it 29,600, making a total of 70,600 inhabitants. . H
From a census taken in 1822, however, the inhabitants
of the city amounted to 15,379, and the total popu-
lation was only 35,733. The town or suburb of Valen-
ciana alone formerly contained a population of 22,000
souls. It is now in ruins, and does not contain more than
4000 inhabitants. Guanaxuato is situated in long. 100.
55. W. and lat. 0. 21. N.
GUANCA VELICA, a town of Peru, and capital of a
jurisdiction of the same name. The district is bleak and
cold, but famous for its mines of mercury. The town
stands in a breach of the Andes, 12,308 feet above the
ocean level. It is rich, but it has declined from its for¬
mer opulence, and the population is now reduced to about
5000. It is situated in long. 74. 46. W. and lat. 12. 45. S.
GUARANTEE, or Warrantee, in Law, a term rela¬
tive to warrant or warranter, and properly signifying him
whom the warranter undertakes to indemnify or secure
from damage.
Guarantee is more frequently used for a warranter, or
a person who undertakes and obliges himself to see a se¬
cond person perform what he has stipulated to a third.
GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the engagement of
mediatorial or neutral states, by which they plight their
faith that certain treaties shall be inviolably observed, or
that they will make war against the aggressor.
GUARD, in a general sense, signifies the defence or
preservation of any thing; the act of observing what
passes, in order to prevent surprise; or the care, precau¬
tion, and attention employed to prevent any thing from
happening contrary to our intentions or inclinations.
Guard, in fencing, implies a proper posture to defend
the body from the sword of the antagonist.
Guard, in the military art, is a duty performed by a
body of men, to secure an army, place, or post, from be¬
ing surprised by an enemy.
Advanced Guard is a party of either horse or foot, or
both, which marches before a more considerable body, to
give notice of any approaching danger. These guards
are made stronger or weaker, according to the situation,
the danger to be apprehended from the enemy, or the na¬
ture of the country.
Artillery Guard is a detachment from the army, to se¬
cure the artillery when in the field. This corps de garde
is usually placed in the front of the artillery park, and
the sentries are dispersed round it.
Artillery Quarter Guard is a non-commissioned officer’s
guard from the royal regiment of artillery, whose corps
de garde is always in front of their encampment.
Artillery Rear Guard consists of a corporal and six
men posted in the rear of the park.
Corps de Garde are soldiers intrusted with the guard
of a post, under the command of one or more officers.
This word also signifies the place where the guard mounts.
Grand Guard, three or four squadrons of horse, com¬
manded by a field-officer, posted at about a mile or a mile
and a half from the camp, on the right and left wings, to¬
wards the enemy, for the better security of the camp.
Forage Guard, a detachment sent out to secure the
foragers, and which is posted at all places, where either
the enemy’s party may come to disturb the foragers, or
where they may be spread too near the enemy, so as to
be in danger of being taken. This guard consists both of
horse and foot, and must remain at their posts until the
foragers have all come off the ground.
Main Guard is that from which all other guards are de¬
tached.
Piquet Guard, a number of horse and foot, kept in
readiness in case of an alarm.
14
G U A
G U A
Baggage Baggage Guard is always an officer's guard, and has
Guard the charge of the baggage on a march.
pH ^ Quarter Guard is a small guard commanded by a sub-
Guards a*tern officer, posted in the front of each battalion.
Rear Guard, that part of the army which brings up the
rear on a march, and which is generally composed of all
the old grand guards of the camp.
Rear Guard is also a corporal’s guard, placed in the
rear of a regiment, to keep good order in that part of the
camp.
Standard Guard, a small guard under a corporal: it is
drawn from each regiment of horse, and mounts on foot
in the front of each regiment.
Trench Guard only mounts in the time of a siege, and
sometimes consists of three, four, or six battalions, accord¬
ing to the importance of the siege.
Provost Guard is always an officer’s guard, and attends
the provost in his rounds, to prevent desertion, marauding,
rioting, and other crimes or offences. See Provost.
Ordinary Guards, such as are fixed during the campaign,
and relieved daily.
Extraordinary Guards, or detachments, which are only
commanded on particular occasions, either for the further
security of the camp, to cover the foragers, or for convoys,
escorts, or expeditions.
Guards also imply the troops kept to guard the king’s
person, and consist both of horse and foot.
Horse Guards, in England, were originally gentlemen
chosen, for their bravery, to be intrusted with the guard of the
king’s person ; and they were divided into four troops, called
the first, second, third, and fourth troop of Horse Guards.
The first troop was raised in the year 1660, and the com¬
mand given to Lord Gerard; the second in 1661, and the
command given to Sir Philip Howard; the third in 1693,
and the command given to Earl Feversham; the fourth in
1702, and the command given to Earl Newburgh. Each
troop had one colonel, two lieutenant-colonels, one cornet
and major, one guidon and major, four exempts and cap¬
tains, four brigadiers and lieutenants, one adjutant, four
sub-brigadiers and cornets, and sixty private men. But
the four troops were afterwards turned into two regiments
of Life Guards.
The Horse Grenadier Guards were divided into two
troops, called the first and second troops of Horse Grenadier
Guards. The first tfoop was raised in 1693, and the com¬
mand given to Lieutenant-general Cholmondeley; the se¬
cond in 1702, and the command given to Lord Forbes. Each
troop had a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, a guidon or major,
three exempts and captains, three lieutenants, one adjutant,
three cornets, and sixty private men.
I he Yeomen of the Guard were first raised by Henry
VII. in the year 1485. They are a superior kind of foot
guards to the king’s person, and are generally called by the
. nickname of the Beef-Eaters. They were anciently two
hundred and fifty men of the first rank under gentry, and
of larger stature than ordinary, each being required to be
six feet in height. Of this body there are about a hun¬
dred on duty, and seventy more not on duty ; and when any
one of the hundred dies, his place is supplied out of the
seventy in non-activity. Their first commander or captain
was the Earl of Oxford.
The Foot Guards are regiments of foot appointed for
the guard of his majesty and his palace. They were raised
in the year 1660, when the command of the first regiment
was given to Thomas Lord Wentworth; that of the second
to General Monk, then Duke of Albemarle ; and that of the
third to the Earl of Linlithgow. The second regiment is
always called the Coldstream Guards, from a market-town
in Berwickshire, where it was first embodied. This regi¬
ment is older than the first, having been raised sooner, and
commanded by General Monk, from whom it derived its
name of Monk’s regiment or corps, and in compliment to Scotch
whom it was made one of the three royal regiments by Guards
Charles II. II
Scotch Guards, a celebrated band, which formed the Guan3a-
first company of the ancient gardes du corps of France.
From the ancient intercourse between the two countries,
the natives of Scotland had often distinguished themselves
in the service of France. On this foundation the company
of Scotch Guards, and the company of Scotch Gendarmes,
were instituted; both of them owed their institution to
Charles VII. of France, by whom the first standing army
in Europe was formed, in the year 1454.
The ancient rights and privileges of the Scottish Life
Guards were most honourable. The author of the An¬
cient Alliance between France and Britain says, “ On high
holidays, at the ceremony of the royal touch, the erection
of knights of the king’s order, the reception of extraordi¬
nary ambassadors, and the public entries of cities, there
must be six of their number next to the king’s person, three
on each side ; and the body of the king must be carried by
these only, wheresoever ceremony requires. They have
the keeping of the keys of the king’s lodging at night, the
keeping of the choir of the chapel, the keeping the boats
where the king passes the rivers; and they have the ho¬
nour of bearing the white silk fringe in their arms, which
in France is the coronne coleur. The keys of all the cities
where the king makes his entry are given to their captain
in waiting or out of waiting. He has the privilege, in
waiting or out of waiting, at ceremonies, such as corona¬
tions, marriages, and funerals of the kings, and at the bap¬
tism and marriage of their children, to take duty upon him.
The coronation robe belongs to him; and this company,
by the death or change of a captain, never changes its rank,
as do the three others.”
This company’s first commander, who is recorded as a
person of great valour and military accomplishments, was
Robert Patillock, or Patullo, a native of Dundee; and the
corps, ever ardent to distinguish itself, continued in great
reputation until the year 1578. From that period, the
Scotch Guards were less attended to, and their privileges
came to be invaded. In the year 1612, they presented a
remonstrance to Louis XIII. on the injustice they had suf¬
fered, and placed before him the services they had ren¬
dered to the crown of France. Attempts were then made
to re-establish them on their ancient foundation; but the
negotiation for this purpose proved ineffectual. The troops
of France became jealous of the honours paid to them;
the death of Francis II., and the return of Mary to Scot¬
land, at a time when they had much to hope, were un¬
fortunate circumstances; the change of religion in Scot¬
land proved an additional blowr; and the accession of
James VI. to the throne of England altogether disunited
the interests of France and Scotland. The Scotch Guards
of France had therefore latterly no connection with Scot¬
land except in the name.
GuARD-Boat, a boat appointed to row amongst the ships
of war which are laid up in any harbour, or in ordinary,
and to observe that their officers keep a good look out,
calling to the guard-boat as she passes, and not suffering
her crew to come on board, without having previously
communicated the watch-word of the night.
GuARD-Ship, a vessel of war appointed to superintend
maritime affairs in a harbour or river, and to see that the
ships which are not commissioned have their proper watch¬
word kept duly, by sending guard-boats round them every
night. They are also destined to receive seamen who are
impressed in the time of war.
GUARD A, a city of Portugal, in the province of Beira.
It is situated near the head of the river Mondego, on one
branch of the Sierra de Estrella. It is a very ancient
place, and the old walls with turrets, and a castle, are still
G U A
'ruardia in existence, though the city has retrograded towards decay.
II It has some manufactures of woollen cloths, amounting to
Juarini. ^0 looms. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains 707
houses, and 2298 inhabitants.
GUARDIA, a town of Spain, not far from Cedron, in
the province of Toledo, with 3344 inhabitants.
Guardia-Alferez, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Contado di Molise, with a bishop’s see.
Long. 14. 56. E. Lat 41. 39. N.
GUARDIAN, in Law, a person who has the charge of
anything; but it more commonly signifies one who has
the custody and education of such persons as have not
sufficient discretion to take care of themselves and their
own affairs, as children and idiots.
Guardian, or Warden, of the Cinque Ports, is an officer
who has the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports, with all the
power which the admiral of England has in other places.
Camden relates, that the Romans, after they had esta¬
blished their empire in our island, appointed a magistrate,
or governor, over the eastern parts, where the Cinque Ports
are situated, with the title of Comes littoris Saxonici per
Britanniam, having another, who bore the like title, on
the opposite side of the sea. Their business was to strength¬
en with munitions the sea-coast against the outrages and
robberies of barbarians ; and the same antiquary considers
our warden of the Cinque Ports to have been instituted in
imitation of this officer.
Guardian of the Spiritualities, the person to whom the
spiritual jurisdiction of any diocese is committed during
the time the see is vacant. A guardian of the spirituali¬
ties may likewise be either such in law, as the archbishop
is of any diocese within his province, or by delegation, as
he whom the archbishop or vicar-general for the time ap¬
points. Any such guardian has power to hold courts, and
grant licenses, dispensations, probates of wills, &c.
GUARINI, Giovanni Battista, a celebrated Italian
poet, was born at Ferrara, on the 10th of December 1537.
He studied at the university of Padua, under the direction
of his father, Alexander, to whom he owed the greater part
of his acquisitions in knowledge, and more particularly his
taste for poetry. Guarini succeeded his father in the chair
of humanity at Ferrara, though then scarcely twenty; but
some lyrical compositions already published by him had
inspired such hopes of future eminence as fully justified
his promotion. Called to the court of the Duke of Ferrara,
at that period the resort of men of the first talents in Italy,
he there became acquainted with Tasso, who was seven
years younger than himself, gained his friendship, and after¬
wards became his most zealous defender and ardent panegy¬
rist. The duke having knighted Guarini, intrusted him
with several important missions to the different courts of
Europe ; but, during fourteen years that he remained in
the service of this prince, he never obtained the slightest
recompense, and in the meanwhile had expended the greater
part of his fortune. Guarini complained of this ; the duke,
conscious that his complaints were well founded, became irri¬
tated ; recrimination ensued, and the poet retired in disgust
from court. Some time afterwards, he passed into the ser¬
vice of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, and next into that
of Vincent, duke of Mantua ; but as, at both courts, he re¬
ceived much praise and no salary, he at length retired to
his estate of Guarina, near Reggio. Having lost his wife,
he formed a design of taking holy orders, and with this yiew
repaired to Rome. But Guarini had too much ambition to
persevere in such a scheme, and, accustomed as he had
been to the gaieties of courts, he found himself but little
disposed to relish the sweets of retirement. He according¬
ly returned to Ferrara, and thence proceeded to Florence,
where the Grand Duke Ferdinand loaded him with presents
and honours. His good fortune, however, was not of long
duration. The grand duke, wishing to establish suitably a
G U A 15
lady of Pisa to whom he had been attached, induced one Guarnix
of the sons of Guarini to marry her without the knowledge il
of his father, whose delicacy on the point of honour was
well known to him. When the latter was made acquaint¬
ed with the marriage of his son, his indignation knew no
bounds, and, justly offended at the despotic proceeding of
the grand duke, he quitted Tuscany without the ceremony
of taking leave. But after passing some months with his
protectress, the Duchess of Urbino, he became reconciled
to the Duke of Ferrara ; and, in 1603, he was sent by that
prince to Rome as ambassador to Pope Paul V. Guarini,
however, was constantly the sport of fortune; for, besides the
ingratitude of the great, of which he had had painful experi¬
ence, his life was embittered by domestic misfortunes. He
had lost in the flower of her age a wife whom he adored ; and
his three sons frequently stirred up domestic quarrels about
the division of a fortune almost entirely exhausted. But the
most severe blow he received was by the tragical death ot his
daughter Anna. On returning from one of his journeys, he
went to visit his beloved child, and when he fondly expected
to fold her in his arms, he found only a bloody corpse. She
had just fallen a victim to the jealousy of a suspicious and vio¬
lent husband. But all these misfortunes did not prevent
Guarini from occupying himself with his works, the prin¬
cipal of which are, 1. II Pastor Fido, a pastoral tragi¬
comedy in five acts, and in verse, which passed through
forty editions during the lifetime of the author, and by
which his name has been rendered for ever famous; 2.
Verrato Primo, Ferrara, 1588 ; 3. Verrato Secundo, Flo¬
rence, 1595 ; 4. II Segretario, dialogo, Venice, 1594—1600 ;
5. Idropica, a comedy in five acts, and in prose, Rome,
1614. A very beautiful edition of the works of Guarini
was published at Ferrara, in 1737, four vols. 4to, with su¬
perb engravings, and very beautiful vignettes. The second
volume contains the lyrical compositions of the author,
some of which are highly esteemed; the fourth is filled
with annotations, and apologies or defences of the Pastor
Fido, by different authors. Guarini also left a treatise on
public liberty, which reasons of state, however, prevented
him from publishing. His death took place at Venice,
whither he had latterly retired, on the 6th of October 1612,
in the seventy-fifth year of his age. Guarini’s claim to the
character of a great poet must rest exclusively on his Pas¬
tor Fido, which, with all its faults, contains innumerable
redeeming beauties, and still maintains its place as an Ita¬
lian classic. His style, though it wants the purity, sweet¬
ness, and elegance, which characterise that of Tasso, is full
of rich and sparkling imagery ; and his sentiments, if not
always natural or just, are seldom deficient in force and
vivacity. The greatest blemish of the Pastor Fido is its
frequent indecency and exceptionable morality. It is no
doubt true that Corisco repents towards the conclusion of
the piece, and that there is an apparent conformity in this
respect to the established rule ; but this professed repent¬
ance comes only after having displayed a character equally
vile and perfidious, and promulgated maxims of the most
relaxed morality. Although the Pastor Fido had been re¬
presented in all the courts of Italy, and even before popes,
yet it wras afterwards put into the Index by reason of the li¬
centiousness which pervades it, and particularly on account
of the passage commencing Sdlpeccar e si dolce e il non pec-
car si necessario. But with all these defects, it is a work
of undoubted genius, and will continue to maintain the re¬
putation which it originally acquired for its author. (a.)
GUARNIX, a town of Spain, in the province of Old
Castille. It is situated on the river Santander, and on its
banks are founderies both for brass and iron cannon. In a
dock-yard there are conveniences for repairing large ships;
and some of the largest line-of-battle ships in the royal
navy were built here.
GUASTALLA, a duchy in Italy, between Modena and
16
G U A
G U A
Guatimala.the Austrian province of Mantua. It is thirty-three square
miles in extent, containing the city of the same name, and
four small places, with 7200 inhabitants, who cultivate with
great care and success wheat, barley, rice, maize, olives,
and silk, and breed many black cattle. The city stands in
a marshy situation, at the junction of the Crostolo with the
Po. It is surrounded with walls and ditches, has an an¬
cient castle, several churches, and 5500 inhabitants, who
carry on the trades of spinning and weaving silk. Long.
10. 34. 26. E. Lat. 44. 54. 57. N.
GUATIMALA, or Guatemala, one of the new states
into which the western world is divided. From the cir¬
cumstance of its position, it has assumed the name of
Central America. The constitution is modelled upon
that of North America. This republic comprehends that
portion of territory which stretches from the southern
extremity of Mexico to the northern point of Colombia,
from about the eighty-third to the ninety-fourth degree of
west longitude. It extends about eight hundred miles in
length, comprehending a great part of the isthmus of Pana¬
ma, and embracing an extent of surface computed at about
twenty-two thousand square leagues. This tract of coun¬
try was subdued by Alvarado, who was sent thither by
Cortes, the Spanish general, at that time pursuing his ca¬
reer of conquest in Mexico. Alvarado arrived in the
year 1524, at a time propitious for the success of his en¬
terprise, for two of the most powerful nations of the coun¬
try were then at war. Too jealous of each other to unite
against a common enemy, the numerous tribes or nations
inhabiting Guatimala fell one by one under the dominion
of the Spaniards, notwithstanding that a formidable resist¬
ance was made to them in some quarters. The methods
resorted to by the Spaniards for reducing the Indians to
subjection were similar to those practised in other parts
of the American continent. The people whom they sub¬
dued by treachery and the sword were not at all inferior
to those of Mexico and Peru. The conquerors found
large cities, well fortified by castles, and adorned with
splendid palaces and other sumptuous edifices. The
Guatimalans were of course idolaters, and, with the missal
in the one hand and the sword in the other, the Spani¬
ards succeeded in forcing them reluctantly to substitute
the Christian worship for their own. One part of the
country, however, called V§ra Paz, which baffled the ef¬
forts of the Spaniards to subdue it, received milder treat¬
ment at the hands of some pious ecclesiastics, who em¬
ployed persuasion instead of force, and thus succeeded in
bringing then also under the Spanish yoke. From the
period of its conquest until it declared its independence,
the country, under the appellation of the kingdom of Gua¬
timala, was governed by a captain-general appointed by
the court of Spain, and a royal audiencia or pretorial
court. The jurisdiction of this court extended from
eight to seventeen degrees north latitude, and from eighty-
two to ninety-five degrees west longitude, comprehending
an extent of surface computed at 26,152 square leagues,
with a population of about 1,200,000 souls.1 The kingdom
was divided into fifteen provinces, which were governed by
inferior officers, amenable to the audiencia. There was
scarcely any thing like a military force kept up, but spi¬
ritual matters were managed by a competent number of
ecclesiastics, under the direction of the Archbishop of Gua¬
timala, and four suffragans. Things continued in this
state until the political events which took place in various
parts ot South America increased the discontent which
had been generated in Guatimala by some acts of despo¬
tism committed by the mother country. In the year 1821,
when the fate of Mexico was decided, several meetings
of the most influential individuals took place, at which itGuatima
was agreed to shake themselves free of Old Spain. Several
of the provinces joined together and published a manifesto
to this effect; but San Salvador protested against it, and
immediately formed a provisional government of its own.
The government of Guatimala dispatched troops to attack
San Salvador, but they were repulsed. In this emergency
they solicited support from Mexico, which being granted,
San Salvador yielded to General Filisola in February
1823. In March the general congress was convoked,
and in the month following it met and assumed the
name of Constituent Assembly. To this congress all the
provinces sent deputies, with the exception of Chiapa,
which continued firm in its adherence to Mexico. One
of the first acts of the constituent assembly, after the no¬
mination of an executive, was to publish a decree, declar¬
ing “ these provinces independent of Spain, Mexico, and
every other power, either of the old or new world.” This
decree is dated the 1st of July 1823. Towards the end of
the same year was published the basis of its future con¬
stitution, by which Guatimala was declared a federal re¬
public, comprehending five states, joined together under
the denomination of the United Provinces of Central
America.
It was ordained that the legislative power should reside,
first, in a federal congress, composed ofrepresentatives elect¬
ed by the people; and, secondly, in a senate, composed of
two senators popularly elected by each state. The privileges
of this body were, to sanction the acts of the federal con¬
gress, to counsel the executive on important cases, to nomi¬
nate the individuals employed by the federation, and to
watch over their conduct. The exeew^e power was declared
to be vested, 1. in a president popularly chosen; 2. in a vice-
president; and, 3. in a supreme court of justice. The
internal affairs of each state were decreed to be regulated
by itself upon the following principles : 1. By an assembly
of deputies properly chosen ; 2. by a council, similarly
elected; 3. by a chief; 4. by a vice-chief; and, 5. by a
supreme court of judicature. These individuals or bodies
were invested with certain definite powers, by which, it
was hoped, good government would be obtained, and equal
justice administered to the people. The constituent assem¬
bly now began to form a constitution, leaving, in the mean
time, the different states to regulate their own concerns.
The assembly subsequently had various sittings, and drew
up a great number of articles, by which the government
was to be regulated. Guatimala, however, like the re¬
publics in the South American continent, has never re¬
mained at rest with itself since it was erected into a free
state. Continual insurrections have broken out; at one
time one party, at another time another party, predomi¬
nating. Peace and good order can scarcely be said to be
as yet restored to it. The following table exhibits the num¬
ber of departments, towns, and villages, in each state :—
I. Guatimala, consisting of thirteen departments. Capital,
Guatimala.
Departments.
Departments.
No. of Towns and
Villages.
1. Sacatepequez 18
2. Chimaltenango 11
3. Solala 11
4. Totonicapam  4
5. Giieguetango  8
6. Quezaltenango  7
7. Suchitepequez  6
Comprises about 114 towns and villages
computed at 700,000.
No. of Towns and
Villages.
8. Escuintla 12
9. Chiquimula  8
10. San Augustin  8
11. Vera Paz  5
12. Salama  7
13. Peten    9
Population
1 Humboldt’s Political Essay, vol. iv. p. 322.
GUATIMALA.
17
iuatimala. II. Salvador, consisting of four departments. Capital, San
Salvador.
>artments. No- and
San Miguel 10
4. San Vicente  8
No. of Towmand n
Villages
1. San Salvador 23 3.
Departments:
2. Sonzonate 14
Comprehends fifty-five towns and villages. The popu¬
lation is computed at 350,000.
III. Honduras, consisting of twelve departments. Capi¬
tal, Comayagua.
Departments. N°‘ViU^esf ^ -Departments.
1. Comayagua 6
2. Tegucigalpa 5
3. Choluteca 4
4. Nacaomi 4
5. Cantarranas 4
6. Jutigalpa 3
No. of Towns and
Villages.
7. Gracias  5
8. Llanos  5
9. Santa Barbara  6
10. Truxillo  2
11. Lloro 2
12. Segovia 11
Comprehends fifty-seven towns and villages. Thetpo-
pulation is computed at 200,000.
IV. Nicaragua, consisting of eight departments. Capital,
Leon.
Departments. ^ ymagT ^ Departments. N0'vm^and
1. Leon  7 5. Subtiava  5
2. Granada   10 6. Masaia 12
3. Managua  4 7. Nicaragua  6
4. Realejo  4 8. Matagalpa  5
Comprehends fifty-three towns and villages. The po¬
pulation is computed at 200,000.
V. Costa Rica, consisting of eight departments. Capi¬
tal San Jose.
Departments. ^ Departments. N0'ViST ^
1. San Jose 3 5. Iscan 2
2. Cartago 5 6. Alajuela I
3. Ujarras 3 7. Eredia 3
4. Boruca 2 8. Bagases 3
Comprehends twenty-one towns and villages. The po¬
pulation is computed at 50,000.
These five states, taken together, exhibit the figure of an
irregular triangle, the vertex of which is in the province of
Panama, and the base in the line that separates the coun¬
try from New Spain. They are bounded on the west and
north-w'est by Mexico, on the south-east by the province
of Veraguas, on the north by the Atlantic, and on the
south and south-west by the Pacific. Our knowledge of
the physical geography of Guatimala is imperfect. Ge¬
nerally speaking, the face of the country is covered with
mountains, but their elevations, or the volcanic phenome¬
na which they exhibit, are but little known. The moun¬
tains, in some places bordering on the Atlantic, in others
coasting the Pacific, and again in situations traversing
the middle of the isthmus, give their own peculiar cha¬
racter to the country. The prevailing rocks are gra¬
nite and porphyry; and in crossing them the traveller
often feels himself transferred from a hot to a cold and
chilling temperature. The productions, of course, vary
in their nature, according to the elevations where they
grow. At a height of from twelve to fourteen hundred
feet, indigo, cotton, and cocoa flourish. At an elevation of
from four to five thousand feet the productions of the tem¬
perate zone exhibit themselves. Wheat is cultivated
upon lands from six to nine thousand feet above the level
of the ocean ; and on the tops of the highest mountains the
hardy pine is to be found. There are a number of volcanoes,
which have at different times spread terror and destruc¬
tion over the contiguous country. In the valley of Guati¬
mala stands the three-peaked Volcan de Fuego, from which
the old city has repeatedly suffered injury, and which
still, by occasionally emitting smoke and flame, seems to
threaten an eruption. Other seven volcanoes exhibit the
VOL. XI.
same phenomena, and maybe said to remain still in aGuatimak.
state of activity. These are Tajamulco, in the province v—
Quezaltenango ; Izalco, near Sonzonate ; Momotombo and
Mazaya, in Nicaragua; St Vincent and St Salvador, in the
state of the same name ; and Atitan, situated in one of
the interior provinces, and which sent forth an eruption
in 1827. It was accompanied by an earthquake; and
throughout Guatimala earthquakes are frequent. The
rivers are numerous, but not in general navigable, except
by canoes. They are, besides, rapid, owing to the steep
acclivity of their course, and their entrance is obstructed
by bars. The largest river is the Lempa, which runs
chiefly through the province of San Salvador. At its
lowest ebb it is an hundred and forty yards in breadth,
and its current is very rapid. Of lakes there are three
of considerable size and depth. The Lake of Nicaragua
is of vast extent; and should the proposal of a junction
between the Pacific and it take place, it will become of
great importance in a commercial point of view. Lake
Peten is said to be twenty-six leagues in circumference,
and in some parts thirty fathoms deep. Lake Atitan co¬
vers eight leagues from east to west, and four from north
to south. Its depth has not been fathomed; and although
several rivers flow into it, there is no visible outlet for the
waters which it thus receives. These, and numerous other
sheets of water, abound in fish; in many of them there
are little islands, picturesquely wooded, and in some in¬
stances inhabited. On the banks of the rivers, and on
the shores of one or two of the lakes, salt is collected
in. large quantities, and constitutes a considerable branch
of trade in some of the provinces. Medicinal and other
springs, both cold and hot, are found in various parts of
the country.
Of the zoology of Guatimala little is known. Of the qua¬
drupeds usually found in such climates there is abundance;
and of the feathered tribes there is an infinite variety, from
the minute and beautiful humming-bird to the heavy-wing¬
ed vulture. The quezal, from the beauty of its plumage,
is perhaps the most remarkable. The guacamaya, or great
macaw, the wild peacock, the raxon, the chion, and the
chulpilchoc, also attract the traveller of the woods by the
splendour of the colours which they exhibit. In the warm¬
er provinces serpents and reptiles infest every bush ; and
those smaller animals which ijpme under the head of en¬
tomology are of every genus and species. In short, every
branch of the animal kingdom of Guatimala abounds in ob¬
jects of interest. Nor is the vegetable kingdom less pro¬
ductive. During the whole of the year the greater part of
the mountains and plains are covered with a profusion of
beautiful flowers. Forty genera of fruits are reckoned to
grow spontaneously upon the hills. There are numerous
thick forests, in which valuable woods of great size are to
be found in abundance. Cedars are met with exceeding
five fathoms in circumference, and mahogany trees of little
less magnitude. Resins, balsams, and medicinal herbs,
are also abundant. Of almost every production, both of
a tropical and intertropical climate, may be enumerated
amongst grains, maize, producing in some places three hun¬
dred fold, and sometimes two or three crops annually;
wheat, barley, and rice. Potatoes, greens, and all other
kinds of vegetables, are also abundant. Amongst fruits
may be enumerated several species of plantains, apples,
pine-apples, peaches, and apricots; whilst pears, melons,
grapes, oranges, figs, cherries, pines, and a great many
others little known in Europe, are everywhere to be met
with. To these may be added, as productions of the coun¬
try, bark, sarsaparilla, cinnamon, hellebore, coffee, ginger,
cassia, tamarinds, aniseed, Brazil wood, indigo, cocoa, co¬
chineal, vanilla, sugar, flax, tobacco, cotton of various spe¬
cies, pepper, sulphur, saltpetre, musk, and a multitude of
other articles.
c
IS G U A T I
Guatimala. We shall now give a brief account of the different pro-
vinces. Guatimala is the central province, comprehending
the great chain of volcanic mountains, and the slope down¬
wards from them to the sea. Within these mountains is
situated what is called the great valley of Guatimala, which
consists properly of nine valleys. There is great variety of
climate, and the productions of the country are found in
the highest perfection. The city of Guatimala, the pre¬
sent capital of the republic, is situated in the midst of the
plain of La Virgen, which is five leagues in diameter, and
forms part of the valley of Mexico, one of the nine small
valleys. The city lies in 14. 37. north latitude, and 90.
30. west longitude, and is ninety leagues from the Atlantic,
twenty-six from the Pacific, and four hundred from the
city of Mexico. The valley is very fertile, being watered
by several streams ; and the city is surrounded by nume¬
rous villages, which supply its markets with fruits and ve¬
getables. The houses consist only of one storey, and oc¬
cupy a great space of ground ; so that, to the eye of a
European, the city, when viewed from a distance, appears
to be much more populous and extensive than it really is.
It contains about sixty manaznas, or squares of houses,
formed by the intersection of streets at right angles, which
vary in extent from a hundred and fifty to three hundred
and fifty yards in front; and these are arranged so as to
form one large square. On each side of the city, as the
suburbs have increased, other houses have been erected,
without much regard to uniformity. The streets are broad,
but ill paved ; and sloping downwards from each side, they
form a gutter in the middle. The market-place is a square
extending about one hundred and fifty yards each way,
with a fountain in the middle. Besides the daily market,
there are numerous temporary stalls ; and the square is sur¬
rounded by buildings, offices, and shops. The public edi¬
fices are numerous, consisting of a university with twelve
professorships, five convents, four nunneries, a cathedral,
four parish churches, and fifteen other churches or chapels
of minor importance. There are also a treasury, mint, go¬
vernment offices, and a spacious prison. The style of ar¬
chitecture is in general good, and some of the buildings
are handsomely decorated. The houses are well built and
commodiously arranged, and there is generally attached to
them a stone reservoir for containing water. The city is
remarkably well supplied with water. From a spring in
the mountains it is conducted by pipes into twelve public
reservoirs, from which it is distributed to every private
dwelling. There are here two public or endowed schools
for boys, and the girls are taught in the convents; but the
Guatimalans in general are very imperfectly educated.
Literature is at a very low ebb, although there are various
printing establishments, and several newspapers are publish¬
ed. The religious processions which take place here are
very numerous, but they partake more of buffoonery than
solemnity. Guatimala is situated at about five hundred
feet above the ocean level, in a temperate and salubrious
climate, being neither exposed to the intensity of a sum¬
mer’s sun, nor to the stormy blasts of winter. The average
heat during the day is about 69 degrees in the shade; and
throughout the year the thermometer scarcely varies.
The scenery of the surrounding country is majestic and
beautiful, and the soil is capable of producing all kinds of
fruits and vegetables ; but it is very much neglected. The
cultivation of the cochineal insect has since 1821 been
pushed to a great extent. Large plantations are situated in
the neighbourhood of the city. Earthquakes sometimes oc¬
cur ; but they are not so destructive now, as, from the ac¬
counts of the early historians, we are led to believe that they
previously were. The population has been estimated at about
35,000, consisting of European Spaniards, white Creoles,
Mulattoes, and Indians.
La Antigua, or Old Guatimala, is situated some leagues
MALA.
nearer to the Pacific Ocean. It was formerly one of the Guatimak
handsomest cities in the new world, the seat of an arch- ^
bishop, and the metropolis of the kingdom. Previously to
1773, it had been to a greater or less extent destroyed by
earthquakes; and in that year seven successive shocks
were experienced, upon which the governor issued a de¬
cree, commanding the citizens to quit their habitations, and
remove farther from the volcanoes. This they were com¬
pelled to obey; and the government was accordingly trans¬
ferred to New Guatimala. The old city remained in a de¬
serted and ruinous condition for some time, until at length
many of its former occupants resumed their old habitations ;
and again it has gradually become peopled, and partially
rebuilt. It is still, however, far inferior in size and popu¬
lation to the new capital.
There are few other towns in Guatimala of sufficient
importance to require a detailed description. The inhabi-
tar^s of the province are employed, first, as carriers, in
which capacity they supply all the other states; secondly,
in the production of cochineal, a little indigo, about five
hundred cargoes of cocoa, and some flour; and thirdly, in
the manufacture of some coarse woollens, of which it is cal¬
culated a quantity equal in value to two hundred thousand
dollars is furnished to the other states.
The province of Salvador, anciently called Cuscatlan, or
the land of riches, is bounded on the south by the Pacific
Ocean, on the north by Honduras, on the east by Nicara¬
gua, and on the west by Guatimala. The natural produc¬
tions of this province appear to be similar to those of Gua¬
timala. It possesses mines of silver, iron, and other me¬
tals ; and a considerable quantity of indigo is produced, in
which consists the chief trade of Salvador. Sugar and cot¬
ton are also raised, and the inhabitants are principally em¬
ployed in the cultivation of these, particularly the former
article. San Salvador, the capital, was founded in 1528 by
the Spaniards, who had conquered the country three years
previously to that period. This city, which now ranks se¬
cond in the republic, is situated in 13. 36. north latitude,
and 89. 46. west longitude, at the distance of eight leagues
from the Pacific Ocean. It is surrounded by hills and
mountains covered with wood, and terminating on the
north-east in a dormant volcano. The streets run in right
angles, the houses are commodious, and the market is well
supplied. It contains a population of about 16,000 inha*
bitants.
The province of Honduras stretches east and west on
the shores of the Atlantic. It is bounded by the Bay of
Honduras on the north, by Nicaragua on the south-east and
east, by San Salvador on the south, and by the department
of Chiquimula on the w est. Its territory is for the most part
rugged and mountainous, but rich in metals. The whole
coast is flat, marshy, hot, and extremely unhealthy, although
some parts of the interior rise into hilly and temperate tracts.
In consequence of the unpropitious nature of the climate,
this part of the country is thinly peopled. It abounds in
thick forests, containing the most valuable mahogany and
logwood trees. Comayagua, the capital of the province, is
situated in a beautiful plain, in about 14. 50. north lati¬
tude, and 87. 46. west longitude, and is distant from Gua¬
timala about a hundred and forty-four leagues. Truxillo,
formerly the capital of a province, stands on an elevation of
about thirty yards above the level of the sea, in latitude 15.
48. north, and longitude 86. west. This place is well for- •
tified, but the population is small. Gracias a Dios, once
a flourishing city, is situated about thirty-eight leagues
from Comayagua, in latitude 14. 40. north, and longitude
88. 30. west. At present the population is small, and the
city itself is in a state of great decay. The inhabitants of
Honduras are principally employed in the rearing of about
forty thousand head of cattle, introduced annually into San
Salvador and Guatimala, and in the cultivation of tobacco.
G U A T I
I Juatimala. The British settlement of Honduras, situated in the pro-
'-'-y"-' vince of Merida or Yucutan, belonging to Mexico, is uni¬
formly, in works upon geography, described along with
Guatimala; but as it is now beyond the limits of that re¬
public, an account of it will be given under the head of
Honduras.
The province of Nicaragua is bounded on the north by
Honduras, on the east by the Atlantic, on the south by
Costa Rica and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by Te¬
gucigalpa, a department of Honduras. From west to east
it extends eighty-five leagues, and from north to south
about seventy-five. The chain of the volcanic Andes here
terminates, and the territory is in general low and moist.
It is rich in all the tropical fruits, but those peculiar to
a temperate zone are not to be met with. Here there
are vast savannahs, covered with herds of cattle, some of
which are sent to the city of Guatimala. Leon, or San Leon
de Nicaragua, is situated in latitude 12.20. north, and long.
86. 16. west. It is four leagues from the Pacific, and a
hundred and eighty-three from Guatimala. Previously to
the revolution, it was one of the most beautiful cities of the
kingdom, and was rapidly advancing in prosperity when
political animosities split the inhabitants into parties; but
the city was torn to pieces by the factions, and for a time
nearly deserted. Nicaragua is not very large, but occupies
an advantageous position on the north-western shore. It
contains about 7000 inhabitants, of whom about 1000 are
Spaniards, with a college, which, in 1812, was converted
into a university. Mazaya, a village containing about 6000
inhabitants, almost entirely Indian, is said to be the most
trading place in the province, though inconveniently situ¬
ated at the bottom of a deep rocky dell, which is almost
destitute of water. The inhabitants of this province are
chiefly employed in the breeding of cattle, and in raising
cocoa.
Costa Rica, or Rich Coast, notwithstanding its name, is
the poorest and most destitute of all the provinces. It ex¬
tends an hundred and sixty leagues from west to east, and
about sixty leagues from north to south. Its climate is
warm but healthy, and its population very widely scatter¬
ed. It has however mines of gold and silver, once said to
have been rich, but now unproductive. Cartago, the an¬
cient capital, is situated in about 9. 10. north latitude, and
82.46. west longitude, four hundred leagues east-south-east
from Guatimala, thirty leagues from the Atlantic, and thirty
from the Pacific. San Jose, to which the seat of govern¬
ment was transferred about the time of the revolution, has
about the same amount of population. There is little trade
except in mahogany and cedar, which is shipped from Peru,
the inhabitants of this province raising little more of any
article than is necessarily consumed within itself. The
growth of maize, and the manufacture of panelas (small
loaves of unrefined sugar prepared from the cane), are com¬
mon to all the states.
To the east and south-east of the province of Honduras
lies a tract of country called Poyais and the Mosquito
shore. It consists of a vast and savage forest, beat by
the burning rays of the sun, and occupied by a race of In¬
dians, who consider themselves as under the protection of
Britain, although the British government claims no terri¬
tory in this part of the country. The Mosquito-men pos¬
sess great muscular strength. Tall and erect, and little
• encumbered with clothing, with vacant countenances, and
long greasy hair, they present a wild and savage appear¬
ance, and afford fine specimens of the powerful barbarian.
Poyais is memorable on account of the unhappy issue of
an attempt made by some Englishmen to form a settlement
in this quarter, whither they had been led by the pro¬
mises and representations of an adventurer, called, or call¬
ing himself, a cacique.
With regard to agriculture and commerce, Guatimala
MALA. 19
is still very far behind, considering her natural resources-Guatimala.
One great drawback to improvement in this respect is, the
great expense attending the transport of goods by land,
and the want of proper ports, upon the coast. On the Pa¬
cific, the only ports frequented are Conchagua, situated a
few leagues from San Salvador, which possesses an ex¬
cellent harbour ; and Acajutla, an unsheltered bay, five
leagues from Sonzonate, which is used as the port of Gua¬
timala. From this place it is fifty-five leagues distant,
and the road lies over a rough and mountainous tract of
country. Another point, however, has been fixed upon
as an eligible spot for a harbour. It has been called the
Port of Independencia; and, as it is situated nearer to the
capital, and the road lying between the two places is
better than the other, it affords every convenience and
advantage for carrying on an extensive traffic in the Pa¬
cific Ocean. For some years previously to the revolution,
the commerce was retrograding; but since that event
occurred, it has certainly improved. The most import¬
ant production of the country is indigo, which is celebrat¬
ed for its excellence. Of the exact quantity raised no
idea can be formed. The cultivation of cochineal has ra¬
pidly increased. In 1826, or about five years after its
introduction, the harvest was estimated at ninety thou¬
sand pounds. Considerable quantities of tobacco and cot¬
ton are also raised ; and sugar and cocoa are likewise cul¬
tivated, but little coffee is grown. There are some manu¬
factures in the country; but articles of wearing apparel,
and those for domestic use, are principally imported from
Europe. The only remaining source of national wealth is
the mines. Since the revolution some very exaggerated
statements have been published as to the mineral wealth
of Guatimala, and several of the mines are in the hands
of companies, who are attempting to work them; but, by
all accounts, the speculation will not be so profitable as
was anticipated, the working of the mines being expensive.
Of the amount of foreign goods imported into Guatimala
only a rude guess can be formed. It has been estimated
at about two millions of dollars, whilst the quantity of
produce exported does not amount to two thirds of that
sum. The exports consist chiefly of cochineal, indigo,
cocoa, cotton, hides, and drugs. The imports are princi¬
pally made by the ports of Omoa and Yzabal. The for¬
mer, which is about an hundred leagues distant from
Guatimala, is the principal depot for goods from the Ha-
vannah and the peninsula, with which some small trade is
carried on ; and the latter for British merchandise from
Belize, in the British territory of Honduras. The goods
are transported from one place to another by means of
mules, which are rather scarce in the country. By the
parliamentary papers for 1831, it appears that during that
year the official value of the imports from Guatimala into
Great Britain amounted to L.8065. 4s. 6d.
Notwithstanding all its advantages, the chief of which
is the variety of its productions, it is much to be doubted
whether Guatimala will ever attain to any very high pitch
of prosperity as a nation. Indeed this will be nearly im¬
possible, until the present inhabitants, who have little en¬
terprise, and are very indolent, shall have their moral cha¬
racter elevated by a large infusion of European intellect
and industry. It would seem that at present the very
advantages which Guatimala possesses were the means
of retarding its improvement. For, in countries where
the soil is so rich and the climate so propitious as to pro¬
duce spontaneously almost all the necessaries of life, which,
to a considerable extent, can be appropriated at pleasure
by the natives, there is an inducement held out to indo¬
lence which cannot well be resisted, especially by a popu¬
lation at least two fifths of whom are of a low order of in¬
tellect ; individuals who are sufficiently satisfied with such
articles as are necessary for their own subsistence, with-
20 G U A
Guatemala, out having any regard to personal aggrandisement or ex-
''"“•'"V'*"'' tension of individual power. Guatimala contains about
one million and a half of inhabitants, who are mixed in
the following proportions, according to the authorities of
Humboldt and Thomson r1
Thomson. Humboldt.
Whites and Creoles 20 per cent 20 per cent.
Mixed classes 40 per cent 28 per cent.
Indians 40 per cent 52 per cent.
A society consisting of four different classes, which are
not only distinct from one another, but which present
nearly opposite characteristics, can scarcely be supposed
ever to become firmly knit together so as to constitute a
strong political body. Speaking generally, the strength
of states results from the union of the people; and union
arises from congeniality of feeling, identity of interests,
similarity of habits and tastes, and such an equality of
moral character as is usually met with amongst the indi¬
vidual races of mankind. But in Guatimala, the Euro¬
peans, proud of their Castillian blood, look with contempt
upon the natives, whom they place far below them in in¬
telligence, which the latter have no alternative but to ac¬
knowledge, though at the same time they accuse the Spa¬
nish nation of being the cause of all he evils which have dis¬
tracted the country. The Europeans are chiefly composed
of individuals who left their own country young, and by
their talents and industry acquired wealth in Guatimala.
The leading Americans, or white Creoles, are descendants
of the Spaniards, who at an earlier period acquired fortunes
in the same place. The latter are again divided into two
parties, the liberals, and the serviles or noblesse as they
call themselves, both differing widely’ in feeling and in
sentiment. The next class is the mulatto or mixed race,
which forms as it were the physical force of the nation ;
for whilst they would seem to equal or nearly equal the
Indians in numbers, they possess an energy and cunning, a
sort of rude intelligence, to which the latter have no preten¬
sions. This mixed people are always impressed into the ser¬
vice of either of the two former classes during civil dissen¬
sions. The last class, or aboriginal Indians, are the lowest
of all in every respect; but they in some measure assist in
balancing the other powers, for they thoroughly hate the
mixed race. The greater proportion of the Indians live in
villages built after the Spanish manner, and employ them¬
selves variously in raising maize and vegetables, manufac¬
turing mats and baskets, or as porters and carriers ; a second
portion live on farms, where they are regularly employed;
and both these classes are governed by officers chosen from
amongst themselves. There are other two classes, the In¬
dians composing which either live in huts or long strag¬
gling villages, or form, like the Lazzaroni of Italy, a sort
of half mendicant race, lounging in idleness during the
day, and sleeping at night under the piazzas of the squares.
The Indians have been known at times to display consider¬
able hardihood and daring, but they are generally characteris¬
ed by pusillanimity. This, however, only applies to the in¬
terior Indians ; the unsubdued Mosquito-men are remark¬
able for their reckless valour and invincible energy. The
Indian of Guatimala, although incapable of violent effort,
can endure considerable fatigue. Of his capacity for im-
piovement by superior education, little can be said with
certainty, as the experiment does not seem to have been
made upon a scale ample enough to entitle us to form a
correct judgment upon the subject. Some of those who
have been admitted into convents have displayed ability;
and others in whom talent was apparent, have been edu¬
cated at the university, where they displayed some quick¬
ness of apprehension ; but after a few years, they became
G U B
addicted to intoxication, and relapsed into their original Guayaquil
barbarism. The Indians excel in the imitative arts, and H
mould waxen figures with taste, ingenuity, and correctness Guben-
to nature. The only dress of the men consists of a cine-
ture made of pita (the fibres of a plant, which, when twist¬
ed, resemble the thread made of hemp) ; and the women
wear merely a light cotton dress from the middle down¬
wards. The houses are nearly destitute of furniture; a
mat spread on the floor, or at best a small hammock,
serves for a bed. Their food consists chiefly of maize va¬
riously prepared. Thus, with his hut and his native corn,
the Indian passes his days in indolence, alike ignorant of
intellectual enjoyment and the luxuries and refinements of
civilized life. (r. r. r.)
GUAYAQUIL, an important department of that portion
of the South American continent which until recently was
designated Colombia; but since the separation of that re¬
public into three different states, Guayaquil, it is presum¬
ed, belongs now to that part of Colombia which has resum¬
ed the name of New Grenada. It extends along the shores
of the Pacific Ocean for about 200 miles, but having a very
irregular figure, and being separated into two parts by
an arm of the sea. The breadth cannot be determined
with any degree of accuracy ; it does not however ex¬
ceed sixty or seventy miles. The country is very fertile,
particularly in cocoa, for which there has always been a
demand equal to the supply. This has been estimated at
600,000 fanegas, of three bushels each, which sells some¬
times at seven dollars per fanega. There are also large
plantations of tobacco; timber and salt are exported in
vast quantities; and in the savannahs are reared great
numbers of horned cattle, mules, and horses, which are
driven into the interior. The capital of this department,
which bears the same name, is situated on the Bay of Guay¬
aquil, in longitude 79. 41. 15. west, and latitude 2. 11.
30. south. It was founded by Pizarro in 1533, and is now
one of the most flourishing cities in South America. The
houses are irregularly but picturesquely scattered along
the sides and top of a hill. They are commodious and
handsome, but the public edifices are destitute of any de¬
gree of splendour. The dockyard is of very considerable
extent, and vessels of great size have been built here.
The fruit of this place is remarkably fine ; the plantain in
particular is highly relished; but animal food is of inferior
quality. Guayaquil is infested with insects and reptiles
of a very annoying and even dangerous description. Mos¬
quitoes and other flies, whose bite is most tormenting,
abound in the atmosphere; whilst the ground is covered
with snakes, centipedes, and other filthy reptiles. The
ants are so numerous, that often when articles of diet
served up at table are cut open, thousands of these ani¬
mals are seen making their escape in all directions, leav¬
ing the interior a complete vacuity. Alligators and cay¬
mans swarm on the coast, and so great is their fecun-
dity, that no exertion can limit or reduce their numbers.
Guayaquil contains about 20,000 inhabitants, (r. r. r.)
GUAYRA, a district of the province of La Plata, in
South America, having Brazil on the east, and Paraguay
on the west.
GUBBIO, or Eugubio, a town of the delegation of Ur-
bino, in the papal dominions, in Italy, at the foot of the
Apennines, containing 4000 inhabitants, who conduct ma¬
nufactories of woollen and silk, and of wax bleaching.
GUBEN, a city of Prussia, the capital of the circle of
the same name, in the province of Frankfort. It stands on
the river Neisse, which is navigable to the Oder, is sur¬
rounded with walls, and contains 850 houses, and 7960
inhabitants, who carry on various manufactures in woollen
1 Thomson’s Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatimala.
G U E
Gubi and linen goods, and other commodities. Long. 12. 40. E.
H , Lat. 51.58. N. , • u ™ >
Guericke. quBI, a town of Hindustan, in the rajah of Mysore s
territories. It is a mean looking place, and dirty; but it
carries on a considerable trade, and many of the inhabitants
are prosperous. Here is held one of the greatest weekly
fairs in the country. It is said to have been founded 400
years ago, by the Polygars, who were entirely dispossessed
by Tippoo, but, on his overthrow, returned to their original
profession of cultivators. Long. 77. 10. E. Lat. 13. 7. N.
GUDARAH, a district of Hindustan, in the Gujerat
province, situated about the 23d degree of north latitude.
It is mountainous and woody. The principal towns are
Gundarah and Lunawara. The chief river is the Mahy.
GUDGEON, a species of cyprinus. See Ichthyology.
GUEBRES, or Gabres. See Gabres.
GUELPHS, or Guelfs, a celebrated faction in Italy,
antagonists of the Ghibelins. See Ghibelins.
The Guelphs and Ghibelins filled Italy with blood and
carnage for many years. The Guelphs stood for the pope,
against the emperor ; the Ghibelins for the emperor against
the pope. The rise of the Guelphs is referred by some to
the time of Conrad HI. in the twelfth century ; by others
to that of Frederick II.; and by others, again, to that of
his successor Frederick II. in the thirteenth century. The
name of Guelph is commonly said to have been formed
from Welfe, or Welfo. The Emperor Conrad HI. having
taken the duchy of Bavaria from Welfe VI., brother of
Henry duke of Bavaria, Welfe, assisted by the forces of
Roger king of Sicily, made war on Conrad, and thus gave
birth to the faction of the Guelphs. But some derive the
name Guelfs from the German Wolff , on account of the
grievous evils committed by that cruel faction ; and otheis
deduce it from the name of a German called' Guelfe, who
lived at Pistoye, adding, that his brother, named Gibel or
Ghibel, gave his name to the Ghibelins.
GUERANDE, a city of France, in the department of
the Lower Seine, and, next to Nantes, the largest of the de¬
partment. It is situated on the sea-shore, on the declivity
of a hill covered with vineyards, is surrounded with for¬
tifications, and contains 7250 inhabitants, who carry on
manufactures of linen and of cotton. Near to it are salt
marshes, from which a supply of 15,000 tons of salt is an¬
nually made by natural evaporation. Long. 2. 31. 31. W.
Lat. 47. 19. 39. N.
GUERCINO. See Barbieri.
GUERICKE, Otto, or Otho, a German philosopher
of considerable eminence, was born in 1602, and died at
Hamburg in 1686. In conjunction with Torricelli, Pascal,
and Boyle, he contributed much towards the explanation
of the properties of air. He was counsellor to the elector
of Brandenburg, and burgomaster of Magdeburg; but his
greatest celebrity was derived from his philosophical dis¬
coveries, and in particular from the invention of the air-
pump. Much about the same time Mr Boyle indeed made
approaches towards the discovery of this instrument, but
with that candour which is ever the characteristic of great
and enlightened minds, he confessed that the merit of it
belonged exclusively to Guericke, the accounts of whose
experiments first enabled him to bring his design to any
thing like maturity. Our author has also the merit of in¬
venting the two brass hemispheres, by which the pressure
of the air is illustrated ; and an instrument for determining
the changes in the state of the atmosphere, which fell into
disuse on the invention of the barometer. By consulting
his tube he predicted approaching storms, on which ac¬
count he was deemed a sorcerer by the multitude. It is
worthy of observation, that when his brass hemispheres
were applied to each other, and the air exhausted, it resist¬
ed the efforts of sixteen horses to draw them asunder. He
composed several treatises in natural philosophy, the prin-
G U E
21
cipalof which is entitled Experimenta Magdeburgica, 1672, Guernsey
folio, which contains his experiments on a vacuum. fiJlaria
GUERNSEY, an island belonging to Great Britain, on
the coast of France, being only twenty-five miles from
Cape La Hogue, and thirty-five from Cherbourg, where¬
as it is nearly sixty from Portland, the nearest point in
England, and 104 from Southampton, whence the packets
usually sail. The south side of the island is hilly, but it
gradually descends in proceeding north. Ihe rivulets are
numerous, and as snow seldom remains, there is a constant
verdant face on the land. Forest trees are rather scarce,
but those bearing fruit are numerous and prolific, especi¬
ally the fig and apple-trees, from the last of which more
cider is obtained than the inhabitants consume. Agri¬
culture is not pursued with much skill, but, from the mild¬
ness of the climate, and the natural fertility of the soil,
enough of wheat and potatoes is raised to supply food
to the inhabitants, and all the culinary vegetables are af¬
forded in abundance. There are scarcely any sheep kept
in the island ; and the cows, though a valuable race for
the quantity of milk they yield, are not numerous, so that
beef and mutton, and also poultry, are imported from
England or France. Many pigs are reared and fattened
till they attain a large size, and the bacon made from
them forms an important article in the food of the inha¬
bitants. The shores abound with every variety of fish,
especially mackerel and whitings.
The commerce of this island consisted chiefly in smug¬
gling French and other spirits, with tea and tobacco, along
the coast of England ; but the establishment of a custom¬
house has driven that kind of business into other channels.
In time of war, but especially during the American revo¬
lutionary war, a great number of privateers were fitted
out, and many fortunes made by such adventures. Since
that time, great attention has been paid to the Newfound¬
land fishery, and many hands and much capital have found
employment in that branch of commerce. One fourth
of the male inhabitants are said to be accustomed to nau¬
tical pursuits, and they are generally daring and active
seamen. The cluster of islands of which Guernsey forms
one, have such rapid currents among them, varying with
each change of tide, and are so beset with shoals and rocks,
that whoever is accustomed to sail amongst them necessa¬
rily acquires a degree of active expertness which is not ob¬
tained in less perilous navigations. The inhabitants are
for the most part of the Norman race. They speak the
French language of an antique dialect, mixed with a num¬
ber of English words, and are with difficulty understood
by the modern natives of either England or France.
Amongst the higher classes English is commonly spoken,
but with some foreign accentuation. Ihe fashions, arti¬
cles of furniture, and implements of husbandry, are more
French than English. The laws are those of ancient
Normandy. Their established religion is that of England,,
and the ecclesiastical affairs are under the Bishop of
Winchester; but there are places of worship for vari¬
ous sects of dissenters. The island is divided into ten
parishes, with a church for each, all evidently built before
the Reformation. The chief town is St Pierre or St Pe¬
ter’s, containing upwards of 10,000 inhabitants. It has a
good harbour, formed artificially by a long pier, and there
is a tolerable roadstead near the village of St Martin. The
island is about nine miles in length and six in breadth, and
extends over ninety-four square miles, or about 60,000
English acres. The population is very dense, having been
in 1811, 21,293, in 1821, 20,827, and in 1831, 26,128, of
which upwards of 2000 were sailors and strangers. It
is between latitude 49. 22. and 49. 33. N., and between
longitude 2. 38. and 2. 46. W.
GUETARIA, a town of Spain, in lat. 43. 18. 30. N., in
the province of Guipuscoa, with a port in the Bay of Bis-
22 GUI
Gugah cay. It is remarkable as the birthplace of a celebrated
.j1 navigator, Don Juan Sebastian del Cano, whose statue is in
the principal square. It contains 300 families.
GUGAH, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Sinde, and district of Tatta. It stands on a hill, and is
bounded on two sides by a rivulet. In the surrounding
country there are some large trees, and the soil is remark¬
ably fertile. The town has not much trade, but is well
supplied with provisions. The country is low, and so in¬
tersected by branches of the Indus that it is flooded at par¬
ticular seasons of the year. Long. 68. 7. E. Lat. 24. 45. N.
GUIANA, or Guyana, a large district of South Ame¬
rica, in which the British, the Dutch, and the French,
have considerable settlements. This name was formerly
given to the whole of that vast tract of country which lies
between the great rivers Orinoco and Amazons, but the
extent of the country distinguished by the name of Guiana
is now circumscribed to the land lying between the river
Essequibo, which separates it from Colombia on the west,
and the river Carapury, which divides it from Brazil on the
east. It is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean,
and on the south by Brazil, being about 600 miles in
length, and having an average breadth of about 250 miles.
The settlements, however, do not extend nearly so far in¬
land. -Those belonging to Great Britain, viz. Berbice, De-
merara, and Essequibo, have been described under these
heads.
Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, is the settlement situated in
the middle of Guiana, being bounded by Cayenne on the
east, by British Guiana on the west, by the Atlantic Ocean
on the north, and by Brazil on the south. It comprehends
a tract of country of about 25,000 square miles, across the
northern half of which runs the fifth parallel of north lati¬
tude ; whilst the meridian line, which indicates the fifty-fifth
degree of west longitude, traverses the eastern half. Like
the rest of Guiana, this coast is flat and alluvial, and is
traversed by several broad rivers, which come from a con¬
siderable distance in the interior. The Surinam is a large
and beautiful stream, having a channel about four miles
wide; but it is shallow- and rocky, and can only be navi¬
gated by boats. The general aspect of Dutch Guiana has
been said in some respects to resemble that of Holland and
Lower Holstein. It presents' a vast plain covered with
plantations and enamelled with verdure, bounded on one
side by a dark ridge of impenetrable forests, and wash¬
ed on the other by the azure billows of the ocean. The
country thus lying between the sea and the desert is irri¬
gated by numerous streams, confined by dykes, and sepa¬
rated from each other by excellent roads or navigable
canals. A number of small buildings are attached to each
habitation, giving it the appearance of a small village; and
the natural beauties of the country form a striking contrast
wdth its rich cultivation. Ihe Dutch have laboured most
industriously to improve it, and it is daily rising in import¬
ance. Parmaribo, the principal, indeed the only town, is
built on the right side of the river Surinam, at its mouth,
where it affords excellent anchorage for vessels. The
streets are lined with rows of fruit trees, and the walks are
covered with fine gravel and sea-shells. The houses are
fitted up with considerable splendour, the rooms being in
general wainscotted with cedar, Brazilian, or mahogany
wood. The productions of this settlement, and the objects
of natural history which it presents, being similar to those
already described under the heads Berbice and Demerara,
and in the account which follows of Cayenne, it is not ne¬
cessary to describe them here. The amount of the popu¬
lation has been estimated at about 60,000, the greater
part of which consists of men of colour. The value of the
exports is calculated at more than L.1,000,000.
The French settlement of Cayenne extends along the
coast from the river Maroni, which separates it from Dutch
G U I
Guiana, to the river Carapury, which divides it from Bra- Guiana,
zil. Ihis boundary, however, has been much disputed,
and the Brazilians persist in occupying the country as far
as the river Oyapock, which limits the extent of theFrench
territory on the coast to about 150 miles. By the treaty
of Amiens the French boundary had been extended to the
river Arowari; but when the government of Portugal was
established in Brazil, a small force detached from thence
seized the province; and though, by the late treaties, it is
restored to France, the boundary has been considerably
contracted towards the south. The few settlements in the
province are at the mouths of the rivers which water it, and
produce its fertility. These rivers, like those of the Eng¬
lish and Dutch settlements, have but short courses, their
sources being in that range of mountains which runs paral¬
lel to the coast, about 150 miles distant, in a region which
is denominated the country of the Caribb Indians, and
which has not been penetrated by any European. The two
rivers which now bound Cayenne have their sources in the
Cordilleras, farther from the coast than the country of the
Caribbs ; they have therefore much longer courses, and
discharge into the ocean much more copious waters than
are contributed by those rivers which run through the
French settlements.
The island of Cayenne, on which the capital is built, ex¬
tends about eleven miles from east to west, and eighteen
from north to south; it is separated from the main by a
small river, which is fordable at low water, but at flood-tide
is navigable by boats. The city is built on the north-w est
extremity of the island, at the mouth of a river of the same
name. It is strongly fortified, and a hill within the enclo¬
sure commands the whole town and the anchorage of the <
shipping. It is situated in north latitude 4. 56., and west
longitude 52. 15. from London. Both divisions of the
town are ill built and badly paved; the streets in the new-
part are w ider, and the houses larger, than in the old one,
but neither is equal to the generality of even tropical towns
in beauty and cleanliness. With the exception of the offi¬
cers of government, very few of the inhabitants are of the
unmixed white race, but are either mulattoes, quaderoons,
sambos, or negro slaves. Debauchery, indolence, and
knavery, are the characteristics of the greater part of the
people of this city.
This colony w-as first settled in the year 1550, by the
celebrated Admiral de Coligny, who, during the civil wars
of France, wished to make it an asylum where the Protes¬
tants, if unsuccessful, might retire, to follow-, in security,
their worship and opinions. The course of events in Eu¬
rope, after the return of Coligny, was such as to prevent
the colony from being long an object of attention, and the
few settlers were neglected by the government of France
for nearly two centuries. In the mean time neither the
settlers nor the negro slaves increased much, and the few
desgendants of the original Europeans were so incorpo¬
rated, by successive intermixtures with the coloured inha¬
bitants, that the difference of their race was with difficulty
discoverable by their complexions. The colony of Canada
engrossed so large a portion of the regard of the French
court, that the establishment at Cayenne was only kept
from sinking by the accession of a few isolated settlers,
who occasionally fixed themselves there, as a last and des¬
perate resource.
But when, by the loss of Canada, the other colonial set¬
tlements became of more value, an effort w as made, upon
a grand scale, to increase the population and promote the
cultivation of Guiana. Under the administration of Choi-
seul, a fleet was equipped, which conveyed to Cayenne
15,000 persons. Few of them possessed property, few of
them were handicraftsmen or labourers, and of those still
fewer were disposed to work, supposing the climate would
have enabled Europeans to labour. The settlers were soon
G U I
G 'U I • 23
iuiana. visited with the dreadful fevers of the tropics, and those
who had the means of returning to Europe abandoned the
country with the utmost precipitation. In the year 1763,
the number who landed was 13,060. Of these, 2000 quitted
it either for France, Canada, or the West India islands;
about 100 enlisted in the colonial battalion ; and, at the
end of the year 1765, there were only in the colony 430
persons left of the expedition ; so that more than 10,000
must have perished in the first two years. The expense
of this equipment is supposed to have amounted to thirty-
three millions of livres, the whole of which, including a vast
number of human beings, was sacrificed to a plan in which
the splendid rather than the useful was considered, though
it was sketched by the celebrated Turgot, and some other
of the eminent economists of France.
From the period of this disastrous attempt, the colony
continued to languish till the American war broke out,
when the predatory cruisers, both French and Americans,
carried in several valuable prizes. Many negro slaves
were by these captures conveyed to the settlement, and
this enabled the planters to extend their cultivation ; so
that, at the peace of 1783, the colony was in a more thriving
condition than it had been at any former period, and it con¬
tinued to increase in prosperity. The revolution of France
extended its calamities to this colony at a very early stage
of its progress. As the rumour of the intention to eman¬
cipate the negroes reached Cayenne, before the decree
had passed in the Convention, the richer proprietors,
frightened by the menaces of the slaves, fled from the co¬
lony ; and the popular assembly, consisting principally of
men of colour, proclaimed them emigrants, and decreed
the forfeiture of their estates. When the decree was re¬
ceived and promulgated at Cayenne, the blacks supposed
that their labour was at an end, and that, on the principles of
equality, the whites, in their turn, should now be compell¬
ed to work for the majority. The whites from the various
plantations fled for security to the capital, where the troops
were so factious that they could scarcely obtain protection.
The miserable slaves in the plantations soon found this
boon of freedom to be the severest punishment which could
have been inflicted. Cultivation became neglected ; pro¬
visions in consequence grew scarce; and a short period
produced a want of even the commonest aliments. Regu¬
lations for fixing the prices of labour were in vain esta¬
blished, for those who could pay their labourers had fled
from the country. Though modifications of this decree were
afterwards made, they failed to restore the former abun¬
dance of provisions, and, during the whole period of the
war, scarcity continued to be experienced. During the
agitations in France, several of the leaders of the unsuc¬
cessful factions were banished to this colony by the decrees
of their triumphant opponents. Rut they were not a class
of men who were likely to benefit the settlement, and many
of them died from the effects of the climate, many from
chagrin, and the few survivors who returned to Europe
had experienced the most severe and mortifying hardships.
As the military force had been neglected, the small body
stationed at Cayenne very readily submitted to the Portu¬
guese armament. When it was restored to the king of
France, the number of wdiite inhabitants did not exceed
1300, whilst the black and mixed races, including those of
Indian origin, amounted together to between 10,000 and
11,000. Many negroes have since been introduced, both
from Africa and the other French settlements; and by the
last census, 1829, the total population is stated at 22,684.
The climate and seasons in Cayenne are so nearly simi¬
lar to those in Demerara as to render any notice of them
superfluous; but as the country is much less cleared of
underwood, and as very little draining has been practised,
it is far more unhealthy than any of the British or Dutch
settlements on the same coast. That the climate is totally
unfit for European labourers was demonstrated in 1794. Guiana,
When the decree for giving freedom to the negroes was
promulgated, the soldiers of the regiment of Alsace, then
stationed in the province, were induced, by high wages, to
work in the plantations ; but at the end of a month one half
of the regiment had died, and the remainder were so ill as
to be incapable of any duty.
From the scanty population of Cayenne, it is evident
that its productions must be of inconsiderable magnitude;
but the experiments which have been made sufficiently show
that its capabilities are equal to those of the best soils in
the tropical climate. The sugar-cane was, from the first,
cultivated with success ; but the production of that plant
was vastly improved by the introduction ot the canes ot
Otaheite, which the celebrated Bougainville brought from
the southern hemisphere ; and its sugar is now equal to that
of Dutch Guiana or Demerara. A spirit called by the French
taffia, an inferior kind of rum, is distilled from the canes.
The coffee of Cayenne is inferior to that of Dutch Guiana;
none of the plantations in it are extensive ; and it is remark¬
ed that the trees degenerate when planted in the lower
grounds. The cocoa plant is a native of Cayenne, and
grows spontaneously on the borders of the Oyapock. Mild
indigo grows in great quantities, and the dye that has been
obtained from it is equal in quality to that which is extracted
from the cultivated plant of the same species. This in¬
duced the French government to promote the production
of that commodity in the soil which nature indicated to be
well adapted for it. The first results were in almost every
instance flattering, but the plant soon degenerated, and
most of the indigo plantations, like those of St Domingo,
were converted into sugar estates, but not till the proprietors
had suffered very heavy losses. Cotton grows very luxu¬
riantly, though not a native plant; or, if it be, the species
varies from that now cultivated, which was brought from
Guadaloupe when the ruinous project of colonization was
attempted in 1763. This plant yields two crops in the
year ; the second, called by the planters la 'petite recolte, in
the month of March, is frequently destroyed by a species of
caterpillar which covers the trees after a shower ot rain.
All the fruits peculiar to warm climates are most abundant
in Cayenne, and attempts have been repeatedly made to
introduce the clove and the cinnamon trees, with the other
plants of the East Indies. The seeds of the clove were
distributed profusely by the government, which also en¬
couraged the cultivation of the bread-fruit, the mango, and
the sago.
The exportable article of greatest amount which Cayenne
has lately furnished to Europe, is the rocou, or roucou;
better known in England by the name of annotta, and
which is extensively used as a dye, principally, however,
for silks. The tree which yields this substance (Bixa Orel¬
lana) grows from twelve to fifteen feet in height, is very
bushy, and bears a flower of a pale pink, resembling in
shape and colour the dog-rose. The fruit contains a pulpy
substance, intermixed with the seeds, of a very glutinous
nature, which, by frequent washings and filterings, is sepa¬
rated from them. It is then suffered to ferment during
eight or nine days, when it is placed in a vessel capable
of bearing heat, over a fire, and as soon as it forms bubbles
on the surface, the fire is withdrawn, and it is suffered to
cool. The more gradually it cools, the better the substance
becomes. That which is dried in the shade is much more
valuable than that dried by the heat of the sun. Mben it is
macerated in small quantities, it is black and of little value ;
and it is only of the best quality when the whole that is made
at one time is a very great mass. Its purity is ascertained
by the whole dissolving in water, without leaving behind
it any extraneous substances. When in the state of a soft
paste, it is moulded into the form of small cakes, and en¬
closed in the leaves of the Canna Indica angustifolia, and
24 GUI
Guibert. thus packed for its market. The whole process of prepar-
jng this drug is most prejudicial to the health and comfort
of the labourers. The smell is offensive beyond the powers
of description; and during the preparation the workmen
are afflicted with a constant nausea, and most violent head-
ach. Its offensive smell, however, gradually subsides, and,
by the time it reaches Europe, is changed into an agree¬
able flavour, resembling that of the violet. On the conti¬
nent of Europe this commodity is extensively used in the
dyeing of various kinds of clothing ; but in England it is
almost exclusively applied as the colouring matter of cheese,
to which purpose it is well adapted, being nearly tasteless,
and perfectly harmless. The pepper to which this settle¬
ment has given a name, though produced every where in
the tropics, was first sent to Europe from hence. It is the
pod of a species of capsicum, gathered when ripe, and dried
in the sun; it is then, with a little flour and some salt,
made into a kind, of paste, and baked to a biscuit. When
perfectly dry and cold, the pepper is made by rasping them
upon a grater. Some cassia and a small quantity of vanil¬
la have been produced here for exportation. As no wheat
is grown, the dependence of the inhabitants for flour rests
on the United States of North America; but maize, cas¬
sava, and rice, are cultivated to a sufficient extent to sup¬
ply food to the lower orders of the coloured inhabitants.
The French seem to have exceeded other nations in the
success of their efforts to conciliate the aborigines; and a
much larger proportion of the natives have been reclaimed,
and induced to labour on their plantations, than in either
the Dutch or English settlements on the coast of Guiana.
Though the soil of Guiana may be as prolific as that of De-
merara or Dutch Guiana, yet its future products can scarce¬
ly be so great as those colonies. The coast is low, and dan¬
gerous to approach, on account of the great number of
shoals and sand-banks which border it; and the only good
navigable river on the whole line is that on which the ca¬
pital is built. In the prevalence of fogs, in the humidity
of the atmosphere, and in the uniform high temperature of
the air, Cayenne is assimilated to the rest of Guiana.1
The real value of the goods imported from Cayenne in¬
to France in the year 1831 amounted to 2,442,158 francs;
and the exports from France to Cayenne to 1,736,792.
The products of Cayenne imported into France, and en¬
tered for consumption, with the duties charged on their
introduction in 1831, are as follow (the quantities are es¬
timated by the kilogramme, which is equal to 2'2 lbs. avoir¬
dupois : Sugars of all kinds, 1,432,075 kilogrammes ; cof¬
fee, 42,426 ditto ; cacao, 22 ditto; cotton, 169,520 ditto ;
cloves and spices, 18,112 ditto ; annotta, 82,122 ditto ; wood
of all kinds, 68,729 ditto; custom duties, 851,408 francs.
That portion of Guiana which formerly belonged to
Portugal has been incorporated with Brazil, in the descrip¬
tion of which country it has been included. Spanish
Guiana now constitutes a province of Colombia, under
which head an account of it will be found.
GUIBERT, Jacques-Antoine-Hippolite, Count de,
a well-known writer on tactics, was born at Montauban, on
the 12th of November 1743. Before he had completed his
fourteenth year, he accompanied to Germany his father,
who acted as major-general to the army commanded by
Marshal de Broglie, and he served, either as captain in the
regiment of Auvergne, or as an employe in the staff, dur¬
ing the six campaigns of the war of 1756. At an age
when little could be expected but the ardent valour which
is natural to that period of life, he attracted notice by the
superiority of his dispositions and the justness of his obser¬
vations ; and from the experience he then acquired, he was
GUI
enabled to lay the foundation of the theory to which he was Guiber
afterwards indebted for his reputation as a military writer.
During the interval between this war and that of Corsica,
he devoted the whole of his time to that species of study for
which he felt an increasing predilection. At the conclu¬
sion of the combat of Ponte-Nuovo, which secured to
France the conquest of the island of Corsica, he received
the cross of St Louis, and shortly afterwards a colonel’s
commission, although as yet he was not more than twenty-
four years of age. He also displayed great zeal in raising
and training the Corsican legion, of which he was appoint¬
ed colonel-commandant in 1772. The year following he
published his Essai General de Tactique. But not wish¬
ing to abide, in his own country, the explosion which such
a work was calculated to produce, he set out for Germany,
which opened to him a vast field of instruction, and repair¬
ed to Prussia, whither a species of celebrity had preceded
him. Here, however, he had considerable difficulties to en¬
counter. It was, above all, necessary to overcome certain
prepossessions of Frederick, who judged severely the theore¬
tical attainments and views of the young tactician, and who
besides was not by any means satisfied with what Guibert
had published in his book on the subject of the Prussians.
With this view he addressed a letter, in explanation and in
defence, to the Prussian monarch, who was so well pleased
with the composition that he received the writer with par¬
ticular distinction. Ever since the year 1772, Guibert had
conceived the design of also entering on the career of lite¬
rature ; and, from year to year, after his return from Prus¬
sia, compositions of his, either in the shape of tragedies, or
of panegyrics on the great men of France, procured him
much reputation in the saloons, where they were generally
read by the author. An ardent and enthusiastic tempera¬
ment ; considerable talent, with not a little of pretension;
great facility and an astonishing memory; an anxiety to oc¬
cupy the attention of the public, and “ march to glory by
every roadsincerity and hardihood ; elevation of senti¬
ment, and a desire to promote the general good; these, unit¬
ed with an active and craving ambition, formed the princi¬
pal elements in the character of Guibert. He mistook for
genius the gifts which he had received from nature, and
persuaded himself that he not only could, but should un¬
dertake every thing. Laharpe, who appears to have dis¬
liked him, alleges that he contemplated nothing less than
« remplacer Turenne, Corneille, et Bossuet; but little im¬
portance is to be attached to those sallies of enthusiasm,
under the immediate influence of which he may perhaps
have said and even believed, that a single individual might,
in our time, be at once a Turenne, a Corneille, and a
Bossuet. Guibert was recalled to his original occupation,
by the appointment of the Count de Saint-Germain to the
department of war; and having been honoured with the
confidence of that minister, he had the rare merit of not
abandoning him in his disgrace. In 1776 he was made
colonel-commandant of the regiment of Neustrie ; in 1782,
brigadier-general; in 1788, marechal-de-camp, or major-
general ; and next inspector of infantry in the province of
Artois. When his father was appointed governor of the
Hotel des Invalides, he did all in his power to second him
in his administration, and spared neither pains nor travel
to extend to all parts of France the succours and consola¬
tions due to the veteran or disabled defenders of the state.
In 1787 he was appointed member and reporter of the
council of administration in the department of war. But
as Guibert, in the discharge of his functions, combined his
own peculiar ideas with those which the deliberations of
the council rendered common, the whole appeared to ema-
1 See Voyage a Cayenne, par Louis-Ange Pitou ; Histone des Plantes de la Guyane Francois ; and Statistique General et Particulihe de
la France et de scs Colonies.
G U I
Guibert. nate from the reporter, whose proper duty it was merely to
give expression to the views of the council; and it was
consequently against him that all the complaints and accu¬
sations of the discontented were directed. People judged
without any indulgence the imperfection of the work and its
results ; the faults of the moment rendered them blind to
the advantages which might afterwards be expected; and
at length the projects and their author became involved in
the same proscription. In a memoir addressed to the pub¬
lic and to the army on the operations of the council of war,
Guibert undertook to prove, that, like the other members,
he had only his opinion and his voice in the council; and
that consequently he did not deserve the abuse and ani¬
madversion of which he had been made the sole object.
But his reclamation seems to have convinced few, and to
have silenced none of the malcontents; and the unlucky
organ of the council continued as before to bear the oppro¬
brium of all its unpopular acts. We have already seen
that no species of ambition was foreign to Guibert; but in
him, nevertheless, ambition was blended with the desire of
doing good, and being useful to his country. Accordingly,
in 1789, he aspired to become a member of the states-ge-
neral of the kingdom, and thereby prepared for himself the
bitterest mortification which he had ever yet experienced.
His pretensions, both as a military man and a writer, had
provoked censure, and even excited hostility. He was ac¬
cused of having attempted to subject officers to imprison¬
ment in irons ; proposed to introduce the cane as an instru¬
ment for chastising the common soldiers ; and recommended
the detestable barbarity of hamstringing deserters. Guibert
replied by a most formal denial of these imputations, which
he declared to be atrocious falsehoods, as, we have no doubt,
they were. But his disclamation met with no credit; and
in the assembly of the bailliage of Bourges, the people
went so far as to refuse him a hearing. Forced to retire,
he printed, under the title of Precis de ce qui s’est passe a
mon egard a VAssemblee du Berri, a defence which, how¬
ever, failed to excite the interest he had fondly hoped it
would inspire. Whilst matters were in this state, the
Count de Fontette-Sommery had the courage openly to
take the part of the oppressed, and to publish the Opinion
dun Gentilhomme de Bourgogne sur ce qui s'est passe d
VAssemblee de la Noblesse du Berry, relativement d M. le
Comte de Guibert, en mars 1789. But no salutary effect
resulted from this generous interposition. The fatal blow
had been struck; public opinion refused to acknowledge
itself in error; and the innocent victim was accordingly
immolated. Inconsolable at this injustice, Guibert retired
from public life, and, after a short illness, died on the 6th
of May 1790, in the forty-seventh year of his age. His
works are, 1. Essai General de Tactique, already men¬
tioned, Liege, 1773, in one vol. 4to and two vols. 8vo;
2. Eloge de Catinat, Edinburgh (Paris), 1775, in 8vo; 3.
Connetable de Bourbon, a tragedy; 4. La Mort des Grac-
ques, a piece in three acts; 5. Anne de Boulen, the best
of his dramas ; 6. Eloge Historique de Michel de ITlopi-
tal, Chancelier de France, 1777 ; 7. Defense du Systeme
de Guerre Moderne, ou Refutation complete du Systeme
de M. de Mesnil-Durand, par Tauteur de FEssai General
de Tactique, Neufchatel, 1779, in two vols. 8vo; 8. Dis¬
cours de reception a 1’Academic, 1786; 9. Eloge du Roi
de Prusse, London (Paris), 1787, in 8vo ; 10. Letter ad¬
dressed to the National Assembly, in the name of the
Abbe Raynal, Marseilles, 1789, in 4to; 11. Traite de la
Force Publique, Paris, 1790, in 8vo, the last production
which he acknowledged ; 12. Journal d’un Voyage en Al-
lemagne fait en 1773 par Guibert, Paris, 1803, in two vols.
8vo; 13. (Euvres Militaires de Guibert, published by his
widow, Paris, 1803, in five volumes 8vo; 14. Voyages de
Guibert dans diverses parties de la France et en Suisse,
faits en 1775, 1778, 1784, et 1785, ouvrage posthume,
VOL. XI.
G U I 25
Paris, 1806, in 8vo; 15. A volume of Eloges, including Guicciar-
that of Claire-Francoise de I’Espinasse, Paris, 1806, in dini-
8vo. But of all the works of Guibert, that by which he
is best known is his Essay on Tactics, so often quoted and
referred to under the head Army. Its extraordinary success
may be attributed, partly to the enthusiasm of military
glory which appears to have dictated it, and partly to the
freedom of thought and expression for which it is distin¬
guished ; and although some of the projects which it re¬
commends are now ascertained to be pregnant with dan¬
ger, yet it is consulted and appreciated by all military men
who know their profession; and even its errors conduce
towards the instruction of those who are capable of esti¬
mating its merits. We learn from contemporary authority,
that the preliminary discourse produced a great sensation,
and gave an exaggerated idea of the author. This dis¬
course, in which the young tactician assumed a tranchant
and decisive tone towards the sovereigns of Europe, at the
same time that he depreciated the government of his own
country, was read with avidity by tbe women, cried up by
the men of letters, circulated in the army, and at length
known in all Europe. Amidst all its warmth, and, as some
think, extravagance, it developes important truths, which
had escaped ordinary observation, and suggests matter for
reflection to those who are accustomed to weigh opinions
before adopting them. We may add, that Voltaire, after
having read the work, addressed to the author, through M.
d’Argental, some beautiful verses, in which, amidst other
flattering things, he says to Guibert,
Digne peut-etre
De commander deja dans I’art dont il est maitre.
In a word, of all the productions of Guibert, his Treatise
on Tactics is that which will most certainly survive the
generation to which it was more immediately addressed.
It constantly affords aliment for thought, and may be con¬
sidered as the first grand step towards the formation of a
scientific and effective system of tactics. Much may also
be gathered from his Defense du Systeme de Guerre Mo¬
derne, in which he attacks the ordre profond of Folard, and
ably analyses some of the finest operations of Turenne,
Luxembourg, and the king of Prussia, all of whom were
opposed to the system promulgated by the celebrated com¬
mentator on Polybius. (a.)
GUICCIARDINI, Francisco, a celebrated Italian his¬
torian, was born at Florence in 1482, being descended of
a family which still subsists in that city. His ancestors
had held the most distinguished offices in the Florentine
republic. Simon Zanuccio Guicciardini was gonfalonier of
justice in 1302; his grandfather, an able politician and a
great warrior, beat the Genoese near Sarzano in 1412, and
defeated the troops of Sixtus IV. in 1478 ; and Pietro, the
father of the historian, acquired a great reputation by his
talents for the conduct of public affairs. Francisco Guic¬
ciardini was originally intended for the bar, to which he
was at length called ; and so great was his success that,
at the age of twenty-three, he became professor of juris¬
prudence, at a time when all the chairs in Italy were oc¬
cupied by the ablest jurisconsults. Although he had not
yet attained the age required by the law, he was appoint¬
ed ambassador to Ferdinand the Catholic; and having suc¬
ceeded in gaining the favour of that prince, he thus secur¬
ed a powerful protector to the Florentine republic. Pope
Leo X., a discriminating judge of real merit, called Guic¬
ciardini to his court, loaded him with honours, and named
him governor of Modena and Reggio, at the same time
conferring on him unlimited powers. In this capacity he
also served under the pontificate of Adrian VI.; nor did
his firmness, his beneficence, and his equity, fail to secure
him the attachment of the people over whom he had
been placed. But as Romagna was dreadfully distract¬
ed by the irreconcilable factions of the Guelphs and Ghi-
D
26 GUI
Guicciar- belins, Clement VII. on succeeding to Adrian VI. sent
dini. thither Guicciardini, who in a little time re-established
tranquillity in that unhappy country, caused the most
rigid justice to be enforced, founded useful establishments,
opened new roads, and ultimately rendered himself the
idol of all parties. Being afterwards appointed lieutenant-
general to the Holy See, he acquired much glory by his
defence of Parma, when besieged by the French; and
after the death of John of Medicis, the Florentine repub¬
lic chose him to succeed that famous captain in the com¬
mand of the black bands, the elite of the Italian troops.
But, as Clement VII. required a man of tried ability and
courage, he obtained the consent of the Florentines to re¬
tain Guicciardini some time longer in his service. The
city of Bologna was about to escape from the domination
of Rome ; the senate had raised the standard of revolt;
the great family of the Pepoli openly aspired to the su¬
preme power ; the vindictive passions were indulged with¬
out restraint, and assassinations multiplied. Guicciardini,
in the capacity of governor, presented himself in this city,
whither his renown had preceded him. His severe deport¬
ment, his activity, his eloquence, tranquillised the people,
disarmed the senate, and deprived the Pepoli of all hope
of obtaining the object they had in view. By his talents,
prudence, firmness, and justice, Bologna, which would
otherwise have been lost for ever, was saved to the patri¬
mony of St Peter. After this expedition, Guicciardini,
notwithstanding the entreaties of Clement, returned to his
own country, where he lived in retirement, being wholly
occupied with the composition of his history, which he
commenced about the end of 1534. But this did not pre¬
vent him from rendering the most important services to
Florence. His counsels moderated the prodigality and
ambition of Alexander of Medicis ; and, at the suggestion
of Naples, he effected an advantageous arrangement be¬
tween this prince and Charles V. Alexander having been
assassinated in 1536 by one of his near relatives, Lorenzino
de’ Medicis, Cardinal Cibo immediately assembled the
council, when it appeared that all the other members
were inclined for a republican government. But Guicci¬
ardini perceiving that by this means the country would
become a prey to civil war, declared in favour of a mo¬
narchical government; and as his persuasive eloquence at
length overcame the predilections of the council, Cosmo
de’ Medicis was proclaimed sovereign of Florence. From
this moment, Guicciardini took no further concern in pub¬
lic affairs; and after having passed four years in study
and retirement, he died in May 1540.
The memory of this able and excellent person is endear¬
ed to men of letters by his History of Italy, Florence,
1561, in folio, or two vols. in 8vo. The original edition,
though much sought after, is incomplete; that of Venice,
156/, in 4to, is augmented by four books, viz. from seven¬
teen to twenty inclusive ; and that of Venice, 1738, in two
vols. folio, has, besides, a life of the author by Manni,
with a fragment containing some passages previously in-
edited. But the best and most complete edition is that of
Friburg in Brisgau (Florence), 1775, 1776, in four vols.
4to, printed from an autograph manuscript in the Maglia-
becchi library, under the auspices and care of the canon
Bonso 1 io Bonsi, who has supplied the defects of former
editions, and otherwise discharged his editorial duties
with fidelity and talent, ihe History of Italy commences,
in 1490, and terminates in the month of October 1534. It
consists of twenty books, sixteen of which are, in the opi¬
nion of the best critics, of superior merit; but the last four
are little more than draughts of memoirs, death having
prevented the author from bestowing on them all the care
and attention which the subject required. The historian
commences by giving an exposition of the tranquil condi¬
tion of Italy before the breaking out of the troubles which
GUI
desolated its finest provinces. He then proceeds to describe Guiccia
the bloody wars which the French carried on in that coun- dini.
try, under three successive kings. By these the face of
Italy was almost entirely changed ; the popes aggrandis¬
ed themselves by the ruin of several petty states; Naples
and Milan, torn from their respective princes, recognised
the domination of Charles V.; and Genoa, which had thrown
itself into the arms of France, recovered its liberty under
the protection of the same monarch, who, on the other
hand, gave a sovereign to the republic of Florence. If, in
this revolution, the greater part of the princes of Italy
maintained themselves, they owed their preservation to
their own weakness, and a timely submission to a conque¬
ror, whom fortune seemed to lead on, by rapid strides, to¬
wards universal monarchy. Such, in a few words, is the
grand spectacle presented by the History of the Wars in
Italy, a production which has immortalised the name of
Guicciardini. The hatred of vice, which breaks out in
every page of his work, satisfies the reader as to the pro¬
bity of the historian, who was, moreover, concerned in
most of the events which he relates, and performed a bril¬
liant part both in the cabinet and in the field. His style,
sometimes nervous and sublime, sometimes lively and
rapid, always noble, perspicuous, and appropriate to the
subject, fixes the attention and hurries along the mind
of the reader. His reflections, equally judicious and pro¬
found, show the wise republican, the able politician, the
enlightened philosopher; as the friend of humanity and
justice, he unsparingly attacks the abuses of the sovereign
power, and vindicates that virtue which the great so often
profane for the gratification of their interests and passions.
He has left us faithful portraits of the celebrated men of
his time ; he has represented with equal genius and accu¬
racy the force and manners of the nations which figure in
his history ; and he has made us acquainted with the real
interests of the princes of his time, as well as with the
origin of those jealousies which then divided the powers
of Europe. Guicciardini has been reproached with the
length of the harangues which he puts into the mouths
of his characters ; but these he has enriched with so much
eloquence, with thoughts so new and profound, with images
so just and striking, that they are always interesting, and
never felt as impeding the progress of his narrative. He
has also been accused of prejudice against the French ;
yet he never exaggerates their losses in battle, and Father
Daniel, in his history, has merely copied the narrative
of Guicciardini. If the latter, like several French authors,
has traced an unfavourable portrait of Charles VIIL, he
has, on the other hand, done ample justice to the equity
and the virtues of Louis X1L, the valour and prudence of
La Tremouille, and the brilliant qualities of Gaston de
Foix and Francis I.; whilst, in speaking of the Italian and
French militia, he always declares in favour of the latter.
These, and other facts of a similar description, which
might easily be produced or referred to, are sufficient to
show that the charge of partiality is groundless, and that
what has been mistaken for prejudice is nothing but the
severity of truth. Guicciardini is also the author of Ad¬
vice and Counsel in matters of State, Antwerp, 1527, in
8vo, translated into French, Faris, 1577, in 8vo. (a.)
Guicciardini, Louis, nephew of the preceding, was
born at Florence, in the year 1523. He held different em¬
ployments under Alexander of Medicis and his successor
Cosmo II.; then he travelled, and remained a long time
at Antwerp, where he obtained the favour of the Duke of
Alba ; but having reflected on this general’s system of go¬
vernment, in a work which he published {Memoirs), he was
thrown into prison, whence he was only liberated through
the intercession of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The re¬
mainder of his life presents no event worthy of notice, and
seems to have been chiefly passed in the composition of
GUI
Guides his works. These are, 1. Memorie, &c., or Memoirs of
II what passed in Savoy from 1530 to 1565, Antwerp, 1565,
iuignes. jn 4,to . g. Raccolta dei Detti e Fatti notabili, 1581, in 8vo ;
^ 3. Descrizione, &c., or Description of the Low Countries,
Antwerp, 1567, in fol.; 4. Ore di Recreazione, Florence,
1600, in 12mo. Having lived several years in retirement,
Louis Guicciardini died in 1589. (a.)
GUIDES, in military language, are usually the country
people in the neighbourhood of an encampment, who give
the army intelligence concerning the country, the state
of the roads, and the probable route of the enemy.
GUIDI, Alexander, an eminent Italian poet, born at
Pavia in 1650. Having a desire to see Rome, he repair¬
ed to that city, where he attracted the notice of Queen
Christina of Sweden, who retained him at her court; he
also obtained a considerable benefice from Pope Innocent
X’L and a pension from the Duke of Parma. Having
done the state of Milan some good offices with Prince
Eugene, he was enrolled amongst the nobles and decurions
of that town, and died in the year 1712. Nature had
been kinder to his intellect than to his exterior form;
for his body was small and crooked, his head large, and
he wanted the sight of his right eye. A collection of his
works was published at Verona in 1726.
GUIDO Aretin. See Aretin.
Guido Rent, an illustrious Italian painter, born at Bo¬
logna in 1595. In his early years he was the disciple of
Denis Calvert, a Flemish master of good reputation; but
afterwards entered himself in the school of the Caracci. He
first imitated Ludovico Caracci, but fixed at last on a pe¬
culiar style of his own, that secured him the applause of
his own time and the admiration of posterity. He was
much honoured, and lived in splendour; but an unhappy
attachment to gaming ruined his circumstances, and the
reflection of his imprudence brought on a languishing dis¬
order, which put an end to his life in 1642. There are
several designs of this great master in print, etched by
himself.
GUIDON, a sort of flag or standard borne by the king’s
life-guard; being broad at one extremity, almost pointed
at the other, and slit or divided into two parts. The gui¬
don is the ensign or flag of a troop of horse-guards.
Guidon also denotes the officer who bears the guidon.
The guidon is in the horse-guards what the ensign is in
the foot. The guidon of a troop of horse takes place next
below the cornet.
Guidons, Guidones, or Schola Guidonum,, was a com¬
pany of priests established by Charlemagne, at Rome, to
conduct and guide pilgrims to Jerusalem. They were
also to assist them in case they fell sick, and to perform
the last offices to them if they died.
GUIGLIANO, a city of the province of Terra di La-
vore, in the kingdom of Naples, containing 7956 inhabit¬
ants.
GUIGNAN, the most easterly of the Philippine Islands,
situated about eighteen miles off the south-eastern extre¬
mity of the island of Samar.
GUIGNES, Joseph de, a learned orientalist, born
at Pontoise on the 19th of October 1721, was, in 1736,
placed under the celebrated Fourmont by his cousin M. le
Vaillant, professor in the university. Being endowed with
the happiest dispositions, and directed by an able master,
he, in a short time, acquired a knowledge of Chinese, and
of the different idioms of the East. When Fourmont pre¬
sented to the king his Chinese Grammar, in the year 1742,
the young De Guignes accompanied him, and was received
in the most flattering manner by the monarch, who imme¬
diately conferred on him a pension. On the death of his
master, which took place in December 1745, De Guignes
succeeded him at the Royal Library in the office of secre¬
tary-interpreter of the eastern languages. The Memoir
GUI 27
on the Origin of the Huns having given the learned world Guignes.
a foretaste of the talents and erudition of De Guignes, he
was admitted a member of the Royal Society of London
in 1752, and an associate of the Academy of Belles-Let¬
tres the following year. About the same time he was
also appointed royal censor, and attached to the Journal
des Savans. These different favours were the just recom¬
pense of the important labours in which M. de Guignes
was engaged. The first two volumes of his History of the
Huns appeared in 1756 ; and in 1757 the chair of Syriac
in the Royal College having become vacant by the death
of Jault, De Guignes was appointed to succeed him.
Upon this occasion he pronounced a Latin discourse, the
principal object of which was to prove, what certainly
needed little demonstration, that the kings of France were
much more friendly to letters than the princes of Asia.
In 1769 he became keeper of the antiquities in the Louvre,
and, in 1773, pensionary of the Academy of Belles-Let¬
tres ; in 1774 he resigned the chair of Syriac, not choosing
to consent to the re-union of the Royal College with the
university; and, lastly, in 1785, he was named one of the
committee appointed by the academy for the publication
of Notices of Manuscripts. The Revolution did not de¬
prive De Guignes of his pensions, for, notwithstanding his
great labours, he had never demanded them; but it de¬
prived him of his moderate allowance as pensionary of the
academy, keeper of antiquities in the Louvre, and redac-
teur of the Journal des Savans. Faithful to his principles,
and to the cultivation of letters, however, he made no re¬
monstrance, declined accepting any favour, and consoled
himself for the sufferings of his country, and the perso¬
nal privations he experienced, by applying with greater
assiduity to his favourite pursuits. These he continued,
without intermission, until his death, which took place at
Paris on the 19th of March 1800. De Guignes left a son,
who had been consul at Canton, and who, on his return
to France, published a relation of his voyage in three vo¬
lumes 8vo, and an excellent Chinese Dictionary. The
following is a list of the printed works of the father: 1.
Abrege de la Vie d’Etienne Fourmont, with a notice of
his works, Paris, 1747, in 4to ; 2. Memoire Historique sur
I’Origine des Huns et des Turcs, Paris, 1748, in 12mo; 3.
Histoire Generale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mogols, et
des autres Tartares occidentaux, avant et depuis J. C.
jusqu’ a present, preceded by an introduction containing
historical and chronological tables of the princes who have
reigned in Asia, Paris, 1756, 1758, in five vols. 4to; 4.
Memoire dans lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont une
colonie Egyptienne, Paris, 1759, 1760, in 12mo; 5. The
Chou-king, or sacred book of the Chinese, with a transla¬
tion corrected from that of Father Gaubil, and most use¬
ful notes, Paris, 1770, in 4to; 6. An edition of the Eloge
de Monkden and of the Art Militaire des Chinois, 1770,
1771; 7. Twenty-eight papers in the Memoirs of the Aca¬
demy of Inscriptions. These papers or memoirs may be
divided into three classes; the first of which has for its
object to develope more fully various points which are
only treated cursorily in the History of the Huns; the
second includes the papers intended to establish his sys¬
tem of the Egyptian origin of the Chinese ; and the third
comprehends those of a miscellaneous character, such as
the memoir on the commerce of the French in the Levant
before the crusades, that on the Oriental Zodiac, and ob¬
servations on the origin and antiquity of the Indians, as well
as on the geography of their country. Besides the works
mentioned above, De Guignes left several manuscripts,
particularly, 1. Notices d’Ecrivains Arabes; 2. Memoire
sur le Commerce des Chinois avec les Russes; 3. His¬
toire de la Chine, translated from the Chinese Annals,
and divided into three parts; 4. Memoires Historiques et
Geographiques sur I’Afrique, d’apres les auteurs Arabes.
28 GUI
Guignes. Such were the works which occupied the life of this scho-
w i' lar. Considered as a learned man, he may be said to
have possessed vast knowledge, and to have employed it
in the most useful manner. Although he cannot be call¬
ed an elegant writer, his style is easy and clear ; and even
the paradoxes which he defended prove, by his ingenious
approximations and original views, that he was endowed
with a lively imagination and extraordinary sagacity. But
he was still more estimable for the excellence of his cha¬
racter than the extent of his acquirements. Invariable in
his principles, the enemy of all intrigue, and having no
other ambition than that of extending the boundaries of
knowledge, he never solicited pensions, places, or enco¬
miums, and knew too well the real value of time to waste
it in the pursuit of objects so inglorious. He was a sin¬
cere lover of truth, even when it seemed adverse to the
system which he laboured so strenuously to maintain;
and the rectitude of mind which he uniformly displayed,
constitutes a prouder title of distinction than even his great
talents and unrivalled attainments.
In his History ot Huns, Turks, and Moguls (the first
two volumes of which appeared in 1756, and the others
in 1758), the first part of volume first, which contains the
chronological tables, and may give an idea of the work, is
divided into eight books, the last of which contains the
senes of Christian princes who, in consequence of the
crusades, founded states in Syria. In the succeeding vo¬
lumes, the principal object of De Guignes has been to
trace the history of the Western Tartars; that of other
nations being treated only in as far as it is related to or
connected with the fortunes of the race whose annals he
had undertaken to illustrate. Profoundly conversant with
the Chinese, the Arabic, and the ancient idioms of the
East; and thoroughly acquainted with the Greek and La¬
tin historians, the chroniclers of the middle ages, and the
annals of the northern nations ; he was the first who un¬
dertook to reconcile the recitals of the occidentals with
those of the Chinese, to explain the one in favour of the
other, to establish the origin and trace the route of the
barbarous tribes who, under the different names of Huns,
Avares, or Turks, overthrew the Roman empire, ravaged
France, Italy, Germany, and all the countries of the north,
destroyed the empire of the Caliphs, and established
themselves in Europe, Persia, Syria, and a great part of
Western Asia; and, lastly, to illustrate the events which
connect the history of the Huns with that of almost all
other nations. If this work be examined with critical seve¬
rity, it will be found that the author has been too negligent
of style, that the facts have not been subjected to a rigor¬
ous investigation, and that the monotony of the recital is
not interrupted by any reflections calculated to interest
the reader. But the object of De Guignes w$s to collect
facts lather than to digest them according to a rigorous
chronology; and the disorder which, in this respect, reigns
in his work, proceeds partly from the multitude of sources
whence he derived his information, and partly from the
vice of the oriental writers amongst whom the irregular
method of computing dates renders it impossible to restore
the precise chronology of events. On this ground the
writers in the Journal de Trevoux attacked the History of
the Huns. De Guignes replied to this criticism, in a letter
inserted in the Journal des Savans for 1757, and also at
the end of the fifth volume of his History. The journal¬
ists rejoined; and the dispute terminated by a note ap¬
pended to the same volume, in which the author refers
to the Annales Chinoises. The History of the Huns has
been translated into German by Daenhert, who appears
to have done ample justice to the original. (a.)
GUILD (from the Saxon guildane, to pay), signifies a
fraternity or company, because every one was gildare,
that is, to pay something towards the charge and support
GUI
of the company. As to the original of these guilds or Guild
companies, it was a law amongst the Saxons, that every II
freeman of fourteen years of age should find sureties to
keep the peace, or be committed. Upon this certain
neighbours, consisting of ten families, entered into an as¬
sociation, and became bound for one another, either to pro¬
duce him who committed an offence, or to make satisfac¬
tion to the injured party ; and that they might the better
do this, they raised a sum of money amongst themselves,
which they put into a common stock, and when one of
their pledges had committed an offence, and fled, then
the other nine made satisfaction out of this stock, by pay¬
ment of money, according to the offence. Because this
association consisted of ten families, it was called a decen¬
nary ; and hence arose other kinds of fraternities. But
as to the precise time when these guilds had their origin
in England, there is nothing certain to be found; since
they were in use long before any formal license was
granted to them for such meetings. It seems to have
been about the close of the eleventh century, according
to Anderson {History of Commerce, vol. i. p. 70), that
merchant-guilds, or fraternities, which were afterwards
styled corporations, came first into general use in many
parts of Europe. Madox {Firma Burgi, chap. i. sect. 9)
thinks they were hardly known to our Saxon progenitors,
and that they might probably have been brought into
England by the Normans, although they do not seem to
have been very numerous in those days. The French
and Normans might perhaps have borrowed them from
the free cities of Italy, where trade and manufactures
were much more early propagated, and where such com¬
munities appear to have been first in use. These guilds
are now companies or associations, having laws and orders
made by themselves, in virtue of authority from the prince
to that effect.
Guild, in the royal burghs of Scotland, is still used for
a company of merchants, who are freemen of the burgh.
Every royal burgh has a dean of guild, who is the next
magistrate below the provost.
Guild, Gild, or Geld, is also used amongst our ancient
writers to signify a compensation or mulct, for a fault com¬
mitted.
Guild-Hall, or Gild-Hall, the great court of judicature
for the city of London.
GUILDFORD, a market-town of the county of Surrey,
in the hundred of Woking, thirty miles from London. It
is situated on the acclivity of a hill, at the foot of which the
navigable river Wye runs. It is composed of three parishes,
St Mary, St Nicholas, and Trinity, each of which has its
respective church. One of the ancient monasteries is
still in existence, but converted into dwelling-houses.
The assizes for the county are held here in the summer,
alternately with Croydon. It is an ancient corporation,
returning two members to parliament, chosen by the house¬
holders. There is a well attended market on Saturdays.
The population amounted in 1801 to 2634, in 1811 to 2974,
in 1821 to 3161, and in 1831 to 3813.
GUILLIM, John, of Welsh extraction, was born in
Herefordshire about the year 1565. Having completed
his education at Brazen-nose College, Oxford, he became
a member of the College of Arms in London ; and he was
made rouge-croix pursuivant, in which post he died in
1621. He published, in 1610, a work entitled the Bis-
play of Heraldry, folio, which has gone through many edi¬
tions. To the fifth, which appeared in 1679, was added
a Treatise of Honour Civil and Military, by Captain John
Logan.
GUILLOTINE, the name of an instrument for behead¬
ing persons condemned to death, so called after the person
who suggested the employment of it, Joseph Ignace Guil-
lotin, a physician of Paris. Elected a member of the states-
G U I
Limaras general, Guillotin conducted himself with moderation in
|| the National Assembly, occupying himself with projects
j Guinea. 0f public utility, and, amongst these, with a plan for what
he called the organization of medicine. But when the
National had merged in the Constituent Assembly, and
it had been decided that crimes were personal, inferring
no forfeiture, Guillotin proposed to substitute decapitation
instead of the ordinary punishments ; founding upon this,
that, in the opinion of the French, this species of death was
not infamant for the family of the condemned. The pro¬
position was adopted, and the author of it indicated an in¬
strument which had been long known as calculated to in¬
flict death without causing almost any pain to the sufferer.
Many honourable men applauded the humane motives
which had induced the philanthropic deputy to recom¬
mend the employment of such an instrument, and he ap¬
pears to have merited this commendation. But, unhappily
for Guillotin, some wags gave his name to the instrument,
which he did not invent, but only recommended ; and,
more unhappily still, the machine became, in the hands of
the monsters who during two years were masters of France,
the instrument of the most horrible excesses ; whilst Guil¬
lotin himself, imprisoned, and expecting to figure as a vic¬
tim in the daily scenes of carnage which then took place,
had deep cause to lament seeing his name attached to the
devastating axe with which these cannibals had armed
their executioners. After terminating his political career,
Guillotin resumed his functions as physician, which he
should never have quitted ; and died in the year 1814. Of
the machine to which his name is now for ever affixed, and
which in Italian is called mannaia, an engraving will be
found in the Qucestiones SymboliccB of Bocchi, 1555, in 4to.
GUIMARAS, one of the Philippine Islands, about thirty
miles in circumference, covered with trees, and producing
a quantity of sarsaparilla. Long. 122. 30. E. Lat. 40.
■ 45. N.
GUIMARAENS, a town of Portugal, on the small river
Ave, in the province of Entre-Duero-e-Minho. It is dis¬
tinguished by its manufactures of linens, from which they
produce damask table-linen and napkins of very beauti¬
ful descriptions, and make the best of their sewing thread.
It has also fabrics of swords and cutlery, which are re¬
puted to be of steel unusually well tempered ; a property
attributed to the waters being well calculated to assist the
process. This town was formerly the residence of the
kings of Portugal. It now contains 1480 houses, and a po¬
pulation of 7400 souls.
GUINEA, the name assigned to a large tract of coun¬
try on the west coast of Africa, commencing at Cape
Mesurado, in 10° 45' west longitude, and terminating with
the river Lagos, in about 5° east longitude. Limits dif¬
ferent from these are occasionally assigned to Guinea, but
the above are those adopted by the best geographers.
This immense territory has been divided into four por¬
tions, namely, the Grain Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Gold
Coast, and the Slave Coast. We shall briefly describe
the characteristic features of each of these divisions, with¬
out any allusion to the slave trade, which will be treated
of in the article Slave Trade.
The Grain or Malaghetta Coast extends from the Me¬
surado to Cape Palmas, a distance of about two hundred
and fifty miles. This coast owes its name to a small para¬
sitical plant, the fruit of which, resembling a fig, is found
to contain aromatic grains of pepper. Upon its introduc¬
tion into Europe, this spice received the dignified appel¬
lation of grains of paradise. When the finer species of
India, however, became known, the production of Guinea
fell into disrepute; and as the coast afforded no other ar¬
ticle worth being exported, it has been less frequented
than any other part of Guinea. It possesses two rivers,
the Sestro and Sangwin, which are rather of considerable
G U I
29
size. They are situated near the middle of the coast, and Guinea,
their banks are said to be fertile and populous. The Por¬
tuguese had formerly settlements in this part of Africa,
which they do not now possess; but many of their pos¬
terity still reside there mixed with the natives.
The Ivorrj Coast, commencing at Cape Palmas, stretch¬
es as far as Cape Apollonia, a distance of about three
hundred and fifty miles. This part of Africa is named
from the quantities of ivory obtained there. The tusks
are of good quality, and so large as sometimes to weigh
two hundred pounds. Gold is also found here in consi¬
derable quantities; it is brought down from the countries
behind the Gold Coast. There are no European settle¬
ments on this part of the shore, excepting an English fort
at Apollonia, which perhaps more properly belongs to the
Gold Coast. The Ivory Coast is populous and thickly set
with villages, but it does not contain any town of much
consideration. Navigation here is very dangerous, on ac¬
count of a heavy surf which breaks continually upon a
beach, flat, and destitute of any conspicuous land-mark.
The Gold Coast commences at Cape Apollonia, and ex¬
tends to the Rio Volta, a distance of about two hundred
and fifty miles. For a long period this coast was fre¬
quented by European traders, particularly English and
Dutch, both to obtain the precious metal from which it
derives its name, and to procure slaves as long as human
beings were a marketable commodity. A forest of immense
thickness, only partially cleared and cultivated, presents it¬
self on the coast. Near the sea the soil is arenaceous, and,
unfit for raising any important tropical product except cot¬
ton. Some miles inland, however, it becomes richer, and
were it carefully cultivated, it might be made to produce
sugar, and the other products of the West Indies. The
gold, which forms the staple commodity, is brought down
from mountainous districts situated far in the interior.
The vegetable productions are chiefly maize, millet, some
rice, yams, pulse, plantains, bananas, and other tropical
fruits. A variety of excellent timber is produced, of which
the palm-tree is most highly prized by the natives, as they
distil from it their favourite beverage. The capital of
the British settlements is at Cape Coast Castle, which is
built upon a rock, and defended by a strong wall mounted
with cannon. See Coast Castle, Cape.
The country round has been cleared to some extent,
and laid out in pleasure grounds by the British, to whose
health, however, the climate is exceedingly unpropitious.
Other British settlements lie to the east, but Fort James
at Acra, together with Cape Coast, are now the only
places where garrisons are maintained. The capital of
the Dutch settlements is El-Mina, or the Castle, which
was taken from the Portuguese, the founders of it, in
1637. It is situated in an open country, about fifteen
miles west of Cape Coast. The fort is well built, on a
high situation, and is regularly garrisoned. Besides this
establishment, they have a number of others scattered
along the coast; and the Danes also have two. For an
account of the country which lies behind the Gold Coast,
and the people who inhabit it, see Ashantee.
The Slave Coas* commences at Rio Volta, and stretch¬
es as far as the river Lagos, a distance of about two hun¬
dred and thirty miles. It was so named because the
slaves obtained here were of a docile and tractable tem¬
per. This country is traversed by two considerable ri¬
vers,, called the Jakin and the Euphrates, which run pa¬
rallel with each other to the sea, and preserve everywhere
a convenient water communication. This part of the
coast had been cleared of forests by the natives, and care¬
fully cultivated. A luxuriant and almost perpetual vege¬
tation sprung up under the busy hand of industry, and
the country became crowded with a dense population.
Amid this abundance the Whidans, such was the name oi
30 GUI
Guinea the people, having become luxurious and effeminate, were
jl attacked by the warlike power of Dahomey, which sub-
Guipuz- (jygj pe0plej and reduced their country almost to
a desert. For an account of Dahomey, which predomi¬
nates over both the coast and the interior, see the article
Dahomey.
Whidah, now commonly called Griwhee, has been de¬
signated the port of Dahomey, from which a route of
about an hundred miles reaches through Favies and Foro,
to Abomey, the capital. The country around Griwhee is
fertile and well cultivated, and is abundantly supplied
with the necessaries of African life. The inhabitants have
been estimated by Captain Adams at about 7000. Ar-
drah is a larger and more flourishing place. (See the arti¬
cle Ardrah.) Beyond Lagos lies a large tract of coun¬
try, of a peculiar character, which has been named Be¬
nin, after the principal state. See the article Benin.
New Guinea, or Papua. See Australasia.
Guinea, a gold coin, struck and current in Britain.
The value or rate of guineas has varied. It was first
struck on the footing of twenty shillings; from the scar¬
city of gold it afterwards advanced to twenty-one shillings
and sixpence, but it subsequently sunk to twenty-one shil¬
lings. The pound weight troy of gold is cut into forty-four
parts and a half, and each part makes a guinea. This coin
took its denomination of guinea, because the gold of which
the first was struck had been brought from that part
of Africa called Guinea; and for the same reason it like¬
wise bore the impression of an elephant.
GUIPUZCOA,oneof those three provinces in the north¬
east part of Spain distinguished by the name of Provin-
cias Vascongadas, and the easternmost of the three. It is
bounded by France on the east, where the Bidasoa sepa¬
rates the two kingdoms ; on the north it is on the sea-
coast of the Bay of Biscay; its eastern boundary is the
province of Biscay, and its southern the province of Avila.
It contains by far the most dense population of any part
of Spain, being fifty-two square leagues in extent, and
containing 104,491 inhabitants. If the whole of Spain
were as thickly peopled as this province is, instead of
10,350,000 souls, it would contain 30,150,000.
It is watered with various springs and rivulets, which
fertilize the soil, and, forming the six rivers Deva, Urola,
Oria, Urumea, Oyarzun, and Bidasoa, each of short course,
enter the ocean. The agriculture of the province is by
no means equal to the supply of its population ; for though
it yields wheat, maize, barley, for food, and some cattle,
and apples, of which they make much cider, yet they
draw supplies for their subsistence of wine from Navarre
and Rioja, of oil from Castille and Andalusia, and of cattle
from the adjoining provinces of France.
Although the province is deficient in agriculture, yet
its extensive manufactures fully compensate for that de¬
ficiency. It is the Birmingham of Spain, in which every
kind of ironmongery goods that the kingdom or the At¬
lantic provinces require is furnished. The machinery
-> yet introduced to lessen labour is very limited, and the
articles they produce are very rude, though excellent of
their kind, in some measure owing to their iron being re¬
markably tenacious and elastic. The nails, of which great
quantities of every size are made, are always preferred
wherever they can be obtained.
The industry of the province is proverbial, and it is vi¬
sible in the dwellings, the roads, and the farms, as well
as in the countenances and dress of the inhabitants. This
province is one of those which is exempt from the ordi¬
nary system of taxation that prevails in the rest of Spain ;
and, like the people of Biscay, all the natives lay claim to
the prerogatives of nobility, and assert their equality to
the highest families of the rest of Spain.
GUISBOROUGH. See Gisborough.
GUI
GUISE, Henry, of Lorrain, duke of Guise, eldest son Guise
of Francois of Lorrain, duke of Guise, memorable in the his- jj
tory of France as a gallant officer, but an imperious, tur- Gujerat.
bulent, seditious subject, who placed himself at the head
of an armed force, and called his rebel band The League.
The plan was formed by the cardinal, his younger brother ;
and, under the pretext of defending the Roman Catholic
religion, the king Henry III. and the f reedom of the state,
against the designs of the Huguenots or French Protest¬
ants, they carried on a civil war, massacred the Hugue¬
nots, and governed the king, who forbade his appearance
at Paris; but Guise now became an open rebel, entered
the city against the king’s express order, and put to the
sword all who opposed him. As the streets were barri¬
caded to prevent his progress, this fatal day is called in
the French history the day of the barricades. Masters of
Paris, the policy of the Guises failed them ; for they suf¬
fered the king to escape to Blois, though he was deserted
in his palace at Paris by his very guards. At Blois, Henry
convened an assembly of the states of France, and the
Duke of Guise had the boldness to appear to a summons
sent him for that purpose. A forced reconciliation took
place between him and the king, by the advice of this as¬
sembly ; but it being accidentally discovered that Guise
had formed a design to dethrone the king, that weak mo¬
narch, instead of resolutely bringing him to justice, had
him privately assassinated, on the 2'3d of December 1558,
in the thirty-eighth year of his age. His brother the car¬
dinal shared the same fate the next day.
GUITAR, Guitarra, a musical instrument of the
stringed kind, w ith five double rows of strings, of which
those made of brass are in the middle, except it be for
the burden, an octave lower than the fourth. This in¬
strument was first used in Spain and by the Italians. In
the former country it is still greatly in vogue. There are
few of that nation who cannot play on the guitar; and
with this instrument they serenade their mistresses at
night. In Madrid, and other cities in Spain, it is com¬
mon to meet in the streets young men equipped with a
guitar and a dark lanthorn, who, taking their stations un¬
der the w indows, sing, and accompany their voices with
this instrument; and there is scarcely an artificer or day-
labourer in any of the cities or principal towns who does
not entertain himself with his guitar.
GUJERAT, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Lahore, in the Seik territories, 60 miles north-north-west
from the city of Lahore. Long. 73. 25. E. Lat. 32. 35. N.
Gujerat, Gajrat, or Guzerat, a very large province
of Hindustan, situated principally between the twenty-
first and twenty-fourth degrees of north latitude. It has
been computed to be 320 miles long by about 180 broad.
On the north it is bounded by the province of Ajmeer,
on the south by the sea and the province of Aurungabad,
to the east it has Malwah and Khandesh, and to the
west portions of Moultan, Cutch, and the sea. The south¬
western quarter of this province is enclosed on the south¬
west and north-east by the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay,
and has the form of a peninsula. A considerable portion of
the province, particularly towards the eastern frontier, is
hilly, and much covered with jungle. On the north-west¬
ern boundary, along the bank of the river Puddar or Bu-
nass, the country in some parts produces good pasture;
in other parts it is either an arid plain, or a low salt
swamp, which, where it is dried up, is barren and unpro¬
ductive, from the saline nature of the soil and the water.
The interior is hilly and rocky, but with spots exhibiting
strong powers of vegetation where water is accessible.
These are extremely fertile, especially in sugar and to¬
bacco, and, besides, yield all sorts of grain, oats excepted ;
also cotton, tobacco, indigo, gum, and sugar. The coun¬
try, notwithstanding its smoothness to the eye, is in many
G U J E R A T.
31
ujerat. parts intersected by ravines, and much broken by the
heavy rains; and some of these chasms contain during
the season of the rains a large volume of water, not to be
crossed without the assistance of rafts or boats; and ac¬
cordingly the natives, in these cases, establish temporary
ferries. The climate is reckoned one of the worst in In¬
dia, being intensely hot during the greater part of the
year, with a heavy thickness in the atmosphere, which is
extremely oppressive. A hot wind blows fiercely all the
day; and when it ceases at night, it is followed by a still
more close and oppressive calm. “ I had certainly,” says
Bishop Heber, “ no conception that anywhere in India
the month of March could offer such a furnace-like cli¬
mate.” “ It is,” he adds, “ in the same latitude with
Calcutta, and seems to be what Bengal would be without
the glorious Ganges.”1 During the hot and dry months,
the surface of the country appears mostly sand or dust,
and in the rainy season a thick mire. In the north-west¬
ern parts, along the banks of the river Puddar, where there
is good pasturage, and in various other parts of the province,
they breed excellent horses and camels; and the cattle
are superior to those of any other part of India. Some
of their bullocks, which are in general white, with large
bumps, are sixteen hands high, and will trot in a carriage
as fast, and perform as long a journey, as good horses.
This province is traversed by several large rivers, namely,
the Puddar, the Nerbuddah, Tuptee, Mahy, Mehindry,
and Sabermatty, which, being navigable from the sea to
a considerable distance up the country, afford great faci¬
lities for commerce. But there are many large tracts
which experience a great scarcity of water; and the inha¬
bitants are forced to dig wells, which are in many parts
from eighty to a hundred feet deep. In some particular
portions of this province not a stone is to be met with,
whilst in some others nothing else is to be seen.
In so extensive a province, never completely subdued
by any of its numerous invaders, a great diversity of po¬
pulation may be expected. The population of Gujerat is
accordingly very strangely diversified by numerous sects
and castes, under the various designations of Grassias, Cat-
ties, Coolies, Bheels, Mewassies, Charons, Bhatts, Dheras,
and others. In some parts of the province the Grassias form
a numerous class of landholders, and in others they merely
possess a sort of feudal authority over certain portions of
land and villages. The origin of their rights is a contro¬
verted point of Hindu history, which has never been very
satisfactorily explained. The common account of their
title to the land is, that they were robbers and plunderers,
who inhabited the hills and jungles, and by their incur¬
sions the country was so much infested, that after the de¬
cease of the Emperor Akbar in 1605, the nabobs of Su¬
rat ceded to them certain lands in each village in lieu of
all demands. But it is asserted that, encouraged by this
success, they still continued their depredations; and the
Zemindars, in order to purchase peace, agreed to the
payment, on certain lands, of what is called toda, or
ready money; and the lands which are liable to this pay¬
ment have been continually increasing, owing to the anar¬
chy which so long prevailed in Gujerat. The proprietors
of these claims never allow them to die out; and it is
seldom that they prosecute them in person, but, having
retired to some secluded residence, they rally round them
a band of desperate adventurers, to whom they farm out
the Grassia claim, and depute them to levy it. Hence the
country, prior to the war of 1817, and before it was
brought under the dominion of the British, was a prey
to the greatest disorders; it was ravaged by predatory
hordes, who acquired new rights, and in this manner it
was plundered, and the rent of the land misappropriated.
These claims have been involved in such complication and
obscurity, that the British officers have found it impos¬
sible to reduce them to any accurate standard of law or
justice. On the rugged margins of all rivers in Gujerat,
many of these Grassias reside in a kind of independence ;
and also all over the Gujerat peninsula, usually denomi¬
nated Cattywar by the natives. Their numbers are re¬
cruited by criminals from the plains, who fly to their
haunts for refuge, and are supposed to amount to one
half of the population north of the Mahy river. In 1814,
an attempt was made by the Bombay government to ex¬
tinguish the Grassia claims by a payment from the pub¬
lic treasury, and thus to prevent the crimes and disorders
which they occasioned.
Of all the disorderly hordes which infest this country,
the most bloody and ferocious are the Coolies. The most
barbarous are those in the vicinity of the Runn, the salt
morass which bounds the province on the west, and com¬
municates with the Gulf of Cutch. These are taught to
despise every approach to civilization; they are of the
most filthy habits, and consider it a mark of effeminacy
to wear clean clothes; and the priests and other persons
of note exceed the laity in dirtiness. They consider
cleanliness as indicative of cowardice. That class of men
named Bhatts, or Bharotts, abound more in Gujerat than
in any other province of India. They cultivate the land ;
but the greater part of them are recorders of births
and deaths, and beggars or itinerant bards, and very fre¬
quently traders. They often stand forward as security
for the public revenue, and guarantee observance of
agreements and rewards. They always possess, however,
an intimate knowledge of the person for whom they become
security, of his character and resources; and when they
find that they have been deceived, and are pressed for
money for which they have become security, such is their
proud and obstinate character, that they sometimes sa¬
crifice their own lives, or some aged female or child of
the family, in the presence of the person for whom they
have broken their word. They form, in the rude state of
society which prevails in India, a sort of middle-men be¬
tween the contributors and the government, every Gras¬
sia, Coolie, and Bheel, having his Bhatt, a class who are re¬
warded by a small per-centage on the amount of the reve¬
nues for which they have become surety, and for the secu¬
rity which they afford against the importunity of the in¬
ferior agents of government, their persons being regarded
as sacred, and their influence over the persons of the na¬
tives very great. They were chiefly employed under the
Mahratta princes, between whom and the landholders
they stood as middle-men, being bound to the govern¬
ment for the revenue, and acting as a security to the
landholders against the oppressions of the government.
Under the British rule this agency was entirely discon¬
tinued in 1817, being found inefficient as an instrument
of control for the unruly tribes of the country. The
Charons are a sect of Hindus, allied in manners and cus¬
toms to the Bhatts. They are often possessed of large
droves of cattle for carriage, by means of which they
carry on a distant inland traffic in grain and other articles.
They also often hire themselves out as protectors of travel¬
lers in the wildest parts of the country; and so faithful are
they to their charge, that when a band of predatory horse
appears, these persons take an oath to die by their own
hands, in case those whom they have engaged to protect
are plundered; and this threat is always found effectual
to restrain those superstitious thieves, who hold the Cha¬
rons in great veneration. There is in Gujerat, as in other
Gujerat.
1 Heber, vol. iii. p. 10.
32
G U J E R A T.
Gujerat. parts of Hindustan Proper, a race of people called Un-
greas, whose profession is that of money-carriers, which
they contrive to conceal in their quilted clothes. Al¬
though they are miserably poor, they may be trusted with
large sums of money to carry many miles off, merely on
the responsibility of the superior, who is frequently richer
than the other. They are of all castes, and in general
athletic and well armed; and they are of such singular
habits, that in performing distant journeys they form
themselves into parties, arid fight with desperation to de¬
fend a property for which their only recompense is a
mere subsistence.
The Bheels are generally described as the original in¬
habitants of the country, who have been driven to their
present fastnesses and their miserable way of life by the
invaders of their country, whether Mahommedans or Hin¬
dus. They have been in the north parts of India treated
with extreme severity by the British.1 But, by the in¬
fluence of Sir John Malcolm, and his mild and enlightened
policy, they have been reclaimed in the south from their
barbarous habits, and formed into regiments, subject to
such discipline as was suited to their barbarous habits.
They also received grants of land, and freedom from taxes
for a number of years; and they were in this manner
trained to industrious habits.
The Dheras of this province are of a very degraded
caste, and their employment is to carry filth of every de¬
scription out of the roads and villages. They are mi¬
serably poor; they scrape bare the bones of every animal
which dies within their limits, and share out the flesh,
which they cook in various ways, and feed upon. They
are obliged to serve travellers as carriers of their baggage
to the village nearest their own. In the course of their
business they are always committing petty thefts, and
are much given to intoxication.
The Vaneeya, or the merchants and traffickers, form a
numerous class in Gujerat. Many of them travel to re¬
mote parts of India, where they remain from one to ten
years, after which they return to their wives and children.
Many also finally settle in the towns of foreign countries,
where their descendants continue to speak and write the
Gujerattee tongue, ihe Jains are also a more numerous
class here than in any of the contiguous provinces, and pos¬
sess many handsome temples adorned with well-wrought
images. Besides its native hordes or castes, Gujerat,
along with Bombay, contains nearly all the Parsees, or
fire-worshippers, to be found in the continent of India,
the feeble remains of the once numerous sect of the Magi.
In all the larger towrns are to be found that remarkable
race of men named the Boras, who, though Mahomme¬
dans in religion, are Jews in features, manners, and ge¬
nius. They form a community amongst themselves, and
are everywhere noted for their address in bargaining, mi¬
nute thrift, and constant attention to lucre. The washer¬
men are also considered as a degraded and cruel class, on
account of the numerous deaths which they involuntarily
occasion to the animalcula in the process of washing.
Ihe province of Gujerat flourished chiefly during the
era of the Mogul government, and even during the most
convulsed periods it carried on a much more extensive
trade than ever it has done since. The principal trade is
with Bombay, and the chief exports are cotton, piece
goods, and grain. The imports are chiefly sugar, raw silk,
pepper, cocoa nuts, cochineal, and woollens. The inha¬
bitants aie industrious, and the Surat manufactures have
been long famed over India for their quality and cheap¬
ness. Ihe principal towns in this province are Surat,
Ahmedabad, Broach, Cambay, Gogo, Bhownuggur, Chum-
paneer, and Junaghur. Gujerat contains populous dis¬
tricts, but in other parts the country is extremely deso¬
late. Surat and the neighbouring country is thickly plant¬
ed with inhabitants, and the north-western districts are
equally naked and destitute of people. The country has
been so much exposed to the depredations of thieves and
banditti from the jungles and mountains, that, for the sake
of security, the great body of the people live, not in seques¬
tered houses, but in villages; and these villages are fre¬
quently visited by travelling companies, who exhibit pup¬
pet-shows and histrionical representations. They are also
occasionally frequented by musicians, dancing girls, singing
men and women, wrestlers, expert jugglers, dancing bears,
goats, and monkeys. In the remote and savage districts
of the country, where there are no villages, fortifications
are numerous; but in all the parts to which the British
influence extends, they are fast crumbling into decay.
In many parts the people are of savage and cruel manners;
and amongst the tribe of Jahrejahs the practice of female
infanticide prevails, and the united exertions of all the
British officers and statesmen have been employed to pre¬
vent it. There is another crime peculiar to this province,
known in the British courts of justice by the name of
jhansa, which is the writing of threatening letters, the
destroying of gardens or plantations, and the burning of
stacks, in order to extort money, or to enforce a compli¬
ance with any other unjust demand. These offences were
not formerly confined to the Grassias, but were resorted to
in village feuds, even by the heads of villages. But since
the regular administration of justice by the British, such
disorderly practices have become less frequent. There is
a class of persons, the Mahy Kaunta Coolies, who are so
named from their residence on the Mahy river, who are
thieves by profession, and also very ingenious, active, and
courageous. They lurk on the highways, and intercept
families and individuals proceeding to distant pilgrimages
and religious fairs. They frequently visit Surat and other
large cities in pursuit of their illicit occupation, though,
from the increasing vigilance of the British police, their
depredations are now more frequently checked. But, be¬
yond the precincts of the British authority, in the northern
and western quarters, and the centre of the Gujerat penin¬
sula, the number of societies of armed and sanguinary
thieves is scarcely credible ; and it is rather surprising
that even the thinly scattered population of the country
should keep its ground amid the many excesses and out¬
rages which are committed.
There are many remarkable wells and watering places
in Gujerat. One near Baroda is said to have cost nine
lacks of rupees. There is another at Vadwa, in the vici¬
nity of Cambay, which, from the inscription, appears to
have been erected in 1482.
The province of Gujerat was first invaded about a. d.
1025, by Mahmood of Ghizni, who subverted the throne of
its native prince, named Jamund, and plundered his capi¬
tal. After the establishment of the Delhi sovereignty,
Gujerat was subject for many years to the Patan conque¬
rors. In the fifteenth century it came under the domi¬
nion of a dynasty of Rajpoot princes, converted to the
Mahommedan religion, who removed the seat of govern¬
ment to Ahmedabad; and under their rule it flourished
greatly as a maritime and commercial state. This race of
princes was overthrown by the Emperor Akbar in 1572 ;
and after the death of Aurungzebe in 1707, hordes of Mali-
ratta depredators overran the province, which in 1724 was
finally separated from the Mogul empire.
Until 1818 the Mahratta Peshwa and the Guicowar
possessed large tracts of country, but at present only the
Gujerat.
1 Heber, vol. ii. p. 496.
G U L
fi under- last remains, the authority and dominions of the other
- rUr having devolved to the British. The establishment of the
| ’ll British dominions in this country experienced very seri-
Hdden- oug obstructions from the intermixture of their territories
ae^. with those of the Peshwa and the Guicowar; also from
I ^ the nabob of Cambay, and the unsettled tributaries of
Cattywar and Mahy Kaunta; from the number of half-
subdued Grassias and Mewassies; and still more from
the predatory habits which a long course of disorder had
superinduced among a large proportion of the people,
especially beyond the Mahy river. But by the wise and
conciliating policy of the local functionaries, all these dif¬
ficulties have been surmounted, and tranquillity has gra¬
dually arisen from the confusion which at first overspread
the country.
The north-western frontier of the British dominions in
this quarter is now formed by the great salt-water lake
or morass of the Runn, to the north of which is a sandy
desert. This desert tract, between the frontier of Jessel-
mere, about lat. 26, and the Runn, is divided between
the ameers of Sinde and the Joudpoor rajah, whose re¬
spective limits might be indicated by a line drawn from
Nuggur, in Parkur, to Jesselmere. The Sinde territory,
however, would cross the line near its southern extremi¬
ty, Bankasir; and as the whole of Parkur belongs to Sinde,
the frontier is still contested ; the Joudpoor rajah claiming
Amercote, and having actually levied contributions as far
as Sansur and Chaucra. Parkur is partially cultivated, but
the remainder is a desert of high sand hills, with scattered
spots of verdure; and the villages marked in the maps as
towns only contain a number of huts.
GUJUNDERGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Bejapoor, capital of a district of the same name,
which is situated principally between the 15th and 16th
degrees of north latitude. It is sixty miles east by north
from Darwar. Long. 75. 56. E. Lat. 15. 45. N.
GULDENSTAEDT, John Anthony, physician and
naturalist, was born at Riga on the 26th of April 1745, re¬
ceived the rudiments of his education in that town, and in
1763 was admitted into the medical college of Berlin. He
completed his studies at Frankfort-upon-the-Oder, and in
1767 took the degree of doctor of physic in that universi¬
ty. On account of his knowledge of foreign languages, and
the progress he had made in natural history, he was consi¬
dered as a fit person to engage in the expeditions which
were planned by the imperial academy of St Petersburg.
Being invited to that capital, he in 1768 proceeded thi¬
ther, and was created adjunct of the academy, and in 1770
member of that society, and professor of natural history.
In June 1768 he set out upon his travels, and was ab¬
sent seven years. From Moscow, where he continued till
March 1769, he passed to Voronetz, Tzaritzin, Astrakan,
and Kislar, a fortress upon the western shore of the Caspian,
and close to the confines of Persia. In 1770 he examin¬
ed the districts watered by the rivers Terek, Sunsha, and
Alksai, in the eastern extremity of Caucasus ; and in the
course of the ensuing year penetrated into Ossetia, in the
highest part of the same mountain, where he collected
vocabularies of the languages spoken in those regions,
made inquiries into the history of the people, and discover¬
ed amongst them some traces of Christianity. ^ Having
visited Cabarda and the northern chain of the Caucasus,
he proceeded to Georgia, and was admitted to an audience
of Prince Heraclius, who had encamped about ten miles
from Tiflis. Having passed the winter in examining the
country adjacent to that place, he in spring followed the
prince to the province of Kaketia, and explored the south¬
ern districts inhabited by the lurcoman Tartars in the
company of a Georgian noble, whom he had cured of a
dangerous disorder. In July he passed into Imeritia, a
country which lies between the Caspian and the Black Sea,
VOL. xr.
G U L 33
and is bounded on the east by Georgia, on the north by Gule
Ossetia, on the west by Mingrelia, and on the north^ by II
the Turkish dominions. He penetrated into the middle
chain of the Caucasus, visited the confines of Mingrelia,
Middle Georgia, and Eastern and Lower Imeritia; and,
after escaping many imminent dangers from the banditti of
those parts, fortunately returned on the 18th of November
to Kislar, where he passed the winter, collecting various
information concerning the neighbouring Tartar tribes of
the Caucasus, and particularly the Lesgees. In the follow¬
ing summer he proceeded to Cabarda Major ; continued his
course to Mount Beshton, the highest point of the first ridge
of the Caucasus ; inspected the mines of Madshar, and then
directed his course to Tcherkask upon the Don. From this
place he made expeditions to Azof and Taganrog, then along
the new limits to the Dnieper, and terminated this year’s
route at Krementshuk, in the government of New Russia.
In the ensuing spring he was proceeding to Crim I artary ;
but having received ah order of recall, he returned through
the Ukraine to Moscow and St Petersburg, where he arrived
in the month of March 1775. Upon his return he was em¬
ployed in arranging his papers ; but before he had time to
prepare them for the press, he was seized with a malignant
fever, which carried him to the grave in March 1781.
Guldenstaedt is the author of, 1. Several Memoirs in Latin,
relative to natural history and botany, and containing de¬
scriptions of unknown animals and vegetables which he
had observed in the course of his travels; 2. Different
Memoirs on the history, geography, statistics, and com¬
merce of various parts of Russia; 3. I ravels in Russia
and in the Mountains of Caucasus, St Petersburg, 1787,
1791, in two vols. 4to, with maps, plans, and figures ; 4.
Memoir on the products of Russia, calculated to maintain
the balance of Commerce always favourable, 1777, in 4to.
The labours of Guldenstaedt, as a scientific traveller, have
proved very useful to the learned who have written on the
Caucasus ; and all of them mention his name with com¬
mendation. Pallas was the editor of his narrative ; but he
did not arrange the materials in very regular order, and, be¬
sides, intrusted the correction of the press to incompetent
hands, the consequence of which has been numerous errors
in the orthography of proper names, and even in that of
the German words, whilst entire phrases have been omit¬
ted. The second volume, which Guldenstaedt had himself
prepared for the press, has been printed in a manner less
faulty. But the first is the most interesting, because it
contains the description of the Caucasus; a region which
may almost be regarded as the birthplace and nursery of
modern nations.
GULE of August, the day of St Peter ad vincula,
which is celebrated on the first of August. It is called the
gule of August, from the Latin gula, a throat, because one
Quirinus, a tribune, having a daughter with a disease in
her throat, went to Pope Alexander, the sixth in succes¬
sion from St Peter, and desired of him to see the chains
with which St Peter was bound under Nero. His request
was granted ; and the young woman, having kissed the fet¬
ters, was cured of her disease ; whereupon the pope insti¬
tuted this feast in honour of St Peter, and the day was on
this occasion called indifferently either the day of St I etei
advinada, from the fetters which wrought the miracle ; or
the gule of August, from that part of the virgin on which
the miracle was wrought.
GULES, in Heraldry, a corruption of the French word
gueles, which in this science signifies red, and is represent¬
ed in engraving by perpendicular lines. See Heraldry.
GULF, or Gulph, a broad and capacious bay compre¬
hended between two promontories, and sometimes taking
the name of sea when it is very extensive, but particularly
when it only communicates with the sea by means of a
strait. The word comes from the French golfe, and that
E
34
GUN
GUN
Gulgundah again from the Italian golfo, which has the same signification.
II Some deduce these terms from the Greek xohvog, which Gui-
Giiit. s])art again derives from the Hebrew aaa, gob. Du Cange
derives them from the barbarous Latin gulfum or gulfus,
which signifies the same thing.
GULGUNDAH, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern
Circars, district of Vizagapatam, seventy miles west by south
from Vizagapatam. Long. 82. 20. E. Lat. 17. 35. N.
GUM (Gummi) is a concrete vegetable juice, of no
particular smell or taste, but which becomes viscous and
tenacious when moistened with water; totally dissolves in
water into a liquid, more or less glutinous in proportion to
the quantity of the gum ; is not affected by vinous spirits or
oils ; burns in the fire to a black coal, without melting or
catching flame; and suffers no dissipation in the heat of
boiling water. The true gums are gum-arabic, gum-tra-
gacanth, gum-senegal, the gum of cherry and plum trees,
and such like. All else have more or less of resin in
them.
Gum, among gardeners, a kind of gangrene incident
to fruit trees of the stone kind, arising from a corruption
of the sap, which, from its viscidity, not being able to
make its way through the fibres of the tree, is, by the pro¬
trusion of other juice, made to extravasate and ooze out
iqion the bark.
GUMMIPOLLAM, a town of Hindustan, in the district
of Gurrumcondah, a hundred and fifty miles west by north
from Madras. Long. 78. 19. E. Lat. 13. 46. N.
GUMBINNEN, a government or circle in the province
of East Prussia, a part of which was taken from Lithuania.
It extends over 6512 square miles, and contains nineteen
cities, thirteen market-towns, ninety-four parishes, and
2954 hamlets, with 46,882 dwellings. The inhabitants in
1817 amounted to 36,480, of whom 6370 were Catholics,
and the rest Protestants. The chief place is the city of
the same name, situated on the river Pissa. It is not
more than a hundred years old, and is well built, but with
no fortifications. It contained, in 1817, 488 houses, and
6057 inhabitants, including the military. Long. 22. 30. E.
Lat. 54. 31. N.
GUMS, in Anatomy, the hard fleshy substance in either
jaw, through which the teeth spring from the jaw-bone.
GUN. The word gun includes most of the species of
fire-arms; pistols and mortars being almost the only ones
excepted from this denomination. They are divided into
great and small guns; the former including what we com¬
monly call cannon, ordnance, or artillery ; the latter mus¬
kets, carabines, musketoons, blunderbusses, fowling-pieces,
and the like. Great guns were those first used. They
were originally made of iron bars soldered together, and
fortified with strong iron hoops; some of which are still to
be seen. Others were made of thin sheets of iron rolled
up together and hooped; and on emergencies they were
made of leather, with plates of iron or copper. These
pieces were made in a rude and imperfect manner, like the
first essays of many new inventions. Stone balls were
thrown out of them, and a small quantity of powder was
used, on account of the weakness of their construction.
1 hese pieces had no ornaments, were placed on their car-
riuges by rings, and were of a cylindrical form. When or
by whom guns were first made is uncertain. At the siege
oi Llaudia Jessa, now called Chioggia, in 1366, the Vene¬
tians used cannon, which were brought thither by two
Germans, with some powder and leaden balls; and they
had likewise recourse to the same engines in their wars with
the Genoese in 1379. Edward III. made use of cannon at
CreSSy in 1346’ and at the sieSe of Calais in
1347. Cannon were employed by the Turks at the siege
of Constantinople in 1394, and in that of 1452 ; these mins
threw a ball of 100 lbs., but they generally burst at the first,
second, or third discharge. Louis XII. had a cannon of the
same size cast at Tours, which threw a ball from the Bas- Gumlara
tille to Charenton. ||
Formerly cannon were dignified with uncommon names. Gunduct.
In 1503 Louis XII. had twelve brass cannon, of an extra-
ordinary size, called after the twelve peers of France. The
Spaniards and Portuguese named them after their saints.
At present cannon take their names from the weight of
the ball they discharge. Thus a piece which discharges a
ball of twenty-four pounds is called a twenty-four pounder.
Mortars are supposed to have been fully as ancient as
cannon. They were employed in the wars of Italy to throw
balls of red-hot iron, stones, and the like, long before the
invention of shells. The latter are believed to be of Ger¬
man invention, and the use of them in war was taught by
accident. A citizen of Venlo, at a certain festival cele¬
brated in honour of the Duke of Cleves, threw a number
of shells, one of which fell on a house and set fire to it, by
which misfortune the greater part of the town was redu¬
ced to ashes. The first account of shells used for military
purposes is in 1435, when Naples was besieged by Charles
VIII. History informs us with more certainty that shells
were thrown out of mortars at the siege of Wachtendonk
in Guelderland, in 1588. Maker, an English engineer,
first taught the French the art of throwing shells, which
they practised at the siege of Motte in 1634. The me¬
thod of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars was first put
in practice at the siege of Stralsund in 1675, by the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg; though some say in 1653, at the siege
of Bremen.
Muskets were first used at the siege of Rkege in the
year 1521. The Spaniards were the first who armed part
of their foot with these weapons. At first they were
very heavy, and could not be used without a rest. They
had matchlocks, and did execution at a great distance.
On their march the soldiers carried only the rest and am¬
munition, and had boys to bear their muskets after them.
They were very slow in loading, not only by reason of the
unwieldiness of their pieces, and because they carried the
powder and ball separate, but from the time it took to pre¬
pare and adjust the match. But a lighter matchlock-mus¬
ket afterwards came into use ; and the musketeers carried
their ammunition in bandeliers, to which were hung seve¬
ral little cases of wood covered with leather, each contain¬
ing a charge of powder. The balls were carried loose in
a pouch, and a priming-horn was suspended by the side.
The muskets with rests were used as late as the" beginning
of the civil wars in the time of Charles I. The lighter
kind succeeded them, and continued till the beginning of
last century, when they were also disused, and the troops
throughout Europe armed with firelocks.
CjUNDARA, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Gujerat, the capital of a district of the same name, tributary
to the Mahrattas. Long. 73. 34. E. Lat. 22. 53. N.
GUNDEZAMA River, a small river which, after a
short course, falls into the Bay of Bengal at Montapilly,
and forms the boundary between the Carnatic and the Gun-
toor Circar.
GUNDUCK, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bejapoor, in a district of the same name, forty-seven
miles east from Darwar. Long. 75. 42. E. Lat. 15. 27. N.
It is also the name of a river, the source of which is said
to be situated to the northward of Mooktenath, in the di¬
rection of Moostang, a place of note in Upper Thibet or
Bhoot, twelve days’ journey from Beeni Sheher, and not
tar from Kaybceni. At this latter place the breadth of the
mer is not above thirty yards. Four days’journey north
is Mooktenath, near which the Gunduck is called Sal-
grami, and here it is that are found a curious species of
stones, held sacred by the inhabitants. They are mostly
round, and perforated in one or more places with worms,
which the Hindus, in their degraded superstition, believe
GUN
lumlgole to have been done by Vishnu in the form of that reptile ;
II and the stones are prized in proportion to the number of
Gun- perforations or spiral curves in each. These stones are
called Salgrams. A few grains of gold are occasionally
separated from the sand of the Gunduck.
GUNDGOLE, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern
Circars, and district of Ellore, forty-eight miles north by
east from Masulipatam. Long. 16. 20. E. Lat. 16. 49. N.
GUNGAPATAM, a town of Hindustan, in the Carna¬
tic, a hundred and eight miles north from Madras. Long.
79. 13. E. Lat. 14. 27. N.
GUNDWANA, a large province of Hindustan, in the
Deccan, extending from the 18th to the 25th degree of
north latitude. On the north it is bounded by the provin¬
ces of Allahabad and Bahar ; on the south by Berar, Hy¬
derabad, and Orissa ; on the east by Bahar and Orissa ; and
on the west by Allahabad, Malwah, Khandesh, Berar, and
Hyderabad. . It is estimated to be four hundred miles in
length, by two hundred and eighty in average breadth.
Gundwana, in its most extensive sense, includes all that
part of India within the above-mentioned boundaries,
which remained unconquered by the Mohammedans up to
the reign of Aurungzebe. But Gundwana proper is limit¬
ed to four districts, named Gurrah-Mundela, Choteesgur,
Nagpore, and Chandah, and it stretches south along the
east side of the Wurda and Godavery, to within a hundred
miles of the mouth of the latter. The greater part of this
province is a mountainous, unhealthy, and ill-watered coun¬
try, covered with jungle, and thinly inhabited ; and to its
poverty and other bad qualities its independence may be
ascribed. A continued chain of moderately elevated hills
extends from the southern frontier of Bengal almost to the
Godavery, and by these the eastern was formerly separat¬
ed from the western portion of the Nagpore dominions.
This province contains the sources of the Nerbudda and
the Soane, and is bounded by the Wurda and Godavery;
but a want of water is still the general defect, the streams
by which it is intersected, namely, the Mahanuddy, Caroon,
Hatsoo, and Silair, being inconsiderable, and not navigable
within its limits. The Goands, or the hill tribes, who took
refuge in the mountains and fastnesses from the invaders
of the country, are the original inhabitants of the country,
• and still retain all their primeval habits of barbarism. The
country which they inhabit is a mere wilderness, its inha¬
bitants scarcely rising above the level of beasts. Their ha-
G U N 35
bits are loose and disorderly, and they frequently descend Gun.
from the mountains which they inhabit to plunder the Making-
plains below, from which they were originally driven. In v
the course of the last century they have acquired an in¬
creasing appetite for salt and sugar, and the desire to pro¬
cure these articles has operated as a stimulus to their in¬
dustry, and tended more than any other circumstance to
promote civilization amongst them. These Goands are
Hindus of the Brahminical sect; but they retain many
of their impure customs, and abstain from no flesh except
that of the ox, cow, and bull. The more fertile tracts of
Gundwana were subdued at gn early period by the Bhoon-
sla Mahrattas, who claimed as paramount over the whole.
The inhabitants were rendered nominally tributary ; but it
was found impossible to collect any revenue from them with¬
out a detachment, so that in fact the collection of the re¬
venue was rather like a plundering expedition, the cost of
which always exceeded the profit. During the war against
the Pindarees in 1818, when the British troops invaded the
territories of Appa Saheb, the rajah of Nagpore, their ope¬
rations were greatly facilitated by the insurrection of the
hill tribes, who occupied the passes into the Nagpore terri¬
tories. For a long series of years it w as the policy of the
rajah of this territory, a descendant of Sevajee, to interfere
as little as possible with the neighbouring powers. At
length, in 1803, Ragojee Bhoonsla was induced, in an
evil hour for himself, to depart from this system of neu¬
trality, and to join Scindia in a confederacy against the Bri¬
tish. He was soon reduced, however, by the defeats which
the confederates sustained at Assye and Argaun, to sue for
peace, as the price of which he ceded a large portion of
his dominions to the conquerors, namely, the province of
Cuttuck, including the pergunnah and port of Baiasore.
After the death of this rajah, whose sole object seemed to
be to amass treasure, and who, for this purpose, laid the
country under heavy contributions, and even joined with
the Pindaree plunderers, the throne, contested by various
competitors, wras at last secured by Appa Saheb, his ne¬
phew, who, in the war against the Pindarees, joined the
coalition against the British power, and w^as involved in
ruin along with his other allies. A treaty of peace was
concluded with him, which he violated ; and he was finally
deposed in 1818, and the grandson of the late rajah put
in his stead. His dominions were at the same time placed
under the superintendence of the British.
GUN-MAKING.
Of the word gun there is no satisfactory etymology.
Some have derived it from the French word mangon
(omitting the first syllable), which was the name of a
warlike instrument used before the invention of the gun
now employed ; and the use would seem to justify the de¬
rivation, for it was employed in discharging arrows and
other missiles, before the invention of gunpowder. Others
derive it from gyn, an engine employed for similar pur¬
poses. Selden says, “ the word gun was in use in Eng¬
land for an engine to cast a thing from a man, long before
there was any gunpowder found out.’’ The instrument
called a gun, used for war or sport, has, in the progress of
time, and the changes it has undergone, received various
names. We find it called harquebuss, haque-but or hag-
but, hand-gun, matchlock, musket, firelock, carabine,
fowling-piece, besides several other denominations.
History. Fire-arms, under one or other of the above-mentioned
names, were introduced into this country about the year
1471 ; and we find them used at the different sieges which
were carried on in Europe about the year 1521. In the
time of Henry VIII., and his successor Elizabeth, the size
and shape of fire-arms were regulated by act of parlia¬
ment. With respect to the mode of firing the guns then
in use, this was done either with a match, or by means of
a lock which revolved upon a wheel; in the one case,
the priming was fired by means of a burning match, and
in the other, by means of sparks generated by the revolu¬
tion of a notched wheel of steel, placed right above the
pan containing the priming. Specimens of these guns are
to be seen in the cabinets of the curious, or in the nation¬
al armories. The firing of guns by means of flints is com¬
paratively a modern invention. The balls at first were not,
as in modern times, made up along wdth the powder, but
were carried in a separate purse or bag, and the powder
by itself in a horn or flask. To ensure certainty of firing,
a finer kind of powder was used for priming than for the
ordinary charge of the gun, and this priming-powder was
carried by itself in what was called a touch-box. Most of
the guns, when first used as warlike instruments, were so
heavy that they could not be held out and fired from
the shoulder, as in modern times. The soldier, there¬
fore, was provided with a rest, which he stuck into the
36
GUN-MAKING.
Gun-
Making.
barrel.
ground, and upon which he laid his gun, and took a deli¬
berate and steady aim. The rests were shod with iron,
to preserve them from decay, and that they might the
more easily penetrate the ground; and were of different
lengths, according to the height of the man using them.
The addition of the bayonet to the gun was not made
earlier than 1671, being first used by the French about
that time. It derives its name of bayonet from Bayonne,
a town in the south of France, where that instrument
was first made. Few practical arts have made more ra¬
pid advancement than that of gun-making. The compe¬
tition amongst the gun-makers has been very great, and
they have arrived at a degree of perfection which it is
almost impossible to surpass. Almost every great town
in England, Scotland, and Ireland, as well as on the Con¬
tinent, has large establishments for carrying on this beau¬
tiful and ingenious branch of manufacture. Judging of
the perfection of the art by the expense of the article,
we would think that gun-making had reached the very
acme of perfection. It was no uncommon thing to pay
fifty, sixty, seventy, or eighty guineas for the best Lon¬
don-made gun. The Continent has even gone before
us in this respect. When Napoleon was in the plenitude
of his grandeur, he established a gun manufactory at Ver¬
sailles ; and we are informed that pistols were there made
at ten thousand livres, L.400 sterling, each, and guns at
fifty thousand livres, L.2000 sterling. Of these, the first
consul often made presents to foreign princes or general
officers. The Marquis of Rockingham presented Colonel
Thornton with a fowling-piece which cost L.400; and
Messrs Robert and John Wheeler, gun-makers, Birming¬
ham, presented George IV. with a gun of the most exqui¬
site workmanship, which cost 300 guineas.
Of the gun The principal part of a gun, whether we consider the
safety or the execution, is the barrel. Spain long main¬
tained its superiority over the other nations of Europe for
gun barrels. This arose from the supposed excellence of
the iron made use of in that country in the manufacture
of gun barrels, which were almost exclusively forged from
the old shoes of the horses and mules, and stub nails ga¬
thered from the highways of that country. Not satisfied
with the superior toughness which the old shoes and stubs
thus acquired, the Spanish gun-makers, it is said, often
reduced, by laborious plyings on the anvil, a mass of iron
weighing from forty to fifty pounds, to the weight of an
ordinary fowling-piece. From the great excellence of these
barrels, many of them were counterfeited by artists of
other countries, and the public, thus deceived by ficti¬
tious names, were charged exorbitant prices. Some of
these Spanish barrels used to sell at very high prices,
bringing from L.40 to L.50 each. Even the modern
barrels made at Madrid are still much esteemed, and
bring high prices. Making every allowance for the pre¬
judice in favour of distant times and places, there can be
little doubt of the excellence of the Spanish barrels, when
got from the first makers, and bearing the highest price.
But however excellent the Spanish barrels may have been,
and still are, it is perhaps not too much to say, that they
are now rivalled by those of British manufacture. The
best British barrels, like the Spanish, are made of iron
that has been much worn, and thus toughened by the loss
of its fiery particles. Old horse stub nails constitute the
best iron lor the formation of gun barrels ; and according¬
ly there are people who collect the stubs, and even ga¬
ther them from the highways, and sell them at a high
pnce to the barrel forgers. Flardly any thing can be ima¬
gined better than our best stub-nail twisted barrel
Next in excellence to the stub-nail twisted barrel, is
the Damascus barrel. It is called Damascus from its re¬
semblance to the beautiful arms made of Damascus steel
and to be met with in Syria, Persia, Hindustan, and other
Damascus
barrels.
countries of the East. The Damascus barrels, when of Gun-
the first quality, finished with care, and browned in the Making,
best manner, are the most beautiful of all barrels ; but al-
though more beautiful, they are much inferior in strength
and safety to the twisted stub-barrels. The Damascus
barrels are composed of iron and steel in certain propor¬
tions, laid crossways or zig-zag, and heated and hammer¬
ed together the whole length of the barrel. This is easily
perceptible when the browning is either taken off by art
or worn off by use, and thus the size, position, and variety
of the pieces of metal composing the barrel made to ap¬
pear. According to the opinion of the best judges, the
object sought for in the Damascus is beauty; but though
beauty is gained, strength is sacrificed. Not but that a
Damascus barrel, when of the first quality, may be per¬
fectly safe, but superiority of safety is on the side of the
twisted stub-barrel.
The two other kinds of barrels in ordinary use are the Other
stub-iron barrels mentioned, and those made of the cum- barrels,
mon iron, though of the best quality. Soldiers’ muskets
are made of this last, and also the plainest guns, that they
may be sold at the lowest prices. Barrels have been
formed of other materials, such as old scythes, wire,
needles, some with the outer coat of iron, and a lining
of steel, and others with layers of iron and steel alter¬
nately ; but it is needless to do more than mention these,
as they seem to have been tried merely as matter of ex¬
periment, and to have utterly failed. (See Daniel’s Rural
Sports, p. 479.)
Having said thus much of the materials of which gun Mode of
barrels are made, we must now say a few words of the making
mode of making them. Having fixed in the first place on §un bar‘
the size of the gun, and ascertained as near as may be therels’
width of the bore, and the length and thickness of the
barrel, the next thing the forger of the barrel does, is to
take a portion of the metal of which he is to make the
barrel, and to form it into the shape of a thin fiexible bar,
something like a cooper’s hoop; this bar or hoop must
not be all of the same thickness, but that part of it which
is to be towards and form the muzzle of the piece, must
be thinner than that which is intended to form the breech.
An instrument called a mandril is then chosen, according
to the size of the intended bore of the gun. The flexible
bar or hoop is then heated so as to make it ply easily, and
turned round the mandril, much in the same way as a rib¬
bon of leather is turned round the handle of a whip. The
edges of the hoop of iron overlap one another a little, so
that, when welded, all their joinings may be compact and
solid, and no slackness appear where the lips of the barer
hoop touch one another. When the metal has acquired its
proper heat, and the weldings are properly executed, the
places where the bars overlapped one another are quite
imperceptible, and the barrel appears as made out of one
piece, and finished at one heat. The mode of making the
twisted barrel does not differ materially from that of the
common gun now described. The welding of both is the
same, the hammering the same, the horizontal stroke call¬
ed the jumping is the same, and they are both wrought on
a mandril in the same manner. They differ in this, how¬
ever, that in the common gun the hoops are broad, over¬
lapping one another considerably, having their edges weld¬
ed down upon one another, and when finished have the
appearance of one continuous piece of plain iron. The
bars of the stub-twisted barrel, on the other hand, do not
in general exceed half an inch in breadth, and their edges
do not overlap, but are just laid close together, and when
thus welded, the barrel receives horizontal strokes on the
anvil, which make their joints swell up or protuberate,
and aie then hammered down, and thus made to form a
compact and solid union. When the bars are very fine
and small, it is called a wire-twist.
G U N-M A K I N G.
Cun- The instrument with which barrels are bored is called
Making, a bit, introduced into the barrel, and turned round so as
  ' to cut or grind off all its inequalities, and render the in-
ioring of gjjg a smooth and perfect cylinder. Of course, the size
irrds. of the bore ;s regulated by the diameter of that portion ot
the bit which grinds the barrel. The bit is worked either
by water, by steam, or by the hand. To finish the inside
of a barrel perfectly, bits of various sizes are used, the last
or finishing one doing little more than merely polishing
the bore, so that when it; receives the last touch of the
finishing bit, it appears as bright and smooth as a mirror
of polished steel, or the finest glass. We are now speak¬
ing of the finest barrels, as plain or common guns are not
bored with such care, nor receive so high a polish.
’xterior The inside of the barrel being finished, the next thing
f the to be done is to polish its exterior. This is done in the
arrcl. brst place by the grindstone, and next by the file. The
most approved method, however, of smoothing the exte¬
rior of a barrel, is by turning it on a lathe, which secuies
mathematical accuracy, and adds greatly both to its beauty
and its strength. .
’roving of Formerly deplorable accidents were continually happen-
-arrels. ing from barrels being sent abroad imperfectly made, of
faulty materials, and which never had been subjected to
any proper proof. These evils have now in some mea¬
sure been remedied by act of parliament. By this act
every barrel must be tried by a certain quantity of powder
and weight of shot, according to the size of the piece ;
which proof if it stand, it is stamped accordingly with
certain marks and letters, bearing that it has stood the
ordeal, and been declared sound and safe accordingly.
To counterfeit the government mark or letter, or to ex¬
pose to sale any gun-barrel without its having been sub¬
jected to the government proof, subjects the offending
party to certain penalties. Some of the best gun-makers,
after the powder, subject their barrels to a water proof,
which is more searching, and brings out the flaws or im-
perfections of the barrel even more decisively than the
powder proof established by government.
Notwithstanding the act of parliament obtained m the
year 1813, by the company of London gun-makers, for es-
37
tablishing a proof-house in London, and another at Bir- Gun-
mingham°, deplorable accidents are still happening by the Making,
bursting of gun-barrels. Various methods are practised to
evade the effect of this act, arising from the temptations to
elude its sanctions, the difficulty of bringing delinquents
to justice, and the smallness of the penalty incurred. It
therefore often happens, in direct violation of the act, that
gun-barrels are made of the most faulty materials, and sent
abroad to the public stamped with the proof-house mark,
that never underwent the ordeal of any proof whatever.
The best gun-makers are so much aware of this, that they
do not trust the barrels whose sufficiency is verified mere¬
ly by the legal stamp, but subject them in their own pre¬
mises to the severest test, both by powder and water
proof. Complete security can be had by no other means.
In verification of this, take the following quotation : “ The
forging of the proof-marks of the London and Birmingham
proof-houses is very common ; and the forging is executed
with such skill, and the imitation so exact, that the proof-
masters are unable to swear to the forging of their own
marks. The penalty is so trifling, and the trouble and dif¬
ficulty of conviction so great, that those guilty of the for¬
gery are rarely brought to punishment. I here are per¬
sons in Birmingham that would make you ^up a gun for
nothing but the price of the proof as profit. See an ad¬
mirable essay on the gun, by Mr William Greener, gun-
maker, Newcastle, in which, by a series of admirably con¬
ducted experiments, and the most conclusive arguments,^
he appears to have completely established the danger ot
trusting to the mode of trial adopted by the proof-houses
of London and Birmingham, and laid down rules, which,
if universally adopted, would go far to prevent the melan¬
choly catastrophes frequently arising from the bursting
of gun-barrels. We recommend this essay, in all the de¬
partments of practical gun-making, as one of the best that
has fallen in our way, and well worthy the attention ot
every one who wishes solid information on the beautiful
and interesting art of gun-making. We subjoin a scale of
proof, as established by act of parliament, obtained in
1813 by the company of gun-makers in London, and
amended in 1815, and which is still in force.
Rifle.
Proof Scale.
No. of
Balls to
the pound
avoird.
No. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Weight of
Powder for
proof.
11
5
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
drs.
0
5
8
11
2
12
8
6
2
1
No. of
Balls to
the pound.
Weight of
Powder for
proof.
No. 11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0 15
0 14
0 14
0 13£
0 131
0 121
0 11
0 10
No. of
Balls to
the pound.
No. 21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Weight of
Powder for
proof.
oz. drs.
0 10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
9
81
81
81
bJ
71
•71
' 2
No. of
Balls to
the pound.
Weight of
Powder for
proof.
No. 31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
drs-
7-1
71
7
7
7
7
7
61
No. of
Balls to
the pound,
Weight of
Powder for
proof.
No. 41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
OZ.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
drs.
6
6
6
6
51
52l
H
5-1
The powder used is the best round granulated government powder.
Rifles differ from other guns in their internal construc¬
tion, and a little in their exterior appearance, although
they are composed of the same materials, and are forged
in a similar way. After the barrel intended for a rifle is
bored nearly to a perfect cylinder, the next thing is to
draw in it parallel grooves of a certain depth, running the
whole length of the barrel. The grooves in the rifle are
not formed all at once, but successively, one after another,
till the whole is finished. The grooves are then all polished
out in the most careful manner, and rendered of equal
depth and fineness. The grooves of some rifles have a
slight twist something like a screw, which gives the ball
a rotatory motion when it escapes from the muzzle, sup¬
posed favourable to its straightforward horizontal flight.
A variety of opinion has prevailed as to the depth or shal¬
lowness of the grooves in a rifle, some maintaining that
they should be pretty deep, and others that they should
be very shallow. Robins in his learned and scientific
38
G U N-M AKIN G.
Gun-
Making.
treatise on fire-arms, pleads for the latter; and his rea¬
sons appear very satisfactory.
v —- t< ’jig sufficiently obvious,” says he, “ that whatever
tends to diminish the friction of rifles, renders them more
complete ; and consequently, the less the rifles are indent¬
ed, provided they are sufficiently so to keep the bullet
from turning round in the barrel, the better they are.”
To secure accuracy of flight, he continues, “ it is neces¬
sary that the sweeps of the rifles should be exactly paral¬
lel to each other; for then, after the bullet is put in mo¬
tion, it will slide out of the barrel without any shake, and
with a much smaller friction, than if the threads of the
rifles had not the same degree of incurvation. Foreigners
are so exact in this, that they try their pieces by pouring
melted lead into the barrel; and letting it cool, they thus
procure a leaden cylinder of perhaps two or three diame¬
ters in length, exactly fitted ; if this, being gently push¬
ed by the rammer, will pass from one end of the barrel to
the other without any sensible strain, they pronounce the
rifle regularly finished ; but if it anywhere sticks or moves
hard, the piece is esteemed defective.”
Breeching There are three kinds of breeching; namely, what is
of barrels. ca]]eci t]ie common plug breeching, the chamber plug or
mortar breeching, see Plate CCLXXIII. fig. 1, and the
patent breeching. The first used to be put to the plain¬
est kind of fire-arms, as soldiers’ muskets, blunderbusses,
and the common plain guns used for ordinary purposes.
The second kind of breeching is a slight improvement
and alteration on the first, which consists in opening the
motion-hole running at right angles through both the male
and the female screws, and meeting a small antechamber,
which comes from the middle of the main chamber, and
thus ignites the charge, not, like the common plug, late¬
rally, but from behind and in the centre. The next is
the patent breeching, see fig 3, which, indeed, after all
that has been said about it, is but a slight alteration on
the one last mentioned, and differs from it almost in no¬
thing, except, perhaps, in superior neatness, in having the
screws not affected by the touch-holes, in bringing it nearer
the ante, and thus securing more rapid ignition in the main
chamber. However, for a fine gun, the patent breeching
ought certainly to be preferred, as much handsomer, and
altogether in better keeping with a highly finished fowl¬
ing-piece.
The shooting of barrels depends upon three things;
their boring, their length, and their weight.
In boring their barrels, the most approved makers in
general observe the following rules : A little tightness
for a few inches at the breech end; then a perfect cylin¬
der ; and then ease the bore a few inches at the mouth.
The tightness at the breech end, the cylinder in the mid¬
dle, and the widening at the mouth of the barrel, must
be in proportion to its length. For a percussion gun a
perfect cylinder the whole length of the barrel, except a
few inches of ease at the mouth, is adopted by most of
the makers as the best. The next thing affecting the
shooting of a gun is the length of the barrels. Here opi¬
nions vary, one maintaining that fowling-pieces of twenty-
rnght or even twenty-four inches in length in the barrels
will shoot as well as those of thirty, forty, and forty-five
inches long. Robins, who instituted a set of experiments
to settle this point, says, that he found this to be the case •
and the conclusion he drew from his experiments was!
that the sportsman might please himself as to the length
of his barrels, varying from twenty-eight up to forty inches;
but that either below or above this the barrels began to fall
off. The writer of tins article suspects there must have
been something faulty and imperfect in Mr Robins’ ex¬
periments ; for after the most careful consideration of the
subject, he is satisfied that short barrels are inferior to the
long, both in the closeness and the strength with which
Shooting
of barrels
they throw their shot; the only advantage they have is in Gun-
snap shooting, but in ordinary sport they are not to be Making,
compared to the long barrel. For a barrel of ordinary
calibre, its length should not be less than thirty-two inches.
In support of this opinion we might refer to the authority of
the late Joe Manton of London, no incompetent judge in
this matter; and for the verification of the soundness of the
opinion in favour of long barrels, we refer to Colonel Haw¬
ker, who, after a course of seemingly accurately-conducted
experiments, has triumphantly established the superiority
of long over short barrels. As to the weight of barrels, it
is not common sense that light should do equal execution
with heavy barrels. Besides the danger attending the
use of light barrels, from their violent vibration when
fired, they never can send the shot so strongly and so stea¬
dily as those of more metal; and from the necessity of
giving them less both of powder and shot, it is evident,
even to demonstration, that they never can be so deadly.
A double gun, to be safe and to do good execution, should
not be below seven pounds or seven pounds and a half,
or even eight pounds, if the sportsman does not grudge
to carry it.
Whatever may be said of the Spanish or other continen-Gun-locks,
tal barrels as rivalling the British, no one will dispute the
superiority of our locks. It is allowed by all competent
judges, that the beauty and excellence of our finest locks
are quite unrivalled. The ancient gun-lock was a very
simple and clumsy contrivance. We gave a short de¬
scription of them in the first part of this article. Here
it is necessary only to name them. These were the
matchlock, the wheel-lock, and the snaplance. The last
was a great improvement on the two others, and indeed
is the foundation of our present flint-lock, with such al¬
terations and improvements as the genius of modern times
has suggested. Any description of the present flint-lock
is unnecessary, as it is known to every one.
Forsyth’s lock, fig. 2, differs from the ordinary percus- Percussion
sion-lock in a few particulars. It has a magazine, a, for con- locks,
taining the percussion powder ; and this magazine revolves
round a roller, b, the end of which is screwed into the
breech of the barrel. A small hole is opened in the roller,
through wdiich the priming powder passes. This hole
communicates with a channel which leads to the chamber
of the gun. Right above the little hole in the roller, is the
pan for containing the priming. The magazine is provided
with a steel punch, c, the under end of which is right above
the pan, ready to ignite the priming when struck on the
upper end by the cock d in firing the gun. When the
under end of the punch is struck down into the pan, it is
raised up again to its former position by a spiral spring.
Every time the gun is fired, the magazine is turned round
so far as to drop a priming of percussion pow'der into the
pan. It is then turned back again, and the steel punch is
found in the position ready to fire the gun when the trig¬
ger is drawn.
The merit of inventing this lock, see fig. 2, and the ap¬
plication of percussion powder as a substitute for flint in the
discharge of fire-arms, belongs exclusively to the Reverend
Mr Forsyth, minister of Belhelvie, a parish in Aberdeen¬
shire. Mr Forsyths invention is a very ingenious one,
and his principle, though no doubt very much altered and
improved in its application, has already almost complete-
y supplanted the use of the flint gun. Notwithstanding
the great superiority of the percussion over the flint gun,
it had to struggle for many years with the most violent
prejudices; but the principle being sound, it has now'
gamed a most complete triumph, so much so, that there
is not perhaps at this moment a high-priced flint fowl¬
ing-piece making, either in Great Britain or on the Con-
inent, so complete a revolution in fire-arms has the per-
cussion principle achieved. Although now and then an
G U N-M A K I N G.
Gun- old sportsman may be met with whose prejudices are
faking, too obstinate to be subdued, and who may still hold out,
yet even these are gradually falling into the opposite
opinion; so that the percussion gun may now be con¬
sidered as nearly universal. This is certainly a great
triumph to the principle first thought of and applied by
Mr Forsyth ; but had the application of this principle
not been simplified by subsequent alterations and im¬
provements, it is impossible that the percussion gun would
ever have gained so sure and universal a triumph. Ac¬
cordingly, till the invention of the copper cap, the percus¬
sion advanced very slowly. This arose from two causes,
the expense of Mr Forsyth’s locks, and the complication
of their structure. Although Mr Forsyth’s locks are the
same internally (we are speaking of his original patent
locks), yet externally they differ materially both in ap¬
pearance and complication from the ordinary lock; and
these circumstances increased both their expense and
their liability to derangement. This will be obvious from
the inspection of the lock, which will give a far better
idea of it than any description. To the inventor of the
copper cap, then, whoever he was, for there is a dispute
about it, must be attributed the rapid and extraordinary
spread of the percussion gun. The copper cap, indeed,
is so simple, and so easy in its application, both to new
guns and those already in existence, that we do not think
it will ever be generally superseded. A great variety
of contrivances have been fallen upon as substitutes for
the copper cap, but it still keeps its ground, and is likely
to do so against all competition.
The superiority of the percussion, and the preference
given it by the public, over the flint gun, we conceive,
consists in the following circumstances: Its handsome
appearance, the comfort in the use of it, the certainty and
the rapidity of its discharge, its near approach to a water
proof, and the facility with which it at all times obeys the
eye of the sportsman. Looking at all these advantages
of the detonating gun, we think it a great acquisition to
sportsmen, and not likely soon to be supplanted by any
other.
Ordinary This lock internally is the same as the flint-lock, but ex-
wcussion- ternally is a little different both in construction and appear-
00ance. See fig. 4. We think it much handsomer than the
flint-lock, as it gets entirely clear of three projecting and
unseemly encumbrances, the hammer, the hammer spring,
and the pan ; nothing appears externally on the lock-plate
but the cock or striker, which gives the blow to the copper
cap when the gun is fired, and which is hollow or concave,
provided also with a small ring of projecting metal, called a
shield or fence, running round the cock at the bottom of
the concave head, to defend the eye from the splinters
of the copper cap, and the small stream of fire that issues
upwards from the hole in the nipple when the gun is dis¬
charged. Serious accidents happened at first from the
use of detonators, by not adopting such precautions. At
first the heads of the cocks or strikers of copper-cap guns
were not made hollow or concave, and without any shield
or fence round them to protect the eye, but were made
plain or smooth, like the head of an ordinary carpenter’s
hammer: the consequence was, that when the copper cap
flew into pieces when struck, the eye of the sportsman
was frequently injured, and sometimes totally destroyed,
by such accidents. The next peculiarity of the ordinary
detonating lock is the pivot or nipple, and is that part of
it which supplies the place of the pan, hammer, and ham¬
mer spring of the flint-lock. It is screwed into the pa¬
tent breech, and is perforated by a small hole upon which
the copper cap is put. It is made two ways, either plain
or with small circular rings running round it, intended to
prevent the cap from falling or being rubbed off. If pro¬
perly made, the small rings round it are unnecessary.
39
As Barthold Schwartz, a clerical person, a native of Gun-
Germany, is considered as the inventor of gunpowder in Making.
Europe, and as the Reverend Mr Forsyth, minister of
Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, is the inventor of the detonat¬
ing gun, so it also happens that the Reverend Dr Somer¬
ville, minister of the parish of Currie, Edinburghshire, is
the inventor of the safety-gun.
This is effected by means of a stop, slide, or catch, Mecha-
situate under the trigger-plate A. It is pulled forward nism of
into a nick in the trigger by means of a spring B on the
front of the guard, worked by means of a key C, which ^Im¬
presses upon the spring when the gun is discharged. The
second method of safety is accomplished by means of a
small bit of moveable iron A, of a circular form, rising
through a small opening B in the lock-plate C, which pre¬
vents the cock from reaching the nipple, as represented
in fig. 4, until it is drawn back within the lock-plate when
the gun is fired. Fig. 7 is method second discharged.
The third method is accomplished by means of a small bit
of iron like a little flap or wing A, folded down in front of
the breast of the cock B when the gun is put in the po¬
sition of safety, and which flap or wing is again raised
when the gun is to be fired. This little wing turns on the
front of the lock-plate by means of a hinge C. Both
these methods are worked by means of a slide or lever,
and key, similar to what is described in method first. Fig.
9 is method third discharged.
There is no man who knows any thing about fire-arms Danger of
but must be satisfied of the danger attending the use of the ordinary
ordinary gun. The many advices given about caution by £u"
every writer on field-sports; the reiterated paragraphs ofou 3a e * '
newspapers on this subject; the earnest and solicitous ad¬
monitions of parents, relations, guardians, and friends; the
anxiety felt at the departure, and the joy at the return, of
the young sportsman unscathed; the distressing and tra¬
gical tales of death and mutilation told in almost every
newspaper, announce but too emphatically that the danger
is neither imaginary, nor the mischief attending the use
of fire-arms of rare occurrence. But if fears about their
use, and the admonitions prompted by such fears, could re¬
move the danger, it would be well; experience, however,
proves that such admonitions are often in vain. The fact is,
shooting is an amusement of that kind which, especially
with young sportsmen, so suspends attention, absorbs
thought, lays reason and reflection so completely asleep,
and excites such ardent and headlong feelings, as to leav(
no room for any thing but the occupation of the moment
and to talk of preventing entirely accidents from fire-arms
by admonition is perfectly hopeless, as it is calling upon
young men to exercise thought and caution where thought
and caution, we do not say are impossible, but frequently so
difficult as to render them very nearly so. It is not with¬
out reason, then, that writers have cautioned sportsmen
to be careful in the use of fire-arms, and that parents have
felt anxiety about their sons when engaged in field-sports
with weapons in their hands so precarious in their use,
and so fatal in their effects. Too frequently the spright¬
ly and spirited youth, in pursuit of pleasure, finds death.
Advice may be given, and caution may be exerted at all
times, but still there will be ample room for the employ¬
ment of means more easy in their application, and more
certain in their effects, than either the one or the other.
These means are completely furnished by Dr Somerville’s
safety-gun.
Dr Somerville, a few years ago, published an essay on'Principle
his safety-gun, and what follows is little more than an of the safe-
abridgment of it. The difficulty, he informs us, was to get ty-
a proper principle ; but this gained, every thing was gained.
Now a proper principle must accomplish four points : 1st, It
must allow the right hand to carry the gun in the natural
position, without touching or coming in contact, so as to dis-
40
G U N-M A K I N G.
Gun- turb or undo the spring or safety apparatus; 2dly, the safe-
Making. ty must work mechanically ; 3dly, there must be no loss of
time in working it; and, lastly, the gun must always be lock¬
ed except when levelled by the eye and pressed to the shoul¬
der; in other words, it must be locked in its approach to the
shoulder, and locked in its descent from it. These four
points Dr Somerville has completely gained. This will be
obvious from the following mode of applying his principle.
Morally speaking, accidental discharge with this gun is
completely out of the question, at least the probability is
so small, that perhaps philosophy could not calculate when
this gun would be discharged in any other way than by de¬
sign. To fire this gun, two specific points must be touched
at one specific time. If accidental pressure shall touch
the key which works the safety, no evil happens, because
the trigger is untouched; and if it touch the trigger, no
evil happens, because it is locked. The pressure must be
against the trigger and on the key at the same instant of
time, otherwise the lock will not work. If the trigger is
touched the twinkling of an eye before the key, or the
key before the trigger, no evil can ensue; for unless
touched at the same moment, they mutually counteract
and support one another, and thus prevent the gun going
off. Accident may touch the key and the trigger of this
gun as well as any other; but then accident cannot touch
both key and trigger at the same instant. Design only
can touch two specific points at one specific time. If ac¬
cident do touch the key and trigger, it must be in succes¬
sion ; but successive touching will not fire the gun.' It must
be simultaneous to do it; but this supposes thought, and
thought supposes design. A short statement of some of
the advantages of this gun will conclude our article.
Advanta. The first advantage, then, which this gun has over the
ges of this one in common use, is the preservation of human life. This
8un- is the first and great object of the present contrivance;
and in this point of view it was first thought of by the inven¬
tor. The other advantages which it possesses are all sub¬
ordinate to this, and come in merely as subsidiary to the
main design. The second advantage of this gun over the
ordinary fowling-piece, is superior dispatch. This is evi¬
dent at first sight, as this invention enables the sportsman
to go with his gun full cocked, and thus, when gamfe rises
unexpectedly, saves all the time lost, as well as distraction
of thought occasioned, by cocking the ordinary gun ; and
consequently he has only to present and discharge his
piece, which he is enabled to do before the gun in ordinary
use can be cocked and brought to the shoulder. So sensi¬
ble are sportsmen of the advantage of having their fowling-
pieces full cocked, that many of them go with them thus
prepaied, though at the risk both of their own and their
friends lives. Colonel Hawker, in his instructions to young
sportsmen, when speaking of the danger arising from fire¬
arms in the field, even when the sportsman goes up to his
game with the ordinary gun on half cock, says, “ Suppose
an eager young man, who is unaccustomed to shooting,
walks up to his dog with his gun half cocked ; the moment
toe birds rise, he is in such a state of agitation, that in at¬
tempting to draw back the cock of his gun, with a trem-
) ing hand, he lets it slip before the scear has caught the
tumbler. Oft goes the gun, and the best fortune that can
be expected is the happy escape of a favourite dog, or
the life of his fellow shooter.” From this statement we ar¬
gue thus . If such is the danger with the ordinary gun car-
ned on half, what must be the danger when carried on full
Cj°C lfact 1S’ ^th the ordinary gun there is great
danger both ways. 1 he present invention, however, re¬
moves danger from every way of carrying the gun, as it is
ahvays completely locked till it is raised and pressed to
the shoulder, and levelled by the eye of the sportsman.
the third advantage of this gun over others is, the ease
and tranquillity of mind which it necessarily imparts, not
only to the sportsman himself, but to his friends, parents, Gun.
and relations at home, from the perfect security which it Making,
affords him. No man of ordinary feeling can be perfectly
at ease,when surrounded by his friends, with a loaded gun
in his hand, leaping walls, crossing ditches, brushing through
thickets, underwood, and hedges, whilst all the time the
life of his friends is within the reach of a mortal weapon,
and the danger of that weapon guarded against only by
the fallaciousness of memory, and the risk increased ten¬
fold by the eagerness of pursuit, and the suspension of
thought necessarily occasioned by a species of amusement
which, more than any other, lays caution asleep, and occa¬
sions that flutter and hurry of spirits from which such fatal
accidents generally spring. It is certainly no very plea¬
sant thing, in the present state of fowling-pieces, to wTalk
all day with twro tubes opposite one’s heart, which any ne¬
glect or incautiousness on the part of one’s self or friend
might render fatal in a moment. What may be called,
then, the moral advantage arising from a sense of safety
and the removal of anxiety, is not the least advantage in
the use of this gun. A man, to be sure, with the ordinary
fowling-piece does not always shoot himself or friend; but
there is always a possibility of doing both, and the accumu¬
lated uneasiness and anxiety arising from the very possibi¬
lity, is no small deduction from the full enjoyment of his
amusement. The hair that suspends the sword over his
head does not always snap, to be sure, but there is always
a chance of its doing so. The present safety removes all
such anxiety, and prevents all such chances ; for it is com¬
pletely locked, except when levelled at the object, and in
the very act of pulling the trigger; for, the moment it
ceases to be levelled at the game, the returning action of
the safety-spring locks in the gun, not only without the
consent, but even contrary to the will, of the sportsman,
and thus protects both himself and friends. It must not
be supposed from this that the trigger must be drawn the
moment the safety-spring is pressed ; all that is necessary
is, that when the gun is levelled and pressed to the shoul¬
der, which, as a matter of course, undoes the safety-spring,
and allows the locks to work, the right hand shall then
draw the trigger, at whatever time the sportsman thinks he
has covered his game, or feels inclined to fire, so that he
may keep the safety apparatus undone, or worked, any
length of time he pleases, before he draws the trigger.
A fourth advantage is, that one of the modes of shooting
with this gun saves the left hand in case of the barrel
bursting, by forcing the sportsman to place his left hand
on the front of the guard. Colonel Hawker, in his Instruc¬
tions to Young Sportsmen, and Daniel, in his Rural Sports,
both most competent judges, recommend this mode of
holding the gun. Daniel’s words are, “ Always jiold the
gun with the left hand close to the guard, and not forward
on the barrel to grasp it near the entrance of the ramrod,
notwithstanding it has been so strenuously recommended ;
all the requisite steadiness in taking aim, and even of mo¬
tion, in traversing the flight of a bird, can be obtained by
thus holding the heaviest pieces; and in the case of a bar¬
rel s bursting, the certainty of having a hand or arm shat¬
tered by grasping the barrel, is reduced to the chance of
escaping the effects of such an accident by placing the hand
close to the guard beneath it.”
The fifth advantage of this gun which we mention is, that
it completely avoids the necessity of perpetually cocking
and uncocking, a very fertile source of danger attending
the use of the ordinary gun in the field. With the ordi-
nary gun, the moment the dogs point, or seem to point,
oth locks are cocked ; and if there happen to be no game,
or it rise beyond reach, the gun must be uncocked again ;
so that with the ordinary gun the sportsman during the
whole day is perpetually cocking and uncocking his gun.
fo Ins mend in company with him, who sees him perpe-
GUN-MAKING.
41
Gun- tually thumbing his locks, and hears them clicking all day,
Making, js a source not only of great annoyance, but also of
great danger. Accidents often happen from this cause.
The sixth advantage of this gun is, against the danger
incurred from the breaking of the point of the scear.
This is a very common source of danger, from which the
sportsman cannot protect himself or friends, for he is not
aware of it. The danger from this cause happens in the
following manner: When the sportsman is in search of
game with his gun on half cock, up springs the game, and
the gun is instantly levelled without being cocked; the
trigger remains immoveable ; a violent pull is then given;
the scear is strained, probably cracked ; ignorant that the
scear has been injured by the violent pull, the sportsman
proceeds in search of his game as usual. The scear may
break the next hour, the next day, or the next week ; but
at whatever time it gives way, the sportsman and his
friends are all this time in danger, without having the
least idea they are so. This is a very common source of
mischief, against which the safety is a complete protec¬
tion ; for although any part or every part of the inside of
the lock were to give way, the cock or striker cannot reach
the nipple to fire the gun till the safety-spring is drawn
back.
Another common source of danger with the ordinary gun
is, that sportsmen often go with the cock or striker resting
on the nipple ; the consequence of which is, that any thing
drawing back the striker by accident, a certain distance,
and then losing its hold, off goes the gun. Against acci¬
dents of this kind the safety is a complete protection, as
the striker cannot be pulled back but by the design of the
person using the gun.
The last advantage of this gun we mention, is the secu¬
rity it gives to loaded guns, when lying in houses, or ex¬
posed to the curiosity of thoughtless or ignorant persons.
Many a life has been lost by guns having been presented
and fired off in a wanton and incautious manner. Such
accidents cannot happen with the present gun ; for, to ren¬
der it perfectly safe, it is only necessary to stop the action
of the safety-spring, which is done by a very simple con¬
trivance, and restored again to action by the same simple
means.
Looking at all these advantages of Dr Somerville’s safe¬
ty-gun, we anticipate that in a short time no gun will be
considered complete without having a safety attached to it.
We shall conclude this article by the insertion of a few
tables abridged from a work published in Birmingham, by
the authority of the Proof Company, illustrating the differ¬
ent proportions of the British and French muskets. The
Serjeants of the British light-infantry regiments carry a
small musket or fusil of the following dimensions :—
Length of the barrel, in inches 37
Diameter of the bore, in inches  *65
Weight of the firelock with bayonet, in pounds
avoirdupois  9
Several regiments of British cavalry are armed with rifle
guns of the following dimensions :—
Length of the barrel, in inches 30
Diameter of the bore, in inches  '623
Weight of the ball for service, in ounces  ’761
Weight of the piece with sword, in pounds
avoirdupois   10*75
The carbine and pistol borne by the regiments of heavy
cavalry are of the following dimensions :—
CARBINE.
Length of the barrel, in inches 28
Diameter of the bore  *645
Diameter of the ball, for service  *623
Weight of the ball for service, in ounces  *8 Gun-
Weight of the piece with the bayonet, in pounds, 8*25 Making.
'w-y-w
PISTOL.
Length of the barrel, in inches  9
Diameter of the bore  *645
Diameter of the ball  *623
Weight of the ball  *8
Weight of the pistol  3*2
The carbine carried by the regiments of light cavalry is
in length only sixteen inches, and in weight six pounds.
The pistol is in length, diameter, and weight, the same as
that used by the heavy cavalry. The greater liability of
the ramrod to shake out of the shorter carbine has led to
the adoption of an indention of Lord Anglesey’s, by which
the rod is connected to the piece by a swivel. The same
invention is also applied to the pistol.
The barrel of the French musket is longer than that of
the British, and the bayonet is shorter, though not so much
so as to make the barrel and bayonet of the British musket
equal in length to that of the barrel and bayonet of the
French. The following are the proportions:—
FRENCH MUSKET.
Length of the barrel, in inches 44*72
Length of the bayonet, in inches 15*
 59*72
BRITISH MUSKET.
Length of the barrel, in inches 39
Length of the bayonet, in inches 16
 55
Difference of length in favour of the
French musket  4*72 inches.
In the comparison just drawn between the respective
lengths of the British and the French muskets, that of the
British is of the India pattern musket, which was used by
our forces during the late war ; the musket now carried by
our infantry is longer, the barrel being forty-two inches
and the bayonet seventeen inches, being very nearly equal
in length to the French musket.
The locks of the French muskets have brass pans, and
they are altogether heavier, and have a more clumsy appear¬
ance, than the British. The calibre of the barrel is like¬
wise narrower than that of our muskets. This will be more
distinctly seen by the following statement of the dimen¬
sions of the French musket, and of the new pattern mus¬
ket now carried by the British forces.
FRENCH MUSKET.
Length of the barrel, in inches  44*72
Diameter of the bore    "69
Diameter of the ball for service  *65
Weight of the ball for service, in ounces avoir¬
dupois  "958
Weight of the firelock with bayonet, in pounds
avoirdupois    10*98
Length of the barrel and bayonet, in inches.... 59*72
NEW LAND PATTERN BRITISH MUSKET.
Length of the barrel, in inches  42
Diameter of the bore  *75
Diameter of the ball for service   *676
Weight of the ball for service, in ounces avoir¬
dupois  1*06
Weight of the firelock with bayonet, in pounds
avoirdupois  12*25
Length of the barrel and bayonet, in inches  59
»
VOL. XI,
F
42
GUNNERY,
Definition. Is the art of determining the motions or ranges of pro-
jectiles discharged from cannon, mortars, howitzers, and
other kinds of artillery.
I.—THEORY OF GUNNERY.
Theory.
The use of fire-arms had been long known before any
theory concerning them was attempted. The first author
who wrote professedly on the flight of cannon-shot was
Tartalea. In 1537 he published a book, at Venice, entit¬
led Nova Scientia; and afterwards another, printed at
the same place in 1546, in which he treats of these mo¬
tions. His discoveries were but few, on account of the
imperfect state of mechanical knowledge at that time.
He determined, however, that the greatest range of can¬
non was with an elevation of forty-five degrees; and he
likewise ascertained, contrary to the opinion of practi¬
tioners, that no part of the track described by a bullet is
a right line, although the curvature is in some cases so
small that it is not attended to. He compared it to the
surface of the sea, which, though it appears to be a plane,
is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre of the
earth. He also assumes to himself the invention of the
gunner’s quadrant, and often makes shrewd guesses as to
the results of untried methods. But as he had not op¬
portunities of observing practice, and founded his opi¬
nions solely on speculation, he was condemned by most
of the succeeding writers, though often without any suf¬
ficient reason. The philosophers of those timestilso inter¬
meddled in the questions which hence arose; and many
disputes on motion occurred, especially in Italy, where
they continued till the time of Galileo, and probably gave
rise to his celebrated Dialogues on Motion. These were
published in the year 1638; but in the interval, and be¬
fore Galileo’s doctrine was thoroughly established, many
theories of the motion of military projectiles, and many
tables of their comparative ranges at different elevations,
vvere published; all of them egregiously fallacious, and
utterly irreconcilable with the motions of these bodies.
Many of the ancients indeed indulged in speculations con¬
cerning the difference between natural, violent, and mixed
motions ; but when they did so, scarcely two of them could
agree in their theories.
It is strange, however, that, during all these contests,
so few of those who were intrusted with the charge of ar¬
tillery thought it worth while to bring these theories to
the test of experiment. Mr Robins informs us, in the
preface to his I\ew Principles of Gunnery, that he had
met with no more than four authors who had treated on
this subject. The first of these is Collado, who has given
the ranges of a falconet carrying a three-pound shot to
each point of the gunner’s quadrant. But, from his num¬
bers, it is manifest that the piece was not charged with
its customary allotment of gunpowder. The results of his
trials were, that the point-blank shot, or that in which the
path of the ball did not sensibly deviate from a right line,
extended 268 paces. At an elevation of one point (or
72 of the gunners quadrant), the range was 594 paces;
at an elevation of two points, 794 paces ; at three points,
9<>4 paces; at four, 1010 ; at five, 1040; and at six, 1053
paces. At the seventh point, the range fell between those
of the third and fourth ; at the eighth point it fell between
the ranges of the second and third ; at the ninth point, it
fell between the ranges of the first and second; at the
Jw1 FT ’J1 fe ,between the point-blank distance and
that of the first point; and at the eleventh point, it fell
very near the piece. The paces spoken of by this author Theory,
are common steps.
The year after Collado’s treatise, another appeared on
the same subject, by one Bourne, an Englishman. His
elevations were not regulated by the points of the gun¬
ner’s quadrant, but by degrees; and he ascertained the
proportions between the ranges at different elevations and
the extent of point-blank shot. According to him, if the
extent of the point-blank shot be represented by 1, the
range at 5° elevation will be 2|-, at 10° it will be 3^-, at
15° it will be 4^, at 20° it will be and the greatest
random will be 5^. This last, he tells us, happens in a
calm day, when the piece is elevated to 42°; but accord¬
ing to the strength of the wind, and as it favours or op¬
poses the flight of the shot, it may be from 45° to 36°.
He has not informed us with what piece he made his
trials, though from his proportions it seems to have been
a small one. This however ought to have been attended
to, as the relation between the extent of different ranges
varies extremely according to the velocity and density of
the bullet.
After him, Eldred and Anderson, both Englishmen,
published treatises on this subject. The first published
his treatise in 1646, and gave the actual ranges of differ¬
ent pieces of artillery at small elevations, all under ten
degrees. His principles were not rigorously true, though
not liable to very considerable errors; yet, in consequence
of their deviation from the truth, he found it impossible to
make some of his experiments agree with his principles.
In 1638, Galileo printed his Dialogues on Motion. In
these he pointed out the general laws observed by na¬
ture in the production and composition of motion, and
was the first who described the action and effects of gra¬
vity on falling bodies. On these principles he determined,
that the flight of a cannon-shot, or any other projectile,
would be in the curve of a parabola, except in as far as it
was diverted from that track by the resistance of the air.
He has also proposed the means of examining the inequa¬
lities which thence arise, and of discovering what sensible
effects that resistance would produce in the motion of a
bullet at a given distance from the piece.
Though Galileo had thus shown, that, independently of
the resistance of the air, all projectiles would, in their
flight, describe the curve of a parabola; yet those who
came after him seem never to have imagined that it was
necessary to consider how far the operations of gunnery
were affected by this resistance. The subsequent writers
indeed boldly asserted, without making the experiment,
that no considerable variation could arise from the resist¬
ance of the air in the flight of shells or cannon-shot. In
this persuasion they supported themselves chiefly by con¬
sidering the extreme rarity of the air, compared with
those dense and ponderous bodies; and at last it became
an almost generally established maxim, that the flight of
these bodies was nearly in the curve of a parabola.
In 1674, Mr Anderson above mentioned published his
treatise on the nature and effects of the gun; in w hich
ie pioceeds on the principles of Galileo, and strenuously
asserts that the flight of bullets is in the curve of a para¬
bola; undertaking to answer all objections which could be
rougit to the contrary. The same thing was also un-
iGQQ Mr BloncleJ’in. a treatise published at Paris in
, w ere, after long discussion, the author concludes
t at the variations from the resistance of the air are so
s igit as scarcely to merit notice. The same subject is
treated of in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 216, p.
GUNNERY.
4,1
Theory.
68) by Dr Halley; and he also, swayed by the great dis- deavoured, with the greatest precision, to point a mortar Theory,
proportion between the density of the air and that of iron agreeably to these calculations, he had never been able to v—
or lead, thinks it reasonable to believe that the resistance establish any solid foundation upon them.”
of the air to large metal shot is scarcely discernible; al- From the history of the academy, it does not appear
though in small and light shot he owns that it must be ac- that the sentiments of Ressons were at any time con-
counted for. troverted, or any reason offered for the failure of the theory
But though this hypothesis went on smoothly in specu- of projectiles when applied to use. Nothing further, how-
lation, yet Anderson, who made a great number of trials, ever, was done till the time of Benjamin Robins, who, in
found it impossible to support it without some new mo- 1742, published a work entitled New Principles of Gun-
dification. For though it does not appear that he ever nery, in which he has treated particularly, not only of the
examined the comparative ranges of either cannon or mus- resistance of the atmosphere, but almost every thing else
ket shot when fired with their usual velocities, yet his ex- relating to the flight of military projectiles, and indeed ad-
periments on the ranges of shells thrown with small velo- vanced the theory of gunnery much nearer perfection than
cities, in comparison of those above mentioned, convin- ever it had before attained.
ced him that their whole track was not parabolical. But The first thing considered by Mr Robins, and which is
instead of drawing the proper inferences from this, and indeed the foundation of all other particulars relative to
concluding that the resistance of the air was of consider- gunnery, is the explosive force of gunpowder. This he
able efficacy, he framed a new hypothesis, which was, determined to be owing to an elastic fluid similar to our
that the shell or bullet, at its first discharge, flew to a cer- atmosphere, having its elastic force greatly increased by
tain distance in a right line, from the end of which line the heat. “ If a red-hot iron,” says he, “ be included in a
only it began to describe a parabola. And this right line, receiver, and the receiver be exhausted, and gunpowder be
which he calls the line of the impulse of the fire, he sup- then let fall on the iron, the powder will take fire, and the
poses to be the same in all elevations. Thus, by assign- mercurial gage will suddenly descend upon the explosion;
ing a proper length to this line of impulse, it was always and though it immediately ascends again, it will never rise
in his power to reconcile any two shots made at different to the height it first stood at, but will continue depressed
angles, let them differ as widely as we may please to sup- by a space proportioned to the quantity of powder which
pose. But this he could not have done with three shots ; was let fall on the iron. The same production likewise
nor indeed does he ever tell us the result of his experi- takes place when gunpowder is fired in the air: for if a
ments when three ranges were tried at one time. small quantity of powder is placed in the upper part of a
When Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia was published, he glass tube, the lower part of which is immersed in water,
particularly considered the resistance of the air to pro- and the fluid be made to rise so near the top that only a
jectiles which moved with small velocities; but as he never small portion of air is left in that part where the gun-
had an opportunity of making experiments on those which powder is placed ; if in this situation the communication of
move with such prodigious swiftness as shots and shells, the upper part of the tube with the external air is closed,
he did not imagine that a difference in velocity could and the gunpowder fired, which may be easily done by
make such differences in the resistance as are now found means of a burning-glass, the water will in this experiment
to take place. Sir Isaac found, that, in small velocities, descend on the explosion, as the quicksilver did in the
the resistance was increased in the duplicate proportion of last; and will always continue depressed below the place
the swiftness with which the body moved; that is, a body at which it stood before the explosion. The quantity of
moving with twice the velocity of another of equal magni- this depression will be greater if the quantity of powder be
tude, would meet with four times as much resistance as increased, or the diameter of the tube be diminished,
the first; with thrice the velocity it would meet with nine “ When any considerable quantity of gunpowder is fired
times the resistance; and so on. This principle itself is in an exhausted receiver, by being let fall on a red-hot
now found to be defective with regard to military projec- iron, the mercurial gage instantly descends upon the ex¬
tiles ; though, if it had been properly attended to, the re- plosion, and as suddenly ascends again. After a few vi-
sistance of the air might have been reckoned much more brations, none of which except the first are of any great
considerable than was commonly imagined. So far, how- extent, it seemingly fixes at a point lower than where it
ever, were those who treated this subject scientifically from stood before the explosion. But even when the gage has
giving a proper allowance for the resistance of the atmo- acquired this point of apparent rest, it still continues rising
sphere, that their theories differed most egregiously from for a considerable time, although by such imperceptible
the truth. Huygens alone seems to have attended to this degrees that it can only be discovered by comparing its
principle. In the year 1690, he published a Treatise on place at distant intervals: however, it will not always con-
Gravity, in which he gave an account of some experiments tinue to ascend, but will rise slower and slower, till at last
tending to prove that the track of all projectiles moving it will be absolutely fixed at a point lower than where the
with very swift motions was widely different from that of a mercury stood before the explosion. The same circum-
parabola. All the rest of the learned acquiesced in the stances nearly happen when powder is fired in the upper
justness of Galileo’s doctrine, and erroneous calculations part of an unexhausted tube, whose lower part is immersed
concerning the ranges of cannon were accordingly given, in water.
Nor was any notice taken of these errors till the year 1716. “ That the elasticity or pressure of the fluid produced
At that time Ressons, a French officer of artillery, dis- by the firing of gunpowder is, c&teris paribus, directly as
tinguished by the number of sieges at which he had serv- its density, may be proved from hence, that if in the same
ed, by his high military rank, and by his abilities in his receiver a double quantity of powder be let fall, the mer-
profession, presented a memoir to the Royal Academy, im- cury will subside twice as much as in the firing of a single
porting, that, “ although it was agreed that theory joined quantity. Also the descents of the mercury, when equal
with practice did constitute the perfection of every art, quantities of powder are fired in different receivers, are re-
yet experience had taught him, that theory was of very ciprocally as the capacities of those receivers, and conse-
little service in the use of mortars ; that the works of quently as the density of produced fluid in each. But as, in
Blondel had justly enough described the several parabolic the usual method of trying this experiment, the quantities of
lines, according to the different degrees of the elevation of powder are so very small that it is difficult to ascertain
the piece; but that practice had convinced him there was these proportions with the requisite degree of exactness, I
no known theory for the effect of gunpowder; for having en- took a large receiver containing about 520 inches, and let-
44
GUNNERY.
Theory, ting fall at once on the red-hot iron one dram, or the six-
teenth part of an ounce avoirdupois, of powder, the receiver
being first nearly exhausted ; the mercury, after the explo¬
sion, was subsided two inches exactly, and all the powder
had taken fire. Then heating the iron a second time, and
exhausting the receiver as before, two drams were let down
at once, which sunk the mercury three inches and three
quarters; and a small part of the powder had fallen beside
the iron, which (the bottom of the receiver being wet) did
not fire, and the quantity which thus escaped did appear to
be nearly sufficient, had it fallen on the iron, to have sunk
the mercury a quarter of an inch more; in which case the
two descents, viz. two inches and four inches, would have
been accurately in the proportion of the respective quanti¬
ties of powder ; from which proportion, as it was, they very
little varied.
“ As different kinds of gunpowder produce different
quantities of this fluid, in proportion to their different de¬
grees of goodness, before any definite determination of this
kind can take place, it is necessary to ascertain the parti¬
cular species of powder that is proposed to be used.
(Here Mr Robins determines in all his experiments to
make use of government powder, as consisting of a certain
and invariable proportion of materials, and therefore pre¬
ferable to such kinds as are made according to the fancy of
private persons).
“ This being settled, we must further premise these two
principles: 1. That the elasticity of this fluid increases by
heat and diminishes by cold, in the same manner as that of
the air: 2. That the density of this fluid, and consequent¬
ly its weight, is the same with the weight of an equal bulk
of air, having the same elasticity and the same tempera¬
ture. Now, from the last experiment it appears, that ^th
of an ounce avoirdupois, or about 27 grains troy, of pow¬
der, sunk the gage, on its explosion, two inches; and the
mercury in the barometer standing at near 30 inches, |-£ths
of an ounce avoirdupois, or 410 grains troy, would have
filled the receiver with a fluid whose elasticity would have
been equal to the whole pressure of the atmosphere, or the
same with the elasticity of the air we breathe; and the
contents of the receiver being about 520 cubic inches, it
follows, that yfths of an ounce of powder will produce 520
cubic inches of a fluid possessing the same degree of elas¬
ticity with the' common air; whence an ounce of powder
will produce near 575 cubic inches of such a fluid.
“ But in order to ascertain the density of this fluid, we
must consider what part of its elasticity, at the time of this
determination, was owing to the heat it received from the
included hot iron and the warm receiver. Now the gene¬
ral heat of the receiver being manifestly less than that of
boiling water, which is known to increase the elasticity of
the air to somewhat more than ^th of its augmented quanti¬
ty, I collect from hence and other circumstances, that the
augmentation of elasticity from this cause was about ^th of
the whole; that is, if the fluid arising from the explosion
had been reduced to the temperature of the external air,
the descent of the mercurial gage, instead of two inches,
would have been only 1^-th inch; whence 575, reduced in
the proportion of five to four, becomes 460; and this last
number represents the cubic inches of an elastic fluid equal
in density and elasticity with common air, which are pro¬
duced from the explosion of one ounce avoirdupois of gun¬
powder ; the weight of which quantity of fluid, according
to the usual estimation of the weight of air, is 131 grains;
whence the weight of this fluid is or ^ths nearly of the
weight of the generating powder. The ratio of the bulk of
gunpowder to the bulk of this fluid may be determined from
considering that 17 drams avoirdupois of powder fill two
cubic inches, if the powder be well shaken together: there¬
fore, augmenting the number last found in the proportion
of 16 to 17, the resulting term, 488f, is the number of cubic
inches of an elastic fluid, equal in density with the air pro¬
duced from two cubic inches of powder: whence the ratio
of the respective bulk of the powder, and of the fluid pro¬
duced from it, is in round numbers as 1 to 244.” This
calculation was afterwards confirmed by experiments.
“ If this fluid, instead of expanding when the powder was
fired, had been confined in the same space which the pow¬
der filled before the explosion, then it would have had, in
that confined state, a degree of elasticity 244 times greater
than that of common air ; and this independent of the great
augmentation which this elasticity would receive from the
action of the fire in that instant.
“ Hence, then, we are certain, that any quantity of pow¬
der, fired in a confined space, which it adequately fills, ex¬
erts, at the instant of its explosion, against the sides of the
vessel containing it, and the bodies it impels before it, a
force at least 244 times greater than the elasticity of
common air, or, which is the same thing, than the pressure
of the atmosphere; and this without considering the great
addition which this force will receive from the violent de¬
gree of heat with which it is affected at that time.
“ To determine how far the elasticity of air is augment¬
ed when heated to the extremest degree of red-hot iron, I
took a piece of a musket-barrel about six inches in length,
and ordered one end to be closed up entirely; but the
other end was drawn out conically, and finished in an
aperture of about |th of an inch in diameter. The tube
thus fitted was heated to the extremity of a red heat in a
smith’s forge, and was then immersed with its aperture
downwards in a bucket of water, and kept there till it was
cool, after which it was taken out carefully, and the water
which had entered it in cooling was exactly weighed. The
heat given to the tube at each time was the beginning of
what workmen call a white heat; and to prevent the rush¬
ing in of the aqueous vapour at the immersion, which would
otherwise drive out great part of the air, and render the
experiment fallacious, I had an iron wire filed tapering so
as to fit the aperture of the tube, and with this I always
stopped it up before it was taken from the fire, letting the
wire remain in till the whole was cool, wffien, removing it,
the due quantity of w ater would enter. The weight of the
water thus taken in at three different trials was 610 grains,
505 grains, and 600 grains, respectively. The content of
the whole cavity of the tube was 796 grains of water,
whence the spaces remaining unfilled in these three expe¬
riments were 186, 201, and 196 grains respectively. These
spaces undoubtedly contained all the air which, when the
tube was red hot, extended through its whole concavity;
consequently the elasticity of the air, when heated to the
extreme heat of red-hot iron, was to the elasticity of the
same air, when reduced to the temperature of the ambient
atmosphere, as the whole capacity of the tube to the re¬
spective spaces taken up by the cooled air; that is, as 796
to 186, 201, 196 ; or, taking the medium of these three
trials, as 796 to 194^.
“ As air and this fluid appear to be equally affected by
heat and cold, and consequently have their elasticities
equally augmented by the addition of equal degrees of heat
to each; if we suppose the heat with which the flame of
fired powder is endowed to be the same with that of the
extreme heat of red-hot iron, then the elasticity of the ge¬
nerated fluid will be greater at the time of the explosion
than afterwards, when it is reduced to the temperature of
the ambient air, in the ratio of 796 to 194^ nearly. It
being allowed then (which surely is very reasonable) that
the flame of gunpowder is not less hot than red-hot iron,
and the elasticity of the air, and consequently of the fluid,
generated by the explosion, being augmented in the ex¬
tremity of this heat in the ratio of 194^ to 796, it follows,
that if 244 be augmented in this ratio, the resulting num¬
ber, which is 999^, will determine how many times the
Theory.
GUNNERY.
Theory, elasticity of the flame of fired powder exceeds the elastici-
ty of common air, supposing it to be confined in the same
space which the powder filled before it was fired. Hence
then the absolute quantity of the pressure exerted by gun¬
powder at the moment of its explosion may be assigned ;
for, since the fluid then generated has an elasticity of 9991,
or in round numbers 1000 times greater than that of the
atmosphere, and since common air by its elasticity exerts
a pressure on any given surface equal to the weight of the
incumbent atmosphere with which it is in equilibrio, the
pressure exerted by fired powder before it dilated itself is
1000 times greater than the pressure of the atmosphere ;
and consequently the quantity of this force, on a surface of
an inch square, amounts to above six tons weight, which
force, however, diminishes as the fluid dilates itself.
“ But though we here supposed that the heat of gun¬
powder, when fired in any considerable quantity, is the
same with iron heated to the extremity of red heat, or to
the beginning of a white heat, yet it cannot be doubted
but that the fire produced in the explosion is somewhat
varied (like all other fires) by a greater or less quantity of
fuel; and it may be presumed that, according to the quan¬
tity of powder fired together, the flame may have all the
different degrees, from a languid red heat, to that sufficient
for the vitrification of metals. But as the quantity of pow¬
der requisite for the production of this last-mentioned heat
is certainly greater than what is ever fired together for any
military purpose, we cannot be far from our scope if we
suppose the heat of such quantities as are usually fired to
be nearly the same with that of red-hot iron, allowing a
gradual augmentation to this heat in larger quantities, and
diminishing it when the quantities are very small.”
Having thus determined the force of the gunpowder, Mr
Robins next proceeds to determine the velocity with which
the ball is discharged. The solution of this problem de¬
pends on the two following principles : 1. That the action
of the powder on the bullet ceases as soon as the bullet is
got out of the piece : 2. That all the powder of the charge
is fired and converted into elastic fluid before the bullet is
sensibly removed from its place.
“ The first of these,” says Mr Robins, “ will appear mani¬
fest when it is considered how suddenly the flame will ex¬
tend itself on every side, by its own elasticity, when it is
once got out of the mouth of the piece ; for by this means
its force will then be dissipated, and the bullet no longer
sensibly affected by it.
“ The second principle is indeed less obvious, being con¬
trary to the general opinion of almost all writers on this
subject. It might, however, be sufficient for the proof of
this position, to observe the prodigious compression of the
flame in the chamber of the piece. Those who attend to
this circumstance, and to the easy passage of the flame
through the intervals of the grains, may soon satisfy them¬
selves that no one grain contained in that chamber can con¬
tinue for any time uninflamed, when thus surrounded and
pressed by such an active fire. However, not to rely on
mere speculation in a matter of so much consequence, I
considered that if part only of the powder is fired, and that
successively ; then, by laying a greater weight before the
charge (suppose two or three bullets instead of one), a
greater quantity of powder would necessarily be fired, since
a heavier weight would be a longer time in passing through
the barrel. Whence it should follow that two or three
bullets would be impelled by a much greater force than
one only. But the contrary to this appears by experiment;
for, firing one, two, and three bullets laid contiguous to each
other with the same charge respectively, I have found that
their velocities were not much different from the recipro¬
cal of their subduplicate quantities of matter ; that i§, if a
given charge would communicate to one bullet a velocity
of 1700 feet in a second, the same charge would commu¬
nicate to two bullets a velocity of from 1250 to 1300 feet Theory,
in a second, and to three bullets a velocity of from 1050 to
1110 feet in the same time. From hence it appears, that
whether a piece is loaded with a greater or less weight of
bullet, the action is nearly the same ; since all mathemati¬
cians know, that if bodies containing different quantities
of matter are successively impelled through the same space
by the same power acting with a determined force at each
point of that space, then the velocities given to these dif¬
ferent bodies will be reciprocally in the subduplicate ratio
of their quantities of matter. The excess of the velocities
of the two and three bullets above what they ought to have
been by this rule (which are that of 1200 and 980 feet in
a second) undoubtedly arises from the flame, which, escap¬
ing by the side of the first bullet, acts on the surface of the
second and third.
“ Now this excess has in many experiments been im¬
perceptible, and the velocities have been reciprocally in
the subduplicate ratios of the number of bullets, to suffi¬
cient exactness ; and where this error has been greater, it
has never arisen to an eighth part of the whole; but if the
common opinion was true, that a small part only of the
powder fires at first, and other parts of it successively as
the bullet passes through the barrel, and that a considera¬
ble part of it is often blown out of the piece without firing
at all; then tire velocity which three bullets received from
the explosion ought to have been much greater than we
have found it to be. But the truth of the second postulate
more fully appears from those experiments, by which it is
shown that the velocities of bullets may be ascertained to
the same exactness when they are acted on through a bar¬
rel of four inches in length only, as when they are dis¬
charged from one of four feet.
“ With respect to the grains of powder which are often
blown out unfired, and which are always urged as a proof
of the gradual firing of the charge, I believe Diego Uffano,
a person of great experience in the art of gunnery, has
given the true reason for this accident; which is, that some
small part of the charge is often not rammed up with the
rest, but is left in the piece before the wad, and is by this
means expelled by the blast of air before the fire can reach
it. I must add, that in the charging of cannon and small
arms, especially after the first time, this is scarcely to be
avoided by any method I have yet seen practised. Per¬
haps, too, there may be some few grains in the best pow¬
der of such an heterogeneous composition as to be less
susceptible of firing ; which, I think, I have myself observ¬
ed ; and these, though they are surrounded by the flame,
may be driven out unfired.
“ These postulates being allowed to be just, let AB
(Plate CCLXXIV. fig. 12) represent the axis of any piece
of artillery, A the breech, and B the muzzle ; DC the dia¬
meter of its bore, and DEGC a part of its cavity filled with
powder. Suppose the ball that is to be impelled to lie with
its hinder surface at the line GE ; then the pressure exerted
at the explosion on the circle ot which GE is the diameter,
or, which is the same thing, the pressure exerted in the di¬
rection FB on the surface of the ball, is easily known from
the known dimensions of that circle. Draw any line FH
perpendicular to FB, and AI parallel to h H ; and through
the point H, to the asymptotes IA and AB, describe the
hyperbola KHNQ; then, if FH represents the force im¬
pelling the ball at the point F, the force impelling the ball
at any other point, as at M, will be represented by the line
MN, the ordinate to the hyperbola at that point. For
when the fluid impelling the body along has dilated itself
to M, its density will be then to its original density in the
space DEGC reciprocally as the spaces through which it
is extended; that is, as FA to MA, or as MN to fH;
but it has been shown that the impelling force or elastici¬
ty of this fluid is directly as its density, therefore, if FH
46 GUNNERY.
Theory, represents the force at the point F, MN will represent the
like force at the point M.
“ Since the absolute quantity of the force impelling the
ball at the point F is known, and the weight of the ball is
also known, the proportion between the force with which the
ball is impelled and its own gravity is known. In this propor¬
tion take FH to FL, and draw LP parallel to FB; then, MN
the ordinate to the hyperbola in any point will be to its
part MR, cut off by the line LP, as the impelling force of
the powder in that point M to the gravity of the ball; and
consequently the line LP will determine a line proportion¬
al to the uniform force of gravity in every point; whilst the
hyperbola HNQ determines in like manner such ordinates
as are proportional to the impelling force of the powder in
every point; whence, by the 39th Prop, of lib. 1 of Sir
Isaac Newton’s Principia, the areas FLPB and FHQB are
in the duplicate proportion of the velocities which the ball
would acquire when acted upon by its own gravity through
the space FB, and when impelled through the same space
by the force of the powder. But since the ratio of AF to
AB and the ratio of FH to FL are known, the ratio of the
area FLPB to the area FHQB is known; and thence its
subduplicate. And since the line FB is given in magni¬
tude, the velocity which a heavy body would acquire when
impelled through this line by its own gravity is known ;
being no other than the velocity it would acquire by falling
through a space equal to that line : find then another ve¬
locity to which this last-mentioned velocity bears the given
ratio of the subduplicate of the area FLPB to the area
FHQB; and this velocity thus found is the velocity the
ball will acquire when impelled through the space FB by
the action of the inflamed powder.
“ Now, to give an example of this : Let us suppose AB,
the length of the cylinder, to be 45 inches; its diameter
DC, or rather the diameter of the ball, to be fths of an
inch ; and AF, the extent of the powder, to be 2^-th inches ;
to determine the velocity which will be communicated to a
leaden bullet by the explosion, supposing the bullet to be
laid at first with its surface contiguous to the powder.
“ By the theory we have laid down, it appears, that at
the first instant of the explosion the flame will exert, on
the bullet lying close to it, a force 1000 times greater than
the pressure of the atmosphere. The medium pressure of
the atmosphere is reckoned equal to a column of water 33
feet in height; whence, lead being to water as 11,345 to 1,
this pressure will be equal to that of a column of lead 34,9
inches in height. Multiplying this by 1000, therefore,
a column of lead 34,900 inches (upwards of half a mile)
in height, would produce a pressure on the bullet equal
to what is exerted by the powder in the first instant of
the explosion ; and the leaden ball being |ths of an inch
in diameter, and consequently equal to a cylinder of lead
of the same base half an inch in height, the pressure at first
acting on it will be equal to 34,900" X 2, or 69,800 time£
its weight; whence FL to FH is as 1 to 69,800; and FB
to FA as 45 — 2|^, or 42| to 2^, that is, as 339 to 21;
whence the rectangle FLPB is to the rectangle AFHS as
339 to 21 X 69,800, that is, as 1 to 4324. And from the
known application of the logarithms to the mensuration of
the hyperbolic spaces, it follows that the rectangle AFHS
is to the area FHQB as 43,429, &c. is to the tabular loga-
AB
rithm of ; that is, of 3£f, which is 1,2340579 : whence
the ratio of the rectangle FLPB to the hyperbolic area
FHQB is compounded of the ratios of 1 to 4324— and of
,43429, &c. to 1,2340579; which together make up the ra¬
tio of 1 to 12,263, the subduplicate of which is the ratio of
1 to 110,7; and in this ratio is the velocity which the bul¬
let would acquire by gravity in falling through a space
equal to FB, to the velocity the bullet will acquire from
the action of the powder impelling it thi-ough FB. But Theorv
the space FB being 42|| inches, the velocity a heavy body
will acquire in falling through such a space is known to be
what would carry it nearly at the rate of 15-07 feet in a se¬
cond ; whence the velocity to which this has the ratio of
1 to 110,7 is a velocity which would carry the ball at the
rate of 1668 feet in one second. And this is the velocity
which, according to the theory, the bullet in the present
circumstances would acquire from the action of the powder
during the time of its dilatation.
“ Now this velocity being once computed for one case,
is easily applied to any other; for if the cavity DEGC left
behind the bullet be only in part filled with powder, then
the line HF, and consequently the area FHQB, will be di¬
minished in the proportion of the whole cavity to the part
filled. If the diameter of the bore be varied, the lengths
AB and AF remaining the same, then the quantity of pow¬
der and the surface of the bullet which it acts on will be
varied in the duplicate proportion of the diameter, but the
weight of the bullet will vary in the triplicate proportion of
the diameter; wherefore the line FH, which is directly as
the absolute impelling force of the powder, and recipro¬
cally as the gravity of the bullet, will change in the reci¬
procal proportion of the diameter of the bullet. If AF,
the height of the cavity left behind the bullet, be increas¬
ed or diminished, the rectangle of the hyperbola, and con¬
sequently the area corresponding to ordinates in any given
ratio, will be increased or diminished in the same propor¬
tion. From all which it follows, that the area FHQB,
which is in the duplicate proportion of the velocity of the
AB
impelled body, will be directly as the logarithm —(where
-A.l?
AB represents the length of the barrel, and AF the length
of the cavity left behind the bullet); also directly as the '
part of that cavity filled with powder, and inversely as
the diameter of the bore, or rather of the bullet; likewise
directly as AF, the height of the cavity left behind the
bullet. Consequently the velocity being computed as
above, for a bullet of a determined diameter, placed in a
piece of a given length, and impelled by a given quantity
of powder, occupying a given cavity behind that bullet;
it follows, that by means of these ratios, the velocity of
any other bullet may be thence deduced; the necessary
circumstances of its position, quantity of powder, &c. be¬
ing given. Where note, that in the instance of this sup¬
position, we have supposed the diameter of the ball to be
^ths of an inch ; whence the diameter of the bore will be
something more, and the quantity of powder contained in
the space DEGC will amount exactly to twelve penny¬
weights, a small wad of tow included.
“ In order to compare the velocities communicated to
bullets by the explosion, with the velocities resulting
from the theory by computation, it is necessary that the
actual velocities with which bullets move should be dis¬
covered. The only methods hitherto practised for this
purpose, have been either by observing the time of the
flight of a shot through a given space, or by measuring
the range of a shot at a given elevation ; and thence com¬
puting, on the parabolic hypothesis, what degree of velo¬
city would produce this range. The first method labours
under this insurmountable difficulty, that the velocities of
these bodies are often so swift, and consequently the time
observed is so short, that an imperceptible error in that
time may occasion an error in the velocity thus found of
2, 3, 4, 5, or 600 feet, in a second. The other method is
so fallacious, by reason of the resistance of the atmosphere
(to which inequality the first is also liable), that the velo¬
cities thus assigned may not perhaps be the tenth part of
the actual velocities sought.
“ The simplest method of determining this velocity is
GUNNERY. 47
heory. by means of the instrument represented fig. 13, where the same manner as if this last quantity of matter only Theory.
ABCD represents the body of the machine composed of (42 lb. ^ oz.) was concentrated in that point, and the ~J’~Y—*-1*
the three poles B, C, D, spreading at bottom, and joining rest of the pendulum was taken away : whence, supposing
together at the top A ; being the same with what is vul- the weight of the bullet impinging in that point to be the
garly used in lifting and weighing very heavy bodies, and yg-th of a pound, or the jyyth ot this quantity of^matter
is called by workmen the triangles. On two of these poles, nearly, the velocity of the point of oscillation alter the
towards their tops, are screwed on the sockets R S; and stroke will, by the laws observed in the congress of such
on these sockets the pendulum EFGHIK is hung by bodies as rebound not from each other, be the y^yth of
means of its cross-piece EF, which becomes its axis of the velocity the bullet moved with before the stroke;
suspension, and on which it must be made to vibrate with whence the velocity of this point of oscillation after the
great freedom. The body of this pendulum is made of stroke being ascertained, that multiplied by 505 will give
iron, having a broad part at bottom, and its lower part is the velocity with which the bail impinged,
covered wi”h a thick piece of wood GKIH, which is fas- “ But the velocity of the point of oscillation after the
tened to the iron by screws. Something lower than the stroke is easily deduced from the chord of the arch,
bottom of the pendulum there is a brace OP, joining the through which it ascends by the blow; for it is a well-
two poles from which the pendulum is suspended; and to known proposition, that all pendulous bodies ascend to
this brace there is fastened a contrivance MNU, made the same height by their vibratory motion as they would
with two edges of steel, bearing on each other in the line do if they were projected directly upwards from their low-
UN, something in the manner of a drawing-pen; the est point, with the same velocity they have in that point;
strength with which these edges press on each other be- wherefore, if the versed sine of the ascending arch be
ing diminished or increased at pleasure by means of a found (which is easily determined from the chord and ra-
screw Z going through the upper piece. There is fasten- dius being given), this versed sine is the perpendicular
ed to the bottom of the pendulum a narrow ribbon LN, height to which a body projected upwards with the velo-
which passes between these steel edges, and which after- city ot the point ot oscillation would arise; and conse-
wards, by means of an opening cut in the lower piece of quently wdiat that velocity is, can be easily computed by
steel, hangs loosely down, as at W. the common theory of falling bodies.
“ With this apparatus, if the weight of the pendulum “ tor instance, the chord of the arch, described by tne
be known, and likewise the respective distances of its ascent of the pendulum alter the stroke measured on the
centre of gravity, and of its centre of oscillation from its ribbon, has been sometimes 1/^tli inches;^ the distance
axis of suspension, it will thence be known what motion of the ribbon from the axis of suspension's 71^-th inches ;
will be communicated to this pendulum by the percussion whence reducing 17^th in the ratio of 71^th to 66, the
of a body of a known weight moving with a known degree resulting number, which is nearly 16 inches, will be the
of celerity, and striking it in a given point; that is, if the chord ot the arch through which the centre ot the board
pendulum be supposed at rest before the percussion, it GKIH ascended after the stroke; now the versed sine ot
will be known what vibration it ought to make in conse- the arch, whose chord is 16 inches, and its radius 6o, is
quence of such a determined blow ; and, on the contrary, T93939 ; and the velocity which would carry a body to this
if the pendulum, being at rest, is struck by a body of a height, or, which is the same thing, the velocity which a
known weight, and the vibration which the pendulum body would acquire by descending through this space, is
makes after the blow is known, the velocity of the striking nearly that of S-^th feet in 1".
body may from thence be determined. “ lo determine then the velocity with which the bullet
“ Hence, then, if a bullet of a known weight strikes the impinged on the centre of the wood, when the chord of
pendulum, and the vibration which the pendulum makes the arch described by the ascent of the pendulum, in con-
in consequence of the stroke be ascertained, the velocity sequence ot the blow, was 17^th inches measured on the
with which the ball moved is thence to be known. ribbon, no more is necessary than to multiply 3£th by 505,
“ Now the extent of the vibration made by the pendu- and the resulting number, 1641, will be the feet which the
lum after the blow, may be measured to great accuracy bullet would describe in 1", il it moved with the velocity it
by the ribbon LN. For let the pressure of the edges UN had at the moment of its percussion : for the velocity of the
on the ribbon be so regulated by the screw Z, that the point of the pendulum on which the bullet struck, we
motion of the ribbon between them may be free and easy, have just now determined to be that of 3^th feet in 1 ; and
though with some minute resistance; then, settling the we have before shown, that this is the 1 *e ve 0C1‘
pendulum at rest, let the part LN between the pendulum ty of the bullet. If then a bullet weighing ^th of a pound
and the edges be drawn strait, but not strained, and fix a strikes the pendulum in the centre of tne wood GKiH,
pin in that part of the ribbon which is then contiguous to and the ribbon be drawn out 17^th inches by the blow',
the edges: let now a ball impinge on the pendulum ; then the velocity ot the bullet is that of 1641 feet in 1'. Ana
the pendulum swinging back will draw out the ribbon to since the length the ribbon is drawn is always neany the
the just extent of its vibration, which will consequently chord of the arch described by the ascent (it being placed
be determined by the interval on the ribbon between the so as to (jidbr insensibly from those chords which most ire-
edges UN and the place of the pin. quentl^ occur), and these chords are known to be in the pro-
“ The weight of the whole pendulum, wood and all, portion of the velocities of the pendulum acquired from
was 56 pounds 3 ounces; its centre of gravity was 52 the stroke; it follows that the proportion between the
inches distant from its axis of suspension, and 200 of its lengths of ribbon drawn out at different times will be the
small swings were performed in the time of 253 seconds: same with that ot the velocities of the impinging bullets,
whence its centre of oscillation (determined from hence) and consequently, by the proportion of these lengths of
in 62£d inches distant from that axis. The centre of ribbon to 17£th, the proportion of the velocity with winch
the piece of wood GKIH is distant from the same axis 66 the bullets impinge, to the known velocity of 1641 feet in
inches. 17> wiU be determined.
“ In the compound ratio of 66 to 62fd, and 66 to 52, “ Hence then is shown in general how the velocities of
take the quantity of matter of the pendulum to a fourth bullets of all kinds may be found out by means ot this in-
quantity, which will be 42 lb. 4 oz. Now geometers well strument; but that those who may be disposed to try these
know, that if the blow be struck on the centre of the piece experiments may not have unforeseen difficulties to strug-
of wood GKIH, the pendulum will resist to the stroke in gle with, we shall here subjoin a few observations, which
GUNNERY.
48
Theory, it will be necessary for them to attend to, both to secure
success to their trials and safety to their persons.
“ And, first, that they may not conceive the piece of
wood GKIH to be an unnecessary part of the machine, we
must inform them, that if a bullet impelled by a full charge
of powder should strike directly on the iron, the bullet
would be beaten into shivers by the stroke, and these shiv¬
ers would rebound back with such violence as to bury
themselves in any wood they chanced to light on, as I have
found by hazardous experience ; and, besides the danger,
the pendulum will not in this instance ascertain the velo¬
city of the bullet, because the velocity with which the parts
of it rebound is unknown.
“ The weight of the pendulum and the thickness of the
wood must be in some measure proportioned to the size of
the bullets which are used. A pendulum of the weight
here described will do very well for all bullets under three
or four ounces, if the thickness of the board be increased
to seven or eight inches for the heaviest bullets ; beech is
the toughest and properest wood for this purpose.
“ It is hazardous standing on the side of the pendulum,
unless the board be so thick that the greatest part of the
bullet’s force is lost before it conies at the iron ; for if it
strikes the iron with violence, the shivers of lead which
cannot return back through the wood, wall force themselves
out between the wood and iron, and will fly to a consider¬
able distance.
“ As there is no effectual way of fastening the wood to
the iron but by screws, the heads of which must come
through the board, the bullets will sometimes light on
those screws, from whence the shivers will disperse them¬
selves on every side.
“ When in these experiments so small a quantity of pow¬
der is used, as will not give to the bullet a velocity of more
than 400 or 500 feet in 1", the bullet will not stick in the
wood, but will rebound from it entire, and (if the wood be
of a very hard texture) with a very considerable velocity.
Indeed I have never examined any of the bullets which
have thus rebounded, but I have found them indented by
the bodies they have struck against in their rebound.
“To avoid then these dangers, to the braving of which
in philosophical researches no honour is annexed, it will be
convenient to fix whatsoever barrel is used on a strong
heavy carriage, and to fire it with a little slow match. Let
the barrel too be very well fortified in all its length ; for
no barrel (I speak of musket barrels) forged with the usual
dimensions will bear many of the experiments without
bursting. The barrel I have most relied on, and which I
procured to be made on purpose, is nearly as thick at the
muzzle as at the breech ; that is, it has in each place near¬
ly the diameter of its bore in thickness of metal.
“ The powder used in these experiments should be ex¬
actly weighed; and that no part of it be scattered in the
barrel, the piece must be charged with a ladle, in the same
manner as is practised with cannon ; the wad should be of
tow, of the same weight each time, and no more than is
just necessary to confine the powder in its proper place ;
the length of the cavity left behind the ball should be de¬
termined each time with exactness ; for the increasing or
diminishing that space will vary the velocity of the shot,
although the bullet and quantity of powder be not changed.
The distance of the mouth of the piece from the pendulum
ought to be such, that the impulse of the flame may not
act on the pendulum ; this will be prevented in a common
barrel charged with half an ounce of powder, if it be at the
distance of 16 or 18 feet: in larger charges the impulse is
sensible farther off; I have found it to extend to above 25
feet; however, between 25 and 18 feet is the distance I
have usually chosen.”
With this instrument, or others similar to it, Mr Robins
made a great number of experiments on barrels of different
lengths, and with different charges of powder. He has given Theory, i
us the results of sixty-one of these; and having compar- ^
ed the actual velocities with the computed ones, his theory
appears to have come as near the truth as could well be
expected. In seven of the experiments there was a per¬
fect coincidence; the charges of powder being 6 to 12
pennyweights, the barrels 45, 24*312, and 7*06 inches in
length. The diameter of the first (marked A) was |ths of
an inch ; of the second (B) was the same ; and of D, 83
of inch. In the first of these experiments, another barrel
(C) was used, whose length was 12*375 inches, and the
diameter of its bore |th inch. In fourteen more of the ex¬
periments, the difference between the length of the chord of
the pendulum’s arch shown by the theory and the actual
experiment was yt-th of an inch over or under. This show¬
ed an error in the theory, varying, according to the different
lengths of the chord, from yiyth to ^th of the whole ; the
charges of powder were the same as in the last. In sixteen
other experiments the error was y^ths of an inch, varying
from gk-th to -j^th of the whole ; the charges of powder were
6, 8, 9, or 12 pennyweights. In seven other experiments
the error was fyths of an* inch, varying from ^t-d to
of the whole ; the charges of powder 6 or 12 pennyweights.
In eight experiments the difterence was -^ths of an inch,
indicating an error of from y^d to ^d of the whole;
the charges being 6, 9, 12, and 24 pennyweights of pow¬
der. In three experiments the error was ^yths, varying
from yjjth to y2th of the whole; the charges 8 and 12
pennyweights of powder. In two experiments the error
was yoths, in one case amounting to something less than
3*2 d, in the other to of the whole ; the charges 12 and
36 pennyweights of powder. By one experiment the error
was seven, and by another eight, tenths ; the first amount¬
ing to jyjth nearly, the latter to almost -^th of the whole ;
the charges of powder 6 or 12 pennyweights. The last
error, however, Mr Robins ascribes to the wind. The two
remaining experiments varied from theory by 1*3 inches,
somewhat more than ^th of the whole; the charges of
powder were 12 pennyweights in each ; and Mr Robins
ascribes the error to the dampness of the powder. In ano¬
ther case he ascribes an error of ^yths to the blast of the
powder on the pendulum.
From these experiments Mr Robins deduces the follow¬
ing conclusions. “ The variety of these experiments, and
the accuracy with which they correspond to the theory,
leave us no room to doubt of its certainty. This theory,
as here established, supposes that, in the firing of gun¬
powder, about y^ths of its substance is converted by the
sudden inflammation into a permanently elastic fluid, whose
elasticity, in proportion to its heat and density, is the same
with that of common air in the like circumstances : it far¬
ther supposes, that all the force exerted by gunpowder in
its most violent operations, is no more than the action of
the elasticity of the fluid thus generated ; and these prin¬
ciples enable us to determine the velocities of bullets im¬
pelled from fire-arms of all kinds, and are fully sufficient
for all purposes where the force of gunpowder is to be es¬
timated.
“ From this theory many deductions may be made of
the greatest consequence to the practical part of gunnery.
From hence the thickness of a piece, which will enable it
to confine, without bursting, any given charge of powder,
is easily determined, since the effort of the powder is
known. From hence appears the inconclusiveness of what
some modern authors have advanced, relating to the ad¬
vantages of particular forms of chambers for mortars and
cannon ; for all their laboured speculations on this head
are evidently founded on very erroneous opinions about
the action of fired powder. From this theory too we are
taught the necessity of leaving the same space behind the
bullet, when we would, by the same quantity of powder,
GUNNERY.
49
communicate to it an equal degree of velocity; since, on
the principles already laid down, it follows, that the same
powder has a greater or less degree of elasticity, accord¬
ing to the different spaces it occupies. The method which
I have always practised for this purpose has been by mark¬
ing the rammer ; and this is a maxim which ought not to
be dispensed with when cannon are fired at an elevation,
particularly in those called by the French batteries d ricochet.
11 From the continued action of the powder, and its man¬
ner of expanding described in this theory, and the length
and weight of the piece, one of the most essential circum¬
stances in the well directing of artillery may be easily as¬
certained. All practitioners are agreed, that no shot can
be depended on, unless the piece be placed on a solid plat¬
form ; for if the platform shakes with the first impulse of
the powder, it is impossible but the piece must also shake,
which will alter its direction, and render the shot uncer¬
tain. To prevent this accident, the platform is usually
made extremely firm to a considerable depth backwards ;
so that the piece is not only well supported in the beginning
of its motion, but likewise through a great part of its re¬
coil. However, it is sufficiently obvious, that when the
bullet is separated from the piece, it can be no longer af¬
fected by the trembling of the piece or platform ; and, by
a very easy computation, it will be found that the bullet
will be out of the piece before the latter hath recoiled half
an inch ; whence, if the platform be sufficiently solid at the
beginning of the recoil, the remaining part of it may be
much slighter ; and hence a more compendious method of
constructing platforms may be found out.
“ From this theory also it appears how greatly these au¬
thors have been mistaken, who have attributed the force
of gunpowder, or at least a considerable part of it, to the
action of the air contained either in the powder or between
the intervals of the grains ; for they have supposed that air
to exist in its natural elastic state, and to receive all its ad¬
dition of force from the heat of the explosion. But from
what hath been already delivered concerning the increase
of the air’s elasticity by heat, we may conclude that the
heat of the explosion cannot augment this elasticity to five
times its common quantity; consequently the force arising
from this cause only cannot amount to more than the 200th
part of the real force exerted on the occasion.
“ If the whole substance of the powder was converted
into an elastic fluid at the instant of the explosion, then,
from the known elasticity of this fluid assigned by our the¬
ory, and its known density, we could easily determine the
velocity with which it would begin to expand, and could
thence trace out its future augmentations in its progress
through the barrel: but as we have shown that the elastic
fluid, in which the activity of the gunpowder consists, is only
-^ths of the substance of the powder, the remaining -j^ths
will, in the explosion, be mixed with the elastic part, and
will by its weight retard the activity of the explosion ; and
yet they will not be so completely united as to move
with one common motion ; but the unelastic part will be
less accelerated than the rest, and some will not even be
carried out of the barrel, as appears by the considerable
quantity of unctuous matter which adheres to the inside of
all fire-arms after they have been used. These inequali¬
ties in the expansive motion of the flame oblige us to re¬
cur to experiments for its accurate determination.
“ The experiments made use of for this purpose were
of two kinds. The first was made by charging the barrel
A with 12 pennyweights of powder, and a small wad of
tow only; and then placing its mouth 19 inches from
the centre of the pendulum. On firing it in this situa¬
tion, the impulse of the flame made it ascend through an
arch whose chord was 13-7 inches ; whence, if the whole
substance of the powder was supposed to strike against the
pendulum, and each part to strike with the same velocity,
that common velocity must have been at the rate of about Theory.
2650 feet in a second. But as some part of the velocity of
the flame was lost in passing through 19 inches of air, I
made the remaining experiments in a manner not liable to
this inconvenience.
“ I fixed the barrel A on the pendulum, so that its axis
might be both horizontal and also perpendicular to the
plane HK ; or, which is the same thing, that it might be
in the plane of the pendulum’s vibration : the height of the
axis of the piece above the centre of the pendulum was
six inches, and the weight of the piece, and of the iron
that fastened it, &c. was 12^ lbs. The barrel in this situ¬
ation being charged with 12 pennyweights of powder,
without either ball or wad, only put together with the ram¬
mer ; on the discharge the pendulum ascended through an
arch whose chord was 10 inches, or, reduced to an equiva¬
lent blow in the centre of the pendulum, supposing the
barrel away, it would be l^’^ inches nearly. I he same
experiment being repeated, the chord of the ascending arch
was 10-1 inches, which, reduced to the centre, is 14-6
inches.
“ To determine what difference of velocity there was in
the different parts of the vapour, I loaded the piece again
with 12 pennyweights of powder, and rammed it down
with a wrad of tow weighing one pennyweight. Now, I
conceived that this wad, being very light, would presently
acquire that velocity with which the elastic part of the
fluid would expand itself when uncompressed ; and I ac¬
cordingly found, that the chord of the ascending arch was
by this means increased to 12 inches, or at the centre
to 17*3 ; whence, as the medium of the other two experi¬
ments is 14-5, the pendulum ascended through an arch 2 8
inches longer, by the additional motion of one pennyweight
of matter, moving with the velocity of the swiftest part of
the vapour ; and consequently the velocity with wffiich this
pennyweight of matter moved, was that of about 7000 feet
in a second.
“ It will perhaps be objected to this determination, that
the augmentation of the arch through which the pendulum
vibrated in this case was not all of it owing to the quantity
of motion given to the wad, but part of it was produced by
the confinement of the powder, and the greater quantity
thereby fired. But if it were true that a part only of the
powder fired when there was no wad, it would not happen
that in firing different quantities of powder without a wad,
the chord would increase and decrease nearly in the ratio
of these quantities ; which yet I have found it to do : for
with nine pennyweights that chord was 7-3 inches, which
with 12 pennyweights, we have seen, was only 10 and
10T inches ; and even with three pennyweights the chord
was two inches ; deficient from this proportion by -5 only,
for which defect two other valid reasons are to be assigned.
“ And there is still a more convincing proof that all the
powder is fired, although no wad be placed before the
charge, which is, that the part of the recoil arising from
the expansion of powder alone is found to be no greater
when it impels a leaden bullet before it, than when the
same quantity is fired without any wad to confine it. We
have seen that the chord of the arch through which the pen¬
dulum rose from the expansive force of the powder alone is
10, or 10-1 ; and the chord of that arch, when the piece was
charged in the customary manner with a bullet and wad, I
found to be, the first time 22^, and the second 22£, or, at a
medium, 22*56. Now the impulse of the ball and wad, if they
were supposed to strike the pendulum in the same place in
which the barrel was suspended, with the velocity they had
acquired at the mouth of the piece, would drive it through
an arch whose chord would be about 12**3 ; as is known
from the weight of the pendulum, the weight and position
of the barrel, and the velocity of the bullet determined by
our former experiments; whence, subtracting this num-
VOL. XI.
50 GUNNERY.
Theory, ber 12 3 from 22’56, the remainder, 10-26, is nearly the
chord of the arch which the pendulum would have ascend¬
ed through from the expansion of the powder alone with a
bullet laid before it. And this number, 10-26, differs but
little from 10-1, which we have above found to be the
chord of the ascending arch, when the same quantity of
powder expanded itself freely without either bullet or wad
before it.
“ Again, that this velocity of 7000 feet in a second is
not much beyond what the most active part of the flame
acquires in expanding, is evinced from hence, that in some
experiments a ball has been found to be discharged with a
velocity of 2400 feet in a second; and yet it appeared not
that the action of the powder was at all diminished on ac¬
count of this immense celerity: consequently the degree
of swiftness with which, in this instance, the powder fol¬
lowed the ball without losing any part of its pressure, must
have been much short of what the powder alone would have
expanded with had not the ball been there.
“ From these determinations may be deduced the force
of petards, since their action depends entirely on the im¬
pulse of the flame ; and it appears that a quantity of pow¬
der properly disposed in such a machine, may produce as
violent an effort as a bullet of twice its weight, moving
with a velocity of 1400 or 1500 feet in a second.
“ In many of the experiments already recited, the ball
was not laid immediately contiguous to the powder, but at
a small distance, amounting, at the utmost, only to an inch
and a half. In these cases the theory agreed very well with
the experiments. But if a bullet is placed at a greater dis¬
tance from the powder, suppose at 12, 18, or 24 inches, we
cannot then apply to this ball the same principles which
may be applied to those laid in contact, or nearly so, with
the powder; for when the surface of the fired powder is
not confined by a heavy body, the flame dilates itself with
a velocity far exceeding that which it can communicate to
a bullet by its continued pressure ; consequently, as, at the
distance of 12, 18, or 24 inches, the powder will have ac¬
quired a considerable degree of this velocity of expansion,
the first motion of the ball will not be produced by the con¬
tinued pressure of the powder, but by the actual percussion
of the flame ; and it will therefore begin to move with a
quantity of motion proportioned to the quantity of this
flame, and the velocities of its respective parts.
“ From hence then it follows, that the velocity of the
bullet, laid at a considerable distance before the charge,
ought to be greater than what would be communicated to
it by the pressure of the powder acting in the manner al¬
ready mentioned; and this deduction from our theory we
have confirmed by manifold experience, by which we have
found, that a ball laid in the barrel A, with its hinder part
111 inches from its breech, and impelled by 12 penny¬
weights of powder, has acquired a velocity of about 1400
feet in a second ; when, if it had been acted on by the pres¬
sure of the flame only, it would not have acquired a velo¬
city of 1200 feet in a second. The same we have found to
hold true in all other greater distances (and also in lesser,
though not in the same degree), and in all quantities of
powder; and we have likewise found, that these effects
nearly correspond with what has been already laid down
about the velocity of expansion and the elastic and un¬
elastic parts of the flame.
“ From hence too arises another consideration of great
consequence in the practice of gunnery; which is, that no
bullet should at any time be placed at a considerable dis¬
tance from the charge, unless the piece is extremely well
fortified ; for a moderate charge of powder, when it has
expanded itself through the vacant space, and reaches the
ball, will, by the velocity each part has acquired, accumu¬
late itself behind the ball, and thereby be condensed pro¬
digiously ; whence, if the barrel be not extremely firm in
that part, it must, by means of this reinforced elasticity, Theory,
infallibly burst. The truth of this reasoning I have ex-
perienced in an exceeding good Tower musket, forged of
very tough iron ; for, charging it with 12 pennyweights
of powder, and placing the ball sixteen inches from the
breech, on firing it, the part of the barrel just behind the
bullet was swelled out to double its diameter, like a blown
bladder, and two large pieces of two inches long were burst
out of it.
“ Having seen that the entire motion of a bullet laid at
a considerable distance from the charge is acquired by two
different methods in which the powder acts on it, the first
being the percussion of the parts of the flame with the ve¬
locity they had respectively acquired by expanding, the
second the continued pressure of the flame through the
remaining part of the barrel, I endeavoured to separate
these different actions, and to retain that only which arose
from the continued pressure of the flame. For this pur¬
pose I no longer placed the powder at the breech, from
whence it would have full scope for its expansion ; but I •
scattered it as uniformly as I could through the whole cavity
left behind the bullet; imagining that by this means the
progressive velocity of the flame in each part would be
prevented by the expansion of the neighbouring parts ; and
I found, that the ball being laid 11^ inches from the breech,
its velocity, instead of 1400 feet in a second, which it ac¬
quired in the last experiments, was now no more than 1100
feet in the second, which is 100 feet short of what, accord¬
ing to the theory, should arise from the continued pressure
of the powder only.
“ The reason of this deficiency was, doubtless, the intes¬
tine motion of the flame ; for the accension of the powder
thus distributed through so much larger a space than it
could fill, must have produced many reverberations and
pulsations of the flame ; and from these internal agitations
of the fluid, its pressure on the containing surface will (as
is the case of all other fluids) be considerably diminished;
and in order to avoid this irregularity, in aH other experi¬
ments I took care to have the powder closely confined in
as small a space as possible, even when the bullet lay at
some distance from it.
“ With regard to the resistance of the air, which so re¬
markably affects all military projectiles, it is necessary to
premise, that the greatest part of authors have established
it as a certain rule, that while the same body moves in the
same medium, it is always resisted in the duplicate propor¬
tion of its velocity; that is, if the resisted body move in
one part of its track with three times the velocity with
which it moved in some other part, then its resistance to
the greater velocity will be nine times the resistance to
the lesser. If the velocity in one place be four times
greater than in another, the resistance of the fluid will be
sixteen times greater in the first than in the second, &c.
This rule, however, though pretty near the truth when the
velocities are confined within certain limits, is excessively
erroneous when applied to military projectiles, where such
resistances often occur as could scarcely be effected, on the
commonly received principles, even by a treble augmenta¬
tion of its density.
“ By means of the machine already described, I nave it
in my power to determine the velocity with which a ball
moves in any part of its track, provided I can direct the
piece in such a manner as to cause the bullet to impinge
on the pendulum placed in that part; and therefore, charg¬
ing a musket barrel three times successively with a leaden
ball three fourths of an inch in diameter, and about half its
weight of powder, and taking such precaution in weigh¬
ing of the powder and placing it, that I was assured, by
many previous trials, that the velocity of the ball could not
differ by twenty feet in a second from its medium quan¬
tity, I fired it against the pendulum placed at 25, 75, and
G U N J'
fheory. 125 feet distance from the mouth of the piece respectively ;
and I found that it impinged against the pendulum, in the
first case, with a velocity of 1670 feet in a second; in the
second case, with a velocity of 1550 feet in a second; and
in the third case, with a velocity of 1425 feet in a second;
so that, in passing through fifty feet of air, the bullet lost
a velocity of 120 or 125 feet in a second ; and the time of
its passing through that space being about ^gd or ^th of
a second, the medium quantity of resistance must, in these
instances, have been about 120 times the weight of the
ball, which (as the ball was nearly.-J^th of a pound) amounts
to about 10 lbs. avoirdupois.
Now, if a computation be made according to the me¬
thod laid down for compressed fluids in the 38th Pro¬
position of Newton’s Principia, supposing the weight of
water to that of air as 850 to 1, it will be found that the
resistance to a globe of three fourths of an inch diameter,
moving with a velocity of about 1600 feet in a second,
will not, on these principles, amount to any more than
4^ lbs. avoirdupois; whence, as we know that the rules
contained in that proposition are very accurate with re¬
gard to slow motions, we may hence conclude, that the re¬
sistance of the air in slow motions is less than that in swift
motions, in the ratio of 4^ to 10; a proportion between
that of one to two and one to three.
“ Again, I charged the same piece a number of times
with equal quantities of powder, and balls of the same
weight, taking all possible care to give to every shot an
equal velocity ; and firing three times against the pendulum
placed only 25 feet from the mouth of the piece, the me¬
dium of the velocities with which the ball impinged was
nearly that of 1690 feet in a second: then removing the
piece 175 feet from the pendulum, I found, taking the me¬
dium of five shots, that the velocity with which the ball
impinged at this distance was 1300 feet in a second;
whence the ball, in passing through 150 feet of air, lost a
velocity of about 390 feet in a second; and the resistance
computed from these numbers comes out something more
than in the preceding instance, it amounting here to be¬
tween eleven and twelve pounds avoirdupois; whence, ac¬
cording to these experiments, the resisting power of the
air to swift motions is greater than to slow ones, in a ratio
which approaches nearer to that of three to one than in
the preceding experiments.
“ Having thus examined the resistance to a velocity of
1700 feet in a second, I next examined the resistance to
smaller velocities; and for this purpose I charged the same
barrel with balls of the same diameter, but with less
powder, and placing the pendulum at 25 feet distance
from the piece, I fired against it five times with an equal
charge each time; the medium velocity with which the
ball impinged was that of 1180 feet in a second: then, re¬
moving the pendulum to the distance of 250 feet, the me¬
dium velocity of five shots, made at this distance, was
that of 950 feet in a second: whence the ball, in passing
through 225 feet of air, lost a velocity of 230 feet in a se¬
cond ; and as it passed through that interval in about three
fourteenths of a second, the resistance to the middle velo¬
city will come out to be near 331 times the gravity of the
ball, or two pounds ten ounces avoirdupois. Now, the re¬
sistance to the same velocity, according to the laws ob¬
served in slower motions, amounts to seven elevenths of the
same quantity ; whence, in a velocity of 1065 feet in a se¬
cond, the resisting power of the air is augmented in no
greater a proportion than that of seven to eleven; whereas
we have seen in the former experiments, that to still
greater degrees of velocity the augmentation approached
very near the ratio of one to three.
“ But farther, I fired three shot, of the same size and
weight with those already mentioned, over a large piece of
water; so that their dropping into the water being very
E R Y. 51
discernible, both the distance and time of their flight might Theory,
be accurately ascertained. Each shot was discharged with
a velocity of 400 feet in a second ; and I had satisfied my¬
self, by many previous trials of the same charge with the
pendulum, that I could rely on this velocity to ten feet in
a second. TKe first shot flew 313 yards in four seconds
and a quarter, the second flew 319 yards in four seconds,
and the third 373 yards in five seconds and a half. Ac¬
cording to the theory of resistance established for slow
motions, the first shot ought to have spent no more than
3-2 seconds in its flight, the second 3-28, and the third four
seconds; whence it is evident that every shot was retard¬
ed considerably more than it ought to have been had that
theory taken place in its motion ; consequently the resist¬
ance of the air is very sensibly increased, even in such a
small velocity as that of 400 feet in a second.
“ As no large shot are ever projected in practice with
velocities exceeding that of 1700 feet in a second, it will
be sufficient for the purposes of a practical gunner to de¬
termine the resistance to all lesser velocities, which may
be thus exhibited. Let AB (fig. 14) be taken to AC, in
the ratio of 1700 feet in a second to the given velocity to
which the resisting power of the air is required. Conti¬
nue the line AB to D, so that BD may be to AD as the
resisting power of the air to slow motions is to its resisting
power to a velocity of 1700 feet in a second; then shall
CD be to AD as the resisting power of the air to slow
motions is to its resisting power to the given velocity re¬
presented by AC.
“ From the computations and experiments already men¬
tioned, it plainly appears that a leaden ball ot three fourth*
of an inch diameter, and weighing nearly 1 ^ ounce avoir
dupois, if it be fired from a barrel of forty-five inches in
length, with half its weight of powder, will issue from that
piece with a velocity which, if it were uniformly continued,
would carry it near 1700 feet in a second. It, instead ot
the leaden ball, an iron one, of an equal diameter, was
placed in the same situation in the same piece, and was
impelled by an equal quantity of powder, the velocity of
such an iron bullet would be greater than that of a leaden
one in the subduplicate ratio of the specific gravities ot
lead and iron; and supposing that ratio to be as three to
two, and computing on the principles already laid down,
it will appear, that an iron bullet of 24 lbs. weight, shot
from a piece of ten feet in length, with 16 lbs. of powder,
will acquire from the explosion a velocity which, it uni¬
formly continued, would carry it nearly 1650 feet in a se¬
cond.
“ This is the velocity which, according to our theory,
a cannon ball of 24 lbs. weight is discharged with when
it is impelled by a full charge of powder; but if, in¬
stead of a quantity of powder weighing two thirds of the
ball, we suppose the charge to be only halt the weight
of it, then its velocity will on the same principles be no
more than 1490 feet in a second. The same would be the
velocities of every lesser bullet fired with the same propor¬
tions of powder, if the lengths of all pieces were constant¬
ly in the same ratio with the diameters of their bore; and
although, according to the usual dimensions of the smal¬
ler pieces of artillery, this proportion does not always hold,
yet the difference is not great enough to occasion a very
great variation from the velocities here assigned, as will be
obvious to any one who shall make a computation thereon.
But in these determinations we suppose the windage to1 be
no more than is just sufficient for putting down the bullet
easily; whereas, in real service, either through negligence
or unskilfulness, it often happens that the diameter ot the
bore so much exceeds the diameter of the bullet, that great
part of the inflamed fluid escapes by its side; whence the
velocity of the shot in this case may be considerably less
than what we have assigned. However, this perhaps may
GUNNERY.
Theory, be compensated by the greater heat which in all probabi-
lity attends the firing of these large quantities of powder.
“ From this great velocity of cannon-shot we may clear
up the difficulty concerning the point-blank shot which oc¬
casioned the invention of Anderson’s strange hypothesis.
Here our author was deceived by his not knowing how
greatly the primitive velocity of the heaviest shot is dimi¬
nished in the course of its flight by the resistance of the air.
Now, as a shot of 24 lbs. fired with two thirds of its
weight of powder, will, at the distance of 500 yards from
the piece, be separated from the line of its original direc¬
tion by an angle of little more than half a degree, those
who are acquainted with the inaccurate methods often used
in the directing of cannon will easily allow, that so small an
aberration may not be attended to by the generality of
practitioners, and the path of the shot may consequently be
deemed a straight line; especially as other causes of error
will often intervene much greater than what arises from the
incurvation of this line by gravity.
“We have now determined the velocity of the shot,
both when fired with two thirds of its weight and with half
its weight of powder respectively ; and on this occasion I
must remark, that, on the principles of our theory, the in¬
creasing the charge of powder will increase the velocity of
the shot till the powder arrives at a certain quantity; after
which, if the powder be increased, the velocity of the shot
will diminish. The quantity producing the greatest velo¬
city, and the proportion between that greatest velocity and
the velocity communicated by greater and lesser charges,
may be thus assigned. Let AB (fig. 14) represent the axis of
the piece ; draw AC perpendicular to it, and to the asymp¬
totes AC and AB draw any hyperbola LF, and draw BF
parallel to AC ; find out now the point D, where the rect¬
angle ADEG is equal to the hyperbolic area DEFB ; then
will AD represent that height of the charge which com¬
municates the greatest velocity to the shot; whence AD
being to AB as 1 to 2*71828, as appears from the table
of logarithms, from the length of the line AD thus deter¬
mined, and the diameter of the bore, the quantity of pow¬
der contained in this charge is easily known. If, instead
of this charge, any other filling the cylinder to the height
AI be used, draw IH parallel to AC, and through the
point H to the same asymptotes AC and AB describe the
hyperbola HK; then the greatest velocity will be to the
velocity communicated by the charge A I, in the-subdupli¬
cate proportion of the rectangle ADEG to the same rect¬
angle diminished by the trilinear space KHE.
“ It has been already shown, that the resistance of the
air on the surface of a bullet of three fourths of an inch
diameter, moving with a velocity of 1670 feet in a second,
amounted to about ten pounds. It hath also been shown,
that an iron bullet weighing twenty-four pounds, if fired
with sixteen pounds of powder (which is usually esteemed
its proper battering charge), acquires a velocity of about
1650 feet in a second, scarcely differing from the other;
whence, as the surface of this last bullet is more than fifty-
four times greater than the surface of a bullet of three
fourths of an inch diameter, and their velocities are nearly
the same, it follows, that the resistance on the larger bul¬
let will amount to more than 540 pounds, which is near
twenty-three times its own weight.
“ The two last propositions are principally aimed against
those theorists who have generally agreed in supposing
,the flight of shot and shells to be nearly in the curve of a
parabola. The reason given by those authors for their
opinion is the supposed inconsiderable resistance of the
air; since, as it is agreed on all sides that the track of
projectiles would be a perfect parabola if there was no
resistance, it has from thence been too rashly concluded,
that the interruption which the ponderous bodies of shells
and bullets would receive from such a rare medium as air
would be scarcely sensible, and consequently that their Theory,
parabolic flight would be hereby scarcely affected.
“ Now, the prodigious resistance of the air to a bullet
of twenty-four pounds weight, such as we have here esta¬
blished it, sufficiently confutes this reasoning ; for how er¬
roneous must that hypothesis be, which neglects as incon¬
siderable a force amounting to more than twenty times
the weight of the moving body?” We now proceed to
state the postulates which contain the principles of the
modern art of gunnery. They are as follow :
“ 1. If the resistance of the air be so small that the mo¬
tion of a projected body is in the curve of a parabola, then
the axis of that parabola will be perpendicular to the hori¬
zon, and consequently the part of the curve in which the
body ascends will be equal and similar to that in which it
descends.
“ 2. If the parabola in which the body moves be termi¬
nated on a horizontal plane, then the vertex of the parabo¬
la will be equally distant from its own extremities.
“ 3. Also the moving body will fall on that horizontal
plane in the same angle, and with the same velocity with
which it was first projected.
“ 4. If a body be projected in different angles but with
the same velocity, then its greatest horizontal range will
be when it is projected in an angle of 45° with the hori¬
zon.
“ 5. If the velocity with which the body is projected be
known, then this greatest horizontal range may be thus found.
Compute, according to the common theory of gravity, what
space the projected body ought to fall through to acquire
the velocity with which it is projected; then twice that
space will be the greatest horizontal range, or the horizon¬
tal range when the body is projected in an angle of 45°
with the horizon.
“ 6. The horizontal ranges of a body, when projected
with the same velocity at different angles, will be between
themselves as the sines of twice the angle in which the line
of projection is inclined to the horizon.
“7. If a body is projected in the same angle with the
horizon, but with different velocities, the horizontal ranges
will be in the duplicate proportion of those velocities.
“ These postulates, which contain the principles of the
modern art of gunnery, are all of them false; for it has
been already shown, that a musket-ball of three fourths of
an inch in diameter, fired with half its weight of powder,
from a piece 45 inches long, moves with a velocity of near
1700 feet in a second. Now, if this ball flew7 in the curve
of a parabola, its horizontal range at 45° would be found
by the fifth postulate to be about seventeen miles. But
all the practical writers assure us that this range is really
short of half a mile. Diego Uffano assigns to an arquebuss,
four feet in length, and carrying a leaden ball of 1-^ oz.
weight (which is very near our dimensions), a horizontal
range of 797 common paces, when it is elevated between
40 and 50 degrees, and charged with a quantity of fine
powder equal in weight to the ball. Mersennus also tells
us, that he found the horizontal range of an arquebuss at
45° to be less than 400 fathoms, or 800 yards; whence, as
either of these ranges is short of half an English mile, it
follows, that a musket-shot, when fired w ith a reasonable
charge of powder at the elevation of 45°, flies not one
thirty-fourth part of the distance it ought to do if it moved
in a parabola. Nor is this great contraction of the hori¬
zontal range to be wondered at, when it is considered that
the resistance of this bullet when it first issues from the
piece amounts to 120 times its gravity, as has been here
experimentally demonstrated.
“ To prevent objections, our next instance shall be in
an iron bullet of 24 lbs. weight, which is the heaviest in
common use for land-service. Such a bullet fired from a
piece of the common dimensions, with its greatest allotment
*! 'heory.
GUNNERY. 53
of powder, has a velocity of 1650 feet in a second, as al- be considered as the point of contact. lo put this mat- theory,
ready shown. Now, if the horizontal range of this shot at ter out of all doubt, however, I took a barrel carrying a —-Y
45° be computed on the parabolic hypothesis by the fifth ball three fourths of an inch in diameter, and fixing it on
postulate, it will come out to be about sixteen miles, which a heavy carriage, I satisfied myself of the steadiness and
is between five and six times its real quantity; for the truth of its direction, by firing at a board 1^-th foot square,
practical writers all agree in making it less than three which was placed at 180 feet distance; for I found that
rn^es> in sixteen successive shots I missed the mark but once.
“ But farther, it is not only v;hen projectiles move with Now, the same barrel being fixed on the same carriage,
these very great velocities that their flight sensibly varies and fired with a smaller quantity of powder, so that the
from the curve of a parabola; the same aberration often shock on the discharge would be much less, and conse-
takes place in such as move slow enough to have their quently the direction less changed, I found, that at 760
motion traced out by the eye; for there are few projec- yards distance the ball flew sometimes 100 yards to the
tiles that can be thus examined, which do not visibly dis- right of the line it was pointed on, and sometimes as much
agree with the first, second, and third postulates; obvi- to the left. I found, too, that its direction in the per-
ously descending through a curve which is shorter and pendicular line was not less uncertain, it falling one time
less inclined to the horizon than that in which they as- above 200 yards short of what it did at another ; although,
cended. Also the highest point of their flight, or the by the nicest examination of the piece after the discharge,
vertex of the curve, is much nearer the place where they it did not appear to have started in the least from the po-
fall to the ground than to that from whence they were at sition it was placed in.
first discharged. v “ The reality of this doubly curvated track being thus
«I have found too by experience, that the fifth, sixth, demonstrated, it may perhaps be asked, W hat can be the
and seventh postulates are excessively erroneous when cause of a motion so different from what has been hitherto
applied to the motions of bullets moving with small velo- supposed? And to this I answer, that the deflection in
cities. A leaden bullet three fourths of an inch in diameter, question must be owing to some power acting obliquely
discharged with a velocity of about 400 feet in a second, to the progressive motion of the body; which power can
and in an angle of 19° 5' with the horizon, ranged on the be no other than the resistance of the air. If it be far-
horizontal plane no more than448 yards; whereas its great- ther asked, how the resistance of the air can ever come
est horizontal range being found by the fifth postulate to be to be oblique to the progressive motion of the body, I
at least 1700 yards, the range at 19° 5' ought by the sixth farther reply, that it may sometimes arise from inequali-
postulate to have been 1050 yards; whence, in this ex- ties in the resisted surface, but that its general cause is
periment, the range was not three sevenths of what it doubtless a whirling motion acquired by the bullet about
must have been had the commonly received theory been its axis ; for by this motion of rotation, combined with
true.” the progressive motion, each part of the bullet’s surface
From this and other experiments, it is clearly proved, will strike the air very differently from what it would do
that the track described by the flight even of the heaviest if there was no such whirl; and the obliquity of the ac-
shot, is neither a parabola, nor even approaching to a pa- tion of the air arising from this cause will be greater, as
rabola, except when they are projected with very small the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in proportion
velocities. The nature of the curve really described by to its progressive one.
them will be explained under the head of Projectiles. “ This whirling motion undoubtedly arises from the
But, as a specimen of the great complication of the sub- friction of the bullet against the sides of the piece; and
ject, we shall here insert an account of a circumstance as the rotatory motion will in some part of its revolu-
which frequently occurs in the discharge of shot. tion conspire with the progressive one, and in another
“ As gravity acts perpendicularly to the horizon, it is part be equally opposed to it, the resistance of the air on
evident, that if no other power but gravity deflected a the fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected, and
projected body from its course, its motion would be con- will be increased in that part where the whirling motion
stantly performed in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, conspires with the progressive one, and diminished where
passing through the line of its original direction; but we it is opposed to it; and by this means the whole effort of
have found, that the body in its motion often deviates the resistance, instead of being opposite to the direction
from this plane, sometimes to the right hand and at other of the body, will become oblique thereto, and will pro¬
times to the left; and this in an incurvated line, which is duce those effects already mentioned. If it was possible
convex towards that plane, so that the motion of a bullet to predict the position of the axis round which the bullet
is frequently in a line having a double curvature, it being should whirl, and if that axis was unchangeable during
bent towards the horizon by the force of gravity, and the whole flight of the bullet, then the aberration of the
again bent out of its original direction to the right or left bullet by this oblique force would be in a given direction,
by some other force. In this case no part of the motion and the incurvation produced thereby would regularly ex-
of the bullet is performed in the same plane, but its track tend the same way from one end of its track to the other,
will lie in the surface of a kind of cylinder, whose axis is For instance, if the axis of the whirl was perpendicular to
perpendicular to the horizon. the horizon, then the incurvation would be to the right or
“ This proposition may be indisputably proved by the left. If that axis was horizontal, and perpendicular to
experience of every one in the least conversant with the the direction of the bullet, then the incurvation would be
practice of gunnery. The same piece which will carry its upwards or downwards. But as the first position of this
bullet within an inch of the intended mark at ten yards axis is uncertain, and as it may perpetually shift in the
distance, cannot be relied on to ten inches in 100 yards, course of the bullet’s flight; the deviation of the bullet is
much less to thirty inches in 300 yards. Now this in- not necessarily either in one certain direction, or tending
equality can only arise from the track of the bullet being to the same side in one part of its track more than it does
incurvated sidewise as well as downwards; for by this in another, but more usually is continually changing the
means the distance between that incurvated line and the tendency of its deflection, as the axis round which it
line of direction will increase in a much greater ratio than whirls must frequently shift its position to the progressive
that of the distance; these lines being coincident at the motion by many inevitable accidents,
mouth of the piece, and afterwards separating in the man- “ That a bullet generally acquires such a rotatory mo-
ner of a curve and its tangent, if the mouth of the piece tion as here described, is, I think, demonstrable : how-
GUNN E R Y.
54
Theory, ever, to leave no room for doubt or dispute, I confirmed it,
as well as some other parts of my theory, by the following
experiments.
“ I caused the machine to be made, represented fig. 15.
BCDE is a brass barrel, moveable on its axis, and so ad¬
justed by means of friction-wheels, not represented in the
figure, as to have no friction worth attending to. The frame
in which this barrel is fixed is so placed that its axis may
be perpendicular to the horizon. The axis itself is conti¬
nued above the upper plate of the frame, and has fastened
on it a light hollow cone, AFG. From the lower part of
this cone there is extended a long arm of wood, GH,
which is very thin, and cut feather-edged. At its extre¬
mity there is a contrivance for fixing on the body whose
resistance is to be investigated (as here the globe P) ; and
to prevent the arm GH from swaying out of its horizontal
position by the weight of the annexed body P, there is a
brace, AH, of fine wire, fastened to the top of the cone
which supports the end of the arm.
“ Round the barrel BCDE there is wound a fine silk
line, the turns of which appear in the figure ; and after
this line has taken a sufficient number of turns, it is con¬
ducted nearly in a horizontal direction to the pulley L,
over which it is passed, and then a proper weight M is
hung to its extremity. If this weight be left at liberty, it
is obvious that it will descend by its own gravity, and will,
by its descent, turn round the barrel BCDE, together with
the arm GH, and the body P fastened to it. And whilst
the resistance on the arm GH and on the body P is less
than the weight M, that weight will accelerate its motion ;
and thereby the motion of GH and P will increase, and
consequently their resistance will increase, till at last this
resistance and the weight M become nearly equal to each
other. The motion with which M descends, and with
which P revolves, will not then sensibly differ from an equa¬
ble one. Whence it is not difficult to conceive, that, by
proper observations made with this machine, the resistance
of the body P may be determined. The most natural me¬
thod of proceeding in this investigation is as follows : Let
the machine first have acquired its equable motion, which
it will usually do in about five or six turns from the begin¬
ning ; and then let it be observed, by counting a number
of turns, what time is taken up by one revolution of the
body P : then taking off the body P and the wreight M, let
it be examined what smaller weight will make the arm GH
revolve in the same time as when P was fixed to it: this
smaller weight being taken from M, the remainder is ob¬
viously equal in effort to the resistance of the revolving
body P; and this remainder being reduced in the ratio of
the length of the arm to the semidiameter of the barrel,
will then become equal to the absolute quantity of the
resistance. And as the time of one revolution is known,
and consequently the velocity of the revolving body,
there is hereby discovered the absolute quantity of the re¬
sistance to the given body P moving with a given degree
of celerity.
“ Here, to avoid all objections, I have generally chosen,
when the body P was removed, to fix in its stead a thin
piece of lead of the same weight, placed horizontally : so
that the weight which was to turn round the arm GH,
without the body P, did also carry round this piece of lead.
But mathematicians will easily allow that there was no ne¬
cessity for this precaution. The diameter of the barrel
BCDE, and of the silk string wound round it, was 2,06 inch¬
es. The length of the arm GH, measured from the axis
to the surface of the globe P, was 49-5 inches. The body
P, the globe made use of, was of pasteboard ; its surface
very neatly coated with marbled paper. It was not much
distant from the size of a 12-lb. shot, being in diameter 4-5
inches, so that the radius of the circle described by the
centre of the globe was 51-75 inches. When this globe
was fixed at the end of the arm, and a weight of half a Theory,
pound was hung at the end of the string at M, it was exa-
mined how soon the motion of the descending weight M,
and of the revolving body P, would become equable as to
sense. With this view, three revolutions being suffered
to elapse, it was found that the next 10 were performed in
27!", 20 in less than 55", and 80 in 82,*7; so that the first
10 were performed in 27f" the second in 27i", and the
third in 271".
“ These experiments sufficiently evince, that even with
half a pound, the smallest weight made use of, the motion
of the machine was sufficiently equable after the first three
revolutions.
“The globe above mentioned being now fixed at the end of
the arm, there was hung on at M a weight of 3^ lb.; and ten
revolutions being suffered to elapse, the succeeding 20
were performed in 211". Then the globe being taken oft',
and a thin plate of lead, equal to it in w eight, placed in its
room ; it was found, that instead of 3^ lb. a weight of one
pound would make it revolve in less time than it did before,
performing now 20 revolutions after 10 were elapsed in the
space of 19".
“ Hence then it follows, that from the 3^ lb. first hung
on, there is less than 1 lb. to be deducted for the resistance
on the arm; and consequently the resistance on the globe
itself is not less than the effort of 2^ lb. in the situation M :
and it appearing from the former measures, that the radius
of the barrel is nearly ^ of the radius of the circle describ¬
ed by the centre of the globe, it follows, that the abso¬
lute resistance of the globe, when it revolves 20 times in
211" (about 25 feet in a second), is not less than the 50th
part of tw-o pounds and a quarter, or of 36 ounces; and
this being considerably more than half an ounce, and the
globe nearly the size of a 12-pound shot, it irrefragably
confirms a proposition I had formerly laid down from the-'
ory, that the resistance of the air to a 12-lb. iron shot, mov¬
ing w ith a velocity of 25 feet in a second, is not less than
half an ounce.
“ The rest of the experiments were made in order to
confirm another proposition, namely, that the resistance of
the air within certain limits is nearly in the duplicate pro¬
portion of the velocity of the resisted body. To investi¬
gate this point, there were successively hung on at M,
weights in the proportion of the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16 ; and
letting 10 revolutions first elapse, the following observa¬
tions w^ere made on the rest. With ^ lb. the globe went
20 turns in 54^7, with 2 lb. it went 20 turns in 27^", with
4i| lb. it went 30 turns in 27^", and with 8 lb. it went 40
turns in 27^". Hence it appears, that to resistances pro¬
portioned to the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, there correspond ve¬
locities of the resisted body in the proportion of the num-
bex-s 1, 2, 3, 4; which proves, with great nicety, the pro¬
position above mentioned.
“ With regard to the rotatory motion, the fix-st experi¬
ment was to evince, that the whirling motion of a ball com¬
bining with its progressive motion would produce such an
oblique resistance and deflective power as already mention¬
ed. For this purpose a wooden ball of 4^ inches diameter
w^as suspended by a double string about eight or nine feet
long. Now, by turning round the ball, and twisting the
double string, the ball when left to itself would have a revolv¬
ing motion given it from the untwisting of the string again.
And if, w-hen the string was tw-isted, the ball was drawn to
a considex-able distance from the perpendicular, and there
let go, it would at first, before it had acquired its revolving
motion, vibrate steadily enough in the same vertical plane
in which it first began to move ; but when, by the un¬
twisting of the string, it had acquired a sufficient degree of
its whirling motion, it constantly deflected to the right ox-
left of its first track, and sometimes proceeded so far as
to have its direction at right angles to that in which it be-
55
GUNNERY.
Iieory. wan its motion; and this deviation was not produced by tances of their traces on the first screen be taken fiom iheorv.
'*r‘w the string itself, but appeared to be entirely owing to the the like horizontal distances on the second and third, the
resistance being greater on the one part of the leading two remainders will be in the same proportion with the
surface of the globe than the other. For the deviation con- distances of the second and third screen from the first,
tinned when the string was totally untwisted, and even And if they are not in this proportion, then it will be cer-
during the time that the string, by the motion the globe tain that one of them at least has been deflected from
had received, was twisting the contrary way. And it was the vertical plane ; though here, as in the last case, the
always easy to predict, before the ball was let go, which quantity of that deflection in each will not be known,
way it would deflect, only by considering on which side “ All these three methods I have myself made use of at
the whirl would be combined with the progressive mo- different times, and have ever found the success agreeable
tion ; for on that side always the deflective power acted, to my expectation. But the most eligible method seemed
as the resistance was greater here than on the side where to be a compound of the two last. Ihe apparatus was as
the whirl and progressive motion were opposed to one follows. Two screens were set up in the larger walk in the
another” Charter-house garden; the first of them at 2o0 feet dis-
Though Mr Robins considered this experiment as an tance from the wall, which was to serve for a third screen ;
incontestible proof of the truth of his theory, he under- and the second 200 feet from the same wall. At fifty feet
took to give ocular demonstration of this deflection of mus- before the first screen, or at 300 feet from the wall, there
ket-bullets even in the short space of one hundred yards, was placed a large block weighing about 200 lbs. weight,
“ As all proiectiles,” says he, “ in their flight are act- and having fixed into it an iron bar with a socket at its
ed upon by the power of gravity, the deflection of a bul- extremity, in which the piece was to be laid. The piece
let from its primary direction supposes that deflection to itself was of a common length, and bored for an ounce
- 1 • . • .• i ,   ivoii r*- T.rae each time loaded w'ith a ball of 1/ to the
be upwards or downwards in a vertical plane ; because, in
the vertical plane, the action of gravity is compounded
and entangled with the deflective force. And for this
reason my experiments have been principally directed to
the examination of that deflection which carries the bul¬
let to the right or left of that plane in which it began
to move. For if it appears at any time that the bullet
has shifted from that vertical plane in which the motion
began, this will be an incontestible proof of what we have
advanced. Now, by means of screens of exceeding thin
ball. It was
pound, so that the windage was extremely small, and with
a quarter of an ounce of good powder. The screens were
made of the thinnest tissue paper; and the resistance
they gave to the bullet (and consequently their probabi¬
lity of deflecting it) was so small, that a bullet lighting
one time near the extremity of one of the screens, left a
fine thin fragment of it towards the edge entire, which
was so very weak that it was difficult to handle it without
breaking. These things thus prepared, five shots were
paper, placed parallel to each other at proper distances, made with the piece rested in the notch above mentioned ,
this deflection in question may be many ways investi- and the horizontal distances between the first shot, whidi
gated. For by firing bullets which shall traverse the was taken as a standard, and the four succeeding ones,
screens, the flight of the bullet may be traced ; and it both on the first and second screen, and on toe wall, mea-
may easily appear whether they do or do not keep invaria- sured in inches, were as follows .
bly to one vertical plane. This examination may proceed First Screen,
on three different principles, which I shall here separate- 1 to 2 T75 R.
ly explain. 3 10 L.
“ For, first, an exactly vertical plane may be traced out 4 T25 L.
upon all these screens, by which the deviation of any sin- 5 2’15 L.
gle bullet may be more readily investigated, only by mea- c< Here
suring the horizontal distance of its trace from the verti¬
cal plane thus delineated; and by this means the absolute
quantity of its aberration may be known. Or if the de-
Second Screen.
3- 15 R.
15-6 L.
4- 5 L.
5- 1 L.
Wall.
16-7 R.
69-25 L.
15-0 L.
19-0 L.
the letters R and L denote that the shot in
question went either to the right or left of the first.
“ If the position of the socket in which the piece was
placed be supposed fixed, then the horizontal distances
scription of such a vertical plane should be esteemed a measure(i above on the first and second screen, and on
matter of difficulty and nicety, a second method may be the wal]) ht t0 be in proportion to the distances of the
followed, which is that of resting the piece in some fixed first screenj the second screen, and the wall, from the
notch or socket, so that though the piece may have some socket- But by on]y looking over these numbers, it ap-
little play to the right and left, yet all the lines in which g that n0neof them are in that proportion ; the hori-
 digtance of the first and third, for instance, on the
the bullet can be directed shall intersect each other in
the centre of that fixed socket: by this means, if two dif¬
ferent shots are fired from the piece thus situated, the
horizontal distances made by the two bullets on any two
screens ought to be in the same proportion to each other
as the respective distances of the screens from the socket
in which the piece was laid. And if these horizontal dis¬
tances differ from that proportion, then it is certain that
one of the shots at least has deviated from a vertical
plane, although the absolute quantity of that deviation
cannot hence be assigned, because it cannot be known
what part of it is to be imputed to one bullet, and what
to the other.
“ But if the constant and invariable position of the
notch or socket in which the piece w-as placed be thought
too hard an hypothesis in this very nice affair, the third
method, and which is the simplest of all, requires no more
than that two shot be fired through three screens with¬
out any regard to the position of the piece each time :
for in this case, if the shots diverge from each other, and
both keep to a vertical plane, then, if the horizontal dis-
wall being above nine inches more than it should be by
this analogy.
“ If, without supposing the invariable position of the
socket, we examine the comparative horizontal distances
according to the third method described above, we shall
in this case discover divarications still more extraordinary ;
for by the numbers set down it appears that the horizon¬
tal distances of the second and third shot on the two
screens, and on the wall, are as under.
First Screen. Second Screen. Wall.
11-75 18-75 83-95
Here, if, according to the rule given above, the distance
on the first screen be taken from the distances on the other
two, the remainder will be 7 and 72-2; and these num¬
bers, if each shot kept to a vertical plane, ought to be in
the proportion of 1 to 5; that being the proportion of the
distances of the second screen, and of the wall, from the
first: but the last number 72-2 exceeds what it ought to
be by this analogy by 37-2; so that between them there
56
GUNNERY.
Theory.
is a deviation from the vertical plane of above thirty-seven
inches, and this too in a transit of little more than eighty
yards.
“ But farther, to show that these irregularities do not
depend on any accidental circumstance of the balls fitting
or not fitting the piece, there were five shots more made
with the same quantity of powder as before, but with
smaller bullets, which ran much looser in the piece. And
the horizontal distances being measured in inches from
the trace of the first bullet to each of the succeeding ones,
the numbers were as under.
1 to 2
3
4
5
First Screen.
15-6 R.
6’4 L.
4-7 R.
12-6 R.
Second Screen.
31*1 R.
12-75 L.
8-5 R.
240 R.
Wall.
94-0 R.
23-0 L.
15-5 R.
63-5 R.
Here, again, on the supposed fixed position of the piece,
the horizontal distance on the wall between the first and
third will be found above fifteen inches less than it should
be if each kept to a vertical plane ; and like irregularities,
though smaller, occur in every other experiment. And
if they are examined according to the third method set
down above, and the horizontal distances of the third and
fourth, for instance, are compared, those on the first and
second screen, and on the wall, appear to be thus.
First Screen. Second Screen. Wall.
1M 21-25 38-5
“ And if the horizontal distance on the first screen be
taken from the other two, the remainders will be 10-15
and 27-4 ; where the least of them, instead of being five
times the first, as it ought to be, is 45-35 short of it; so
that here is a deviation of forty-five inches.
“ From all these experiments, the deflection in ques¬
tion seems to be incontestibly evinced. But to give some
farther light to this subject, I took a barrel of the same bore
with that hitherto used, and bent it at about three or four
inches from its muzzle to the left, the bend making an
angle of three or four degrees with the axis of the piece.
This piece thus bent was fired with a loose ball, and the
same quantity of powder hitherto used, the screens of the
last experiment being still continued. It was natural to
expect, that if this piece was pointed by the general di¬
rection of its axis, the ball would be canted to the left of
that direction by the bend near its mouth. But as the
bullet, in passing through that bent part, would, as I con¬
ceived, be forced to roll upon the right-hand side of the
barrel, and thereby its left side would turn up against the
air, and would increase the resistance on that side, I
predicted to the company then present, that if the axis
on which the bullet whirled did not shift its position after
it was separated from the piece, then, notwithstanding the
bend of the piece to the left, the bullet itself might be
expected to incurvate towards the right; and this, upon
trial, did most remarkably happen. For one of the bul¬
lets fired from this bent piece passed through the first
screen about 1-g- inch distant from the trace of one of the
shots fired from the straight piece in the last set of ex¬
periments. On the second screen, the traces of the same
bullets were about three inches distant; the bullet from
the ciooked piece passing on both screens to the left of
the other; but comparing the places of these bullets-on
the wall, it appeared that the bullet from the crook¬
ed piece, though it diverged from the track on the two
screens, had now crossed that track, and was deflected
considerably to the right of it; so that it was obvious,
that though the bullet from the crooked piece might first
be canted to the left, and had diverged from the track of
the other bullet with which it was compared, yet by de¬
grees it deviated again to the right, and a little beyond
the second screen crossed that track from which it before
diverged, and on the wall was deflected fourteen inches,
as I remember, on the contrary side. And this experi¬
ment is not only the most convincing proof of the reality
of this deflection here contended for; but is likewise the
strongest confirmation that it is brought about in the
very manner and by the very circumstances which we
have all along described.
“ I have now only to add, that as I suspected the consi¬
deration of the revolving motion of the bullet, compounded
with its progressive one, might be considered as a subject
of mathematical speculation, and that the reality of any de¬
flecting force thence arising might perhaps be denied by
some computists, upon the principles hitherto received of
the action of fluids, I thought proper to annex a few expe¬
riments, with a view of evincing the strange deficiency of
all theories of this sort hitherto established, and the unex¬
pected and wonderful varieties which occur in these mat¬
ters. The proposition which I advanced for this purpose
being, that two equal surfaces meeting the air with the
same degree of obliquity, may be so differently resisted,
that though in one of them the resistance is less than that
of a perpendicular surface meeting the same quantity of
air, yet in another it shall be considerably greater.
“ To make out this proposition, I made use of the ma¬
chine already described ; and having prepared a pasteboard
pyramid, whose base was four inches square, and whose
planes made angles of 45° with the plane of its base, and
also a parallelogram four inches in breadth, and 5| in
length, which was equal to the surface of the pyramid, the
globe P was taken off from the machine, and the pyramid
was first fixed on ; and 2 lb. being hung at M, and the py¬
ramid so fitted as to move with its vertex forwards, it per¬
formed twenty revolutions after the first ten were elapsed
in 33". Then the pyramid being turned so that its base,
which was a plane of four inches square, went foremost, it
now performed twenty revolutions with the same weight
in 38|". After this, taking off the pyramid, and fixing on
the parallelogram with its longer side perpendicular to the
arm, and placing its surface in an angle of 45° with the
horizon by a quadrant, the parallelogram, with the same
weight, performed twenty revolutions in 431".
“ Now here this parallelogram and the surface of the
pyramid are equal to each other, and each of them met the
air in an angle of 45° ; and yet one of them made twenty
revolutions in 33", whilst the other took up 431". And at
the same time it appears that a flat surface, such as the
base of a pyramid, which meets the same quantity of air
perpendicularly, makes twenty revolutions in 38^", which
is the medium between the other two.
“ But to give another and still more simple proof of this
principle, there was taken a parallelogram four inches
broad and 8^th long. This being fixed at the end of the
arm, with its long side perpendicular thereto, and being
placed in an angle of 45° with the horizon, there was a
weight hung on at M of 3^ lb. with which the parallelo¬
gram made twenty revolutions in 40f". But after this,
the position of the parallelogram was shifted, and it was
placed with its shorter side perpendicular to the arm,
though its surface was still inclined to an angle of 45° with
the horizon ; and now, instead of going slower, as might
have been expected from the greater extent of part of its
surface from the axis of the machine, it went round much
faster ; for in this last situation it made twenty revolutions
in 35|", so that there were 5" difference in the time of
twenty revolutions ; and this from no other change of cir¬
cumstance than as the larger or shorter side of the oblique
plane was perpendicular to the line of its direction.”
In the seventy-third volume of the Philosophical Trans¬
actions, several experiments on this subject, but upon a
larger scale, are related by Lovell Edgeworth, Esq. They
Theorr.
GUNNERY.
57
r eory. confirm the truth of what Mr Robins advances, but no-
'I- thing is said to explain the reason of it. ^
These are the principal experiments made by Mr Robins
in confirmation of his theory, and which not only far ex¬
ceed every thing that had been previously done, but point
out the only method by which the art ol gunnery may be
still further improved. It must be observed, however, that
in this art it is impossible we should ever arrive at ab¬
solute perfection; that is, it can never be expected that
a gunner, by any method of calculation whatever, can be
enabled to point his guns in such a manner that the snot
shall hit the mark if placed any where within its range.
Aberration which can by no means be either foreseen or
prevented, will take place from a great number of different
causes. A variation in the density of the atmosphere, in
the dampness of the powder, or in the figure of the shot,
will cause variations in the range of the bullet, which can¬
not by any means be reduced to rules, and consequently
must render the event of each shot very precarious. The
resistance of the atmosphere simply considered, without any
of those anomalies arising from its density at different times,
is a problem which, notwithstanding the labours of Mr
Robins and others, has not been completely solved ; and
indeed if we consider the matter in a physical light, avc
shall find that without some other data than those which are
yet obtained, an exact solution of it is impossible.
An objection has been made to the mathematical phi¬
losophy, to which in many cases it is most certainly lia¬
ble, that it considers the resistance of matter more than
its capacity of giving motion to other matter. Hence,
if in any case matter acts both as a resisting and a moving
power, and the mathematician overlooks its effort towards
motion, founding his demonstrations only upon its proper¬
ty of resisting, these demonstrations will certainly be false.
It is to an error of this kind that we are to attribute the
great differences already noticed between the calcula¬
tions of Sir Isaac Newton, with regard to the resisting
force of fluids, and what actually takes place upon trial.
These calculations were made upon the supposition that
the fluid through which a body moved could do nothing
else but resist it; yet it is certain that the air (the fluid
with which we have to do at present) proves a source of
motion, as well as resistance, to all bodies which move in it.
To understand this matter fully, let ABC (fig. 16) repre¬
sent a crooked tube made of any solid matter, and a, Z>, two
pistons which exactly fill the cavity. If the space between
these pistons be full of air, it is plain they cannot come into
contact with each other, on account of the elasticity of the
included air, but will remain at some certain distance, as
represented in the figure. If the piston b be drawn up, the
air which presses in the direction C6 acts as a resisting
power, and the piston will not be drawn up with such ease^
as if the whole was in vacuo. But though the column of
air pressing in the direction C6 acts as a resisting power on
the piston b, the column pressing in the direction Aa will
act as a moving power upon the piston a. It is therefore
plain, that if b be moved upwards till it comes to the place
marked d, the other will descend to that marked c. Now,
if we suppose the piston a to be removed, it is plain that
when b is pulled upwards to d, the air descending through
the leg AaCB will press on the under side of the piston b, as
strongly as it would have done upon the upper side of the
piston a, had it been present. Therefore, though the air
passing down through the leg CB resists the motion of the
piston b when drawn upwards, the air pressing down through
the leg AB forwards it as much; and accordingly the pis¬
ton b may be drawn up or pushed down at pleasure, and
with very little trouble. But if the orifice at A be stopped,
so that the air can only exert its resisting power on the
piston b, it will require a considerable degree of strength to
move the piston from b to d.
VOL. XI.
If now we suppose the tube to be entirely removed Theory,
(which indeed answers no other purpose than to render
the action of the air more evident), it is plain that if the
piston be moved either up or down, or in any other direc¬
tion we can imagine, the air will press as much upon the
back part of it as it resists it on the fore part; and conse¬
quently a ball moving through the air with any degree of
velocity, ought to be as much accelerated by the action of
the air behind, as it is retarded by the action of that before.
Here then it is natural to ask, If the air accelerates a mov¬
ing body as much as it retards it, how comes it to make
any resistance at all? Yet certain it is that this fluid does
resist, and that very considerably. To this it may be an¬
swered, that the air is always kept in some certain state or
constitution by another power which rules all its motions,
and it is this power undoubtedly which gives the resistance.
It is not to our purpose at present to inquire what that
power is, but we see that the air is often in very different
states; one day, for instance, its parts are violently agitat¬
ed by a storm, and another perhaps they are comparative¬
ly at rest in a calm. In the first case, nobody hesitates to
own that the storm is occasioned by some cause or other,
which violently resists any other pow er that would prevent
the agitation of the air. In a calm the case is the same;
for it would require the same exertion of power to excite
a tempest in a calm day as to allay a tempest in a stormy
one. Now it is evident that all projectiles, by their mo¬
tion, agitate the atmosphere in an unnatural manner, and
consequently are resisted by that power, whatever it is,
which tends to restore the equilibrium, or bring back the
atmosphere to its former state.
If no other power besides that above mentioned acted
upon projectiles, it is probable that all resistance to their
motion would be in the duplicate proportion of their velo¬
cities ; and accordingly, as long as their velocity is small,
we find that generally it is so. But when the velocity comes
to be exceedingly great, other sources of resistance arise.
One of these is a subtraction of part of the moving power,
which, though not properly a resistance, or opposing an¬
other power to it, is an equivalent thereto. This subtrac¬
tion arises from the follow ing cause: The air, as wre have
already observed, presses upon the hinder part of the mov¬
ing body by its gravity, as much as it resists the fore part
of it by the same property'. Nevertheless the velocity with
which the air presses upon any body by means of its gra¬
vity is limited ; and it is possible that a body may change
its place with so great velocity that the air has not time
to rush in upon the back part of it in order to assist its
progressive motion. When this happens to be the case,
there is in the first place a deficiency of the moving pow er
equivalent to fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface,
at the same time that there is a positive resistance of as
much more on the fore part, owing to the gravity of the
atmosphere, which must be overcome before the body can
move forward.
This deficiency of moving power, and increase of resist¬
ance, do not only take place when the body moves with a
very great degree of velocity, but in all motions whatsoever.
It is not in all cases perceptible, because the velocity with
which the body moves frequently bears but a very small
proportion to the velocity with which the air presses in be¬
hind it. Thus, supposing the velocity with which the air
rushes into a vacuum to be 1200 feet in a second, if a body
moves wdth a velocity of 40 or 50 feet in a second, the force
with which the air presses on the back part is but gJjth at
the utmost less than that which resists on the fore part of it,
which will not be perceptible ; but if, as in the case of bul¬
lets, the velocity of the projectile comes to have a consider¬
able proportion to the velocity wherewith the air rushes in
behind it, then a very perceptible and otherwise unac¬
countable resistance is observed, as we have seen in the
H
58
GUNNERY.
Theory, experiments already related by Mr Robins. Thus, if the
—   air presses in with a velocity of 1200 feet in a second, and
if the body changes its place with a velocity of 600 feet in
the same time, there is a resistance of fifteen pounds on the
fore part, and a pressure of only 7-| on the back part. The
resistance therefore not only overcomes the moving power
of the air by 7^ pounds, but there is a deficiency of other
7£ pounds owing to the want of half the pressure of the at¬
mosphere on the back part, and thus the whole loss of the
moving power is equivalent to 15 pounds ; and hence the
exceeding great increase of resistance observed by Mr Ro¬
bins beyond what it ought to be according to the common
computations. The velocity with which the air rushes into
a vacuum is therefore a desideratum in gunnery. Mr Ro¬
bins supposes that it is the same with the velocity of sound ;
and that when a bullet moves with a velocity greater than
that of 1200 feet in a second, it leaves a perfect vacuum be¬
hind it. Hence he accounts for the great increase of resist¬
ance to bullets moving with such velocities ; but as he does
not take notice of the loss of the air’s moving power, the ano¬
malies of all lesser velocities are inexplicable on his princi¬
ples. Nay, he even tells us that Sir Isaac Newton’s rule for
computing resistances may be applied in all velocities less
than 1100 or 1200 feet in a second, though this is expressly
contradicted by his own experiments already mentioned.
Though for these reasons it is evident how great diffi¬
culties must occur in attempting to calculate the resistance
of the air to military projectiles, we have not yet even dis¬
covered all the sources of resistance to these bodies when
moving with immense velocities. Another power by which
they are opposed, and which at last becomes greater than
any of those hitherto mentioned, is the air’s elasticity. This,
however, will not begin to show itself in the way of resist¬
ance till the velocity of the moving body becomes consi¬
derably greater than that by which the air presses into a
vacuum. Having therefore first ascertained this velocity,
which we shall suppose to be 1200 feet in a second, it is
plain that if a body moves with a velocity of 1800 feet in
a second, it must compress the air before it; because the
fluid has neither time to expand itself in order to fill the
vacuum left behind the moving body, nor to rush in by its
gravity. This compression it will resist by its elastic
power, which thus becomes a new source of resistance, in¬
creasing, without any limit, in proportion to the velocity of
the moving body. If now we suppose the moving body to
set out with a velocity of 2400 feet in a second, it is plain
that there is not only a vacuum left behind the body, but
the air before it is compressed into half its natural space.
The loss of motion in the projectile therefore is now very
considerable. It first loses 15 pounds on every square
inch of surface on account of the deficiency of the mov¬
ing power of the air behind it, then it loses 15 pounds
more on account of the resistance of the air before it;
again, it loses 15 pounds on account of the elasticity of the
compressed air ; and, lastly, it loses another 15 pounds
on account of the vacuum behind, which takes off the
weight of the atmosphere, that would have been equiva¬
lent to one half of the elasticity of the air before it. The
whole resistance therefore upon every square inch of sur¬
face moving with this velocity is 60 pounds, besides that
which arises from the power tending to preserve the gene¬
ral state of the atmosphere, and which increases in the du¬
plicate proportion of the velocity, as already mentioned. If
the body is supposed to move with a velocity of 4800 feet
in a second, the resistance from the elasticity of the air will
then be quadrupled, or amount to 60 pounds on the square
inch of surface, which, added to the other causes, will pro¬
duce a resistance of 105 pounds upon the square inch ; and
thus the resistance from the elasticity of the air would go on
continually increasing, till at last the motion of the projec¬
tile would be as effectually stopped as if it were fired against
a wall. This obstacle therefore we are to consider as really
insuperable by any art whatsoever, and therefore it is not
advisable to use larger charges of powder than what will
project the shot with a velocity of 1200 feet in a second.
To this velocity the elasticity of the air will not make great
resistance, if indeed it makes any at all; for though Mr Ro¬
bins has conjectured that air rushes into a vacuum with the
velocity of sound, or between 1100 and 1200 feet in a se¬
cond, yet we have no decisive proof of the truth of this sup¬
position. At this velocity, indeed, according to Mr Robins,
a very sudden increase of resistance takes place; but this
is denied by Mr Glenie, in his History of Gunnery (p. 48,
50), who supposes that the resistance proceeds gradually ;
and indeed it seems to be pretty obvious that the resistance
cannot very suddenly increase, if the velocity be only in¬
creased in a small degree. Yet it is certain that the swift¬
est motions with which cannon-balls can be projected are
very soon reduced to the standard ; for Mr Robins informs
us, that “ a 24-pound shot, when discharged with a velocity
of 2000 feet in a second, will be reduced to that of 1200
feet in a second in a flight of little more than 500 yards.”
In the seventy-first volume of the Philosophical Transac¬
tions, Count Rumford has proposed a new method of deter¬
mining the velocities of bullets, by measuring the force of
the recoil of the piece. As in all cases action and re-action
are supposed to be equal to one another, it appears that
the momentum of a gun, or the force of its recoil back¬
wards, must always be equivalent to the force of its charge ;
that is, the velocity with which the gun recoils, multiplied
into its weight, is equal to the velocity of the bullet mul¬
tiplied into its weight; for every particle of matter, whether
solid or fluid, that issues out of the mouth of a piece, must
be impelled by the action of some power, which power must
re-act with equal force against the bottom of the bore. Even
the fine elastic invisible fluid which is generated from the pow¬
der in its inflammation cannot put itself in motion without
at the same time re-acting against the gun. Thus we see
pieces, when they are fired with powder alone, recoil as
well as when their charges are made to impel a weight of
shot, though the recoil is not in the same degree in both
cases. It is easy to determine the velocity of the recoil in
any given case, by suspending the gun in an horizontal po¬
sition by two pendulous rods, and measuring the arc of its
ascent by means of a ribbon, as mentioned under the arti¬
cle Gunpowder ; and this will give the momentum of the
gun, its weight being known, and consequently the mo¬
mentum of its charge. But in order to determine the ve¬
locity of the bullet from the momentum of the recoil, it
will be necessary to know how much the weight and velo¬
city of the elastic fluid contribute towards it.
That part of the recoil which arises from the expan¬
sion of the fluid is always very nearly the same, whether
the powder is fired alone, or whether the charge is made
to impel one or more bullets, as has been determined by
a great variety of experiments. If therefore a gun, sus¬
pended according to the method prescribed, is fired with
any given charge of powder, but without any bullet or
wad, and the recoil is observed, and if the same piece is
afterwards fired with the same quantity of powder, and a
bullet of a known weight, the excess of the velocity of
the recoil in the latter case, over that in the former, will
be proportional to the velocity of the bullet; for the dif¬
ference of these velocities, multiplied into the weight of
the gun, will be equal to the weight of the bullet multi¬
plied into its velocity. Thus, if W is put equal to the
weight of the gun, U = the velocity of the bullet when
fired with a given charge of powder without any bullet;
Y = the velocity of the recoil when the same charge is
made to impel a bullet; B zr the weight of the bullet,
. . (V — U) W
and v — its velocity; it will be v =;  —.
Theory.
'"’-‘V'O
GUNN
ieory. To determine how far this theory agreed with practice,
an experiment was made with a charge of 165 grains of
powder, without any bullet, which produced a recoil of
5-5 inches; and in another, with a bullet, the recoil was
5‘6 inches, the mean of which is 5*55 inches, answering
to a velocity of 1T358 feet in a second. In five experi¬
ments with the same charge of powder, and a bullet weigh¬
ing 580 grains, the mean was 14‘6 inches; and the velo¬
city of the recoil answering to the length just mentioned,
is 2-9880 feet in a second; consequently V — U, or
2-9880 — 1*1358, is equal to 1-8522 feet in a second.
But as the velocities of recoil are known to be as the
chords of the arcs through which the barrel ascends, it is
not necessary, in order to determine the velocity of the
bullet, to compute the velocities V and U; but the quan¬
tity V — U, or the difference of the velocities of the re¬
coil when the given charge is fired with and without a
bullet, may be computed from the value of the difference
of the chords by one operation. Thus the velocity an¬
swering to the chord 9-05 is that of 1-8522 feet in a se¬
cond, which is just equal to V — U, as was before found.
In this experiment the weight of the barrel with its
carriage was just 47^ pounds, to which ^ths of a pound
were to be added on account of the weight of the rods by
which it was suspended; thus making W = 48 pounds,
or 336,000 grains. The weight of the bullet was 580
grains; whence B is to W as 580 to 336,000, that is, as
1 to 579*31 very nearly. The value of V — U, answer¬
ing to the experiments before mentioned, was found to be
T8522; consequently the velocity of the bullet = v, was
1*8522 X 579*31 = 1073 feet, which differs only by 10
from 1083, the velocities found by the pendulum.
The velocities of the bullets may be found from the re¬
coil by a still more simple method. For the velocities of
the recoil being as the chords measured upon the ribbon,
if c is put equal to the chord of the recoil expressed in
English inches, when the piece is fired with powder only,
and C — the chord when the same piece is charged with
a bullet; then C — c will be as V — U; and consequent¬
ly as which measures the velocity of the bul¬
let, the ratio of W to B remaining the same. If therefore
we suppose a case in which C — c is equal to one inch,
and the velocity of the bullet is computed from that chord,
the velocity in any other case, wherein C — c is greater
or less than one inch, will be found by multiplying the
difference of the chords C and c by the velocity answer¬
ing to the difference of one inch. The length of the
parallel rods by which the piece was suspended being 64
inches, the velocity of the recoil, z= C — c = 1 inch mea¬
sured upon the ribbon, is 0-204655 parts of a foot in one
second, which in this case is also the value of V — U;
the velocity of the bullet, or v, is therefore 0-204655 X
579-31 — 118-35 feet in a second. Hence the velocity
of the bullet may in all cases be found by multiplying the
difference of the chords C and c by 118-35, the weight of
the barrel, the length of the rods by which it is suspend¬
ed, and the weight of the bullet, remaining the same ;
and this whatever the charge of powder made use of may
be, and however it may differ in strength and goodness.
The exactness of this second method wdll appear from
the following experiments. On firing the piece with 145
grains of powder and a bullet, the mean of three sets of
experiments was 13*25, 13*15, and 13-2; and with the
same charge of powder without a bullet, the recoil was
4-5, 4-3, or 4-4. C — c therefore was 13-2 — 4-4 = 8-8
inches ; and the velocity of the bullets, = 8 8 X 118*35
B R Y. 59
= 1045 feet in a second ; the velocities by the pendulum Theory,
coming out 10*40 feet in the same space of time.
In the far greater number of experiments to determine
the comparative accuracy of the two methods, a surpris¬
ing agreement was found between the last-mentioned one
and that by the pendulum ; but in some few the differences
were very remarkable. Thus, in two where the recoil
was 12*92 and 13*28, the velocity, by computation from
the chords, is 1030 feet per second; but in computing by
the pendulum it amounted only to 900 ; in these, however,
some inaccuracy was suspected in the experiment with
the pendulum, and the computation from the recoil was
most to be depended upon. In another experiment, the
velocity by the recoil exceeded that by the pendulum by
no less than 346 feet; the former showing 2109, and the
latter only 1763 feet in a second. In two others the pen¬
dulum was also deficient, though not in such a degree. In
all these it is remarkable, that w-here the difference was
considerable, it was still in favour of the recoil. The de¬
ficiency in these experiments appears to have been some¬
what embarrassing to our author. “ It cannot be sup¬
posed,” says he, “ that it arose from any imperfection in
Mr Jlobins’s method of determining the velocities of bul¬
lets ; for that method is founded upon such principles as
leave no room to doubt of its accuracy; and the practi¬
cal errors that occur in making the experiments, and
which cannot be entirely prevented, or exactly compen¬
sated, are in general so small, that the difference in the
velocities cannot be attributed to them. It is true, the
effect of those errors is more likely to appear in experi¬
ments made under such circumstances as the present; for
the bullet being very light,1 the arc of the ascent of the
pendulum was but small; and a small mistake in measur¬
ing the chord upon the ribbon would have produced a
very considerable error in computing the velocity of the
bullet. Thus a difference of one tenth of an inch, more
or less, upon the ribbon, in that experiment where the
difference was greatest, would have made a difference in
the velocity of more than 120 feet in a second. But, in¬
dependent of the pains that were taken to prevent mis¬
takes, the striking agreement of the velocities in so many
other experiments affords abundant reason to conclude,
that the errors arising from those causes were in no case
very considerable. But if both methods of determining
the velocities of bullets are to be relied on, then the dif¬
ference of the velocities, as determined by them in these
experiments, can only be accounted for by supposing that
it arose from their having been diminished by the resist¬
ance of the air in the passage of the bullets from the mouth
of the piece to the pendulum; and this suspicion will be
much strengthened, when we consider how great the re¬
sistance of the air is to bodies that move very swiftly in
it; and that the bullets in these experiments were not
only projected with great velocities, but were also very
light, and consequently more liable to be retarded by the
resistance on that account.
“ To put the matter beyond all doubt, let us see what
the resistance was that these bullets met with, and how
much their velocities were diminished by it. The weight
of the bullet in the most erroneous experiment was 90
grains, its diameter 0*78 of an inch, and it was projected
with a velocity of 2109 feet in a second. If now a com¬
putation be made according to the law laid down by Sir
Isaac Newton for compressed fluids, it will be found, that
the resistance of this bullet was not less than 8^ pounds
avoirdupois, which is something more than 660 times its
own weight. But Mr Robins has shown by experiment,
that the resistance of the air to bodies moving in it with
1 They were made of lead, enclosing in a nucleus of Paris plaster.
60
GUNNERY.
Theory, very great velocity, is near three times greater than Sir
Isaac has determined it; and as the velocity with which
this bullet was impelled is considerably greater than any
in Mr Robins’s experiments, it is highly probable that the
resistance in this instance was at least 2000 times greater
than the weight of the bullet.
“ The distance from the mouth of the piece to the pen¬
dulum was 12 feet; but, as there is reason to think that
the blast of the powder, which always follows the bullet,
continues to act upon it for some sensible space of time
after it is out of the bore, and, by urging it on, counter¬
balances, or at least counteracts, in a great measure, the
resistance of the air, we will suppose that the resistance
does not begin, or rather that the motion of the bullet
does not begin to be retarded, till it has got to the dis¬
tance of two feet from the muzzle. The distance, there¬
fore, between the barrel and the pendulum, instead of 12
feet, is to be esteemed at 10 feet; and as the bullet took
up about ~Y~cf~2 Part a second in running over that space,
it must in that time have lost a velocity of about 335 feet
in a second, as will appear upon making the computation ;
and this will very exactly account for the apparent dimi¬
nution of the velocity in the experiment; for the differ¬
ence of the velocities, as determined by the recoil and
the pendulum 2109 — 1763 ~ 346 feet in a second,
is extremely near 335 feet in a second, the diminution of
the velocity by the resistance as here determined.
“ If the diminution of the velocities of the bullets in the
two subsequent experiments be computed in like manner,
it will turn out in one 65, and in the other 33, feet in a se¬
cond ; and, making these corrections, the comparison of the
two methods of ascertaining the velocities will stand thus:
Velocities by the pendulum 1763 1317 1136
Resistance of air to be added 335 65 33
Velocity by the recoil.
2098 1382 1169
.2109 1430 1288
Difference after correction + 11 -{-48 + 119
“ It appears, therefore, that notwithstanding these cor¬
rections, the velocities as determined by the pendulum,
particularly in the last, were considerably deficient. But
the manifest irregularity of the velocities in those instances,
affords abundant reason to conclude, that it must have
arisen from some accidental cause, and therefore that lit¬
tle dependence is to be put upon the result of those ex¬
periments. I cannot take upon me to determine positive¬
ly what the cause was which produced this irregularity;
but I strongly suspect that it arose from the breaking of
the bullets in the barrel by the force of the explosion:
for these bullets, as has already been mentioned, were
formed of lead, enclosing lesser bullets of plaster of Paris;
and I well remember to have observed at the time several
small fragments of the plaster which had fallen down by
the side of the pendulum. I confess I did not then pay
much attention to this circumstance, as I naturally con¬
cluded that it arose from the breaking of the bullet in pe¬
netrating the target of the pendulum ; and that the small
pieces of plaster I saw upon the ground had fallen out of
the hole by which the bullet entered. .But if the bullets
were not absolutely broken in pieces in firing, yet if they
were considerably bruised, and the plaster, or a part of it,
were separated from the lead, such a change in the form
might produce a great increase in the resistance, and even
their initial velocities might be affected by it; for their
form being changed from that of a globe' to some other
figure, they might not fit the bore ; and a part of the force
of the charge might be lost by the windage. That this
actually happened in the experiment last mentioned seems
very probable, as the velocity with which the bullet was
projected, as it was determined by the recoil, was consi¬
derably less in proportion in that experiment than in many
others which preceded and followed it in the same set.
“ As allowance has been made for the resistance of the
air in these cases, it may be expected that the same should
be done in all other cases ; but it will probably appear,
upon inquiry, that the diminution of the velocities of the
bullets on that account was so inconsiderable, that it might
safely be neglected : thus, for instance, in the experiments
with an ounce of powder, when the velocity of the bullet
was more than 1750 feet in a second, the diminution turns
out no more than 25 or 30 feet in a second, though we
suppose the full resistance to have begun so near as two
feet from the mouth of the piece ; and in all cases where
the velocity was less, the effect of the resistance was less
in a much greater proportion ; and even in this instance
there is reason to think, that the diminution of the velo-
citjf, as we have determined it, is too great; for the flame
of gunpowder expands with such amazing rapidity, that
it is scarcely to be supposed but that it follows the bullet,
and continues to act upon it more than two feet, or even
four feet, from the gun ; and when the velocity of the
bullet is less, its action upon it must be sensible at a still
greater distance.”
As this method of determining the velocities of bullets
by the recoil of the piece did not occur to Count Rum-
ford till after he had finished his experiments with a pen¬
dulum, and taken down his apparatus, he had it not in
his power to determine the comparative strength of the
recoil with and without a bullet; and consequently the
velocity with which the flame issues from the mouth of a
piece. He is of opinion, however, that every thing relat¬
ing to these matters may be determined with greater ac¬
curacy by the new method than by any other formerly
practised; and he very justly remarks, that the method
of determining the velocity by the recoil, gives it origi¬
nally as the bullet sets out; whilst that by the pendulum
shows it only after a part has been destroyed by the re¬
sistance of the air. In the course of his remarks, he cri¬
ticises a part of Mr Robins’ theory, that when bullets
of the same diameter, but of different weights, are dis¬
charged from the same piece by the same quantity of
powder, their velocities are in the subdupiicate ratio of
their weight. This theory, he observes, is manifestly de¬
fective, as being founded upon a supposition, that the ac¬
tion of the elastic fluid generated from the powder is
always the same in any and every given part of the bore
when the charge is the same, whatever may be the weight
of the bullet; and as no allowance is made for the expendi¬
ture of force required to put the fluid itself in motion, nor
for the loss of it by the vent. “ It is true,” says he, “ Dr
Hutton in his experiments found this law to obtain with¬
out any great error; and possibly it may hold good with
sufficient accuracy in many cases; for it sometimes hap¬
pens that a number of errors or actions, whose operations
have a contrary tendency, so compensate each other, that
their effects when united are not sensible. But when
this is the case, if any one of the causes of error is re¬
moved, those which remain will be detected. When any
given charge is loaded with a heavy bullet, more of the
powder is inflamed in any very short space of time than
when the bullet is lighter, and the action of the powder
ought upon that account to be greater; but a heavy bul¬
let takes up longer time in passing through the bore than
a light one, and consequently more of the elastic fluid
generated from the powder escapes by the vent and by
windage. It may happen that the augmentation of the
force, on account of one of these circumstances, may be
just able to counterbalance the diminution of it arising
from the other; and if it should be found upon trial that
this is the case in general, in pieces as they are now con¬
structed, and with all the variety of shot that are made
Theory.
•actice. use of in practice, it would be of great use to know the
—s-***' fact; but when, with Mr Robins, concluding too hastily
from the result of a partial experiment, we suppose, that
because the sum total of the pressure of the elastic fluid
upon the bullet, during the time of its passage through
the bore, happens to be the same when bullets of different
weights are made use of, that therefore it is always so,
our reasonings may prove very inconclusive, and lead to
very dangerous errors.”
In the prosecution of his subject Count Rumford proves
mathematically, as well as by actual experiment, that the
theory laid down by Mr Robins in this respect is errone¬
ous. The excess is in favour of heavy bullets, which ac¬
quire a velocity greater than they ought to do according
to Mr Robins’s rule; and so considerable are the errors,
that in one of Count Rumford’s experiments the differ¬
ence was no less than 2042 feet in a second. When the
weight of the bullet was increased four times, the action
of the powder was found to be nearly doubled ; for in one
experiment, when four bullets were discharged at once,
the collective pressure was as one ; but when only a single
bullet was made use of, it was no moi’e than 0-5825; and
upon the whole he concludes, that the velocity of bullets
is in the reciprocal subtriplicate ratio of their weights.
Our author observes also, that Mr Robins is not only mis¬
taken in the particular just mentioned, but in his conclu¬
sions with regard to the absolute force of gunpowder com¬
pared with the pressure of the atmosphere; the latter
being to the force of gunpowder as one to 1000 according
to Mr Robins, but as one to 1308 according to Count
Rumford.
II. PRACTICE OF GUNNERY.
With regard to the practical part of gunnery, which
ought to consist in directing the piece in such a manner as
always to hit the object against which it is pointed, there
can be no certain rules given. The following maxims are
laid down by Mr Robins as of use in practice.
1. In any piece of artillery whatever, the greater the
quantity of powder it is charged with, the greater will be
the velocity of the bullet.
2. If two pieces of the same bore, but of different lengths,
are fired with the same charge of powder, the longer will
impel the bullet with a greater celerity than the shorter.
3. If two pieces of artillery different in weight, and form¬
ed of different metals, have yet their cylinders of equal
bores and equal lengths ; then with like charges of powder
and like bullets they will each of them discharge their shot
with nearly the same degree of celerity.
4. The ranges of pieces at a given elevation are no just
measures of the velocity of the shot; for the same piece
fired successively at an invariable elevation, with the pow¬
der, bullet, and every other circumstance as nearly the
same as possible, will yet range to very different distances.
5. The greater part of that uncertainty in the ranges of
pieces which is described in the preceding maxim, can only
arise from the resistance of the air. '
6. The resistance of the air acts upon projectiles in a
twofold manner ; for it opposes their motion, and thus
continually diminishes their celerity ; and it besides diverts
them from the regular track they would otherwise follow ;
whence arise those deviations and inflections already treat¬
ed of.
7. That action of the air by which it retards the motion
of projectiles, though much neglected by writers on artil¬
lery, is yet, in many instances, of an immense force ; and
hence the motion of these resisted bodies is totally differ¬
ent from what it would otherwise be.
8. This retarding force of the air acts with different de¬
grees of violence, according as the projectile moves with a
61
greater or less velocity; and the resistances observe this Practice,
law, that to a velocity which is double another, the resist-
ance within certain limits is fourfold ; to a treble velocity,
ninefold ; and so on.
9. But this proportion’ between the resistances to two
different velocities does not hold if one of the velocities be
less than that of 1200 feet in a second, and the other great¬
er ; for in that case the resistance to the greater velocity
is nearly three times as much as it would come out by a
comparison with the smaller, according to the law explain¬
ed in the last maxim.
10. To the extraordinary power exerted by the resist¬
ance of the air it is owing, that when two pieces of differ¬
ent bores are discharged at the same elevation, the piece
of the largest bore usually ranges farthest, provided they
are both fired with fit bullets, and the customary allotment
of powder.
11. The greater part of military projectiles will at the
time of their discharge acquire a whirling motion round
their axis, by rubbing against the insides of their respective
pieces ; and this whirling motion will cause them to strike
the air very differently from what they would do had they
no other than a progressive motion. By this means it may
happen that the resistance of the air is not always directly
opposed to their flight, but frequently acts in a line oblique
to their course, and thereby forces them to deviate from
the regular track they would otherwise describe. And
this is the true cause of the irregularities described in
maxim 4.
12. From the sudden trebling the quantity of the air’s
resistance, when the projectile moves swifter than at the
rate of 1200 feet in a second (as has been explained in
maxim 9), it follows, that whatever be the regular range of
a bullet discharged with this last-mentioned velocity, that
range will be but little increased, how much soever the
velocity of the bullet may be still farther augmented by
greater charges of powder.
13. If the same piece of cannon be successively fired at
an invariable elevation, but with various charges of pow¬
der, the greatest charge being the whole weight of the
bullet in powder, and the least not less than the fifth part
of that weight; then if the elevation be not less than eight
or ten degrees, it will be found, that some of the ranges
with the least charge will exceed some of those with the
greatest.
14. If two pieces of cannon of the same bore, but of dif¬
ferent lengths, are successively fired at the same elevation
with the same charge of powder ; then it will frequently
happen that some of the ranges with the shorter piece will
exceed some of those with the longer.
15. In distant cannonadings the advantages arising from
long pieces and large charges of powder afe but of little
moment.
16. In firing against troops with grape-shot, it will be
found that charges of powder much less than those gene¬
rally used are the most advantageous.
17. The principal operations in which large charges of
powder appear to be more efficacious than small ones, are
the ruining of parapets, the dismounting of batteries cover¬
ed by stout merlins, or battering in breach ; for, in all
these cases, if the object be but little removed from the
piece, every increase of velocity will increase the penetra¬
tion of the bullet.
18. Whatever operations are to be performed by artil¬
lery, the least charges of powder with which they can be
effected are always to be preferred.
19. Hence the proper charge of any piece of artillery
is not that allotment of powder which will communicate
the greatest velocity to the bullet, as most practitioners
formerly maintained ; nor is it to be determined by an in¬
variable proportion of its weight to the weight of the ball;
GUNNERY.
62 GUNNERY.
Practice, but, on the contrary, it is such a quantity of powder as
wiH produce the least velocity for the purpose in hand ;
and, instead of bearing always a fixed ratio to the weight
of the ball, it must be different according to the different
business which is to be performed.
20. No field-piece ought at any time to be loaded with
more than ^th, or at the utmost jth, of the weight of its
bullet in powder, nor should the charge of any battering
piece exceed ^d of the weight of its bullet.
21. Although precepts very difterent from those we have
here given have often been advanced by artillerists, and
have been said to be derived from experience, yet is that
pretended experience altogether fallacious; since, from our
doctrine of resistance established above, it follows that
every speculation on the subject of artillery, which is only
founded on the experimental ranges of bullets discharged
with considerable velocities, is liable to great uncertainty.
The greatest irregularities in the motion of bullets are, as
we have seen, owing to the whirling motion on their axis,
acquired by the friction against the sides of the piece. The
best method hitherto known of preventing these is by the
use of pieces with rifled barrels. These pieces have the
insides of their cylinders cut with a number of spiral chan¬
nels ; so that it is in reality a female screw, varying from
the common screws only in this, that its threads or rifles
are less deflected, and approach more to a right line ; it
being usual for the threads with which the rifled barrel
is indented, to take little more than one turn in its whole
length. The numbers of these threads are different in
each barrel, according to the fire of the piece and the fancy
of the workman ; and in like manner the depth to which
they are cut is not regulated by any invariable rule.
The usual method of charging these pieces is this:
When the proper quantity of powder is put down, a leaden
bullet is taken, a small matter larger than the bore of the
piece was before the rifles were cut; and this bullet being
laid on the mouth of the piece, and consequently too large
to go down of itself, it is forced by a strong rammer im¬
pelled by a mallet, and by repeated blows is driven home
to the powder ; and the softness of the lead giving way to
the violence with which the bullet is impelled, that zone
of the bullet which is contiguous to the piece varies its cir¬
cular form, and takes the shape of the inside of the barrel;
so that it becomes part of a male screw exactly answering
to the incidents of the rifle.
In some parts of Germany and Switzerland, however, an
improvement is added to this practice, especially in the
larger pieces which are used for shooting at great distances.
This is done by cutting a piece of very thin leather, or of
thin fustian, in a circular shape, somewhat larger than the
bore of the barrel. This circle being greased on one side,
is laid upon the muzzle with its greasy side downwards ;
and the bullet being then placed upon it, is forced down
the barrel with it, by which means the leather or fustian en¬
closes the lower half of the bullet, and, by its interposition
between the bullet and the rifles, prevents the lead from
being cut by them. It must be remembered, however,
that in the barrels where this is practised, the rifles are
generally shallow, and the bullet ought not to be too large.
But as both these methods of charging at the mouth
take up a good deal of time, the rifled barrels which have
been made in Britain are contrived to be charged at the
breach, where the piece is for this purpose made larger
than in any other part. The powder and bullet are put in
through the side of the barrel, by an opening, which, when
the piece is loaded, is then filled up with a screw. By this
means, when the piece is fired, the bullet is forced through
the rifles, and acquires the spiral motion already described;
and perhaps something of this kind, though not in the man¬
ner now practised, would be, according to Robins, the most
perfect method for the construction of these kinds of barrels.
From the whirling motion communicated by the rifles, Practice,
it happens, that when the piece is fired, the indented zone
of the bullet follows the sweep of the rifles, and thereby,
besides its progressive motion, acquires a circular motion
round the axis of the piece ; which circular motion will be
continued to the bullet after its separation from the piece,
and thus a bullet discharged from a rifle barrel will revolve
round an axis coincident with the line of its flight. By this
rotation on its axis, the aberration of the bullet, which
proves so prejudicial to all operations in.gunnery, is almost
totally prevented. The reason of this may be easily un¬
derstood from considering the slow motion of an arrow
through the air. For example, if a bent arrow, with its
wings not placed in some degree in a spiral position, so
as to make it revolve round its axis as it flies through
the air, were shot at a mark with a true direction, it
would constantly deviate from it, in consequence of be¬
ing pressed to one side by the convex part opposing the
air obliquely. Let us now suppose this deflection in a
flight of 100 yards to be equal to ten yards. Now, if
the same bent arrow were made to revolve round its axis
once every two yards of its flight, its greatest deviation
would take place when it had proceeded only one yard,
or made half a revolution; since at the end of the next
half revolution it would again return to the same direc¬
tion it had at first; the convex side of the arrow having
been once in opposite positions. In this manner it would
proceed during the whole course of its flight, constantly
returning to the true path at the end of every two yards;
and when it reached the mark, the greatest deflection to
either side that could happen would be equal to what it
makes in proceeding one yard, equal to part of the
former, or 3*6 inches, a very small deflection when com¬
pared with the former one. In the same manner, a can¬
non-ball which revolves not round its axis, deviates greatly
from the true path, on account of the inequalities on its
surface ; which, although small, cause great deviations by
reason of the resistance of the air, at the same time that
the ball acquires a motion round its axis in some uncer¬
tain direction occasioned by the friction against its sides.
But by the motion acquired from the rifles, the error is
perpetually corrected in the manner just now described;
and accordingly such pieces are much more to be depend¬
ed on, and will do execution at a much greater distance,
than the other.
The reasons commonly alleged for the superiority of
rifle-barrels over common ones, are, either that the inflam¬
mation of the powder is greater, by the resistance which
the bullet makes by being thus forced into the barrel, and
that thereby it receives a much greater impulse; or that
the bullet, by the compounding of its circular and revolv¬
ing motions, as it were bores the air, and thereby flies
to a much greater distance than it would otherwise have
done ; or that by the same boring motion it makes its way
through all solid substances, and penetrates into them
much deeper than when fired in the common manner.
But these views Mr Robins has proved to be altogether
erroneous, by a great number of experiments made with
rifle-barrelled pieces. “ In these experiments,” says he,
“ I have found that the velocity of the bullet fired from a
rifled barrel was usually less than that of the bullet fired
from « common piece with the same proportion of powder.
Indeed it is but reasonable to expect that this should be the
case ; for if the rifles are very deep, and the bullet is large
enough to fill them up, the friction bears a very consider¬
able proportion to the effort of the powder. And that in
this case the friction is of consequence enough to have its
effects observed, 1 have discovered by the continued use
of the same barrel. For the metal of the barrel being soft,
and wearing away apace, its bore by half a year’s use was
considerably enlarged, and consequently the depths of its
GUNNERY.
63
lactiee. rifles diminished; and then I found that the same quan-
tity of powder would give to the bullet a velocity near a
tenth part greater than what it had done at first. And
as the velocity of the bullet is not increased by the use of
rifled barrels, so neither is the distance to which it flies,
nor the depth of its penetration into solid substances. In¬
deed these two last suppositions seem at first sight too
chimerical to deserve a formal confutation. But I cannot
help observing, that those who have been habituated to
the use of rifled pieces are very excusable in giving way
to these prepossessions. For they constantly found, that
with them they could fire at a mark with tolerable suc¬
cess, though it were placed at three or four times the dis¬
tance to which the ordinary pieces were supposed to reach.
And therefore, as they were ignorant of the true cause
of this variety, and did not know that it arose only from
preventing the deflection of the ball; it was not unnatu¬
ral for them to imagine that the superiority of effect in
the rifled piece wras owing either to a more violent im¬
pulse at first, or to a more easy passage through the air.
“ In order to confirm the foregoing theory of rifle-bar¬
relled pieces, I made some experiments by which it might
be seen whether one side of the ball discharged from them
uniformly keeps foremost during the whole course. To
examine this particular, I took a rifled barrel carrying a
bullet of six to the pound; but instead of its leaden bul¬
let, I used a wooden one of the same size, made of a soft
springy wood, which bent itself easily into the rifles with¬
out breaking. And firing the piece thus loaded against a
wall at such a distance as the bullet might not be shiver¬
ed by the blow, I always found, that the same surface
which lay foremost in the piece continued foremost, with¬
out any sensible deflection during the time of its flight.
And this was easily to be observed by examining the bul¬
let, as both the marks of the rifles, and the part that imping¬
ed on the wall, were sufficiently apparent. Now, as these
wooden bullets were but the sixteenth part of the weight
of the leaden ones, I conclude, that if there had been any
unequal resistance or deflective power, its effects must
have been extremely sensible upon this light body, and
consequently, in some of the trials I made, the surface
which came foremost from the piece must have been
turned round into another situation.
“ But again, I took the same piece, and, loading it now
with a leaden ball, I set it nearly upright, sloping it only
three or four degrees from the perpendicular, in the direc¬
tion of the wind; and firing it in this situation, the bullet
generally continued about half a minute in the air, it rising
by computation to near three quarters of a mile perpen¬
dicular height. In these trials I found that the bullet
commonly came to the ground to the leeward of the
piece, and at such a distance from it as nearly corre¬
sponded to the angle of its inclination, and to the effort of
the wind; it usually falling not nearer to the piece than
100, nor farther from it than 150 yards. And this is a
strong confirmation of the almost steady flight of this bul¬
let for about a mile and a half: for were the same trial
made with a common piece, I doubt not but the deviation
would often amount to half a mile, or perhaps consider¬
ably more ; though this experiment would be a very diffi¬
cult one to examine, on account of the little chance there
would be of discovering where the ball fell.
“It must be observed, however, that though the bullet
impelled from a rifle-barrelled piece keeps for a time to
its regular track with sufficient nicety, yet if its flight be
so far extended that the track becomes considerably in-
curvated, it will then undergo considerable deflections.
This, according to my experiments, arises from the angle
at last made by the axis on which the bullet turns, and
the direction in which it flies; for that axis continuing
nearly parallel to itself, it must necessarily diverge from
the line of the flight of the bullet, when that line is bent Practice,
from its original direction : and when it once happens that
the bullet whirls on an axis which no longer coincides with
the line of its flight, then the unequal resistance formerly
described will take place, and the deflecting power hence
arising will perpetually increase, as the track of the bullet,
by having its range extended, becomes more and more in-
curvated. This matter I have experienced in a small rifle-
barrelled piece, carrying a leaden ball of near half an ounce
weight; for this piece, charged with one dram of pow¬
der, ranged about 550 yards at an angle of twelve degrees
with sufficient regularity; but being afterwards elevated
to an angle of twenty-four degrees, it then ranged very
irregularly, generally deviating from the line of its direc¬
tion to the left, and in one case not less than 100 yards.
This apparently arose from the cause above mentioned, as
was confirmed from the constant deviation of the bullet to
the left; for, by considering how the revolving motion was
continued with the progressive one, it appeared that a
deviation that way was to be expected.
“ The best remedy I can think of for this defect is the
making use of bullets of an egg-like form instead of sphe.-
rical ones. For if such a bullet hath its shorter axis made
to fit the piece, and it be placed in the barrel with its
smaller end downwards, then it will acquire by the rifles
a rotation round its larger axis; and its centre of gravity
lying nearer to its fore than its hinder part, its longer axis
will be constantly forced by the resistance of the air into
the line of its flight; as we see that by the same means
arrows constantly lie in the line of their direction, how¬
ever that line be incurvated.
“ But besides this, there is another circumstance in the
use of these pieces, which renders the flight of their bul¬
lets uncertain when fired at a considerable elevation. For
I find by my experiments, that the velocity of a bullet
fired with the same quantity of powder from a rifle barrel,
varies much more from itself in different trials than when
fired from a common piece. This, as I conceive, is owing
to the great quantity of friction, and the impossibility of
rendering it equal in each experiment. Indeed, if the
rifles are not deeply cut, and if the bullet is nicely fitted
to the piece, so as not to require a great force to drive
it down, and if leather or fustian well greased is made
use of between the bullet and barrel, perhaps, by a care¬
ful attention to all these particulars, great part of the in¬
equality in the velocity of the bullet may be prevented,
and the difficulty in question be in some measure obviat¬
ed ; but till this be done, it cannot be doubted that the
range of the same piece, at an elevation, will vary consi¬
derably in every trial, although the charge be each time
the same. And this I have myself experienced, in a num¬
ber of diversified trials, with a rifle-barrelled piece load¬
ed at the breech in the English manner. For here the
rifles being indented very deep, and the bullet so large as
to fill them up completely, 1 found, that though it flew
with sufficient exactness to the distance of 400 or 500
yards ; yet when it was raised to an angle of about twelve
degrees (at which angle, being fired with one fifth of its
weight in powder, its medium range is nearly 1000 yards) ;
in this case, I say, I found that its range was variable, al¬
though the greatest care was taken to prevent any inequa¬
lities in the quantity of powder, or in the manner of charg¬
ing. And as, in this case, the angle was too small for the
first-mentioned irregularity to produce the observed ef¬
fects, they can only be imputed to the different velocities
which the bullet each time received by the unequal ac¬
tion of the friction.”
Thus we see that it is in a manner impossible entirely
to correct the aberrations arising from the resistance ot
the atmosphere ; as even the rifle-barrelled pieces cannot
be depended upon for more than one half of their actual
64
GUNNERY.
Practice, range at any considerable elevation. It becomes there-
fore a problem very difficult of solution to know, even with¬
in a very considerable distance, how far a piece will carry
its ball with any probability of hitting its mark, or doing
any execution. The best rules hitherto laid down on this
subject are those of Mr Robins. The foundation of all
Ins calculations is the velocity with which the bullet flies
off from the mouth of the piece. Mr Robins himself had
not opportunities of making many experiments on the ve¬
locities of cannon balls, and the calculations from smaller
ones cannot always be depended upon. In the sixty-
eighth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, Dr Hut¬
ton has recited a number of experiments made on cannon
carrying balls from one to three pounds weight. His ma¬
chine for discovering the velocities of these balls was the
same with that of Mr Robins, only of a larger size. His
charges of powder were two, four, and eight ounces ; and
the results of fifteen experiments, which seem to have
been the most accurate, are as follow :
Velocity with Velocity with Velocity with
two ounces. four ounces. eight ounces.
702 feet in 1" 1068 feet in 1" 1419 feet in 1"
682 1020 1352
695 948 1443
703 973 1360
725 957 1412
3507
4966
6986
Mean 701 993 1397
In another course, the mean velocities, with the same
charges of powder, were 613, 873, 1162. “ The mean
velocities of the balls in the first course of experiments
(says Dr Hutton) with two, four, and eight ounces of
powder, are as the numbers 1, 1*414, and 1*993 ; but the
subduplicate ratio of the weights (two, four, and eight)
give the numbers 1, 1*414, and 2, to which the others are
sufficiently near. It is obvious, however, that the great¬
est difference lies in the last number, which answers to
the greatest velocity. It will still be a little more in de¬
fect if we make the allowance for the weights of the balls ;
for the mean weights of the balls with the two and four
ounces is 18f ounces, but of the eight ounces it is 18f-;
diminishing therefore the number 1*993 in the reciprocal
subduplicate ratio of 18f- to 18f, it becomes 1*985, which
falls short of the number 2 by *015, or the 133d part of
itself. A similar defect was observed in the other course
of experiments ; and both are owing to three evident
causes, viz. 1. The less length of cylinder through which
the ball was impelled; for with the eight-ounce charge it
lay three or four inches nearer to the muzzle of the piece
than with the others. 2. The greater quantity of elastic
fluid which escaped in this case than in the others by the
windage. This happens from its moving with a greater
velocity; in consequence of which, a greater quantity
escapes by the vent and windage than in smaller veloci¬
ties. 3. The greater quantity of powder blown out unfired
in this case than in that of the lesser velocities; for the
ball which was impelled with the greater velocity would
be sooner out of the piece than the others, and the more
so as it had a less length of the bore to move through ;
and if powder fire in time, which cannot be denied, though
indeed that time is manifestly very short, a greater quan¬
tity of it must remain unfired when the ball with the
greater velocity issues from the piece, than when that
which has the less velocity goes out, and still the more so
as the bulk of powder which was at first to be inflamed
in the one case so much exceeded that in the others.
“ Let us now compare the corresponding velocities in
both cases. In the one they are 701, 993, 1397 ; in the
other, 613, 873, 1162. Now the ratio of the first two num¬
bers, or the velocities with two ounces of powder, is that Practice,
of 1 to T1436, the ratio of the next two is that of 1 to
1*1375, and the ratio of the last is that of 1 to T2022. But
the mean weight of the shot for two and four ounces of
powder was 28^ ounces in the first course, and 18^ in this ;
and for eight ounces of powder it was 28f in the first, and
18f in this. Taking therefore the reciprocal subduplicate
ratios of these weights of shot, we obtain the ratio of 1 to
1*224 for that of the balls which were fired with 2 ounces
and four ounces of powder, and the ratio of 1 to T241 for
the balls which were fired with eight ounces. But the real
ratios above found are not greatly different from these;
and the variation of the actual velocities from this law of
the weights of shot inclines the same way in both courses
of experiments.
“ We may now collect into one view the principal in¬
ferences that have resulted from these experiments. 1. It
is evident from them that powder fires almost instantane¬
ously. 2. The velocities communicated to balls or shot of
the same weight with different quantities of powder, are
nearly in the subduplicate ratio of these quantities ; a very
small variation in defect taking place when the quantities
of powder become great. 3. When shot of different weights
are fired with the same quantity of powder, the velocities
communicated to them are nearly in the reciprocal subdu¬
plicate ratio of their weights. 4. Shot which are of differ¬
ent weights, and impelled by different quantities of powder,
acquire velocities which are directly as the square roots of
the quantities of powder, and inversely as the square roots
of the weights of the shot nearly.”
The velocities of the bullets being thus found as nearly
as possible, the ranges may be found by the following rules
laid down by Mr Robins.
1. “ Till the velocity of the projectile surpasses that of
1100 in a second, the resistance may be reckoned to be in
the duplicate proportion of the velocity, and its mean quan¬
tity may be reckoned about half an ounce avoirdupois on a
12-pound shot, moving with a velocity of about twenty-five
or twenty-six feet in a second.
2. “ If the velocity be greater than that of 1100 or 1200
feet in a second, then the absolute quantity of the resist¬
ance in these greater velocities will be near three times as
great as it should be by a comparison with the smaller ve¬
locities. Hence then it appears, that if a projectile begins
to move with a velocity less than that of 1100 feet in 1",
its whole motion may be supposed to be considered on the
hypothesis of a resistance in the duplicate ratio of the velo¬
city. And if it begins to move with a velocity greater than
this last mentioned, yet if the first part of its motion, till
its velocity be reduced to near 1100 feet in 1", be consi¬
dered separately from the remaining part in which the ve¬
locity is less than 1100 feet in 1", it is evident that both
parts may be truly assigned on the same hypothesis ; only
the absolute quantity of the resistance is three times greater
in the first part than in the last. Wherefore, if the mo¬
tion of a projectile on the hypothesis of a resistance in the
duplicate ratio of the velocity be truly and generally as¬
signed, the actual motions of resisted bodies may be there*
by determined, notwithstanding the increased resistances
in the great velocities. And, to avoid the division of the
motion into two, I shall show how to compute the whole
at one operation, with little more trouble than if no such
increased resistance took place.
“ To avoid frequent circumlocutions, the distance to
which any projectile would range in a vacuum on the hori¬
zontal plane at 45° of elevation, I shall call the potential
random of that projectile; the distance to which the pro¬
jectile would range in vacuo on the horizontal plane at any
angle different from 45°, I shall call the potential range of
the projectile at that angle; and the distance to which a
projectile really ranges, I shall call its actual range.
GUNNERY. 65
dice. “ If the velocity with which a projectile begins to move
is known, its potential random and its potential range at
any given angle are easily determined from the common
theory of projectiles; or more generally, if either its origi¬
nal velocity, its potential random, or its potential range,
at a given angle, are known, the other two are easily found
out.
“ To facilitate the computation of resisted bodies, it is
necessary, in the consideration of each resisted body, to as¬
sign a certain quantity, which I shall denominate F, adapt¬
ed to the resistance of that particular projectile. To find
this quantity F to any projectile given, we may proceed
thus : First find, from the principles already delivered, with
what velocity the projectile must move, so that its resist¬
ance may be equal to its gravity. Then the height from
whence a body must descend in a vacuum to acquire this
velocity is the magnitude of F sought. But the most con¬
cise way of finding this quantity F to any shell or bullet is Practice,
this. If it be of solid iron, multiply its diameter measured
in inches by 300, the product will be the magnitude of F
expressed in yards. If, instead of a solid iron bullet, it is a
shell or a bullet of some other substance ; then, as the spe¬
cific gravity of iron is to the specific gravity of the shell or
bullet given, so is the F corresponding to an iron bullet of
the same diameter to the proper F for the shell or bullet
given. The quantity F being thus assigned, the necessary
computation of these resisted motions may be dispatched
by the three following propositions, always remembering
that these propositions proceed on the hypothesis of the
resistance being in the duplicate proportion of the velocity
of the resisted body. How to apply this principle, when
the velocity is so great as to have its resistance augmented
beyond this rate, shall be shown in a corollary to be annex¬
ed to the first proposition.
Actual
ranges
expres¬
sed inF.
0-01
0-02
0-04
0-06
0-08
0-1
0-12
014
0-15
0-2
0-25
0-3
0-35
0-4
0-45
0-5
0-55
0-6
Corre¬
sponding
potential
ranges ex¬
pressed in
F.
0-0100
0-0201
0-0405
0-0612
0-0822
0-1034
0-1249
0-1468
0-1578
0-2140
0-2722
0-3324
0-3947
0-4591
0-5258
0-5949
0-6664
0-7404
Actual
i-anges
expres¬
sed inF.
0-65
0-7
0-75
0-8
0-85
0-9
0-95
10
1-05
1-1
M5
1-2
1-25
1-3
1-35
1-4
1-45
1-5
Corre¬
sponding
potential
ranges ex¬
pressed in
F.
0-8170
0-8964
0-9787
1-0638
1-1521
1-2436
1-3383
1-4366
1-5384
1-6439
1-7534
1-8669
1- 5845
2- 1066
2-2332
2-3646
2-5008
2-6422
Actual Correspond-
ranges ing potential
expres- i ranges ex-
sed in F. pressed in F.
1-55
1-6
1-65
1-7
1-75
1-8
1-85
1-9
1- 95
2-
2-05
2-1
2-15
2-2
2-25
2-3
2-35
2-4
2-7890
2- 9413
3- 0994
3-2635
3-4338
3.6107
3-7944
3- 9851
4- 1833
4-3890
4-6028
4- 8249
5- 0557
5-2955
5-5446
5- 8036
6- 0728
6-3526
Actual
ranges
expres¬
sed in F.
Correspond¬
ing potential
ranges ex¬
pressed in F.
2-45
2-5
2-55
2-6
2-65
2-7
2-75
2-8
2-85
2-9
2- 95
3- 0
3-05
3-1
3-15
3-2
3-25
3-3
6-6435
6- 9460
7- 2605
7-5875
7- 9276
8- 2813
8- 6492
9- 0319
9-4000
9-8442
10-2752
10- 7237
11- 1904
11- 6761
12- 1816
12- 7078
13- 2556
13-8258
Actual
ranges
expres¬
sed in F. pressed in F.
3-35
3-4
3-45
3-5
3-55
3-6
3-65
3-7
3-75
3-8
3-85
3-9
3- 95
4- 0
4-05
4-1
4-15
14- 4195
15- 0377
15- 6814
16- 3517
17- 0497
17- 7768
18- 5341
19- 3229
20- 1446
21- 0006
21- 8925
22- 8218
23- 7901
24- 7991
25- 8506
26- 9465
28-0887
Correspond- Actual
ing potential ! ranges
ranges ex- expres-
~ sed in F.
4-2
4-25
4-3
4-35
4-4
4-45
4-5
4-55
4-6
4-65
4-7
4-75
4-8
4-85
4-9
4-95
50
Correspond¬
ing potential
ranges ex¬
pressed in F.
29- 2792
30- 5202
31- 8138
33- 1625
34- 5686
36- 0346
37- 5632
39- 1571
40- 8193
42-4527
44-3605
46-2460
48-2127
50-2641
52-4040
54-6363
56-9653
“ Prop. I. Given the actual range of a given shell or
bullet at any small angle not exceeding 8° or 10° ; to deter¬
mine its potential range, and consequently its potential
random and original velocity.
“ Solution. Let the actual range given be divided by
the F corresponding to the given projectile, and find the
quote in the first column of the preceding table: then the
corresponding number in the second column multiplied
into F will be the potential range sought: and thence, by
the methods already explained, the potential random and
the original velocity of the projectile is given.
“ Exam. An 18-pounder, the diameter of whose shot is
about five inches, when loaded with two pounds of pow¬
der, ranged at an elevation of 3° 3(f to the distance of
975 yards.
“ The F corresponding to this bullet is 1500 yards, and
the quote of the actual range by this number is 65; cor¬
responding to which, in the second column, is "817;
whence, 817 F, or 1225 yards, is the potential range
sought; and this, augmented in the ratio of the sine of
tv/ice the angle of elevation to the radius, gives 10,050
yards for the potential random : whence it will be found
’that the velocity of this projectile was that of 984 feet in
a second. .
“ Cor. 1. If the converse of this proposition be desired;
that is, if the potential range in a small angle be given,
and thence the actual range be sought; this may be solv-
VOL. XI.
ed with the same facility by the same table; for if the
given potential range be divided by its correspondent F,
then opposite to the quote sought in the second column
there will be found in the first column a number which,
multiplied into F, will give the actual range required.
And from hence it follows, that if the actual range be
given at one angle, it may be found at every other angle
not exceeding 8° or 10°.
“ Cor. 2. If the actual range at a given small angle be
given, and another actual range be given, to which the
angle is sought; this will be determined by finding the
potential ranges corresponding to the two given actual
ranges; then the angle corresponding to one of those po¬
tential ranges being known, the angle corresponding to the
other will be found by the common theory of projectiles.
“ Cor. 3. If the potential random deduced from the
actual range by this proposition exceeds 13,000 yards,
then the original velocity of the projectile was so great
as to be affected by the treble resistance described above ;
and consequently the real potential random will be great¬
er than what is here determined. However, in this case,
the true potential random may be thus nearly assigned.
Take a fourth continued proportional to 13,000 yards, and
the potential random found by this proposition, and the
fourth proportional thus found may be assumed for the
true potential random sought. In like manner, when the
true potential random is given greater than 13,000 yards,
GUNNERY.
66
Practice, we must take two mean proportionals between 13,000 and
this random; and the first of these mean proportionals
must be assumed instead of the random given, in every
operation described in these propositions and their corol¬
laries. And this method will nearly allow for the in¬
creased resistance in large velocities, the difference only
amounting to a few minutes in the angle of direction of
the projected body, which, provided that angle exceeds
two or three degrees, is usually scarce worth attending to.
“ Of this process take the following example:—A 24-
pounder fired with 12 pounds of powder, when elevated
at 7° 15', ranged about 2500 yards. Here the F being
near 1700 yards, the quote to be sought in the first co¬
lumn is 147, to which the number corresponding in the
second column is 2-556 ; whence the potential range is
near 4350 yards, and the potential random thence result¬
ing 17,400. But this being more than 13,000, we must,
to get the true potential random, take a fourth continued
proportional to 13,000 and 17,400; and this fourth pro¬
portional, which is about 31,000 yards, is to be esteemed
the true potential random sought; whence the velocity is
nearly that of 1730 feet in a second.
“ Scholium. This proposition is confined to small an¬
gles, not exceeding 8° or 10°. In all possible cases of prac¬
tice, this approximation, thus limited, will not differ from
the most rigorous solution by so much as what will often
intervene from the variation of the density of the atmo¬
sphere in a few hours’ time; so that the errors of the ap¬
proximation are much short of other inevitable errors,
which arise from the nature of this subject.
“ Prop. II. Given the actual range of a given shell
or bullet at any angle not exceeding 45° ; to determine its
potential range at the same angle, and thence its poten¬
tial random and original velocity.
“ Solution. Diminish the F corresponding to the shell or
bullet given in the proportion of the radius to the cosine
of fths of the angle of elevation. Then, by means of the
preceding table, operate with this reduced F in the same
manner as is prescribed in the solution of the last propo¬
sition, and the result will be the potential range sought;
whence the potential random, and the original velocity,
are easily determined.
“ Exam. A mortar for sea-service, charged with thirty
pounds of powder, has sometimes thrown its shell, of 12|th
inches diameter, and of 231 lb. weight, to the distance of
two miles, or 5450 yards. This at an elevation of 45°.
“ The F to this shell, if it were solid, is 3825 yards;
but as the shell is only |-ths of a solid globe, the true F
is no more than 3060 yards. This, diminished in the ratio
of the radius to the cosine of fths of the angle of elevation,
becomes 2544. The quote of the potential range by this
diminished F is 1*384; which, sought in the first column
of the preceding table, gives 2-280 for the corresponding
number in the second column; and this multiplied into
the reduced F, produces 5800 yards for the potential
range sought, which, as the angle of elevation was 45°, is
also the potential random; and hence the original velocity
of this shell appears to be that of about 748 feet in a se¬
cond.
“ Cor. The converse of this proposition, that is, the de¬
termination of the actual range from the potential range
given, is easily deduced from hence by means of the quote
of the potential range divided by the reduced F; for this
quote, searched out in the second column, will give a cor¬
responding number in the first column, which, multiplied
into the reduced#F, will be the actual range sought.
“ Also, if the potential random of a projectile be given,
or its actual range at a given angle of elevation ; its ac¬
tual range at any other angle of elevation, not greater
than 45°, may hence be known. For the potential ran¬
dom will assign the potential range at any given angle;
and thence, by the method of this corollary, the actual Practice,
range may be found.
“ Exam. A fit musket-bullet fired from a piece of the
standard dimensions, with |-th of its weight in good pow¬
der, acquires a velocity of near 900 feet in a second; that
is, it has a potential random of near 8400 yards. If now
the actual range of this bullet at 15° was sought, we must
proceed thus:
“ From the given potential random it follows, that the
potential range at 15° is 4200 yards; the diameter of the
bullet is fths of an inch; and thence, as it is of lead, its
proper F is 337-5 yards, which, reduced in the ratio of the
radius to the cosine of fths of 15°, becomes 331 yards.
The quote of 4200 by this number is 12-7 nearly; which
being sought in the second column, gives 3-2 nearly for
the corresponding number in the first column; and this
multiplied into 331 yards (the reduced F) makes 1059
yards for the actual range sought.
“ Exam. 2. The same bullet, fired with its whole weight
in powder, acquires a velocity of about 2100 feet in a se¬
cond, to which there corresponds a potential random of
about 45,700 yards. But this number greatly exceeding
13,000 yards, it must be reduced by the method describ¬
ed in the third corollary of the first proposition, when it
becomes 19,700 yards. If now the actual range of this
bullet at 15° be required, we shall from hence find, that
the potential range at 15° is 9850 yards; which, divided
by the reduced F of the last example, gives for a quote
2975; and thence following the steps prescribed above,
the actual range of this bullet comes out 1396 yards, ex¬
ceeding the former range by no more than 337 yards;
whereas the difference between the two potential ranges
is above ten miles. Of such prodigious efficacy is the re¬
sistance of the air, which hath been hitherto treated as
too insignificant a power to be attended to in laying down
the theory of projectiles.
“ Schol. I must here observe, that as the density of the
atmosphere perpetually varies, increasing and diminishing
often by ^yth part, and sometimes more, in a few hours;
for that reason, I have not been over rigorous in forming
these rules, but have considered them as sufficiently exact
when the errors of the approximation do not exceed the in¬
equalities which would take place by a change of ^th part in
the density of the atmosphere. With this restriction, the
rules of this proposition may be safely applied in all pos¬
sible cases of practice. That is to say, they will exhibit
the true motions of all kinds of shells and cannon-shot, as
far as 45° of elevation, and of all musket bullets fired with
tht-ir largest customary charges, if not elevated more than
t/0°. Indeed, if experiments are made with extraordinary
quat ies ^ powder, producing potential randoms greatly
surpassing the usual rate, then in large angles some far¬
ther modifications may be necessary. And though, as
these cases are beyond the limits of all practice, it may be
thought unnecessary to consider them; yet, to enable
those who are so disposed to examine these uncommon
cases, I shall here insert a proposition which will deter¬
mine the actual motion of a projectile at 45°, how enor¬
mous soever its original velocity may be. But as this pro¬
position will rather relate to speculative than practical
cases, instead of supposing the actual range known, thence
to assign the potential random, I shall now suppose the
potential random given, and the actual range to be thence
investigated.
“ Prop. III. Given the potential random of a given
shell or bullet; to determine its actual range at 45°.
Solution. Divide the given potential random by the F
corresponding to the shell or bullet given, and call the quo¬
tient q, and let l be the difference between the tabular lo¬
garithms of 25 and of q, the logarithm of 10 being suppos¬
ed unity; then the actual range sought is 3-4 Fz+z2/F —
' actice.
GUNNERY.
67
— F, where the double sine of 2ZF is to be thus under-
10
stood ; that if q be less than 25, it must be — 2ZF; if it
be greater, then it must be -h 2/F. In this solution q
may be any number not less than 3, nor more than 2500.
“ Cor. Computing in the manner here laid down, we
shall find the relation between the potential randoms, and
the actual range at 45°, within the limits of this proposi¬
tion, to be as expressed in the following table.
Potential Randoms.
3 F 
6 F 
10 F 
20 F 
30 F 
40 F 
50 F 
100 F 
200 F 
500 F 
1000 F 
2500 F 
Actual Range at 45°.
 1-5 F
 2-1 F
 2*6 F
 3-2 F
 3-6 F
 3-8 F
 4-0 F
 4-6 F
 5-1 F
 5-8 F
  6-4 F
 7-0 F.
Whence it appears, that, when the potential random is
increased from 3 F to 2500 F, the actual range is only in¬
creased from li- F to 7 F; so that an increase of 2497 F
in the potential random produces no greater an increase
in the actual range than b\ F, which is not its th part;
and this will again be greatly diminished on account of
the increased resistance which takes place in great velo¬
cities. So extraordinary are the effects of this resistance,
which we have been hitherto taught to regard as incon¬
siderable.
“ That the justness of the approximation laid down in
the second and third propositions may be easier examin¬
ed, I shall conclude these computations by inserting a
table of the actual ranges, at 45°, of a projectile which is
resisted in the duplicate proportion of its velocity. This
table is computed by methods different from those hither¬
to described, and is sufficiently exact to serve as a stan¬
dard with which the result of our other rules may be
compared. And since whatever errors occur in the ap¬
plication of the preceding propositions, they will be most
sensible at 45° of elevation, it follows, that hereby the ut¬
most limits of those errors may be assigned.
Potential Randoms.
•1 F 
•25 F 
•5 F 
•75 F 
1-0 F  
1- 25 F 
1*5 F 
1*75 F 
2- 0 F 
2*5 F 
3- 0 F 
3- 5 F 
4- 0 F 
4-5 F 
Actual Range at 45°.
 -0963 F
 -2282 F
 -4203 F
 -5868 F
 -7323 F
 -860 F
 -978 F
 1-083 F
 1-179 F
 1-349 F
 1-495 F
 1-624 F
 1-738 F
 1-840 F
Potential Randoms
5-0 F 
5- 5 F 
6- 0 F 
6- 5 F 
7- 0 F  
7- 5 F 
8- 0 F 
8- 5 F 
9- 0 F 
9-5 F 
10- 0 F 
11- 0 F 
13-0 F 
15-0 F 
20-0 F 
25-0 F 
30-0 F 
40-0 F 
50-0 F 
It now only remains to consider very shortly that part
of practical gunnery which relates to the construction
of guns, the proportional length, weight, calibre, and
charge of the different kinds of ordnance, the methods of
pointing and elevating them, and the purposes to which
they are applied.
Formerly guns were made of great length, and upon that
account were found extremely troublesome and unmanage¬
able. The error in this respect was first discovered by acci¬
dent; for some cannon which had been cast by mistake two
feet and a half shorter than the common standard, were
found to be equally efficacious in service with the com¬
mon ones, and much more manageable. This soon pro¬
duced very considerable alterations in the form of artil¬
lery throughout Europe ; but in no country have greater
improvements in this respect been made than in our own 1
Guns are made either of iron or of brass. Those formed
of iron are better adapted for continued and heavy firing
than those made of brass; they also last longer, but this
depends chiefly upon the purity of the metal. Brass guns,
when frequently fired, droop at the muzzle, and become
quite useless ; but being lighter than iron guns, they are
better adapted for service.
The guns mounted on the works of San Sebastian were
of brass, and towards the end of the siege they became
quite useless ; whilst the :— guns of the besiegers, though
much oftener fired, and considerably enlarged at the vents
or touch-holes, still continued serviceable. An iron gun, if
overcharged or over! :ated, bursts and flies in pieces, which
a brass one does not.
The best length for field-guns has been found to be
about seventeen calibres, that is, seventeen times the dia¬
meter of the bore. Long guns are more easily pointed than
short ones, and will to a certain extent throw shot farther
with equal charges.2 There are also a great many guns
of the same weight, but of different lengths. This is oc¬
casioned by the several classes of vessels, &c. for which
they are intended requiring an equal weight of shot, but
different lengths of guns.
Very long guns are found to be disadvantageous, as it
Actual Range at 45°
 1-930 F
 2-015
 2-097
 2-169
 2-237
 2-300
 2-359
 2-414
 2-467
 2--511
 2-564
 2-651
 2-804
 2-937
 3-196
 3-396
 3-557
 3-809
 3-998
Practice.
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F.
1 In the article on Cannon-Making, we have explained the process of casting guns, whether of iron or other metal, and the com¬
position of the metal commonly called brass. In the same article there are tables exhibiting the dimensions of, and various particu¬
lars relating to, the guns employed by Britain and by France.
2 It is a maxim of Mr Robins, that neither the distance to which a bullet flies, nor its force at the end of its flight, are much in¬
creased by very great augmentations of the velocity with which it is impelled; and, therefore, that in distant cannonade, the advan¬
tages arising from long guns and great charges are but of little moment. Sir Howard Douglas, however, contends that this maxim
relates only to random ranges, and overlooks the advantages arising from the superior accuracy of long guns at moderate distances;
that comparing the powers of the long 24-pounder, length 9^ feet, with those of the short 24, length 6 feet 6 inches, though the ex¬
treme ranges be nearly the same, yet for practice at 300 yards, the long gun might be laid point-blank, whilst the shorter one would
require nearly half a degree of elevation ; and that, at 1000 yards the former would only require an elevation of two degrees, which,
with the short gun, would only give a range of about 800 yards.
68
GUNNERY.
Practice, is useless to project shot at a greater velocity than four-
teen, or at the most sixteen hundred feet per second, since
air cannot rush in with greater rapidity than at the rate
of 1340 feet per second to fill up the vacuum caused by
the ball. In the case of a higher velocity, the air in front
would be considerably compressed, and the increased re¬
sistance thus occasioned would soon reduce that velocity.
It is therefore useless to augment the charge beyond a
certain limit.1 *
The charge of powder commonly used in practice is, for
heavy guns id, for light guns ^th, and for carronades j^th
the weight of the shot. The thickness of metal for a 42-
pounder is 1 calibre at the breach, for a 32-pounder ly^th
calibre, for a 24-pounder ly^-ths calibre ; at the muzzle the
thickness of metal is one half that of the base ring.
The proportion of the weight of the metal in a gun is
to that of the shot, in heavy guns 2 cwt. to 1 lb., in me¬
dium guns 1^ cwt. to 1 lb., and in light guns 1 cwt. to 1 lb.
Practice.
- The Length, Weight, Calibre, and Charge of the various pieces of Ordnance, and the Purposes to which they are applied.
a
3
iJ3
12 in.
10 in.
10 in.
8 in.
42 pr.
32 pr.
24 pr.
18 pr.
12 pr.
9 pr.
6 pr.
4 pr.
8 4
8 4
7 6
6 8
10 0
9 6
9 7
9 6
8 0
8 0
5 0
9 6
9 0
8 0
7 6
7 6
5 10
9 0
8 0
9 0
8 6
8 6
6 0
0 0
^ 'r-
taS
VO
10
9
10
17
16
10
10
90f
621
57f
50
8
65
64
55
50
48
25
50
47
43
42
40
18-2-
42
37
34
33
29
31
29
25
23
17
12
C5 3
HO3
.2 O
'p
O -Sf-S
CL. 0J
g o
11 to 112
1 to 95
1 to 92
1 to 173
1 to 195
1 to 175
Inches.
12
10
10
8-05
7-018
6-41
6-3
5-823
3- 7
5-292
4- 623
4-2
3-668
3-284
0)
^ 153
r*, .2
Inches.
11-37
9-
9-
7-95
6-795
6-207
5-639
5-124
4-476
4-T
3*5*52
3*i*04
2 ^
o 2
c3 03
S
Inches.
11-
7-85
6-729
6-147
5-584
5-074
4-432
4-06
3-532
3-053
O -3
tc O
lbs. oz.
12 0
8 0
3 0
6 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
10
lbs. oz.
18 0
8 0 14 0
7 0 14 0
7 0
14 0
10 10
14 0
4 0 9 0
13 0
6 12
15 0
12 0
9 0
4* *0
1829
1828
1828
1828
1826
1827
1810
1825
1812
1810
1810
1825
1790
Purposes to which applied.
T The naval service, to carry
•< hollow shot. Constructed
by Geo. Miller.
Do. do.
Do. do.
Do. having a solid 68 lb. shot
Nearly obsolete; a few re¬
main in some garrisons
Lower deck of 80-gun ships
Lower deck of line-of-battle
ships, and coast batteries
f Not used; only six in the
| arsenal.
Main deck of 80-gun ships
5Carronade gun in place of
32-pounder gun; quarter-
deck of ships.
T Fortresses and battering
< guns; also in some first
and fourth rates.
1 Portresses and battering
guns ; also in some second
and fourth rates.
/ Not used ; only a hundred in
( the arsenal.
Congreve’s carronade guns,
f Bloomfield; appropriated to
upper deck of the Donegal,
f Carronade gun; proposed in-
stead of the 24-pounder
carronades.
Garrison, battering train;
upper deck 74-gun ship.
Garrison, battering train;
decks of 46 and 42 gun
frigates.
Chase guns of line-of-battle
ships.
Quarter-deck of line-of-bat¬
tle ship; garrisons.
Garrison,and battering trains.
Garrisons, &c.
Do.
Chase guns of frigates.
Garrisons ; but little used.
Chase guns, sloops.
Not used.
1 The increased resistance of the air, occasioned by an increase of velocity in the projectile, has been fully treated of in the pre¬
ceding part of this article, under the Theory of Gunnery
actice.
v
GUNNERY.
-The Length, Weight, Calibre, and Charge of the various pieces of Ordnance, fyc.—continued.
69
Practice.
O
«
68 pr.
42 pr.
32 pr.
24 pr.
18 pr.
10 pr.
6 pr.
12 pr.
9 pr.
6 pr.
S
*- 9
bcjj
£ as
9 O
=3
3 pr.
1 pr.
24 pr.
12 in.
5£ in.
in-
10 in.
8 in.
51 in.
51 in.
13 in.
13 in.
10 in.
10 in.
8 in.
51 in.
5^- in.
4g- in.
Ft. In
3 2
4 4
4 0
3 0
3 8
5 10
3 3
2 8
2 8
6 6
5 0
6 0
7 0
5 0
6 0
4 0
3 0
5 0
4 9
3 3
2 8
1 10
5 0
4 0
3 6
3 10
4 15
4 5
3 9
2 4
1 10
n
7
S o 3
.2-0
§
a> +->
c > o
10
10
10
10
1 3
1 0
Cwt.
30
221
71 17
25
13
181
10
6
18
12
131
13
12
6
3
21.
gfJ
121
62
10
21
39*
30*
15
T2
1
82
36
41
8
8
1*
200
tS tD 2
£ § 55
Inches.
8-05
6-84
6-25
5-68
5-7
5-16
4-52
3«6
4-623
4- 2
3- 663
2-913
2-019
5- 72
4- 58
5- 62
4- 52
10-
8-
5- 62
13*”
10- ’
8-
5-62
4-52
Inches.
7-95
6-795
6-207
5-639
5-124
4-476
3- 568
4- 476
4*1
£
G
& S
cc 0
Inches.
7-85
6-729
6-147
5-584
5-074
4-432
3- 532
4- 432
4-06
3-568 3-532
2-833
1-995
5-62
4- 47
5- 62
4- 57
9-88
7-95
5- 62
12-88
9-80
7-95
6- 62
4-476
2-803
1-923
5-57
4- 43
5- 57
4- 43
9-8
7-85
5- 57
12-8
9-8
7-85
5-57
4-432
lbs. oz.
3 10
3 8
2 10
4 0
2 0
4 0
1 8
1 0
0 12
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 8
1 0
3 6
2 8
1 8
2 0
0 8
7 0
4 0
C a*
So
Purposes to which applied.
lbs. oz.
13 0
9 0
8 0
9 0
6 0
9 0
4 0
3 0
1 8
5 0
3 8
3 0
2 0
1 8
1 0
3 0
1 8
3 0
0 8
14 0
3 0
20 12
9 0
4 0
2 0
0 7
0 5
1778
1825
1773
1825
1788
1799
1806
1773
1782
1788
1810
1812
1820
1820
1825
1800
1810
1786
1790
1780
1780
1810
Two on the lower deck of
line-of-battle ships.
Upper decks of fourth rates.
Quarter-decks and forecas¬
tles generally.
Carronade guns, in place of
the old 32-pounder car¬
ronade.
Mostly used in arming boats;
in fortresses for flanks.
Carronade gun, with trun¬
nions ; in place of old 24-
pounder carronade.
Main-deck of small sloops,
and in boats.
For small cutters, and boats ;
also in fortresses, for flank
ing.
For king’s and revenue cut-
j ters. (
f Medium 12-pounder; an ex-
^ cellent gun.
Light 12-pounder.
J Much used for field service;
| an excellent gun.
f Long and heavy 6-*pounder ;
^ throws a shot with great
') accuracy, but inconveni-
ent in the field.
T Good for horse artillery;
d cutters have two for chase
l guns.
Heavy or long 3-pounder.
Colonial service.
For mountain service.
For colonial service.
For field service; usually
attached to 12 or 9
pounder batteries.
Do. to 6-pounder batteries
f Formerly used for field ser-
\ vice, now only for garri-
\ son; about to be discon-
tinued.
J For colonial or mountain ser
^ vice.
( For battering trains and gar
^ risons.
Do. do. do.
J For garrisons and flanking
( fire.
Do. do. do.
For bomb ships.
Do. do.
For land service.
Do. do.
f 8 inch, or royal mortar, and
1 in the attack of places
70
GUNNERY.
General Construction of Iron Guns.1
Fig. 1.
AB, length of the gun, 24-pounder.
AC, first reinforce, f ths of AB ; 9 feet; weight 47 cwt.
AD, distance from hinder part of the base ring to centre of
trunnions D fths of AB, AL ^d of AC, rings and as¬
tragal included.
CE, second reinforce, fth of AB + 1 calibre, fillets £th AC.
EF, chace, f ths EB; fillets £th of their rings, ogee at B £th
of its ring.
FB, muzzle, J-th EB; NB = 4th of FB; muzzle mould¬
ings
£d NB.
Trunnions § iv — \ calibre,
[diameter zr tv.
5?-sl
6
. . = 3r
(/- 12 i
Cascabel,
Fillet a If calibre,
Neck b 1 calibre,
Diameter c, fillet a,
GH the thickness of metal.
Pounders.
42 1 calibre.']
32 
24 
GH=f calibre,
sixteenths. IK = f GH.
Im = GH.
•1*
18.
12.
9.
6.
•If*
-1*
•Mr
J
IK = 4 GH.
General Construction of Brass Guns.
Fig. 2.
Guns.
17 calibres.
18 do.
6 pr. 5 feet.
3 pr. 6 feet.
1 pr. 5 feet.
mn.
1 cal.
do.
1 cal.
do.
op.
f(7
do.
.5
3
¥
do.
Iladius.
Ah 6
I O 16
do. do.
64
1G To
X 1
2 2
do. do.
Pounder.
12
9
6
~ L 3
(24
« J 18
2 ( 12
6
3
1
Feet.
6
5
5
4
6
5
5
5
6
5
Inches.
6
11
2
1
3
8
0
l)
0
0
Cwt.
18
134
9
H
24
18
12
5
10
21
Breech.
18, 12, 9, 6, 3 pounders, of 17 calibres 4
24, 18, 12 do. of 13 do |
6 do. light, 5 feet, 6 cwt [4
1 do. of 9 feet f
3 do. of 6 feet f
Distance CD in these guns, half a calibre.
Muzzle.
1
3
Pointing and Elevating a Gun.
By pointing a gun is understood the placing it in such
a position that the axis of the piece shall be exactly in a
line with the object aimed at; and by elevating a gun is
understood the placing it at such an angle above the hori¬
zontal line as will counteract the force of gravity, and may
strike the object aimed at. When a gun is both pointed
and elevated, it is said to be laid. The line-of-metal is a
visual line extending from the base-ring to the swell of Practice,
the muzzle : its position is ascertained by placing the trun-
nions perfectly horizontal, and then finding the highest
point both on the base-ring and the swell of the muzzle,
when the line joining those two points will be the line-of-
metal. But in consequence of the conical shape of guns,
this line has an inclination to the axis of about one degree,
which is called the dispart. In pointing a gun, the line-
of-metal is first laid in a line with the object; then, if the
trunnions are horizontal, the axis of the piece and object
will be in the same vertical plane; but if the trunnions
are not perfectly so, on account of the dispart, the con¬
tinuation of the line-of-metal will cross that of the axis of
the piece, and the shot will be thrown considerably to that
side of the object on which the lowest trunnion is.
In order to counteract this, a dispart sight is placed on
the muzzle, which makes it of the same diameter as the
breech; and then, however much one trunnion may be
lower than the other, the shot cannot be thrown more than
the thickness of metal to the right or left. A gun is said
to be point blank when the axis of the piece is in a line
with the object fired at, without having any elevation, or
when the axis is parallel to the horizon. The elevation
required to strike any object is found by ascertaining its
distance. Sets of tables have been constructed from ac¬
tual practice (see Tables II. III. IV. and V.), by which
the different sorts of shot and shells may be projected
with the greatest accuracy.
A scale made of brass, and called a tangent scale, being
marked with the different lengths of the tangents for the
several degrees, slides up and down in the breech. By
means of this the elevation may be given without any re¬
ference to the difference betw een the level of the gun and
the object fired at, and it may be elevated and pointed at
the same time. In guns which have disparts, the tangent
scale only comes into use at a greater angle than that of
the dispart of the gun. Degrees are therefore marked
upon the base-ring, beginning at the quarter sight, by
means of which the gun maybe elevated at any less angle
than that of the dispart.
The ‘21 of an inch is the tangent of one degree to every
foot of the gun’s length, from the base-ring to the swell
of the muzzle; and therefore, if the distance in feet be¬
tween those two points be multiplied by *21, the product
will be the tangent of 1°, which, when the dispart is sub¬
tracted from it, will give the length of the tangent scale
above the base-ring at one degree of elevation for that
particular gun. If the scale be applied to the quarter sight
of the gun, of course the dispart need not be subtracted.
Elevating guns at sea has always been attended with
difficulty and uncertainty. To effect this, the following
method has been proposed : Let the trunnion of a gun be
divided by lines passing through its centre, parallel and
perpendicular to the axis of the piece, and the lower limb
be divided into degrees, &c.; a plumb suspended from the
centre of the trunnion will cut the degree of elevation or
depression the gun is pointed at, which of course is al¬
ways varying, from the motion of the ship. If the axis of
the piece therefore be parallel with the deck, the degree
of the inclination of the deck and gun will at the same
time be ascertained, and the gun will be fired at the mo¬
ment when the plumb-line cuts the proper degree mark¬
ed upon the lower ring of the trunnion. Great accuracy
may thus be attained at sea.2
A scale has of late years been used for iron guns, marked
with the number of yards instead of degrees; and this has
1 This is descriptive of the 24 and-9-pounders, Plate CCLXXIV. figs. 1, 2.
2 “ It is not usual (at sea) to discharge cannon-shot at great elevations, on account of the uncertainty of such practice ; nor indeed
is it practicable to do so. This is only practised with mortars.” (See Major-General Sir Howard Douglas’s Treatise on Naval Gun-
nenj, art. 115.)
GUNNERY. 71
] dice, been found very useful to men who might not perhaps un-
^ ' derstand the tangent scale.
When it is required to fire continually at the same ob¬
ject, for instance a breach, the best way is, after discharg¬
ing a few rounds, to observe some object which the gun
points to when at the proper elevation, and always point at
that object. This is called pointing at a false object.
The fire of artillery may be divided into three classes;
the direct, the ricochet, and the vertical. The direct fire
is that used in the field or at sieges, where the gun is
discharged directly at the object with a full charge. The
ricochet fire is not confined to any particular charge or
elevation; each must vary according to the distance and
level of the object to be fired at, and particularly the
spot on which it is intended it shall make the first bound.
Firing en ricochet was first invented by Marshal Vauban,
at the siege of Ath; and it is principally used in sieges
for enfilading the face of a work, by sweeping or bounding
along it. A work is said to be enfiladed when the enemy
place a gun on the prolongation of a line of works, so as
to fire along it. Vertical fire is that which is thrown from
mortars, howitzers, or guns, at elevated angles. This was
much used at the siege of the Citadel of Antwerp in 1832.
By the assistance of good tables of practice, and of am¬
plitudes, sines, tangents, and secants, all cases in gunnery
in a non-resisting medium are easily solved ; and perhaps
the solution may be sufficiently correct for practice, if the
initial velocity of the projectile be not so great as to make
the resistance of the air considerable. ( Vide Tables II. III.
IV. and V.)
The following rules maybe observed: 1. The greatest
range is at 45 degrees nearly; 2. The ranges with differ¬
ent elevations at the same charge, are as the double sines
of elevation ; 3. Any angle and its complement give the
same range nearly; 4. The times of flight are as the sines
of the angles of elevation ; 5. The altitude of the curve,
at any elevation, is found by this proportion :—as radius :
tangent of angle of elevation :: altitude : range. 6. The
time of flight at 45° is equal to the square root of
the range in feet, divided by 4; or, more nearly, =
V quotient of the range in feet, divided by T61, or the
space that would be passed through in the first second by
the force of gravity alone.
Having the first graze of shot, with a given charge
and elevation, to determine the charge for any other
first graze and elevation. Multiply the known charge and
elevation into the proposed first graze; also the proposed
elevation into the known first graze ; and divide the first
product by the last, for the charge required.
Mortars are generally placed in fortified places, at some
distance from the parapet; and in the attack in batteries
with high parapets, so that from the mortar itself, the ob¬
ject or place to be fired at can seldom be seen, two ramrods
are stuck in the superior slope of the battery, in line with
the object; the centre of metal is then taken on the mortar,
and chalked; the officer next lays the naortar by placing
the centre of metal thus found, in the direction of the
ramrods, by means of a plumb-line, and he ascertains that
the elevation is correct by the gunner’s quadrant. The
distance being ascertained, the following rules are to be
observed.
General Rules for Mortar Practice.
In a 13-inch mortar, 3 lbs. of powder give a range of
1100 yards ; whilst every ^ lb. of increase adds 100 yards ;
every ^ lb. of decrease diminishes 150 yards. In a 10-inch, Practice,
half the quantity calculated for a 13-inch is used ; in an'8-
inch, one-third the quantity for the 10-inch ; and in a Si-
inch, a charge of 1 oz. 8 dr. gives 150 yards. The following
table shows the weights of the different kinds of mortars,
empty and filled:—
Empty. Filled.
13-inch 189 lbs. 0 oz. 200 lbs.
10 — 85 — 6 — 92 —
8 — 42 — 8 — 45 —
5i— 14 — 12 — 16 —
, 8r"
A shell is a hollow globe of iron filled with powder,
which will burst at any intended distance by means of a
fuze which has been cut to a certain length, and commu¬
nicates to the powder within the shell. The fuze is a
wooden tube made to fit the hole in the shell, and filled
with a composition of sulphur, saltpetre, and mealed
powder; it burns about -2 of an inch in a second. The
time of flight of a shell being known, the length of fuze,
and consequently the bursting of the shell, are easily as¬
certained. Shells are generally made to burst just as
they would strike the ground; sometimes the fuzes are
cut rather long, so that a shell may fall into a house, or a
breach, and, by its exploding under ground, act as a small
mine.
Shrapnell shells, or, as they were called by the inven¬
tor, spherical case shot (a name whjch they still retain),
are filled with a quantity of musket-balls, which, when
the shell explodes, are projected about 150 yards further.
These shells are fired from guns, mortars, and howitzers,
and have been found most efficient, especially against
skirmishers or working parties. A six-pounder spherical
case contains twenty-seven musket-balls, which, when the
shell explodes, do as much injury as the same number of
muskets (besides the splinters of the exploded shell), at
a distance far beyond the range of musketry.1 * * * *
Case and grape-shot are also fired from guns. They
take their names, the one from having a number of small
balls confined in a tin case, and the other from having the
balls tied or quilted together in a manner resembling a
bunch of grapes. They are not calculated for long ranges,
but are very efficacious, at three or four hundred yards,
against advancing troops, or in the flanks of a fortification
for firing along the ditch.
The common shot is a solid sphere of iron, designated
according to its weight, and is something less than the
diameter of the bore, to allow for windage, which in Eng¬
lish guns is gnth of the <. » , so that, in this way, be¬
tween tjd and ^tb of the lorcc is lost.
Great changes have recency bee., made in howitzers by
General Miller of the royal artillery. He has superseded
the useless light 5i-inch howitzer by a piece of ordnance
which, from its weight of metal and length of bore, au¬
thorizes such charges as, with the diminished windage,
will produce due velocity and effect. In Plate CCLXXIV.
figs. 3 and 4 represent a 12-pounder brass howitzer, and
a 10-inch iron howitzer.
During the siege of Cadiz the French fired shells into
the town from two large mortars at a distance of4000 yards.
Their calibre was much the same as that of our 13-inch
mortars, but in their internal construction they differed
materially; the largest took forty pounds of powder for its
charge, and was nearly eight feet in length. A great deal
of lead was run into the shells; they seldom burst, and
1 This invention, which has hitherto been imperfectly comprehended by some, even in our own service, had absolutely baffled the
inquiries of the French ; but it is understood that Captain Glunder, of the Hanoverian service, has recently published a minute ac¬
count of it in a Continental military journal. In future wars, therefore, it is probable that Shrapnell shells will be pnzed by
us than they have hitherto been, because they will be adopted by our enemies, and we shall then practically feel their eltett. taee
United Service Journal for 1834, part ii. p. 398.)
GUNNERY.
72
Practice, when they did so their explosion was inconsiderable. One
of these mortars is to be seen on the parade of the Horse
Guards, St James’s Park.
The mmwaefe, invented, or rather improved, by Mr Gas¬
coigne, was in June 1779 instituted as a standard navy-
gun, and ten of them were appointed to be added to every
ship of war. The carronade is made so short that it is
worked with its carriage in the ship’s port. It is correctly
bored; and the shot being perfectly round, fills the cali¬
bre with such exactness, that the least possible impulse of
the powder escapes upon explosion, between the cylinder
and the shot, which last is also thereby more truly di¬
rected in its flight. The bottom of the cylinder is a he¬
misphere, to which the end of the cartridge is not liable
to stick, and in which the smallest charge of powder en¬
velopes the shot, exhausting upon it nearly the whole of
its impelling force. There are sights cast upon the vent
and muzzle, to point the gun quickly to an object at 250
and 500 yards distance; and there is a ring cast upon the
cascabel, through which the breechin-rope is reeved, the
only rope used about these guns.
This gun has many advantages over the others of light
construction. It is so extremely light, that the smallest
ships can carry almost any weight of shot (the 12-poun¬
der weighing under five hundredweight, and the other
calibres in proportion), and that without being attended
with the inconveniences imputed generally to light guns,
since it cannot injure its carriage, or jump out of its sta¬
tion in the port upon recoil; and it never becomes heated.
Though the carronade cannot, strictly speaking, throw
its shot to an equal distance with a longer gun, yet,
from the adaptation of the shot to its cylinder, the powers
of this gun will greatly surpass the expectations of such
as are not intimately acquainted with the effects of the
elastic force of fired powder; since, with a charge one
twelfth part of the weight of its ball, at very small eleva¬
tions, it will project its shot to triple the distance at which
ships usually engage, with sufficient velocity for the great¬
est execution, and with all the accuracy in its direction
that can be attained with guns of greater lengths.1
There have been two seeming disadvantages imputed
to this gun, which it does not merit, viz. the nicety of fit¬
ting the shot to the bore of the gun, and its incapacity to
admit more than two shot at one charge. But as seamen
have few opportunities of confirming themselves in just
opinions by experiments made on shore, and cannot, in
that case, be fully conversant with the subject, the fol¬
lowing hints may be useful towards removing these objec¬
tions.
It is an axiom in projectiles, that a shot cannot be
impelled from a gun to any distance in a direction truly
parallel to the axis of the cylinder of the piece, or what
is commonly called •point blank, arising from several well- Practice,
known causes. For, however just may be the cylinder,
and however perfect and smooth may be the sphere of its
corresponding shot, and admitting that the impulse of the
powder acts through the centre of gravity of the shot,
and that the shot consequently leaves the piece in a di¬
rection parallel to the axis of its cylinder ; yet the shot is
no sooner discharged, than it becomes more or less inflect¬
ed by its gravity, and deflected, according to its velocity,
by the resistance of the air and wind. But these irregu¬
larities are oflittle importance in close sea-fights; and be¬
ing the effect of physical causes, they are common to all.
The deviation of a shot from its true direction, however,
is further augmented by the windage between the cylinder
and the ball; but the greatest uncertainty in the flight of
a shot, making allowance for the action of its gravity, and
the resistance of the air, is occasioned by the defects of
the shot itself.
If the direction of the flight of a shot to its object, then,
is affected by so many seeming trivial causes, the result
must be much more uncertain when two or more shots
are discharged together from one gun; for the shot next
the powder being impelled with more celerity than that im¬
mediately before it, strikes against it after the discharge,
sometimes shivers itself to pieces, and never fails to change
obliquely the direction of both ; and this happens with
round and double-headed shot, and with all double charges,
which, from their various figures, cannot reach an ob¬
ject at the same elevations with the round shot; espe¬
cially when these other shots are of greater weight than
the round, which is often the case. However frightful a
broadside with double charges may appear at sea, more
confusion is created by them, and more time lost, within
board, by the strain and excessive recoil, than real damage
done without board by the additional charge; for upon a
trial on shore, where the effect can be traced, it will be
found, that at one hundred yards distance, more shot will
take place within a small compass by single than by dou¬
ble charges; and the charges will be oftener repeated in
a given time, without heating the gun.
The other pieces of artillery commonly made use of are
mortars, royals, and howitzers. The mortars are a kind of
short cannon of a large bore, with chambers for the pow¬
der, and they are made either of brass or of iron. Their
use is to throw hollow shells filled with powder, which fall¬
ing on any building, or. into the works of a fortification,
burst, and with their fragments destroy every thing near
them. Carcases, which are a sort of shells with five holes,
filled with pitch and other materials, in order to set build¬
ings on fire, are also discharged from mortars.
Mortars are chiefly distinguished by the dimensions of
their bore; for example, a 13-inch mortar is one the dia-
1 At the same time, viewing the matter purely as an artillery question, there is little doubt that, in the armament of some ships a pre¬
ference should he given to long guns. Sir Howard Douglas recommends (Naval Gunnery, art. 89) that a frigate which cannot carry
eight-feet 24-pounders, should be fitted with long 18-pounders rather than with six or six and a half feet 24-pounders, or indeed
with any kind of carronade exclusively. “The chief objection that maybe made to this,” says he, “ is, that short 24-pounders are
more easily worked. This I admit; but surely, with a good strong crew, the difference would be very inconsiderable ; and, at all
events, not worth the sacrifice of vast superiority of power and practice at long ranges. Perhaps, also,” he adds, “ expedients may be
devised to lessen this, the only disadvantage that can be objected to long guns, for vessels that can receive them.” Sir Howard ad¬
mits that at close quarters carronades are very formidable ; but he contends that, at long ranges, they are no match for long guns, and
that any vessel fitted exclusively with this description of ordnance, might be destroyed or captured by a vessel of very inferior rate,
mounting long guns, if her commander knew how to avail himself of the great superiority of his weapons. “ The very mortifying si¬
tuation,” says he, “ in which the gallant Sir James Yeo found himself, in September 1813, on Lake Ontario, shows the danger of the
carronade system of armament. Sir James states, in his letter of the 12th September, ‘the enemy's fleet of eleven sail, having a par¬
tial wind, succeeded in getting within range of their long 24 and 32-pounders ; and having obtained the wind of us, I found it impossible
to bring them to close action. We remained in this mortifying situation five hours, having only six guns in the fleet that would reach
the enemy. Not a carronade was fired. At sunset a breeze sprung up from the westward, when I manoeuvred to oblige the enemy to
meet us on equal terms. This, however, he carefully avoided.’ ” Captain Barclay, in a letter also dated the 12th September 1813,
makes a similar statement. “ The other brig of the enemy,” says he, “ apparently destined to engage the Queen Charlotte, support¬
ed in like manner by two schooners, kept so far to windward as to render the Queen Charlotte’s 24-pounder carronades useless, whilst
she and the Lady Prevost were exposed to a heavy and destructive fire from the Caledonian, and four other schooners, armed •with long
and heavy guns."
GUNNERY.
p ctice. meter of whose bore is 13 inches, and so of the rest. The
v- y-*-' land mortars are those used in sieges and in battles. 1 hey
are mounted on beds, and both mortar and bed are trans¬
ported on block carriages. English mortars are generally
fixed to an angle of 45 degrees. This custom, however,
does not appear to have any foundation in reason. On the
contrary, when shells are thrown upon magazines, or any
other buildings, the mortars should be elevated as high as
possible, that the shells may acquire a greater force in their
fall, and consequently do more execution. The chamber
in mortars is the place where the powder is lodged. They
are of different forms, and made variously by different na¬
tions ; but the cylindrical seems to be preferable to any
other form.
Royals are a kind of small mortars, which throw a shell
whose diameter is 5*5 inches. They are mounted on beds
in the same way as other mortars.
The howitzer is a kind of mortar mounted on a field-
carriage like a gun ; and it differs from the common mortar
in having the trunnions in the middle, whereas those of the
mortar are at the end. The construction of howitzers is
as various and uncertain as that of mortars, excepting that
the chambers are all cylindrical. They are distinguished
by the diameter of their bore ; for instance, a 10-inch
howitzer is that which has a bore of ten inches diameter,
and so of others. They were much more lately invented
than mortars, and indeed are plainly derived from them.
The canons a bombes, or d la Paixhans, are howitzers
of greater length of bore than ordinary, having the shells
appropriated to them cast concentric, instead of a eulot,
or reinforcement of metal opposite the fuse-hole. The
bomb-cannon are, in fact, only an application of a princi¬
ple incontestibly proved by Mr Robins and Dr Hutton,
and well exemplified in the case of carronades ; namely,
that the velocities of shot are increased by diminishing the
windage. Colonel Paixhans has acknowledged (Force et
Faiblesse de la France, pp. 396, 415) that the most effec¬
tive proof of the value of his improvement against fortifi¬
cations was the practice carried on by Sir Alexander
Dickson in 1824, with carronades and howitzers, at a
range of four and five hundred yards, against Carnot’s
wall, covered by his counterguard, and strengthened for
about twenty feet with an additional buttress at each end
of four feet square. But this practice has nothing to boast
of, or to record, in a treatise like the present. “ Certainly
it would never have been spoken of as extraordinary in the
British service, that the charge and elevation should be so
apportioned to ordnance as to pitch their projectiles over a
counterguard, securing their effect against, and, as it prov¬
ed, in three hours and a half firing, causing a practicable
breach, with eight 68-pounder carronades, and six 10-inch
howitzers, in a wall of the same height with the counter¬
guard, and ninety feet from it; but it was asserted at the
time, by foreign officers of distinction, that the wall could
not be breached, and that it had been attempted in vain
by the artillery of the principal powers of Europe.”1
“ The'propositions of Colonel Paixhans,” says another
writer in the same journal, “ have been some years before
the public; and his ideas as to the construction of guns by
which to project shells horizontally have been noticed and
acted upon by most if not all the maritime powers of Europe.
In England we have guns constructed on his plan by Gene¬
ral Miller, but after all it appears to be little more than
applying to ordnance with trunnions the well-known prin¬
ciple applied to carronades, that of diminishing the windage
to increase the initial velocity, thereby affording an op¬
portunity of reducing the charge. M. Paixhans’ new guns,
as well as our own, may be best described as iron howit-
73
zers, the bore being longer than usual, and the windage Practice,
decreased; the construction of the gun is, however, of little
consequence compared to its application. Now the prac¬
tice made by the French marine at Brest against a ship
of the line at different periods, proves that an eighty-
pounder, the hollow shot of which is 8-4 in diameter, may,
by a single discharge, cause the destruction of a ship of
the first class, and that such result may be produced, ei¬
ther from the bursting of the shell, and the instantaneous
injury thereby caused, or from fire; and it further shows,
that in every case in which a shell struck the vessel,
the injury sustained was very important. The committee
of naval and artillery officers, in the report of M. Paix¬
hans’ eighty-pounder, observes, 4 II est evident que
1’effet produit a ete terrible, et tel qu’on pense qu’une ou
deux bombes de cette espece, eclatant dans un batterie, y
causeraient un desordre capable de faire abandonner, du
moins de comprometre, la defense du batiment atteint.’
44 In our own service, a twelve-inch gun of ten diameters,
windage *15 inches, charge eleven pounds, elevation 1°,
range 400 yards, was fired six times against the section of
a ship’s side, the fac-simile of a ship of war. Four shells
struck the section, and produced an effect such as to con¬
vince every body present that no vessel could have floated
with such injuries ; the whole of the interior was covered
with splinters, one weighing fifty pounds was picked up at
a considerable distance; the knees of the vessel were bro¬
ken to pieces, one shot alone broke several; the knees pro¬
truding beyond the ship’s sides, and leaving a tremendous
opening. As to the range of these projectiles, it appears,
that notwithstanding the reduced charges, it exceeds that or¬
dinarily obtained with the common guns of the largest ca¬
libre, and with a charge equal to one-third the weight of
the shot.”
The largest mortar ever employed against the defences
of a place was the iron 24-inch mortar used at the siege
of the Citadel of Antwerp in 1832. The dimensions of
this 44 monster,” stated in French weights and measures,
are as follow:
Diameter of the shell  24 inches.
Thickness, exclusive of eulot  2^ —
Weight of empty shell  916 lbs.
Powder contained in shell  99 —
Weight of shell, full charge  1015 —
Calibre, massive  1666 —
Weight of mortar metal 14*700 —
  bed (wood) 16*000 —
Powder in chamber (full)  30 —
44 The monster mortar hitherto appears remarkable only
for the extremely bad shells which were cast for it, and
the time taken in loading it. Our thirteen-inch shells
stand the explosion of twenty or thirty peunds of powder,
whilst the monster was served with only twelve and a half.
It is remarkable that Colonel Paixhans’ guns were not
used at Antwerp, particularly as the attack appears to
have been carried on for display, and to have been spun
out, particularly in the attack of the Lunette, as a siege
du poly gone'.'
As illustrative of the practice at the siege of the Cita¬
del of Antwerp, and in the Peninsular war, and also as
serving to show generally the effects of artillery, we sub¬
join some remarks extracted from the journal above re¬
ferred to.
44 The lieutenant-general (Neigre) commanding this arm,
pertinaciously adhered to the principle that it is at point-
blank that a cannon fire is most efficacious, and that nothing
VOL. xi.
1 United Service Journal for 1834, part ii. p. 398.
74
GUNNERY.
Practice, is gained by that of mortars at a close range; that is, that the
impetus of the former does not increase by reducing the
distance between the point-blank and a given object; and
were it not for glacis and intervening objects, revetements
could as easily be breached at full point-blank as at fifty
yards, whilst, in regard to the latter, their execution is
rendered less certain by the necessity of diminishing the
charge and fuse.
“ By full point-blank appears to be intended that which
the French term le but en blanc, distinguished from the but
en blanc primitif ou naturel, which the English term the
line of metal elevation, namely, the elevation of the axis
of the bore resulting from the dispart of the gun ; a plane
passing over and touching the superior part of the breech
and muzzle being coincident with the object at which the
gun is laid. If the definition now to be assumed be ad¬
mitted to convey the phrase point-blank, as applied to the
opinions of General Neigre, the distance in question will
be, when referring to a 24-pounder English, about 700
yards, such being its line of metal range.
“ Now, at this distance, it is very certain that a breach
may be effected against an ordinary revetement, if not co¬
vered by any intervening object, without any difficulty.
Sir John May, of the royal artillery, in his memoir of the
sieges in the Peninsula, remarks, that at Ciudad Rodrigo,
breaches of 130 feet in extent were rendered practicable
at ranges of from 500 to 700 yards, in thirty-two and a half
hours, the greatest number of guns employed being thirty
24-pounders and two 18-pounders. Sir John Jones, royal
engineer, says, ‘ at Badajoz the extent of the front of the
three breaches open was about 500 feet, the greater part
of which was as good as can be formed.’ This was effected
at distances of from 600 to 700 yards with fourteen 18-
pounders and twelve 24-pounders, in 104 hours; firing,
on the average, nine rounds in the hour. At St Sebastian,
twenty 24-pounders caused a practical breach 100 feet in
extent in thirty-three hours; and these guns rendered a
smaller breach at the same siege practicable in fifteen
hours and a half; on an average, twenty rounds a gun
were fired in an hour.
“ Thus, at these three sieges, assuming the data they af¬
ford, and supposing fifty guns employed, a breach of 100 feet
might have been effected at a range of from 600 to 700 yards;
at Ciudad Rodrigo in fourteen hours twelve minutes, at
Badajoz in ten hours, at St Sebastian in twelve hours fifty-
six minutes; and the time might have been reduced to
ten hours, as it has been proved that English battering
guns will admit, without injury, twenty-four rounds in an
hour.”
With reference to the opinion that “ nothing is gained
by the fire of mortars at a close range,’’ and that the exe¬
cution is rendered less certain by the necessity of redu¬
cing the charge and fuse, we are of opinion that, if the
primary object of mortar batteries be to force through
bomb proofs, and to spring the arches of magazines, the
distant mortar may be more efficient than one more near. Practice.
The greatest penetrating effect of a vertical projectile must's-‘'■v'w
obviously be obtained by projecting it to such a height as
would be requisite, in its descent, by gravity, to attain its
terminal, that is, its greatest velocity; but as with the
heaviest projectiles the altitude necessary to generate
the terminal velocity is such as can only be produced at
protracted ranges, or at elevations above 45°, the princi¬
ple must be modified, so that in endeavouring to procure
the greatest momentum for the shell, too much may not
be surrendered in point of accuracy of fire. The altitude
to produce this terminal velocity with an eight-inch shell,
is 2678 feet, with a ten-inch, 3335, with a thirteen-inch,
4340, and with the Antwerp “ monster,” 6030 feet, suppos¬
ing its diameter to be twenty-four inches, and the corres¬
ponding solid to weigh 2447 lbs. English; but these alti¬
tudes require, at 45° elevation, ranges to which shells can¬
not be thrown with great accuracy. Very satisfactory
practice may, however, be made with thirteen and ten-
inch mortars at 800 and 1000 yards, the ranges of the
principal mortar batteries at Antwerp. Therefore we
may say, that decreasing these distances would lessen the
efficiency against permanent works, in a degree not com¬
pensated by the superior accuracy of the fire.
If the intention of the mortar battery be to annoy troops
or working parties, much less velocity is required; and as
the accuracy of the practice would increase by lessening
the range, it would be desirable to do so.
It is highly probable that the great effect of the verti¬
cal fire in destroying the shelter of the garrison in the
bombardment at Antwerp, is attributable to the distance
of the mortar batteries.
The French use brass guns for their battering trains,
perhaps “ because they have no iron founderies to com¬
pare to that of Carron, or indeed to many English esta¬
blishments.” Still it is remarkable that, with the experi¬
ence they must have had of the comparative inefficiency of
guns made of this metal, the French should still adhere to
them. If the rate of firing at Antwerp in 1832 be com¬
pared with that at any of the Peninsular sieges, as stated
by Sir John Jones, the great superiority of iron guns will
be at once perceived. The French iron is no doubt very
inferior to ours; but, in a matter of so much importance,
one would imagine that the interests of a monopoly would
not outweigh those of the service.
In the British service, the practice writh the Paixhans
guns has not been carried to an equal extent as in the
French; but with the twelve-inch gun of 90 cwt. 8 qrs.
4 lbs., weight of hollow shot about 125 lbs., windage T5
inches, charge 12 lbs. only, a range of 1300 yards has
been the result. The number of men employed with the
guns of Colonel Paixhans was fifteen, being that required
for a thirty-six pounder. The English gun mounted on
board ship was worked by six men with ease; and it re¬
coiled from four and a half to five feet.”
II.— Charges, Range, 8$c. with the under-mentioned Iron Ordnance.
Nature.
42 Pr.
32
24
18
12
9
Weight.
Cwt.
58
55
50
42
34
31
Q,rs.
1
2
Charge.
Elevation.
14 0
10 11
8 0
6 0
4 0
3 0
PB.
H
Range.
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Elevation.
3
Range.
1100
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
Elevation.
3|
4
5
6
7
2
Range.
1500
1550
1600
1800
1980
2148
4000
GUNNERY.
ractice.
75
Practice.
HI.— Calculation to fire Spherical Case Shot with Service Charges.
Medium 12-Pounder.
Eleva¬
tion.
Degree.
*4
2l
93
si
3|
5
5f
el
Fuse.
1 Oths.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
Range
from to
Long 6 and 9-Pounder.
Eleva¬
tion.
Y ards
660
820
960
1080
1195
1305
1415
1520
1620
1720
Yards. Degree.
966
1110
1230
1340
1445
1545
1645
1740
1830
1920
]4
If
34
4f
5f
el
F use.
lOths.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Range
from to
Yards Yards,
640
800
930
1050
1160
1260
1360
1455
1555
1640
920
1060
1180
1290
1390
1480
1570
1655
1700
1820
Light 6-Pounder.
Eleva¬
tion.
Degree.
If
1 i
si
^4
3 7T
4f
4
5f
Fuse.
lOths.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Range
from to
Yards Yards.
570
720
845
955
1060
1160
1255
1345
1430
1510
1585
800
930
1040
1145
1240
1330
1415
1500
1580
1655
1725
IV. Ranges with the under-mentioned Brass Ordnance.
Round Shot
Deg.
PB.
1
H
1
H
2
2*
2f
3
£ c
o
pu
r«
‘"S ^
w
bC cn
Yds.
200
300
400
500
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
=
£ tc c
J fcco
V c cl,
<L» o 1
Yds.
300
400
500
600
700
775
850
925
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
12-Pounder
Howitzer.
W
Deg.
PB.
1
1
4
4
2
n
lOths
1
2
H-
3
4
AL
5
Ph
Yards.
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
24-Pounder
Howitzer.
Deg.
PB.
1
4
i
I
1
4
4
if
2
H
2f
3
lOths
1
4
2
2A
3^
41
^2
Ph
Yards
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
V.—Elevation and Range with QQ-Pounder, or Eight-Inch
Gun.
Charge 9 lbs.
Elevation.
Degrees-
Point-blank.
i
JL
4
4
4
2
2-1-
li
2#
Range.
Yards.
372
444
516
588
660
746
832
918
1004
1052
1100
1148
1196
The above tables are constructed from actual practice,
with good powder, at Woolwich. According to the pre¬
sent system, much more care is taken to preserve gunpow¬
der from deterioration than was formerly employed.
description of figs. 10 and 11, Plate CCLXXIV., which, from want of room, could not be engraved on the
self, is here subjoined: Fig. 10, AB bracket, BC trail, o trail-plate eye, E eye and bolt keys, D and c trun-
’  J   . . t . . mr i :i l) O plpvfltincr screw, t) narc
76
GUNPOWDE R.
Gun- The invention of gunpowder is popularly ascribed to
powder. Barthold Schwartz, a German monk and alchemist; and
the date of the discovery is further supposed to have
been in 1320. The prior claims of our countryman, Ro¬
ger Bacon, whatever they be, are however unquestionable,
as this substance is described in his writings about the
year 1270, or fifty years before the time of the suppos¬
ed discovery of Schwartz. But even Bacon has as little
title to this invention as his supposed rival; nor, indeed,
when we examine his own description of this then won¬
derful compound, do we perceive that he makes any
claim to have been the discoverer. On the contrary, he
quotes it as a well-known substance, in common use all
over the world for making squibs to amuse children. So
pertinacious are vulgar errors. The passage in Bacon
stands as follows : “ Ex hoc ludicro puerili, quod fit in
multis mundi partibus, scilicet, ut instrumento facto ad
quantitatem pollicis humani, ex violentia salis qui salpe-
trse vocatur, tam horribilis sonus nascitur (this is the
description of a parchment cracker) “ in ruptura tam mo-
dicae pergamenae, quod fortis tonitru rugitum et corrus-
cationem maximam sui luminis jubar excedit.” Thus
the claim is shifted without difficulty from Bacon, and,
as Dutens thinks he can show, is removed to Magnus
Graecus, whose manuscript he quotes, and from which he
presumes that Bacon derived the invention; although,
by his own showing, Bacon need not have consulted an
obscure writing for an invention of general notoriety.
The title of the manuscript in question is as follows :
“ Incipit Liber Ignium a Marco Graeco perscriptus, cujus
virtus et efficacia estad comburendum hostes, tam in mari
quam in terra;” so that even the military uses of gun¬
powder were then known. In the same manuscript are
contained directions for making a rocket, which we dare
not quote on account of its length ; but it is such as to
prove that the nature of this fire-work was thoroughly
understood. It is even remarkable that he recommends
particularly the charcoal of willow wood, which we mo¬
derns have found by experience to be amongst the best for
all the purposes of gunpowder.
Thus far, although we have not fixed the date of the inven¬
tion, we have carried it, not only beyond Bacon, but even be¬
yond this supposed predecessor; as fie himself does not pre¬
tend to be the inventor, but the compiler, of a Liber Ignium,
or treatise on pyrotechny. If, in attempting to ascend still
higher, the evidence becomes more rare and more obscure,
there are still insuperable facts to prove that its antiquity
is far greater, however impossible it may be to approxi¬
mate to the date of the invention, far less to assign that
which seems buried amongst the obscurities of oriental
learning. The question of gunpowder, as applied to ar¬
tillery, is a separate one; but there is abundant reason to
believe that this compound was not only used in some
form or other as an explosive and combustible substance,
but was even applied to military purposes; it may be, in
the shape of rockets or other fire-works, which, for ob¬
jects of amusement at least, have been familiar to the
Chinese beyond all record.
The earliest date to which we can refer the knowledge
of gunpowder, in defect of a sufficiently remote acquaint¬
ance with oriental history, is 355 before Christ; although,
from the very nature of this evidence, it follows that it was
then not only known to the eastern nations, but that it
must have long been so ; since, even at that early period,
it was applied to warlike purposes. In the code of Hin¬
du laws, indeed, where it is mentioned, it is referred to
a period which oriental antiquaries have considered as Gun.
coincident with the time of Moses. But the evidence to powder,
which we more particularly allude is found in a passage
of the Life of Apollonius Tyanseus by'Philostratus; the
purport of which is, that Alexander was unwilling to at¬
tack the Oxydracae, who lived between the Hyphasis and
the Ganges, because they were under the care of the
gods, and overthrew their enemies with thunder and light¬
ning, which they shot from their walls. The same tale is
told of the repulses experienced in this country by Her¬
cules and Bacchus.
The next of these early dates, in which also our evi¬
dence is imperfect, is 212 before Christ; but the establish¬
ment of the truth of the last would render this one more
credible. In the defence of Syracuse by Archimedes, Vi¬
truvius relates that one of his engines threw large stones
with a great noise; a description which does not apply to
any of the mechanical artillery of the ancients. On a no¬
tice so superficial, we must not, however, lay too much
stress; and here ends all the information which we have
yet procured respecting the earliest knowledge of gunpow¬
der. It seems, however, to be so decidedly capable of being
traced from the East, through the intervention of the Arabs,
that there can be little doubt of its being on oriental in¬
vention, and of its being thence imported into Europe;
and, indeed, the military use of rockets in the armies of
India ascends to a period beyond record.
Of the earliest period at which it was known in China,
we have, in defect of their own evidence, only the testi¬
mony of Uffano, an Italian author, who affirms, that not
only gunpowder, but ordnance, was in use in that nation
in the year 85 of our era; and that cannon were, in his
day, remaining from the most ancient times, in some of the
maritime provinces, made both of iron and brass. Hence
some writers presume that the Chinese communicated the
invention to the Indians ; whilst it has also been said, but
on no sufficient authority^, that they themselves received
it from Tartary ; a nation respecting which we know
little or nothing, and in which we should not be inclined
to look for an early acquaintance with the arts. This,
however, refers to a date so late as 917 ; so that, if there is
any dependence to be placed on the Indian and Chinese
hypothesis, the Tartars must themselves have borrowed
the invention from those to whom they are said to have
lent it.
There is after this a long blank; and the first author
on the subject that we have discovered is in 1249, twenty
years before the date of Bacon’s narrative. This is an
Arabic writer, in the Escurial collection, who is translat¬
ed by Casiri. His description is such that it may apply
both to rockets and to shells. In the former case, it only
proves the knowledge of the detonating compound; the
latter, were it proved, would show that they were also ac¬
quainted with the use of ordnance, although it is not im¬
possible but that such projectiles might have been thrown
by mechanical artillery.
As the invention of gunpowder has been popularly at¬
tributed to Bacon and to Schwartz, so the use of ordnance
has been referred to the time of the field of Cressy, or
1346. To pass over the Chinese hypothesis on this part
or the subject, we shall find that cannon were known at least
as early as 1312. This we derive from the source quoted
by Casiri; from Arabian writers, who describe the use of
ordnance in 1312 and 1323 ; whilst, if Barbour is to be
trusted, Edward III. was also provided with some pieces
of artillery in 1327 ; and Pere Daniel asserts that cannon
GUNPOWDER.
un- were known to the French in 1338. We need not carry matters. Cheapness being the leading object where it is
J.vdcr. this discussion lower; though, in favour of the oriental only made for sale, and the nitre being the only expensive
^ origin of this invention, we would still remark, that artil- article, the proportion of this is diminished, and those of
lery was much in use in the Mediterranean when it was the other two ingredients increased. The worst is made
still but little used elsewhere ; as by the Venetians against for the Guinea trade ; and, if we are not misinformed, that
Genoa in 1380, and by Alphonso XL in his wars against for the Canada trade is nearly as bad, whilst the next up-
the Moors. wards in the scale is that sold to Turkey. We have never
met with any specimen in which there was less than 62 of
Composition of Gunpowder. nitre ; but we have reason to believe that some of the in-
The present composition of the Chinese corresponds so ferior kinds do not contain more than 50. For the use of
nearly with our own, that the difference is nearly insensi- miners it also is made with a low proportion of nitre, pro-
ble ; but whether it had arrived at that degree of perfection ducing advantages in mining not intended by the makers,
in their ancient periods, we have no means of knowing. Nei- whose only object was to manufacture a cheap article,
ther can we judge of its nature and power as known to the the proportions of all the commercial powders are
Arabs. But, in our own country, it was very late in arriv- very inconstant, even when furnished bona fide to govern¬
ing at its present state of perfection; nor do the various ment, as it is impossible to prevent the workmen from
proportions given by one of our earliest writers on the sub- purloining the nitre, and replacing it with the cheapest
ject argue much in favour of their chemical knowledge, ingredients.
or turn for experiments. Peter Whitehorne, who wrote It is not for want of experiments if greater uniformity
in 1573, gives numerous proportions, without seemmg has not been attained in these compositions, and if all ad-
well aware of their respective values; and, respecting here to their own. Baptista Porta was one of the first
some of them, it is easy to see that they were scarcely who made accurate investigations on this subject; and, as
fit for squibs, much less for the purpose of projecting shot. l°ng ng° as the year 1515, he fixed on the proportions now
Such is nitre, sulphur, charcoal, equal parts; whilst, in used in France. Beaume, some time ago, fixed on 80 of
the very opposite extreme, we have nitre 12 parts, sul- nitre, 5 of sulphur, and 15 of charcoal; and the opinions
phur and charcoal, of each 3 parts ; and, still worse, nitre °f Morveau, Chaptal, and Proust, are displayed in the pre-
27 to 3 of the other two ingredients; or nitre 48 parts, ceding table. It is easy to account for these differences
with 7 of sulphur and three of charcoal. Here, such as opinion, when we recollect the numerous accessary cir-
these compositions are, want of experience can scarcely cumstances which modify or vitiate the results obtained
be pleaded, as they are not better than those given by fr°m practice. With the very same power it is scarcely
Nye in 1380. In France also, the composition, at no possible to procure uniform ones, as is well known to ar-
very remote period, was, nitre 50, sulphur 16, charcoal tillerists; and hence, from practice alone, unless after an
34 ; from which it varied to, nitre 67, sulphur 13, charcoal enormous number of trials, no certain conclusions can be
20, and to nitre 84, sulphur 8, charcoal 8; these differ- drawn. It will, indeed, appear that, under various pro-
ences being supposed necessary for the larger cannon, and portions, the effects may really be the same; because, as
the smaller progressively, and the last being their musket the force of powder depends partly on the quantity of gas
powder. generated, and partly on the heat to which it is raised,
But as we cannot afford space to describe the gradual any deficiency on the one hand may be compensated by
progress of improvement in the composition of gunpowder, an increase on the other. Thus, as the greater quantity
we shall now state the proportions at present in use in gas is produced by the largest proportion of charcoal,
different nations. They do not materially differ from the greater heat is caused by augmenting that of the
each other, although it is unquestionable that they are sulphur. In all the trials that have been made in this
not all of equal power. country, no reason has been found for varying from the
proportion 75 nitre, 10 sulphur, and 15 charcoal; and the
same is used for arms of all calibres, the only difference
for the respective arms being made in the sizes of the
grains.
It is proper, on this subject, to state, that whilst the
explosive power depends fundamentally on the quantity
of gas that is permanently generated, that gas is almost
entirely produced by the combustion of the charcoal; the
nitre being the cause of t^iat combustion, and furnishing
one part of the generated gas from its decomposed acid,
as it does the other by converting the charcoal into carbo¬
nic acid. Were nothing else required, therefore, to pro¬
duce the effect, the best powder would consist of nitre
and charcoal alone, as the sulphur consumes a consider¬
able part of the oxygen of. the nitric acid, without adding
any thing to the permanently elastic gas. But as there
are two other important elements in this problem, name¬
ly, the rapidity of the inflammation and the heat, the sul¬
phur becomes an indispensable ingredient; whilst, by ex¬
panding the gas at the moment of explosion, it more than
compensates for the diminution of permanent bulk which
it causes. Perhaps, on this compound view of the sub¬
ject, M. Beaume’s composition is really the best, abstract¬
edly considered, as the nitre is sufficient to burn the whole
of the sulphur and the charcoal also, and as both the de-
The proportions in the commercial gunpowder of Eng- gree of heat and the quantity of gas seem to be best ba-
land vary indefinitely, according to the views of the ma- lanced for the intended effect. But a composition of this
nufacturer respecting the markets, the price, and other accurate nature requires equal accuracy of mixture and
China   
Italy 
Sweden 
Russia  
Poland 
Berne 
France, three proportions, ac¬
cording to Guyton Morveau, f A
and the Committee of Public-^ B
Safety ( C
Ditto according to Chaptal 
Ditto at present in  
use: three kinds j 
Ditto, recommended by Proust 
Piedmont, according to Antoni 
Holland 
England, government 
751
76
75
70
80
76
76
77
80
77
75
78
65
78
71f
70
75
77
Gun¬
powder.
78 GUNPOWDER.
Gun- manufacture; and as that is scarcely attainable on the
powder. great scale, it is found better so to increase the sulphur
and charcoal as to ensure the total decomposition of the
nitre, this being further an object of economy.
Sportsmen, as well as artillerists, ought to know that
the fouling of their barrels after firing is in a direct ratio
of the weakness and badness of their powder; and this
effect is most completely obviated by using M. Beaume’s,
or any similar mixture. Not only does the feebleness
of such powder prevent the barrel from being swept clean
at the explosion, but as the foulness consists chiefly in a
mixture of the carbonate and sulphate of potash with char¬
coal, that becomes necessarily greatest wherever the nitre
is reduced in quantity for the purpose of introducing the
cheaper ingredients. The analysis of powder, at least as
far as that ingredient is concerned, is so easily made, that
every one who feels an interest in his success as a sports¬
man should examine what he uses, as the very worst mix¬
ture can be rendered beautiful to the eye by a minute
grain and a high polish.
The British government use but one proportion for all
services. As far as artillery and musketry are concerned,
we do not consider this as of much moment; or that any
material object would be obtained by using different ones
proportioned to the respective calibres. But we consider
that they commit a great error in adopting the same for
the mining service; and that some of the failures caused
in our wars, in attempting to blow up works or demolish
bridges, have been produced by the very excellence of
the powder, in short, by its too great strength. To
take the case of common blast-mining as a simple one,
and to put the extreme case of all: If it be attempted
to spring a rock by the powder of chlorade of potash,
either the plug will be blown out, or a very narrow space
round the mine will be broken. With the best musket or
cannon powder the same effects, but in a less degree, fol¬
low. Here the miners’ powder, which seldom contains as
much as sixty per cent, of saltpetre, is effectual; and, what
is more, it is rendered still more active by being damp
from careless keeping, or from remaining some time in the
mine before it is fired. Mathematicians will immediately
see the solution of this apparent incongruity, byrecollect¬
ing that the element of time is an ingredient in the prob¬
lem. With too great a velocity the parts of the general
mass nearest to the acting force are disintegrated; so that
not only is the force expended in this act, but the gas
thus escapes from the opening. With a power acting
more slowly, the whole mass, or a much larger one at least
than in the first case, is moved ; and thus the rock is wide¬
ly shaken, although not blown into the air. It will be
found practically, tha.t the further the fragments are dis¬
persed, the less is the effect; and thus the mine which is
most dangerous to the workmen, is also the least effica¬
cious.
It is from this variation respecting the power of gun¬
powder, hitherto unattended to, from confounding impulse
and pressure, to which at least it bears a certain relation,
that so many different opinions have been entertained re¬
specting the force of powder in particular cases. Hence
also have arisen various projects for increasing its effica¬
cy ; amongst which quicklime has been repeatedly recom¬
mended. In mining it does actually increase the effect,
though not the force. On the contrary, it diminishes
tlm foi ce ; and it is from that very cause that it is more
e ectual in mining or shaking a rock. The same object
can be obtained by a mixture of saw-dust; but it must
also be remembered that this will not happen unless good
powder be used. Ordinary miners’ powder will not often
bear this kind of dilution. It is easy now to apply this
principle to military mining, where the object is to pro¬
duce as extensive a shock as possible. Mathematicians
have calculated the globes of compression for certain Gun.:
charges; but it will be found that these vary so much, powdeii
according to the strength of the material, that the con-
elusions cannot be depended on. This is a very import¬
ant problem, however, because the destruction of a work
depends on the area of the base of the paraboloid, or
whatever else the figure be, which the explosion pro¬
duces. We dare not, however, enter further on this sub¬
ject, as it would lead us beyond our limits.
On the Choice and Examination of the Materials.
Nitre, as it is imported from India, whence all that is
used in this country is procured, is mixed with much dirt
and with some salts, consisting chiefly of the nitrates and
muriates of lime, and of muriate of potash. As the deli¬
quescent salts, in particular, are extremely injurious from
their property of attracting moisture, it is most important
that the nitre to be used in gunpowder should be tho¬
roughly refined. For this purpose rain-water ought to be
used if possible, and if not, such river or other waters as
are found, on trial by the appropriate tests, to contain the
least quantity of saline matters. The nitre is first boiled,
and the grosser impurities separated by filtering through
hempen bags, after which it is crystallized. After draining,
one washing is sufficient to render the first crystallization
sufficiently pure ; but the subsequent ones require repeat¬
ed solution and crystallization before all the foreign salts
can be separated. We need not, however, dwell on this
subject, and shall only add, that no nitre ought to be used
unless it will stand the tests of nitrate of silver and of car¬
bonate of potash, without exhibiting a precipitate.
It is held necessary that the nitre should be thorough¬
ly dried ; and, accordingly, much unnecessary labour is
bestowed on this subject, since it must be moistened in
the mill when the composition is submitted to the rollers.
The only real use in drying it is to enable the workman
more easily to allot the true weight, which might equally
well be done by an average and an experiment. We
should scarcely have noticed this, but that the French
manufacturers boast much of the superiority which they
derive from reducing the nitre to minute crystals, by agi¬
tating the solution. In the royal mills it is further the
practice to fuse the nitre into large cakes. By this me¬
thod it is speedily dried, easily stored away, and protect¬
ed from depredation. These advantages are held to be
sufficient to compensate the expense; but it ought to be re¬
membered that there is a degree of hazard in the process,
as, if the salt should be overheated, it might be so far de¬
composed as to have a portion of potash united with it.
Sulphur, as it is received from Sicily, the great empo¬
rium of this commodity, is mixed with a considerable pro¬
portion of lime, whilst a portion of it is also combined with
that substance, forming calcareous hepar, or sulphuret of
lime. From this and the grosser accidental matters it is
purified by melting ; the sulphuret and the earth subsid¬
ing to the bottom of the mould, so as to admit of being
mechanically separated. This residue, yielding no more
pure sulphur by that process, is afterwards submitted to
distillation. When the sublimed material is to be used,
it requires previous washing, till it be entirely freed from
the sulphuric acid adhering to it, and it may be tested for .
this purpose by means of the muriate of barytes. The
fused sulphur, if doubted of, may be submitted to com¬
bustion, and the residue noted; but a little deficiency in
the purity of this ingredient is of no moment.
With respect to the charcoal, there is considerably more
nicety required than is generally imagined. The soft
woods have been preferred from time immemorial, since
even in the receipt of Magnus Graecus, formerly quoted,
the willow is mentioned. The poplar and many others
have been used abroad ; but in this country those com-
i-
iol er.
—•
GUNPOWDER.
79
monly adopted are the white willow and the alder. Even
among these soft woods there is a considerable difference,
as our own experiments have shown; and in them it was
proved that the greatest explosive power, cceteris paribus,
was produced by the wood of the Rhatnnus frangula, com¬
monly called black dogwood, as we shall show more particu¬
larly hereafter. The hard woods are invariably rejected, and
with justice ; though the reasons for this practice, which
are derived from the presence of salts in these, are not
the causes of their inferiority, certainly not the only ones.
It is nevertheless true that no wood which contains car¬
bonate of potash, or other deliquescent salts, is fit for the
purpose, and for the most obvious reasons. This is the
case in the oak, elm, fir, and other trees. But there is
another reason for the badness of these kinds of charcoal,
the cause of which is not so obvious, although it is evi-
dently connected with their hardness. To us it appears
to depend on the small proportion of hydrogen combined
with the carbon in these charcoals, compared to that
which exists in the produce of the softer woods. Even
these can be reduced to the same state by overheating.
Thus the hydrogen is dissipated, and the charcoal becomes
so hard as to scratch steel; in which case, however obtain¬
ed, it is always unfit for powder.
As this subject is yet obscure, from our imperfect ac¬
quaintance with the true nature of charcoal, and with the
modifications of which it is susceptible, it becomes neces¬
sary to have recourse to experiment, for the purpose of
determining, at any rate, the proximate cause of this dif¬
ference in the explosive powers of the several kinds. Va¬
rious trials have accordingly been made, as well by our¬
selves as by the French chemists ; and, for brevity’s sake,
we add the most important results in the subjoined table.
We are not informed of the process which was adopted
by the French for measuring the gas; but in our own we
had recourse to the pneumatic apparatus, using it in the
manner which is described in another part of this article
for collecting the total produce of the combustion of gun¬
powder. The mixture, in the French experiments, con¬
sisted uniformly of 60 parts of nitre and 12 of the char¬
coal submitted to trial. In our own they were varied,
and the results taken from those in which the combustion
of the charcoal was completed, and the quantity of gas the
greatest. As no more nitrous acid could be decomposed
than there was coal present to burn the oxygen, it is plain
that in these the results are correct.
Prop. Parts.
Gas.
Solid
Residue.
French Hemp stalks 
  Asphodel 
  Vine 
  Peartalks 
  Fir 
  Spindle tree (Euonymus
Europeus 
  Chestnut 
  Hazel 
  Lamp black 
  Coak 
  Filbert 
62
62
64
62
66
12
20
20
21
30
66
66
66
54
54
72
28
36
33
44
45
30
These results are such as to prove that there are im¬
portant differences in the produce of gas; but, with re¬
gard to practice, they are of very little value, as few of
the substances submitted to trial could be used. To ad¬
mit of comparison between our own experiments and these,
we shall reduce our proportions to the same standard, by
taking our scale from the filbert at 72. We neglect the
residue, knowing that it proves nothing, rs the results are Gun-
uncertain, in consequence of the irregular absorption of P0"^-
water, and partly from the impossibility of collecting the '-'’"V''*'
solid and the gaseous matters both from one charge.
Gas.
Filbert 72
Oak 61,63
Mahogany ..;   58
Elm 62
Willow, Salix alba 76, 78
Alder 74, 76
Black dogwood, Rhamnus frangula...QQ, 82,84
Oak bark 58
Animal charcoal 50, 46, 42, 40
Coak 52, 48
Lamp black 54, 52
Oak charcoal overheated 54, 56
Willow ditto 59, 64, 66
These various results, and some others which we have
thought it unnecessary to record, may in a certain de¬
gree depend on inaccuracies in the experiment; but in
the greater number they arise from real differences in the
charcoals from the same substance, produced, as we be¬
fore insinuated, by overheating. This is apparent in the
two cases above cited of oak and willow ; but in some
trials, the differences were even greater. Coak and ani¬
mal charcoal are particularly liable to vary.
It is evident from the preceding table that the best char¬
coal for gunpowder must stand in the following order :
Black dogwood, willow, alder, filbert. From the French
tables, in which we do not, however, place much confi¬
dence, we may add, consecutively, hazel and the spindle
tree ; but our own trials raise these to 70 at least in the.
scale. Such, at present, are the results of these trials as
to the best charcoal; but we are by no means satisfied
that we have yet found out the best wood for this pur¬
pose. The experiments are laborious ; yet we think the
subject deserving of more attention than has yet been be¬
stowed on it. With respect to coak and animal coal, they
stand very low in the scale, as the over-hardened wood-
coals do ; and, in all cases, there is a direct relation be¬
tween the produce of gas and the facility of combustion
under ordinary circumstances.
To satisfy ourselves by trials of a more direct nature,
and more applicable to practice, we chose a method de¬
rived from the flight of rockets, as less liable to distur¬
bance from collateral causes than any practice with pieces
of ordnance. The rockets were of compound dimensions,
and were all made with the same proportions, and driven
by the same hand, so as to ensure all possible uniformity,
the only variation being in the nature of the charcoal.
The vertical elevations were taken by two quadrants at
the same time, and all the flights that deviated from the
perpendicular rejected. The mean vertical ascent.of a
great number of those made with willow, alder, and dog¬
wood, was 480 yards; but between these three coals, the
differences were so great as to give various results, which
may be represented by the following numbers :
Dogwood...515. 550, 525
Willow 470' 480, 490
Alder 455, 460, 470
Greater accuracy is not attainable in this way, as may
easily be conceived by those who know by how many col¬
lateral circumstances a rocket is influenced; but these trials
are quite sufficient to justify the general inference made
from the experiments in the pneumatic apparatus.
It has been held that the charcoal for gunpowder ought
to be made in cylinders or retorts by distillation ; and this
expensive process is consequently universally adopted. It
80
GUNPOWDER.
Gun¬
powder.
is doubtful if this is not a mistake of the causa pro non
causa. Pit charcoal being made in coppice woods, is al¬
ways the produce of oak ; and it is probable that this wood,
if charred in close vessels, would be even worse than it is
now. There is more danger of overheating in the retort
than in the pit, while the wood is not better burned ; and
hence, by a careless management of the process, even the
charcoal of willow or alder may be rendered as bad as that
of oak. Considering these various circumstances, charcoal
requires to be submitted to three tests. It ought to act
as little as possible, mechanically, even on copper; it ought
to exhibit no salts on being treated with boiling distilled
water and tested; and it ought to be thoroughly burned.
The best test of this latter circumstance is its giving out
no smoke when heated.
A new and economical method of distilling charcoal was
not long ago invented by Sir William Congreve. Subse¬
quently, but without any knowledge of what had been done,
as we understand, the same process was suggested in Ame¬
rica by Dr Bollman, to whom we are indebted for the pre¬
sent cheap method of purifying pyrolignous acid, and ren¬
dering it a substitute for common vinegar. In this beauti¬
ful process the retorts or cylinders are ranged in a row, a
gas pipe from each being conducted to the bottom of the
next in succession. By means of a fire under the first
alone, the distillation of the whole may be conducted toge¬
ther ; the gas which issues from that one being sufficient
to char the next, and so on in succession to the end of the
chain. The acid is collected in this case, as in others, by
means of a separate pipe arising from a lower point in the
retort.
Before we dismiss this very important and somewhat
neglected department of the gunpowder manufactory, we
must point out a circumstance with respect to charcoal,
that requires an attention which it has never yet expe¬
rienced. This is the property which it possesses of ab¬
sorbing and retaining water, and which we have ascertain¬
ed to be different in the different kinds of wood; although
we have had no opportunity of investigating fully that
which is here recommended to the attention of powder ma¬
nufacturers.
It is from this hygrometric power that gunpowder at¬
tracts moisture, even when the nitre has been perfectly
purified; a circumstance which materially interferes with
its rapidity of inflammation, and consequently with its
strength. But as the various hygrometric powers of dif¬
ferent charcoals have never yet been properly examined,
we can communicate no information on this subject which
is worth recording.
On the Manufacture of Gunpowder.
Grinding. The first part of the process consists in pul¬
verizing all the ingredients separately, after which they
are weighed and mixed in a general and rude manner be¬
fore being submitted to the mill. In France, and in some
other countries, a pestle engine is used, or a stamping-
mill ; but it is subject to more hazard and inconveniences
than the grinding-mill which is adopted in this country.
This is formed on the model of the common bark-mill, and
with two rollers at different distances from the axis, so as
to cover the whole bed. The weight of each roller is com¬
monly about three tons, and they are generally made of
limestone, although iron cylinders have been adopted in
some works. The bed, which is surrounded by a wooden
margin, is of the same materials; and the whole house is
built of slight framed wood, to diminish the evils that
might arise from a casual explosion. A wooden rake fol¬
lows the rollers, for the purpose of bringing the mixture
under the cylinder; and the motion is communicated ei¬
ther by water or by the power of horses.
The mixture being distributed on the stone, to the
amount of forty or fifty pounds, is moistened with distilled Gun.
or rain water; but so as not to be wetted. It is barely powder,
sufficient to prevent the dust from flying. According to
the velocity, the grinding is perfected in a space of time
varying from three to seven hours; and it depends on the
inspector to determine by trial for each velocity when the
mixture is perfect. After that, time is a sufficient measure. '
1 he removal of the mill-cake, as it is called, requires cau¬
tion, as it is commonly at this time that the explosions
take place. These, indeed, will generally be produced if
the bed and cylinder should come into contact while they
are moved round slowly, to enable the materials to be ta¬
ken out; the friction, under so great a weight, even of the
purest limestones, or of iron, being sufficient to inflame
gunpowder. To prevent this risk, a thick piece of hide is
carried before the cylinder as the powder is removed, and
by this plan the contact is prevented.
Pressing, Granulating, and Drying. The mill-cake thus
completed is gunpowder, and may be granulated. But it
is yet not so firm as it can be rendered by further pres¬
sure ; and that property is very essential to its durability
in travelling. For this reason, it is further condensed by
pressure, either in the common screw-press used by pack¬
ers, or by means of Bramah’s hydraulic engine. Thus it
becomes indurated to a hardness equal to that of many
stones, and its specific gravity is also increased. In the
press, also, it is divided into cakes of an inch or more in
thickness, that it may be the more easily broken into pieces
for the granulating engine.
This machine consists of a number of sieves made of
strong vellum, perforated by punched holes, and supplied
with top and bottom covers, like those used by druggists.
A platform, to which a horizontal circular motion is com¬
municated by machinery, receives a number of these, which
are fixed in it. The lumps of the press-cake are intro¬
duced into each of these, together with a block of lignum
vitae or othei; hard wood, shaped somewhat like a Dutch
cheese. During the rotatory motion, the lumps become
thus broken into smaller fragments, which fall through the
holes, together with the dust, into the receptacle below'.
It remains to separate the grains according to the sizes
that are required; and for military purposes, these are
three; one for large ordnance, another for musketry, and
a third for pistols. The powder generally used by sports¬
men is of still finer grain than the last. The separation is
performed by means of wire gauze, or strong silk gauze, of
different apertures; the sieves being commonly cylindri¬
cal, and turned by the machinery. At the same time the
dust is separated, and afterwards returned to the press.
The last operation is known by the name of glazing, a
term literally true in the case of sportsmen’s shooting pow¬
der. But the real object of this operation is to take off all
those acute angles from the grains, which would otherwise
be ground off* in travelling, and thus produce great incon¬
veniences, by introducing dust into the casks. This pro¬
cess is performed by causing the separate classes of grains
to revolve in cylinders so constructed as only to let the
dust through; and the mutual friction of the grains pro¬
duces the desired effect. When it is required to give the
powxler a brilliant surface, as is the case with fine sports¬
men’s powder, the cylinder is lined with a woollen cloth ;
and sometimes, if a high polished gloss is desired, some
black lead is introduced into it. But these are matters of
mere ornament.
Although the powder thus completed appears dry to the
feel as well as to the sight, it contains a considerable quan¬
tity of water. This must be separated by drying. In hot
climates exposure to the sun is sufficient; but in most cases
artificial heat is required. In France, a complex process
was adopted by passing heated and dry air through a closed
chamber, with the intention of diminishing the risk of ex-
81
GUNPOWDER.
| kin- plosion ; but, with any moderate degree of care, it may be
1 wder. done in any manner. In some of the older works, the
^ stove in use was a closed room with air holes above, heat¬
ed by means of an iron cupola or large pot, to which a fire
was applied outside of the building; the temperature being
regulated by a thermometer fixed in the door, and indicat¬
ing the heat externally. In this room, the powder was ex¬
posed in flat trays round the circumference. Lately, the
method by steam pipes has become generally adopted; and
in this way, every possible security, real as well as imagi¬
nary, is obtained.
Analysis of Gunpowder.
It is often useful, and frequently indispensable, to ana¬
lyse gunpowder. This process will, indeed, generally su¬
persede the necessity of proving by the usual methods, as
it is always certain that a specimen of gunpowder, well
made, will produce the best proof. It is particularly con¬
venient in the case of gunpowder purchased from merchants,
or by contract; as, from the several causes which may ea¬
sily be conjectured, such an article may be deficient in the
quantity or in the quality of the saltpetre, or in both. It
is useful, moreover, in the case of damaged powder, return¬
ed from military and naval service; as we can determine
by these means whether it has been wetted by rain or by
sea-water, or whether any portion of the nitre has been
washed out. Powder thus damaged by fresh water only,
and otherwise uninjured, may be committed to the mill
and restored at a very trifling expense. If the saltpetre is
diminished, it can thus also be restored; but, on the con -
trary, if the damage has been produced by sea-water, it be¬
comes necessary to destroy the powder for the purpose of
extracting the nitre.
By washing the powder previously weighed in a filter,
with hot distilled water, the nitre is dissolved, and admits
of being crystallized and weighed. The tests formerly
mentioned, namely, nitrate of mercury and carbonate of
potash, may then l>e used to determine its purity. Thus
it may be ascertained whether, in a new sample, the nitre
is in sufficient proportion, and whether it has been well pu¬
rified ; and in a damaged one, whether the injury has arisen
from fresh or from salt water. It only remains to examine
the proportions of the charcoal and sulphur; a task, how¬
ever, which is less easy, but which is, at the same time,
less necessary, as the manufacturers are under no great
temptation to assume a wrong proportion of these, although
the joint quantity of the whole may be in excess. This
mixture, being dried and weighed, must be exposed to a
moderate heat, as long as any sulphur can be sublimed.
But as the last portions are inseparable in this manner, it
is necessary at length to have recourse to other means.
Among those that have been tried, there is none more con¬
venient than boiling in a solution of pure alkali, by which
a sulphuret is formed, and the weight of the dried charcoal
thus completes the analysis.
Analysis of Gunpowder after Explosion.
To a certain extent, at least, an analysis of gunpowder
after explosion is necessary, for the purpose of procuring
data whence its force may, a priori, be calculated. The
rest is only matter of curiosity, and w e have borrowed the
determination from the experiments of the late Mr Cruik-
shank, a name known to chemists as that of the discoverer
of carbonic oxide. As far as this analysis may differ from
that of others, it must be recollected that the separation of
mixed gases is not a very easy problem. The mere collec¬
tion of the total gaseous products is easy ; and had the same
method been followed by Robins and others, less difficulty
would have been found in their computations. Had Count
Rumford, and a numerous party of speculators on this sub¬
ject, adopted so simple an expedient, they would not have
vol. xr.
had recourse to the expansive force of steam, or of the air Gun-
contained within the charge, for an explanation of the powder,
cause and nature of the force. ”r_v^w
By ramming a hundred grains of powder into a narrow"
metallic tube, furnished with a long handle, it is easily
caused to burn under water, as the combustion is slow and
safe when it is thus condensed; and this quantity is suffi¬
cient for any purpose of experiment. The tube being
plunged under the water with its mouth downwards, under
the bell-glass of the pneumatic apparatus, the powder may
be lighted without any loss. This is done by introducing,
into that part of the tube above the charge, which is pur¬
posely left empty, a crooked wire heated to redness. After
the hot ware and the tube in this position are immersed
under the bell, the former is brought into contact with the
charge. To prevent the water from absorbing any portion
of the carbonic acid, sulphuric acid may be added to it, as
well as many other matters too obvious to mention ; or else
it may be heated. Thus the gaseous product may be col¬
lected and examined at leisure, by the means which che¬
mistry furnishes, and which our limits will not permit us to
detail.
To collect the solid product, it is most convenient to
use a glass vessel, on account of the certainty of obtaining
the produce, which is, in great part, carried up in smoke,
and adheres to the receptacle in which the powder is burnt.
But we need not describe the numerous modes in which
this object can be attained; and shall only add, that to di¬
minish the hazard, the powder employed for this purpose
may be wetted without affecting the results.
The following statement, then, contains the gaseous pro¬
duce of 100 grains, made of the proportions 75 nitre, 10
sulphur, 115 charcoal; the measure and weight being both
included. The temperature is reduced to 65, and the ba¬
rometric pressure to 29‘5. The total gaseous produce mea¬
sured 91 cubic inches, and the total weight 50 grains.
Thus, about half the weight of the powder becomes con¬
verted into gas, and the remainder forms the solid produce.
Grains.
Inches.
Azote 
Carbonic acid 
Carburetted hydrogen..
Nitrous gas 
Sulphuretted hydrogen.
13*24
28-77
2*70
3*25
2*03
49*99
42
30
9
6
4
91
The solid produce, however, appeal’s in excess, possibly
from being imperfectly dried; or else from some other un¬
noticed errors in the experiment. It is as follows:
« Grains.
Subcarbonate of potash
Sulphate of potash 
Charcoal 
Sulphur 
54*5
40
11
3
0*5
It is not difficult to account for these various products,
and it is evident that the carbonic acid and the azote are
the principal causes of the explosion. The decomposition
of the acid, and the combustion of the charcoal, form the
basis of the elastic force. It may be imagined that the hy¬
drogen is the produce of contained water; but we consider
that it is principally derived from the charcoal and from
x.
GUNPOWDER.
82
Gun- the sulphur. The two combinations which it forms are
powder, such as might be expected, and the nitrous gas requires
no remark. Respecting the solid produce, the produce of
the subcarbonate and sulphate of potash is a matter of
course; and it is only necessary to point out the excess, of
charcoal principally, of sulphur slightly. It is evident that
more nitre would be required to consume them; but,
as we formerly remarked, it is held expedient that there
should be an excess in this way rather than in the other.
We need not, however, dwell longer on this analysis ; since,
as far as the effects of gunpowder are concerned, it is the
quantity, not the quality, of the produce that is an object
of interest.
On the Sizes and Forms of the Grains in Gunpowder.
The variety in the effects of gunpow der, arising from
differences in the sizes and forms of the grains, has been
an object of much inquiry. The conditions of the problem
are somewhat complicated. Within certain limits, which
gunpowder made of nitre cannot exceed, rapidity of in¬
flammation is essential to the production of a full effect.
Not to inquire into other causes, without this property, a
part of the charge is rendered useless by being blown out
unburned; an accident not uncommon on ordinary occa¬
sions. This may also happen from the form of the piece
and that of the charge; it w ill occur in a long charge or
in a short piece, or, most of all, when both are united.
Hence variations in the effect of gunpowder, wdiich are in¬
dependent of its quality, and which will render computa¬
tions founded on that circumstance alone deceptive. As
we have not room to dwell on this subject as it deserves,
we must refer our readers to Robins and others who have
written on it.
Now, this rapidity of inflammation may be attained, in
some measure, in two ways; by intense heat, and by fa¬
cility of transmission of the flame. But if a charge is con¬
siderable, no intensity of heat can compensate for the ab¬
sence of the second condition. To put an extreme case:
If the eight-pound battering charge of a 24-pounder were
a single grain, it requires little thought to perceive that
the shot would have quitted the gun before the charge w as
half burned. Hence granulation is as necessary for en¬
suring the full effect as it is for convenience. And thus,
also, we are led to the cause of the bad consequences of
hard ramming. A charge very thoroughly rammed, and
lighted at the anterior end, wTould burn like a fuse or a
squib ; if lighted by a touch-hole, it will be blown out like
a shot. Thus the rapidity of the inflammation is secured
by multiplying as much as possible the intervals for the
passage of the flame, or by diminishing the size of the
grains. Yet there is a limit even to this; and as that can
only be determined by experiment, it is from such trials
that the grain for the smallest charges has been fixed. As
the charge, however, increases in dimension, the volume
of flame and the intensity of the heat produced admit of a
grain of greater bulk, or one containing, in a given dimen¬
sion, a smaller number of intervals. Much refinement on
this subject being, however, unnecessary, one size is used
for all ordnance ; whilst an inferior size is made for muskets,
and one still less for pistols. The powder manufactured
for fowrling-pieces is also of the smallest size.
But there is a further element concerned in this ques¬
tion ; and that is, the different specific gravities of the dif¬
ferent sizes of powder, or, what is especially to the purpose
here, the different spaces occupied by the different sizes.
The same measure which contains 172 grains of the small¬
est, contains 180 of the medium, and 195 of the largest.
If powder be measured instead of weighed, it is evident
that there will be one ninth more of the large than of the
small-grained in a given charge. If weighed, the larger
will occupy about one ninth less space. In either case the
greater force will be excited by the large-grained, presum- Gun-
ing that the inflammation is perfect. When it is weighed, powder,
as is the correct practice, it will not be very difficult to cal-
culate the difference; as the force of the expanding fluid
is in a certain inverse ratio of the space in which it is
confined.
To increase the rapidity of inflammation, the French
have manufactured spherical powder. The details of the
process are such as would exceed the limits allotted to this
article; but the principle may be understood by saying,
that it is similar to that used by confectioners in making
comfits. Angular grains are rolled in machinery adapted
to that purpose, in powder dust slightly moistened; and
thus small globules are formed. This grain is less liable
to wear in travelling, from the absence of angles; but it
is at the same time more tender, and less able to bear
pressure, than pressed powder. Nor do the French expe¬
riments, either by the eprouvettes or the tables of practice,
prove its superiority; on the contrary, the average results
of its comparison with ordinary powder are unfavourable;
and this also was observed in our own trial. Hence it has
not been adopted in Britain.
Proving of Gunpowder.
To ascertain, by practical trials, the strength of gunpowr-
der, is not merely a matter of curiosity, but of absolute ne-
cesssity. As the force in battering ordnance, and the
range in mortar and how itzer practice, are regulated by the
quantity of the charge, it is obvious that no regular prac¬
tice in the field, or consistent results, will be obtained, un¬
less the standard of strength in the powder is both known
and invariable. This is particularly the case with mortar
practice against small works or redoubts, or against the
enemy’s trenches ; and also with howitzer practice against
moving columns in the field. An invariable standard is,
unfortunately, impossible; but it is always something to
approximate to it. In military arrangements, a proof is
also requisite, for the most obvious reasons, when powder
is purchased from merchant manufacturers ; not only that
a minimum standard of strength may be fixed, but that, as
far as is possible, the various qualities furnished may be re¬
duced by mixture to an uniform standard.
It is usual, in the first place, amongst the w orkmen, as
well as the merchants, to form a judgment of the quality of
gunpowder by the aspect and firmness of the grain; and
the latter, indeed, is a quality which is indispensable, if it
is to be exposed to much land-carriage. The nicety of
tact required for this is, however, only to be attained by
practice, as in all other species of sampling. The mois¬
ture is judged of by weighing, and by subsequent drying
and comparison. The quantity of this is a question of pro¬
fit and loss in the purchase. But it is more important to
ascertain its hygrometrical powers, by exposure to mois¬
ture after drying. That is the best which gains least weight
by this operation; nor, in any case, should the absorption
of water amount to ^ per cent. It is also a common prac¬
tice to try it by what is texmeA. flashing; but this only
serves to show whether it has been thoroughly ground; if
not, the charcoal w ill produce sparks.
The trial of force is made by eprouvettes of different
constructions, or else by practice. The most common
eprouvette is a short chamber, provided with a gun-lock,
the orifice of which is closed by a cover, connected with a
graduated and ratchet wheel and spring. The quantity of
the wheel’s revolution is the esteemed measure of the
force. But, often as this machine has been varied and im¬
proved, the results are so irregular, that it may fairly be
considered as useless. Various other instruments for this
purpose have been invented and tried; but, without figures,
we could not render their constructions intelligible. Reg-
nier’s does not materially differ from the preceding in its
GUNPOWDER.
83
un.
principles; and the results are equally unsatisfactory. His
hydrostatic one appears to be still worse. We may say
the same of that described by Saint-Remy, and of ano¬
ther recommended by the Chevalier d Arcy; and, of tlm
whole, we would remark that the leading fault is want of
simplicity. In a case like the explosion of gunpowder,
where so many disturbing forces are always at hand to vi¬
tiate the true results, we cannot be too careful in eliciting
all unnecessary causes of disturbance. If there is any one
class of machinery in which simplicity is indispensable, it
is that which belongs to gunpowder, under any of its rela-
tions.
We, however, consider that, as an eprouvette, Dr Hut¬
ton’s pendulum is as free from exception as any machine
can be. The disturbing forces are nothing, or as little as
possible; the charging and firing admits of great unifor¬
mity ; and, on trial, the consistency of the results justifies
the expectations formed from its simplicity. In this pen¬
dulum, the barrel is fixed upon the bob, and the force of
the gunpowder is therefore measured, not, as in Robins’,
by the impulse of a shot, but by the recoil. The indica¬
tion of the extremity of the arc of vibration is made by
a hand continuous with the pendulum rod, which moves
an index furnished with a spring sufficiently strong to re¬
tain it at that point of a graduated arc where it was left by
the movement of the hand. The barrel used for this pur¬
pose is an inch in diameter, and is charged with two ounces
of powder put in loosely, without wradding or ball. In this,
as in all other cases of eprouvettes, the standard of strength
is arbitrary ; and, for service, is assumed from the best ave¬
rage of gunpowder manufactured by government. The
goodness of particular specimens is estimated by their
agreement, or otherwise, with this standard.
Notwithstanding, however, the apparent accuracy of
this method, artillery officers, both in France and in Eng¬
land, are not satisfied with it as a method of proving pow¬
der for service. It is perhaps right that practical men
should, in a matter of so much importance, rely only upon
such a method of proof as agrees best with the particular
objects for which the material is intended. It et it should
also be recollected, that all Robins conclusions respect¬
ing the force of gunpowder were drawn from experiments
made on his balistic pendulum, and that the much more
accurate ones of Dr Hutton, on which we now rely, were
the results of the practice with that pendulum which we
have just described.
The method of proving, then, adopted both in France
and England, consists in real practice from a mortar at
short ranges. In France a mortar is used of which the
diameter is 0T91 metres, or nearly eight inches Eng¬
lish, and that of the touch-hole somewhat less than two
lines. The diameter of the ball is 0T895 metres, and
the windage consequently is ‘OOlo. The weight of the
ball is about sixty pounds. A troublesome verification of
the diameter of the bore, of the vent, and of the shot, is
made for each day’s practice. The mortar is condemned
when the diameter is enlarged to 0T92, or if that of the
vent becomes -0005 more than it ought to be. A differ¬
ence of windage, amounting to ‘0002 metres more than
what is allowed, condemns the shot, or, as it may hap¬
pen, the whole apparatus.
All these verifications are so tedious, and the wear of
the mortar, the vent, and the shot, so rapid, that it be¬
comes inconvenient and impossible to follow them so nice¬
ly in practice when there is much business. It is, there¬
fore, found more convenient to make a standard trial for
each day’s proof, and to refer all the others to this one ;
instead of trying to preserve what becomes impossible in
practice, an absolute and invariable range.
The English proof-mortar, therefore, nearly corresponds
with the French, it being of the eight-inch calibre, and
of brass. The shot is turned and polished so as to be
true, and to have at the commencement the least practi¬
cable windage. During the progress of use, as the wind¬
age increases from the wear both of the bore and of the
shot, the range becomes contracted ; a circumstance which
also follows from the enlargement of the vent, in conse¬
quence of which a greater proportion of the generated air
escapes at that aperture. But, trom the practice adopt¬
ed with us, these variations are of no moment, till the
range becomes contracted so as to render it expedient to
replace the shot or the mortar, or both.
The quantity of powder that is used is four ounces, and
the mortar being elevated to forty-five degrees, the range
is measured in each trial. If the standard range for the
day is 225 yards, the powder that gives a range of only
200 is rejected. The chief precautions requisite to pro¬
cure fair results in this comparative method, are, to take,
care that the level of the platform and the elevation of
the mortar are subject to no accidents ; that the powder
be fairly placed in the chamber; that the priming tube
always reaches to the same depth within the charge; and
that the mortar be brought to the same temperature at
each experiment. For this purpose, it is to be cooled
with water.
Musket powder is submitted to a different species of
proof, founded on the same views of rendering the proof
for each kind as nearly corresponding as possible with the
purposes for which they are designed. A barrel fitted
with a turned steel ball, and with as little windage as pos¬
sible, is used for this purpose. The ball is discharged at
the distance of a few yards only, against a compound
butt, made of elm planks an inch thick,-soaked in water,
and separated at a short distance from each other. The
extent of the penetration is the proof of the strength of
the powder; and the trials in this case also are referred
to a standard experiment made each day. Before con¬
cluding this subject, we must add, that trials are also
made for the purpose of ascertaining the hygrometrical
property of the powder to be purchased or issued. This
is done by exposing a quantity for a given time in a box
perforated with holes, and in a damp room, and then sub¬
mitting it to the same proof.
Gun¬
powder.
Powder from Oxymuriate of Potash.
To increase the strength of gunpowder has been a fa¬
vourite project with inventors at all times ; most of them
forgetting that the same end can be attained, as far as it
is attainable, by augmenting the charge, and that neither
the one nor the other is practicable without an entire re¬
formation of the whole system of artillery. Could the
force of powder be increased one half, for example, it
would be necessary to condemn almost every gun in use;
and not only every gun, but every carriage, breeching,
ringbolt, nay, we might almost add, every ship in the ser¬
vice. And supposing a new species of ordnance invented,
to suit the new powder, it would require at least one half
as much more of weight in guns and mortars; the same
in gun-carriages, with additional strength in every object
concerned about them. In the field, in the same manner,
an increased number of horses would be required. This
view presumes that the object is, what in fact it always
has been with the herd of inventors on this subject, to
gain additional force or range. If the purpose is only
that of being enabled to reduce the quantity, and thus
diminish the bulk and trouble of transportation, it is so
trifling an object as scarcely to be worth attaining. With
regard to the main intention, or that of gaining greater
range and force, it is only necessary to say, that the pow¬
der is already too strong for the artillery.
As soon as the oxymuriate of potash was known, it be¬
came obvious that it would not answer the same purpose
GUNPOWDER.
Gun- as nitre, but, from its more energetic action, produce a
powder, more rapid combustion. It was first proposed and made
—'■'r''—^ by M. Berthollet in 1786 ; but an accident having hap¬
pened from it at Essone, by which many people lost their
lives, it was abandoned. The proportions used were 80
oxymuriate, 5 sulphur, and 15 charcoal. Afterwards they
attempted to make a modified compound, by using only a
proportion of it with the nitre ; but after various trials of
this kind, the whole project was abandoned.
We have repeated Berthollet’s method, at different
times, and on a very large scale, without accidents; but
we consider that the'proportion of oxymuriate is too large,
or at least that it is larger than is necessary. A better
proportion appears to be 75 oxymuriate, 5 sulphur, and 20
charcoal. As this compound is very easily exploded by
friction, it is necessary to be extremely cautious through¬
out the whole process, particularly in the granulations ; nor
is it safe to make more than one pound at a time. Of
course, it may be mixed in wooden mortars, as it requires
no large apparatus.
The great objection to its use is the facility with which
it is inflamed by friction, or by a hard blow. The expense,
indeed, would alone be an insuperable one, were there no
other ; as the price of this salt is more than twenty times
that of nitre. It also corrodes the barrels very quickly.
In fowling-pieces it is, however, of use ; being the detonat¬
ing priming of Forsyth’s and Manton’s gun-locks. We
may add, that very good powder may be made from this
salt and charcoal alone, in the proportion of eighty to
twenty; but the grain is not very compact, and it is sub¬
ject to the same faults as the former.
The action of this powder on the shot in a charge is
very capricious, and far from intelligible. In the French
trials, it was found to give ranges sometimes double and
sometimes triple those of common powder, using the same
weights. In various experiments made in this country,
the ranges were double in a majority of comparisons, when
moderate charges were used. But, by increasing the
charges beyond this, the ranges, instead of increasing in
the same ratio, began to contract; double the quantity
producing but a moderate increase in the range, and a
third proportion making an addition still less than the
preceding. This, however, agrees with Robins’ experi¬
ments on common gunpowder; and he has accounted for
it by what he calls the triple resistance ; proving, as he
thinks, that whenever the initial velocity exceeds 1142
feet in the second, a vacuum is formed behind the shot,
which, by increasing the resistance before it, speedily
reduces the velocity to what it would have been with a
smaller charge. We need say no more respecting a com¬
pound, the use of which is not likely to be ever extended
beyond its application to the detonating gun-locks.
Keeping and Restoration of Powder.
Powder for service, whether by sea or land, is kept in
barrels, containing each one cwt. the size of which is nearly
that of a ten-gallon cask, and they are hooped with copper.
It being difficult to keep dry casks water-tight, as indeed
it was not thought necessary that they should be so, much
powder was always rendered useless on service by wet.
Lately copper linings have been very properly introduced,
and the casks are now water-tight. As great quantities of
powder, however, always have been, and always must be,
returned unserviceable, it is an important object to be
able to restore it, or render it useful, in the most economi¬
cal manner.
Sometimes the grain is merely adhering, and can be
shaken loose again ; and this effect is not unfrequent even
in magazines on shore. Such powder, when dried by re¬
storing, appears sufficiently perfect; but it will be found
that it is increased in bulk, and has become spongy and ten¬
der. On examination by the magnifying glass, it will also Gun.
be perceived that the nitre is partially separated. Powder powder,
which has once undergone this change is deteriorated, yet
is still fit for all ordinary purposes. It is not strong enough,
however, to bear travelling; and should it be required for
that purpose, it ought to be remilled, and granulated over
again.
When the casks have been opened on service, before
being returned, it is necessary to examine carefully whe¬
ther they do not contain nails, or other foreign matters, an
accident not uncommon. In such a case it is unsafe to
commit them to the mill, and they must be reserved for
extraction. When the powder has been so wetted as to be
nearly formed into lumps, it is first necessary to examine,
by the test of nitrate of mercury, whether the damage has
been done by fresh or salt w ater. If by the latter, it must
also be sent to the extracting house. If it has been very
thoroughly wetted, even by fresh water, it will often be
found that some of the saltpetre has been washed away. In
this case it must be analyzed, so far at least as to determine
the proportion of saltpetre wanting, which must be added
to it in the mill. In the process of extracting, nothing
more is necessary than to boil the powder in pure water,
and to filter the solution through thick w oollen bags. The
crystals are purified exactly as in the case of rough nitre.
This is a wasteful process, however, and, in all cases where
it is possible, remilling is to be preferred.
On Accidental Explosions in Powder Manufactories.
This is a subject which deserves far more attention than
it has yet received ; and we can only regret that our re¬
searches do not enable us tO'add more to the present suspi¬
cions as to the causes of these, than the little wdiich follows.
That want of sufficient care is the general source of these
disasters is, how'ever, certain ; as certain merchants’ mills
have been celebrated for them, whilst in others, as well as
in those belonging to the government, they have been
extremely rare. Such accidents may take place in any
part of the works; but they are most frequent, as well
as least injurious, when they happen in the mills, the
quantity of powder in these never exceeding fifty lbs. It
ought at least to be an invariable rule to remove each
charge to the pressing-house as soon as it is completed.
We have already hinted at the cause of the explosions in
the mills, wdien they happen at the time of removing the
powder from beneath the stones. As stamping-mills are
not used in this country, it may be thought superfluous to
remark, that, in these cases, this accident sometimes hap¬
pens from attempting to remove, by a mallet and chisel,
the lumps of powder which adhere to the pestles. It is
one of the inconveniences attached to that mode of grind¬
ing. But it is also proper to observe, that the mills are
sometimes blown up whilst working ; and, from some exa¬
minations which we have made, we have little doubt that
this has arisen from fragments of the stones falling off, and
being bruised together with the pow^der. We indeed con¬
sider metallic rollers as every wray safer than stone ones ;
since they can only produce fire in case of friction in contact
during the removal of the charge. If iron be held objec¬
tionable, it is easy to face them with a sheet of copper;
but it is proper to recollect that even thus the chances of
explosion from friction are not removed. It is a great
mistake to suppose that the absolute hardness of any metal
is indispensable to the production of explosion in gunpow¬
der. A blow sufficiently pow erful, or friction caused by
sufficient weight and rapidity, will compensate for the ab¬
sence of this, in very soft metals, as well as in many other
substances which do not readily give fire. Limestone we
consider as a very objectionable substance. Excepting that
of Carrara, we know of none, either primary or secon¬
dary which does not contain much silica; often, indeed,
GUNPOWDER.
( n- particles of quartz sand. In the secondary calcareous rocks
pc ler. it is universal, nor is even the finest white marble of Car-
—• rara always exempt, as is well known to statuaries. But
the softness even of the purest limestones is no defence;
as the friction between these is still more capable of set¬
ting fire to gunpowder than that of iron. I he readiest
way of putting these different substances to the test is by
experiments in fulminating silver (that of Howard); as
the irritability of this substance enables us to ascertain the
facts with a moderate and convenient force.
We know of no explosions in the stove, except in one
noted instance, when it was pretty well ascertained to have
been produced by a workman, who had determined on sui¬
cide in this manner. In the steam stove it can never hap¬
pen from overheating; but as the floor must necessarily be
dry when the workmen enter to remove the powder, in¬
stead of being wet, as it always is in the other houses, it
requires additional care respecting the feet of the people
employed. The only method that is quite safe, in all
houses and magazines, is to oblige the workmen to labour
barefooted. The heavy leather slippers in common use
are far from safe; as, from not fitting well, they are fre¬
quently dragged along ; in which way they may easily en¬
tangle particles of sand. It ought to be known to all pow¬
der-makers, that the breaking of a fragment of quartz, or
the sufficient friction of two grains between copper, or even
wood, is capable of igniting gunpowder. This is more par¬
ticularly the case when the finer charcoals are used; as it
is this which is the susceptible ingredient.
Explosions in the pressing and granulating house have
happened much too often, nor have the causes been ascer¬
tained. As there is a considerable quantity of powder al¬
ways present here, these are of a very serious nature. It
would be proper that these two buildings should always be
separated, and, in the usual way, by a work of earth. The
old granulating houses are far from safe, as the cranks and
other parts of the moving machinery are contained within
the house, which is always filled with the dust of the pow¬
der. It is trusting too much to the attention of persons,
whom practice renders habitually careless, to expect that
they will always keep the parts oiled. It is easy to reme¬
dy this evil by entirely separating the working machinery
from the granulating engine, which may be suspended and
steadied by ropes, so as to avoid all chance of friction.
In the pressing house there seem to be two sources of
danger, both of which may be obviated. It is easy for
powder to become entangled among the threads ot the
screw; and the consequence of this must be obvious.
This would be remedied by adopting Bramah’s press.
We also think that the sudden condensation of air entan¬
gled among the fragments in the pressing box may be suf¬
ficient to produce fire. W hether this be the case or not, it
will always be prudent to make the first pressure as slowly
as possible, that the air may be allowed to escape.
• We have observed three other causes for accident,
though neither of them belong properly to the manufac¬
turing houses. It is, nevertheless, very important that
they should be generally known. Charcoal, in certain
cases, is liable to take fire spontaneously, and that even in
the lump. This is a case exactly analogous to the pyro-
phorus of Homberg ; and it unquestionably arises from the
same cause, namely, the presence of a portion ol potassium.
It is an accident which, we imagine, can only happen to
charcoal made in retorts; as, in the pit method, the potas¬
sium could scarcely be expected to escape combustion.
The precautions hence requisite, respecting the stowage
of charcoal, and the place of the distilling houses, must be
evident. When in a state of powder, and under pressure,
it also has been known to inflame ; and, possibly, from the
same cause.
We are not aware that it is usual to keep many waggons
85
and powder-cart tilts about powder magazines ; but we do Gun-
know that this has happened, and with the effect of pro- powder,
ducing fire. It ought to be generally known, for many
other reasons, that fresh painted canvass, stowed close, is
subject to spontaneous combustion.
Lastly, it has frequently been observed that fire was
struck in closing up the powder barrels, as well on board
ships as in magazines ; an accident which was supposed im¬
possible, since both copper hoops and hammers are exclu¬
sively used. We at length discovered that this accident
had arisen from using cast rivets, in the surface of which
the sand of the mould had become entangled. Hence the
obvious necessity of using none but forged copper rivets;
and since the adoption of these in the government stores,
this accident has been unknown.
On the Force of Gunpowder when Fired.
It remains to inquire, whether there are any means, a
priori, of determining the explosive force of gunpowder,
and of discovering what that is or ought to be. Many cal¬
culations have been made on this subject, and some of
them, we need scarcely say, are deserving of great regard,
although by no means in accordance with each other.
Many, on the contrary, proceed on principles so often
gratuitous or false, as to be entitled to no consideration.
When we consider the reputation of some of the authors
of these speculations, and the real knowledge of the true
cause of explosion which was then in existence, the his¬
tory of these opinions, and thus of the deduced results, is
not a little curious.
Lemery, Wolf, Papin, and some others, considered that
the cause of the explosion was to be sought in the rarefac¬
tion of air contained in the interstices of the powder; for¬
getting, that in a rocket, which can contain none, the pro¬
duction of air was sufficient to communicate and maintain
a considerable velocity during the whole time of the com¬
bustion. John Bernoulli imagined that this air contributed
an eighth part of the force only, and that the remainder
arose from water contained in the saltpetre. Muschenbroeck,
Stahl, Beaume, and Macquer, again, considered the whole
effect as produced by the conversion of the water of the
nitre into steam; an error quite unpardonable in the two
last chemists, who ought to have known that nitre contain¬
ed little or no water of crystallization; and still more so in
Count Rumford, who has followed them in this theory.
Lombard, attempting to improve on it, adds to the expan¬
sion of steam that of the nitric acid. The Abbe Nollet al¬
lows the water but a share in the explosion. But, not to
enumerate more of these hypotheses, we shall only men¬
tion further, that of those who have attributed the expan¬
sive force to the conversion of latent into tree or radiant
caloric, as they have thought fit to term it.
It would have been much more easy and correct to have
put this question to the test of experiment, when' the real
cause would have immediately appeared. It was sufficient¬
ly unpardonable, in the greater number of these persons,
not to have inquired what had been done before them ;
since Boyle, Hales, Hawksbee, and others, were aware
that the combustion of gunpowder produced a permanently
elastic fluid ; although their mode of obtaining it in an ex¬
hausted receiver was not a very accurate one. Hawksbee
found that one grain of powder, when fired in vacuo, pro¬
duced a cubic inch of a permanently elastic fluid, and that
the same result was obtained in air. Hence, though not
acquainted with modern chemistry so as to be aware of
the nature of the generated gas, he knew well that it
could not have arisen from the expansion either ol air
or water contained in the powder. The inaccuracy of
Count Rumford’s views, and the extraordinary results of
his numerous and laborious experiments, exceed, however.
86 GUN
Gun- all that has been done on this, or perhaps on any subject
powder in modern experimental philosophy.
,, 'J The history of opinions respecting the explosive force
'J!- gunP0Wder, and all alike pretending to be deduced from
experiments, is scarcely less amusing than the hypothesis
respecting the cause, although rendered much more mar¬
vellous by their extraordinary discrepancy. John Ber¬
noulli considered the initial force as equal to 100 times
the pressure of the atmosphere; whilst Daniel Bernoulli
made it 10,000. Bracehus determines it at 450, D’An-
tone as lying between 1400 and 1900, and Ingenhouz at
2276. According to Dulacy it is 4000, by Amontons it is
estimated at 5000, and by Lombard it is stated at 9215.
After this there is a rapidly increasing estimate among
other experimenters ; Monsieur le General de la Martil-
liere representing it at 43,600, Count Rumford at 54,750;
and Monsieur Gay de Vernon, who outdoes all his com¬
petitors, stating it as making from 30,000 to 80,000.
Amongst the French, Gilot’s experiments appear the
only tolerably accurate ones, as he states the produce of
100 lbs. of powder in gas to be 463 cubic feet. This, how¬
ever, is considerably under the truth, at least in the pre¬
sent French powder, as well as in our own. Of course,
this is not meant to represent the total force; but he has
not given any statement of the increase of volume pro¬
duced by the temperature on firing. The coincidence be¬
tween Robins’ and Gilot’s results is, however, considera¬
ble ; but the French philosopher is beyond the truth.
According to Robins, from experiments made in an ex¬
hausted receiver, the produce of gas from a given quanti¬
ty of powder, bulk for bulk, is 236 ; or one cubic inch of
powder produces 236 inches of elastic fluid at the mean
temperature and pressure. If the powder be rammed in¬
to the smallest possible space, the produce is doubR, or
472 inches of air; as it may be condensed, by hard ram¬
ming, into half the space which it occupies when loose.
But we must beware of assuming this as an element in
the computation of the initial force, however true a repre¬
sentation it is of the fact, abstractedly considered. In
practice, powder would produce no corresponding effect
in this state, because the ball would have quitted the
piece before it was half burned. Now, Mr Robins’ experi-
G U N
ments tally very nearly with our own, as formerly stated; Gun.
the produce from rammed powder being about 520 on an powder
average of trials, which, being reduced in the proper ratio II
for powder as it is fired, gives 260 instead of 236. It is Gl1I?ters
not impossible but that our powder may have been supe- ^lne'
rior to his.
Thus much for the permanent produce. But there is
another important element required, before the expansive
force of the powder at the time of firing can be determin¬
ed, and the initial velocity calculated. This is the aug¬
mentation of bulk produced by the elevated temperature
which results from the combustion. According to Robins,
that is such as to render the pressure, or force of the ge¬
nerated fluid at the moment of explosion, equal to 1000
atmospheres. Dr Hutton, more justly, states this at 2000;
a force far short of the imaginary ones which we have
quoted above.
\\ e should have proceeded to examine the experiments
on which this determination was founded, and to compare
the calculations with the results of practice. But our li¬
mits warn us that we must draw this article to a close;
and we shall therefore refer our readers to the writings
of Robins, Euler, and Hutton, on this subject, as alone
deserving of attention. \et we cannot conclude, without
suggesting the only method, a method yet untried, by
which the true force of the explosion may be discovered
a priori; or, at least, the real bulk of any given quantity
of the generated gas, at the moment of inflammation,
may be ascertained. It is a heat which cannot be conjec¬
tured, and to which no true approximation has been made
by any method yet used.
By firing the given charge of gunpowder under a given
quantity of water or mercury, it is easy to measure the
temperature to which it is raised. Hence, recurring to
the difference of capacity for heat between either of these
substances and the generated gas, to their relative quan¬
tities, and to the law for the expansion of gaseous fluids
by heat, as determined by Gay-Lussac, the problem may
be solved, for that ease at least; as we are fully sensible
that no rule truly applicable to all cases can be establish¬
ed, when the numerous variations to which, in practice,
the conditions are liable, are considered.
GuN-Smithery, the business of a gun-smith, or the
art of making fire-arms of the smaller sort, as muskets,
fowling-pieces, pistols, and the like. See Gun-Making.
GUNSBURG, a bailiwick of the circle of the Upper
Danube, in the kingdom of Bavaria, extending over 130
square miles. It contains two cities, two market-towns,
and forty-eight villages, with 18,620 inhabitants. It is a
fertile district, productive of corn, cattle, hops, flax, and
timber. The capital is a city of the same name, situated
at the point where the Guntz falls into the Danube. It con¬
tains 596 houses, and 3460 inhabitants, and has considera¬
ble trade bv inland navigation. Long. 10. 11. E. Lat. 48.
27. N.
GUNTER, Edmund, an excellent English mathemati¬
cian and astronomer, was born in Hertfordshire in 1581,
and studied at Westminster-school, whence he removed
to Oxford, where he took the degree of master of arts in
1606, and afterwards entered into holy orders. In 1615
he took the degree of bachelor of divinity; but being pe¬
culiarly eminent for his knowledge in the mathematics, he
had two years before been chosen professor of astronomy
in Gresham College, London, where he distinguished him¬
self by his lectures and writings. He invented a small
portable quadrant; and also the line of proportions which,
after the inventor, is called Gunters scale. He likewise
published Canon Triangulorum ; and a work on the sec¬
tor, cross-staff, and other instruments. This last was
published, with an English translation of the Canon Tri-
angulorum, in 4to, by Samuel Poster, professor of Gre¬
sham College. Mr Gunter died at that college in 1626.
Gutters Line, a logarithmic line, usually graduated
upon scales, sectors, and the like. It is also called the
line of lines and line of numbers ; being only the logarithms
gi aduated upon a ruler, which therefore serves to solve
pioblems instrumentally in the same manner as logarithms
do arithmetically. It is usually divided into 100 parts, every
tenth of which is numbered, beginning with 1 and ending
with 10; so that it the first great division, marked 1,
stand for one tenth of any integer, the next division,
marked two, will stand for two tenths, 3 for three tenths,
and so on; and the intermediate divisions will in like
manner represent hundredth parts of the same integer.
It each of the great divisions represent 10 integers, then
will the lesser divisions stand for integers; and if the
greater divisions be supposed to be each 100, the subdi¬
visions will be each 10.
Use of Gunter s Line. 1. To find the product of two
numbers. From 1 extend the compasses to the multiplier ;
and the same extent, applied the same way from the mul¬
tiplicand, will leach to the product. Thus if the product
°f 4 and 8 be required, extend the compasses from 1 to 4,
and that extent laid from 8, the same will reach to 32,
G U R
Gu er’s their product. 2. To divide one number by another. The
Qui rant extent from the divisor to unity will reach fi'om the divi¬
dend to the quotient. Thus, to divide 36 by 4, extend
(in ah. tjie c0mpasses from 4 to 1, and the same extent will reach
^ from 36 to 9, the quotient sought. 3. To three given num¬
bers, to find a fourth proportional. Suppose the numbers
6, 8, 9 : extend the compasses from 6 to 8; and this ex¬
tent, laid from 9 the same way, will reach to 12, the fourth
proportional required. 4. To find a mean proportional be¬
tween any tioo given numbers. Suppose 8 and 32 : extend
the compasses from 8, in the left-hand part of the line, to
32 in the right; then bisecting this distance, its half will
reach from 8 forward, or from 32 backwards, to 16, the
mean proportional sought. 5. To extract the square-
root of any number. Suppose 25. Bisect the distance
between 1 on the scale and the point representing 25;
then the half of this distance, set oft' from 1, will give the
point representing the root 5. In the same manner the
cube root, or that of any higher power, may be found by
dividing the distance on the line between 1 and the given
number into as many equal parts as the index of the power
expresses ; then one of those parts, set from 1, will find
the point representing the root required.
Gunter s Quadrant, an instrument made of wood, brass,
or other substance, containing a kind of stereographic
projection of the sphere, on the plane of the equinoctial;
the eye being supposed to be placed in one of the poles.
Gunter's Scale, called by navigators simply the Gunter,
is a large plain scale, generally two feet long, and about
an inch and a half broad, with artificial lines delineated
on it, of great use in solving questions in trigonometry,
navigation, &c.
GUNTOOR, one of the districts in Hindustan, on the
western side of the Bay of Bengal, called the Northern
Circars. It is situated principally between the sixteenth
and seventeenth degrees of north latitude, and lies imme¬
diately north of the Carnatic, and south of the river Kist-
nah or Krishnah, which separates it from Condapilly. It
is the most southerly of the Northern Circars, and com¬
prehends an area of about 2500 square miles, exclusively
of the mountainous district on the west. This district was
the jaghire of Bassalut Jung, the brother of the nizam,
when Lord Clive obtained, in 1765, the Northern Circars
from the Mogul, on which account he was allowed to re¬
tain it during his life; but after this it was to devolve to
the Company. He died in 1782, but the country was not
taken possession of by their agents till 1788. It is a low,
flat country, better calculated for growing rice than the
more valuable grains. Its principal sea-port is Mootapilly,
and its principal towns are Guntoor, Condavir, Bellum-
condah, and Nizampatam. With the addition of Palnaud,
the Guntoor territory now forms one of the districts un¬
der the Madras presidency, into which the Northern Cir¬
cars were divided when the present Bengal judicial and
revenue system was established. Guntoor is the capital.
Long. 80. 20. E. Lat. 16. 12. N.
GUNWALE, or Gunnel, is the uppermost wale of
a ship, or that piece of timber which reaches on either
side from the quarter-deck to the forecastle, being the up¬
permost bend which finishes the upper works of the hull,
in that part in which are put the stanchions that support
the waste trees.
GURDAIZ, a town in the Afghan territories, in the
province of Cabul, thirty-nine miles east by south from
Ghizni. Long. 68. 53. E. Lat. 33. 31. N.
GURRAH, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Malwah, in a district of the same name. It had formerly
a mint. It lies a hundred and forty miles north by east
from Nagpoor. Long. 80. 15. E. Lat. 23. 10. N. The
district is situated about the twenty-third degree of north
latitude. It was formerly the seat of a considerable Hin-
G U R 87
du principality, but was conquered by the troops of the Gurrum-
Emperor Akbar, and afterwards by Aurungzebe. It has condah
been estimated to contain 25,000 square miles of high, Qur^vaj
mountainous, and unproductive territory. The principal
towns are Gurrah, Panagur, and Mundlah; whilst the Ner-
buddah, which has its source on the eastern frontier to¬
wards Gundwanah, is the chief river. It is a thinly po¬
pulated and imperfectly cultivated district, though many
parts of it are remarkably fertile.
GURRUMCONDAH, a strong-built fort and town,
the capital of a district of the same name, a hundred and
twenty-five miles west-north-west from Madras. Long.
78. 40. E. Lat. 13. 45. N. It was besieged in 1791 by
the nizam’s ajmy, assisted by a small detachment of the
British, but was afterwards taken by Hyder Sahib, Tip-
poo’s son. The district, which is situated between the
thirteenth and fourteenth degrees of north latitude, is of
a mountainous surface, abounding in strong positions, and
is now comprehended in the collectorship of Cuddapah.
GURUDWARAH, an extensive village of Northern
Hindustan, in the province of Serinagur. It is noted for
a handsome temple erected by Ram Roy, the founder of
the Sikks; also for a great annual fair held at the vernal
equinox, and numerously attended by pilgrims from La¬
hore and the western countries. The surrounding district
is remarkably fertile, but much oppressed by the heavy
exactions of the Nepaulese government.
GURWAL, a province of Northern Hindustan, situated
at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains, principally be¬
tween the thirtieth and thirty-first degrees of north lati¬
tude. The great Himalaya range separates it from Thibet
on the north ; on the south it has the plain of the Ganges ;
to the east the Dauli, Alacananda, and Ramgunga rivers;
and to the west the Jumna. It comprehends an area of 9000
square miles. This country formerly included the pro¬
vince of Kemaon ; and in 1814 the Ghoorkhas had posses¬
sion of the whole tract which extended northward to the
dependencies of China. Since the country was con¬
quered by the British, it has been divided into two dis¬
tinct portions, the British government having retained
possession of the Deyrah Doone, the passes of the Gan¬
ges and Jumna, at either extremity of that valley, as also
all the country to the eastward of the Alacananda and Bha-
girathi, which last tract has been annexed to Kemaon,
and the remainder restored to the expatriated rajah. The
present boundaries, therefore, of his territories are the
Alacananda, from Rudraprayag until its conjunction with
the Bhagirathi, and thence to the plains by the united
streams of the Ganges, and above Rudraprayag, where the
Alacananda receives the Mandakini by the latter river.
The territory to the east of that line has been permanent¬
ly annexed to Kemaon. This country being the com¬
mencement of the Himalaya Mountains, presents to the
southward, towards Lolldong, an assemblage of hills jum¬
bled together in many forms and directions; sometimes
in chains lying parallel to each other, but of no great ex¬
tent, and often connected at their termination by narrow
ridges running across the valleys at right angles. The
summits of all are usually narrow, and of various shapes,
and the distance between each other short; and so con¬
fined are the valleys, that it is scarcely possible within
their narrow limits to accommodate a corps of 1000 men.
These ranges are occasionally covered with trees; others
are naked and stony, aftbrding shelter for neither birds
nor beasts. On the eastern borders of this province,
amongst the lower ranges of the mountains, are extensive
forests of oak, holly, horse-chestnut, and fir; and beds of
strawberries are also seen (denoting the temperate na¬
ture of the climate), which equal in flavour those of Eu¬
rope. From Lolidong to the Ganges the country forms,
with very little interruption, a continued chain of woody
88
G U S
GUY
Gunzen-
hausen
Gustavus
hills, which extend eastward to an indefinite extent. The
elephant abounds in these forests, but is greatly inferior
in size and strength to the Chittagong elephant, on which
account it is seldom domesticated. On the eastern bor¬
ders there are hill pheasants among the mountains, which
seldom, however, venture into the valleys, unless compel¬
led by heavy falls of snow. A small portion of the coun¬
try is only cultivated, a great proportion being left in the
undisturbed possession of the wild animals. Gurwal is
tolerably well watered by the head streams of the Ganges.
The Bhagirathi and Alacananda, whose junction forms this
great river, are the largest streams in the country. The
Bilhang, which falls into the Bhagirathi, the Mandakini,
the Pinden, the Mandaioki, the Birke, and+the Dauli, all
of which join the Alacananda, maybe considered as streams
of the second order. Most of these streams have their
sources in the Himalaya Mountains ; the Dauli penetrates
these mountains, and is the remotest source of the Ganges.
None of them are fordable ; and they are crossed by rope
and platform bridges, at the most convenient points of
communication, the rocks and stones which encumber
their channel preventing the use of boats. The roads
are merely foot-paths, carried along the slope of a moun¬
tain in the direction of the principal streams and water¬
courses. Those leading to Bhadrinath are annually re¬
paired for the accommodation of pilgrims, wdm congre¬
gate in great numbers at this sacred resort; but they are
almost impracticable for cattle. This province abounds
with celebrated places of worship, which have been held
sacred for many ages, although the conversion of the in¬
habitants to the Brahminical faith is not of any very an¬
cient date. Four of the five places noted for the holy
junctions of rivers, and celebrated for their sanctity, are
within the limits of this province.
Gurwal was a dependent province on some of the neigh¬
bouring and more powerful hill states until the reign of
Mohiput Shah, who declared himself independent, and
built Serinagur, where he resided. His son was his suc¬
cessor, and he was succeeded by his uncle’s son, w'ho con¬
siderably extended the Gurwal territories to the north,
penetrating into Thibet, and exacting a tribute from the
rajah of Deba, which continues to the present day. Gur¬
wal was subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803.
The rajah sold the family throne for 150,000 rupees, and
retired into the British territories, where, having raised
some troops, he returned and fought a battle with the in¬
vaders of his territories, in which he was defeated and
slain. After the country was conquered by the British
in 1814, part of his dominions, with a revenue of 40,000
rupees, was restored to the rajah. But Serinagur, the
chief town, is within the territory reserved by the British.
The rajah has consequently fixed his residence at Bara-
haut, where the details of his civil government are con¬
ducted by his own officers, and he is under the protec¬
tion of the British government. The district over which
he rules was estimated by the Nepaulese, when they were
in possession of the country, to contain 25,720 inhabit¬
ants; a very scanty population for so extensive, and in
many places so fertile, a tract of country. (See Bucha¬
nan’s Travels, Hamilton’s Description of Hindustan, &c.)
GUNZENHAUSEN, a bailiwick in the circle of the
Rezat, in the kingdom of Bavaria, extending over eighty-
eight square miles. It contains one city, one market-
town, and fifty-two villages, with 14,670 inhabitants. It
is generally a light sandy soil, but well cultivated by a pros¬
perous peasantry. The capital, of the same name, is a city
situated on the river Altmuhl. It is walled, and has three
churches, 298 houses, and 1864 inhabitants, of whom
many are tanners.
GUSTAVUS I. king of Sweden, was son of Eric de
Vasa, duke of Gripsholm. Christian II. king of Denmark,
having made himself master of the kingdom of Sweden, con- Gustavus
fined Gustavus at Copenhagen; but the latter making his es- ||
cape, wandered for a long time in the forests, till the cruel- Ouy, ,
ties of the tyrant having occasioned a revolution, he was
first declared governor of Sweden, and then in 1513 elected
king. This prince introduced Lutheranism into his domi¬
nions, which in a little time spread itself all over the king¬
dom. He died in 1560 ; having made his kingdom here¬
ditary, which was before elective. See Sweden.
Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed the Great, king of Swe¬
den, was born at Stockholm in 1594, and succeeded his
father Charles in 1611. He espoused the cause of the
Protestants in Germany, who were oppressed and almost
entirely ruined by the Emperor Ferdinand. He was a
great warrior, and gained many victories, but fell at last
in the battle of Lutzen. See Sweden.
GUSTROW, a duchy of the dominion of Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin, which came to that dukedom in 1695.
It is an extensive district, containing 140,000 inhabitants.
The city of Gustrow is a large old town, and its walls
have been converted into pleasant walks and gardens. It
contains 823 houses, with 8264 inhabitants. There is a
large palace, said to have been built by the Austrian ge¬
neral Wallenstein, but now' used as a prison. The chief
trade is brewing and distilling.
GUTPURBA, a small river of Hindustan, which takes
its rise in the Western Ghauts, and, after a short course,
falls into the river Kistnah, near the village of Almady.
Long. 76. 5. E. Eat. 16. 37. N.
GUTTA, a Latin term for what in English we call
drop.
Gutta Serena, a disease in which the patient, without
any apparent fault in the eye, is deprived of sight,
Gutta, in Architecture, an ornament in the form of a
little cone, used in the Doric corniche, or on the archi¬
trave underneath the triglyphs, representing a sort of drop
or bell.
GUTTURAL, a term applied to letters or sounds pro¬
nounced or formed as it were in the throat.
GUTTY, in Heraldry, a term used when any thing
is charged or sprinkled with drops. In blazoning, the co¬
lour of the drops is to be named; as gutty of sable, of
gules, and so forth.
GUY, Thomas, an eminent bookseller, founder of the
hospital for sick and lame in Southwark which bears his
name, was the son of Thomas Guy, lighterman and coal-deal¬
er in Horsley-down, Southwark. He was put as apprentice,
in 1660, to a bookseller in the porch of Mercer’s Chapel;
and set up trade with a stock of about L.200, in the house
which formed the angle between Cornhill and Lombard
Street. The English bibles being at that time very badly
printed, Mr Guy engaged with others in a scheme for
printing them in Holland, and importing them ; but this
being put a stop to, he contracted with the university of
Oxford for their privilege of printing them, and car¬
ried on a trade in bibles for many years to a considerable
advantage. The bulk of his fortune, however, was ac¬
quired by purchasing seamen’s tickets during Queen
Anne’s wars, and by South-Sea stock in the memorable
year 1720. To show what great events spring from tri¬
vial causes, it is asserted that the public owe the dedica¬
tion of the greater part of his immense fortune to chari¬
table purposes, to the indiscreet officiousness of his maid¬
servant in interfering with the mending of the pavement
before his door. Guy, it seems, had agreed to marry her,
and, preparatory to his nuptials, had ordered the pavement
before his door, which was in a neglected state, to be
mended, as far as a particular stone which he pointed out.
The maid, whilst her master was out, innocently looking on
the paviers at work, observed a broken place they had not
repaired, and mentioned it to them ; but they told her
GUY
GUY -89
uy that Mr Guy had directed them not to go so far. Vv ell,
i II said she, “ do you mend it; tell him I bade you, and I know
C yon. he wjn not be angry.” It happened, however, that the
poor girl presumed too much on her influence over her
careful lover, with whom a few extraordinary shillings of
expense turned the scale totally against her. I he men
obeyed ; Guy was enraged to find his orders exceeded ;
his matrimonial scheme was renounced; and, instead of
marrying, he built hospitals in his old age. In the year
1707 he built and furnished three wards on the north side
of the outer court of St Thomas’s Hospital in Southwark,
and gave L.100 to it annually for eleven years preceding
the erection of his own hospital; and, some time before
his death, he erected the stately iron gate, with the large
houses on each side, at the expense of about L.3000. He
was seventy-six years of age when he formed the design
of building the hospital which bears his'name, contiguous
to that of St Thomas’s ; and he lived to see it roofed in,
having died in the year 1724. The charge of erecting
this vast pile amounted toL.18,793, and he left L.219,499
to endow it; a much larger sum than had ever before
been dedicated to charitable uses by any one man in this
kingdom. He erected at Tamworth in Staffordshire, the
place of his mother's nativity, and of which he had been
representative in parliament, an alms-house, with a library,
for fourteen poor men and women ; and for their pensions,
as well as for putting out poor children as apprentices, he
bequeathed L. 125 a year. Lastly, he bequeathed L. 1000
to every one who could prove himself related to him in
any degree, however remote.
Guy, a rope used to keep steady any weighty body
whilst it is hoisting or lowering, particularly when the ship
is shaken by a tempestuous sea.
Guy is likewise a large slack rope, extending from the
head of the main-mast to the head of the fore-mast, and
having two or three large blocks fastened to the middle
of it. " This is chiefly employed to sustain the tackle used
to hoist in and out the cargo of a merchant ship, and is
accordingly removed from the mast-head as soon as the
vessel is laden or delivered.
Guy’s Cliff, in Warwickshire, a great cliff on the west
side of the Avon and the north side of Warwick, where
in the time of the Britons there was an oratory, and in
that of the Saxons an hermitage, and where Guy, earl of
Warwick, is said to have retired after being fatigued with
the toils and pleasures of the world, to have built a cha¬
pel, and cohabited with the hermit. This hermitage was
kept up till the reign of Henry VI. when Richard Beau¬
champ, earl of Warwick, established there a chantry,
which derived its name from the king-maker, and, in me¬
mory of the famous Guy, erected a large statue in the
chapel, eight feet in height, at the same time raising a
roof over the adjacent springs.
GUYON, Jeanne Bouviers de la Motte, a French
lady, memorable for her writings, and for her sufferings
in the cause of quietism, was descended from a noble fa¬
mily, and born at Montargis in 1648. She was daughter
of Claude Bouvier, seigneur of La Motte-Vergonville, and
master of requests. At a very early age she exhibited
extraordinary symptoms of illumination, and tried to take
the veil before she was of age to dispose of herself; but
her parents obliged her to marry a gentleman to whom
she had been betrothed in nonage. She was a widow at
the age of twenty-eight; when, distinguishing herself in
the way of contemplation and prayer, and making many
converts to quietism, complaints were made of her spiri¬
tualism, and she was by order of the king confined for
eight months. At the end of this period she was discharg¬
ed; but being afterwards involved in the persecution of
the Archbishop of Cambrai, she was thrown into the Bas¬
tille, where she underwent many examinations; but no-
VOL. XI.
thing being made out against her, she once more obtain-Guyton de
ed her liberty, and lived in private till her death, which Morveau.
happened in 1717. Madame Guyon spent her latter years
in mystical reveries; covering her tables, ceilings, and
every part of her residence, with the sallies of a visionary
imagination.
It is by no means proved that the Vie de Madame Guy¬
on, ecritepar elle-meme, which was printed after her death,
is entirely of her composition. It seems indeed to have
been composed from different memoirs furnished by herself,
first, to the official or judge of the bishop’s court, Che-
ron, and then to the Bishop of Meaux at the time of the
conferences of Issy. These materials, collected by a re-
dacteur still more mystical than herself, appeared at Co¬
logne, 1720, in three vols. 12mo. The verses of Madame
Guyon, or at least those which are attributed to her, were
collected and published at Amsterdam, 1689, in five vols.
8vo, under the title of Recueil de Poesies Spirituelles; a
collection which was freely translated into English by
William Cowper. This lady is also believed to have been
the author of Cantiques Spirituels, ou Emblemes surl’Amour
divin, in five volumes ; and La Bible traduite en Franqais,
avec des Explications et des Reflexions qui regarde la Vie
interieure, Cologne, 1715, in twenty vols. 8vo. Her trea¬
tise on Spiritual Torrents, after having been long circu¬
lated in manuscript, was printed, for the first time, in
her Opuscules Spirituels, Cologne, 1704, in 12mo, with a
preface describing her person. Besides these, her Lettres
Spirituelles form four vols. in 8vo; so that her works ex¬
tend in all to thirty-nine volumes, which, however,^are
scarcely read now-a-days, except from curiosity. (See
the article Fenelon.)
GUYTON DE MORVEAU, Baron Louis Bernard,
a celebrated chemist, known also as an advocate of emi¬
nence, and less advantageously, in his political character,
as a regicide, was the son of Antony Guyton de Morveau
and Margaret de Saulle his wife, and born at Dijon, on the
4th of January 1737.
His father was of a respectable family, and filled the si¬
tuation. of professor of the civil law in the university of
Dijon. He was fond of building; and, from the artificers
who were frequently employed about his house, young
Guyton appears to have derived, almost in his infancy, a
taste for mechanical pursuits, which led to an astonishing
development of premature talent. For when he was only
seven years old, he prevailed on his father to purchase, for
his amusement, a clock which was greatly out of repair,
and, as is said, he actually put it together and remedied its
defects, without any assistance, so effectually, that it con¬
tinued to go extremely well for fifty or sixty years afterwards.
The next year he was equally successful in cleaning and
repairing a watch belonging to his mother. But, notwith¬
standing these remarkable exertions of ingenuity, it does
not appear that they depended on any particular bent of the
genius to the cultivation of the mechanical arts ; at least no
such bias was ever exhibited in any of his subsequent pur¬
suits. His education was conducted in the ordinary man¬
ner at a provincial school or college, which he left at six¬
teen. Upon his return home he applied, for a short time,
to botany, and he was soon afterwards admitted as a student
of law in the university of Dijon, where he remained for
three years, and then removed to Paris, in order to continue
his studies at the bar. In 1756, he paid a visit to Voltaire
at Ferney ; and he seems to have imbibed from this person¬
age a taste for satirical poetry, which he soon afterwards
displayed, upon the occurrence of a trifling accident, in a
ceremony relating to a popular Jesuit of the day. Amongst
his posthumous papers, he also left some unfinished sketches
of tragedies, which are said not to have been deficient in
poetical merit.
At the age of twenty-four, when he made some progress
M
GUYTON DE MORVEAU.
90
Guyton de in the practice of his profession as an advocate, his father
Morveau. procured for him, at the price of 40,000 francs, the ap-
pointment of advocate-general of the parliament at Dijon,
so that he had no farther solicitude for the acquisition of
an income adequate to his competent subsistence. His
health was then considered as delicate ; but the fears which
w^ere entertained for it proved to be completely ground¬
less.
In January 1764, he was made an honorary member of
the Academy of Sciences at Dijon, then lately established
under the patronage of the Prince of Conde. 1 his occur¬
rence seems to have had considerable influence on the pur¬
suits which occupied his leisure hours ; and he soon became
by far the most distinguished ornament of the academy
which had paid him this compliment. His particular ap¬
plication to chemistry arose in a great measure out of an
accidental emulation with Dr Chardenon, who afterwards
very liberally undertook to assist him in the cultivation of
this branch of science. He studied the works of Macquer
and of Beaume, and he was furnished by the latter with
the materials necessary for the establishment of a small la¬
boratory for his own use.
With regard to the more general cultivation of literature
and science, he displayed considerable talent in a memoir
on public instruction, together with a plan for a college,
which he presented to the parliament of Burgundy, insist¬
ing, with great force and success, in opposition to Diderot,
on the importance of early education in modelling the cha¬
racter of the human mind. About the same time he also
wrote a prize essay, an Encomium on Charles V. of France,
surnamed the Wise, which was afterwards inserted in the
collection of his Discourses, published in three volumes.
In July 1767, he visited Paris with a view to the ad¬
vancement of his scientific pursuits, and excited the admi¬
ration of the most celebrated chemists of the day, by the
facility which he had acquired in the manipulation of his
experiments. He entered, after his return, into the inves¬
tigation of the great question respecting the oxidation of
metals, though he did not succeed in removing the diffi¬
culties which then embarrassed it. In 1769, he pronounced,
at the opening of the parliament, an elegant oration upon
morals. He was soon afterwards engaged in some expe¬
riments respecting the communication of heat to different
substances, the results of which, though not published, were
of some importance to the theory of temperature. At the
request of his friend Dr Durande, he undertook to inquire
into the nature of biliary calculi, which he found to be
readily soluble in ether ; and it appears that a combination
of ether and oil of turpentine proved of advantage to seve¬
ral of Dr Durande’s patients, who were suffering from these
concretions.
In the year 1773 he was employed in an interesting in¬
vestigation of the mutual adhesion of the surfaces of solids
and fluids, a class of phenomena of which the mathemati¬
cal theory was never at all understood, until the publica¬
tion of an essay on the Cohesion of Fluids in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions, soon after the beginning of this cen¬
tury, in which the laws of capillary action are extended to
a complete analogy with all the experiments of M. de Mor¬
veau, as well as those of Taylor and Achard of a similar
nature. He succeeded, about the same time, in discover¬
ing a mode of destroying the contagious vapours of pesti¬
lential diseases, by fumigation with the muriatic acid gas ;
he afterwards found the oxymuriatic acid, or pure chlorine,
still more effectual; and it does not appear that the nitric
acid, since proposed in England, has any advantages over
either of these substances.
M. de Morveau’s anxious desire to co-operate in the pro¬
motion of chemical knowledge induced him to make a new
exertion in its favour, by undertaking, in 1776, to deliver
a public and gratuitous course of lectures as a regular pro¬
fessor of the science, authorized by the approbation and Guytons,
encouragement of his brother magistrates at Dijon. He Morveau,
soon afterwards wTrote some essays on the peculiar charac-
ters of the carbonic acid ; and he strenuously combated the
popular prejudice which prevailed, against the introduc¬
tion of conductors, for preserving buildings from lightning.
He established a large manufactory of nitre, which was
afterwards conducted by M. Courtois, the father of the
M. Courtois who discovered iodine. From chemistry he
naturally diverged into the study of mineralogy; in 1777
he made a tour through the province of Burgundy, with a
view to the examination of all its productions; and he ac¬
tually discovered a rich lead mine, though, for want of coal,
it was impossible to derive much benefit from it. He also
found a white variety of the emerald in the same province,
as well as some combinations of barita, and he invented a
new method of obtaining the pure barita from its sulphate.
He had long been intimately acquainted with the Count
de Buffon and with Malesherbes, both persons distinguish¬
ed by elegance of taste, the one in science, the other in
general literature. In 1779 and 1780 he enlarged his con¬
nections among the men of letters resident at Paris ; and he
was induced by Panckoucke, the bookseller, to undertake
the chemical department of the Encyclopedic Methodique;
but it wras six years before the Dictionary of Chemistry ap¬
peared ; the articles relating to pharmacy and metallurgy
were supplied by Maret and Duhamel. In the progress of
this work he found himself compelled to disbelieve the ex¬
istence of phlogiston as a distinct principle of inflammabi¬
lity, though at the beginning he had defended the doc¬
trines of the old school. But he soon became one of the
most zealous advocates of the new theory ; and he contri¬
buted very much to its general introduction by the active
part which he took in the arrangement of a new nomen¬
clature. His proposals were at first thought objectionable
by many of the members of the Academy of Sciences ; but
they soon became generally adopted throughout Europe;
and the system was without doubt of great use for a time,
as far as it assisted the memory and the imagination in re¬
taining the discoveries and comprehending the theories
which had so much of novelty to make them interesting.
Among the original matter contained in the Dictionary,
were some researches on the nature of steel, which coin¬
cided in their results with those of Monge, Vandermonde,
and Berthollet, made about the same time, but published
somewhat earlier. The. whole volume was received in the
most flattering manner by all the lovers of chemistry; but
it was not till 1791 that the author’s ambition was gratified
by the award of the Academy of Sciences, adjudging him a
prize of two thousand francs, which had been allotted to
the most useful work which should appear in the course of
the year. The prize, however, he begged to offer to the
exigencies of the state, which were then very urgent. The
Dictionary was afterwards ably continued by M. de Four-
croy.
In the mean time he condescended to appear as the trans¬
lator of the Opuscula of Bergman, which he illustrated by
notes. The example was followed by Madame Picafdet,
and by others of his friends, who were zealous for the pro¬
motion of science; so that the French chemists were by these
means speedily made acquainted with the labours of all
their contemporaries in different parts of the world. In
the year 1787, M. de Morveau applied his speculations to
a practical purpose, in establishing a manufactory of soda
from common salt, exposed to the atmosphere, with a large
proportion of lime, the soda slowly efflorescing as a carbo¬
nate. It was in the same year that, having published his
Collection of Pleadings, he finally resigned his office at the
bar, in order that the whole of his time might be devoted
to the pursuit of science.
His next undertaking was of a more adventurous na-
GUYTON DE MORVEAU. 91
Gi ondeture; for, in April 1784, he ascended with the President
M reau. de Virly in a balloon ; and he repeated the experiment in
the month of June, hoping to be able to direct his aerial
course at pleasure. The balloon appears to have been
about thirty feet in diameter ; and, when we consider the
action of the wind upon a surface of such extent, we must
be aware that every attempt to oppose or modify it must
have been perfectly futile. He was visited soon afterwards
by the ingenious and lamented Mr Tennant, who went to
Dijon purposely to become acquainted with him, and who
had an opportunity of performing some original experi¬
ments in his laboratory. He was made a member of the
Royal Academy of Medicine at Paris in 1786, as a compli¬
ment to the merits of his labours for the preservation of
the public health. He received a visit, in the succeeding
year, at once from Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy,
together with Monge and Vandermonde ; and our coun¬
tryman, Dr Beddoes, who was then travelling in France,
had the good fortune to join this interesting party, all of
them deeply engaged in the discussion of the great chemi¬
cal questions which were then undecided. In April 1788,
M. de Morveau was placed on the list of the foreign mem¬
bers of the Royal Society of London ; and the same mark
of respect was also paid him at different times by almost all
the scientific societies of Europe.
In September 1791 he was unfortunately elected a mem¬
ber of the Legislative Body ; and having also been made
solicitor-general of his department, he could no longer con¬
tinue the chemical lectures which he had delivered with¬
out intermission for fifteen years, and he resigned his chair
to Dr Chausier. It must not be omitted by an impartial
biographer, that, on the 16th of January 1793, he thought
himself compelled to vote with the majority, for the death
of the king; and it is a poor compensation for this fatal
error that, in the same year, he resigned a pension of two
thousand francs a year, in favour of that republic to which
he had already sacrificed the best feelings of humanity. He
afterwards became a commissary of the assembly attached
to the army of the Netherlands. In this capacity, besides
many other instances of personal courage, he is said to
have rendered essential service to his countrymen, by the
construction of a balloon, in which he ascended, together
with some of the staff of General Jourdan, in order to ob¬
serve the motions of the enemy during the battle of Fleu-
rus. After his return to Paris he was appointed professor
of chemistry in the Ecole Poly technique, and he was an
effective co-operator in the first establishment of that use¬
ful institution. In 1795 he was again chosen a member of
the Council of Five Hundred; and he was appointed by
the government one of the forty-eight members of the Na¬
tional Institute, then recently embodied. He had for
some time been a correspondent, but was never a member,
of the Academy of Sciences. His political engagements
terminated in 1797, when he resolved once more to de¬
vote himself exclusively to science. In 1798, he fulfilled
the duties of director of the Ecole Polytechnique during
the absence of Monge, who was in Egypt, and for whom
he insisted that the salary should be reserved. The follow¬
ing year, Bonaparte, then first consul, made him a general
administrator of the mint. He received the cross of the
Legion of Honour in 1803, and obtained, two years after¬
wards, still higher rank in the order, particularly as an ac¬
knowledgment for the public benefits which had been de¬
rived from his methods of fumigation. In 1811, he was
elevated to the dignity of a baron of the French empire.
From 1798 to 1813, he continued his labours as pro¬
fessor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School; he then
obtained leave to retire, but he survived only a few years,
and died of a paralytic affection, or rather of a total decay
of strength, the 21st of December 1815, at a period when
he would shortly have had to encounter the effects of a re¬
tribution, which would have been very severely felt at so Guyton de
advanced an age. In stature he was rather below than Morveau.
above the middle size; his conversation was animated and
copious, his manners courteous and obliging ; he was full
of anecdote, and always ready to communicate whatever
information he possessed. He married, late in life, Madame
Picardet, the widow of an academician of Dijon, whose
tastes and pursuits were congenial with his own, and who
had distinguished herself by translating several works of
science and of literature from the different languages of
the north of Europe. As to his numerous publications, a
bare catalogue of these will be amply sufficient to show the
extent of his researches and the variety of his pursuits. It
is the more necessary to do justice to his diligence and per¬
severance, as we cannot easily point out any one import¬
ant discovery or invention that can be considered as com¬
mensurate to the high promise of his early infancy. The
article Acid of the Dictionary, and the Methodical No¬
menclature, must be ranged as the best of his productions ;
but the character of both these is rather useful than splen¬
did.
1. Le Rat Iconoclaste, poeme heroi-comique, 12. Di¬
jon, 1763. 2. Memoire sur llnstruction publique, 12.
Dijon, 1764. 3. Eloge du President Jeanin, Paris, 1766.
4. On the effect of air in combustion; Mem. Acad. Dij.
i. 1769, p. 416. 5. Maniere d’eprouver les charbons de
pierre, Dijon, 1769. 6. Reflexions sur la boussole a
double aiguille, Dijon, 1771. 7. Hauteurs barometriques,
Dijon, 1771. 8. Consultation juridico-chimique sur le
charbon fossile, Dijon, 1771. 9. Plaidoyer sur lepoque
de demence d’un testateur, Dijon, 1772. 10. Digressions
Academiques, 12. Dijon, 1772. 11. On a cold efferves¬
cence ; Mem. Ac. Dij. ii. 1771, p. 183. 12. On the displace¬
ment of a wood, and on a cavern, p. 225. 13. Defense
de la volatilite du phlogistique, 12. Paris, 1772. 14. Re¬
flections sur le parallele du phlogistique et du causticum,
Dijon, 1773. 15. On the coal of Montcenis in Burgundy ;
Journ. Phys. ii. p. 445. 16. On platina, and its alloy with
steel, vi. p. 193. 17. Discours Publics, 3 vols. Dijon and
Paris, 1775. 18. On a fossil tooth; Journ. Phys. vii. p.
414; Mem. Ac. Dij. 1785, i. p. 102. 19. On the crystalliza¬
tion of iron ; Journ. Phys. viii. p. 348, ix. p. 303; Mem.
Sav. Etr. ix. p. 513. 20. Elemens de Chimie theorique
et pratique, 4 vols. 12. Dijon, 1777 ; a clear and elegant
compendium. 21. On metallic crystallizations ; Journ.
Phys. xiii. p. 90. 22. On a singular petrifaction, xv. p.
89. 23. On some properties of manganese, xvi. p. 156.
24. On the red selenite of Montolier, xvi. p. 443. 25.
Opuscules de Bergman, 2 vols. 8. Dijon, 1780, translated,
with notes. 26. On simple earths, especially absorbents;
Journ. Phys. xvii. p. 216, xviii. p. 68. 27. On the improve¬
ment of colours used in painting; Mem. Ac. Dij. 1782, p. 1.
28. On the congelation of sulphuric acid, p. 68. 29. On
some ores of copper, p. 100. 30. On barita, p. 159; Journ.
Phys. xviii. p. 299. 31. On biliary concretions, in Du-
rande’s Memoir; Mem. Ac. Dij. 1782, i. p. 199, p. 26. 32.
On the manufacture of nitre, p. 1, 16. 33. On an ore of
lead, p. 41. 34. Lettre a M. J. Z. sur 1’influence de 1’-
education publique, Dijon, 1782. 35. On a sulphuret of
zinc; M. Ac. Dij. 1783, i. p. 37. 36. On an incombusti¬
ble coal, p. 76. 37. On a spirit lamp for experiments, p.
159. 38. On the acetate of bismuth, p. 187. 39. On the
karabic or succinic acid, ii. p. 1. 40. On an areometer for
sugar boilers, p. 52. 41. On a meagre limestone of Brion,
p. 90, fit for terras. 42. On the mephitic gas contained
in water, 1784, i. p. 85. 43. On the alteration of gold
boiled in nitric acid, ii. p. 133. 44. On the natural dis¬
solution of quartz; Swed.Trans. 1784; Mem. Ac.Dij. 1785,
i. p. 46, 60. 45. On sugar and its acid, p. 90. 45. De¬
scription de I’aerostat de i’Academie, Dijon, 1784. 46.
Plaidoyers sur plusieurs questions importantes, 4. Dijon,
92 GUYTON DE MORVEAU.
Guyton de 1785. 47. On the conversion of iron into steel, and on
Morveau. plumbago; Journ. Phys. 1786, 308. 48. Encyclopedic
Methodique, chimie, vol. i. 4, Paris, 1786, with Maret and
Duhamel, noticed Ann. Chim. vii. p. 24. 49. Methode de
Nomenclature chimique, 8. Paris, 1787, by de Morveau,
Lavoisier, Berthollet, and De Fourcroy. 50. On the re¬
duction of an oxyd ; Ann. Chim. i. p. 106. 51. On ada¬
mantine spar, p. 188. 52. On the expansion of gases, p.
256. 53. On adhesion, vii. p. 32. 54. On the affinity of
mercury with metals, p. 42. 55. On some pneumatic ap¬
paratus, p. 50. 56. On the alteration of solutions heated
in glass vessels, ix. p. 3. 57. On saturation and supersa¬
turation, x. p. 38. 58. On a gravimeter, xxi. p. 3. 59.
On a French hyacinth, p. 72, containing zirconia. 60.
Notice of a scientific institution at Erfurt, xxii. p. 81. 61.
Extract of a work on the agriculture and arts of Spain, p.
310. 62. Report of the labours of the society at Rouen,
p. 320. 63. Notice of Nicholson’s Journal, xxxiii. p. 173.
64. On a native sulphate of strontia, p. 216. 65. On the
saltpetre of commerce, p. 225, xxv. 231. 66. On the acid
and ores of tin, xxiv. p. 127. 67. Extract from Nichol¬
son, p. 156. 68. On basaltic prisms, p. 160. 69. On a
micaceous ore of iron, p. 161. 70. Notes on Nicholson,
p. 175. 71. On the manufactory of soap, p. 199. 72.
On pumice stone, p. 200. 73. On obtaining fire and wa¬
ter for chemical experiments, p. 310. 74. On platina, xxv.
p. 3. 75. On sugar, p. 37. 76. Note from Nicholson, p.
69. 77. On the combustion of the diamond, p. 76. 78.
On alcarrazas, or cooling jars, p. 167. 79. On the water
of Caldas, p. 180. 80. On nomenclature, p. 205. 81.
On the composition of salts, from Kirwan, with tables, p.
282, 292, 296. 82. On the conducting power of charcoal
for heat, xxvi. p. 225. 83. On the action of fused nitre
on gold, silver, and platina, xxvii. p. 42. 84. On temper¬
ing steel, p. 186. 85. On odorous emanations, p. 218.
86. On the precipitation of silica by lime, xxvii. p. 320.
87. On iron and cast steel, from Clouet’s experiments,
xxviii. p. 19. 88. On the natural productions of Spain,
from Fernandes, p. 311. 89. On the succinic acid, xxix.
p. 161. 90. On the destruction of contagious matter, p.
209. 91. On artificial coolings, p. 291. 92. On the ap¬
plication of gas to wounds, p. 305. 93. On the fusibility
of mixed earths, and on their mutual action, p. 320. 94.
On a peculiar crystallization of quartz, xxx. p. 117. 95.
On the action of metallic substances on vegetable colours,
and on lacs, p. 180. 96. On the combustion of a diamond,
xxxi. p. 72. 97. Notice of Reuss’s mineralogical dictio¬
nary, p. 177. 98. On the affinities of the earths, p. 246.
99. Note on the silica found by Davy in the epidermis of
vegetables, p. 276. 100. On the conversion of iron into
cast steel by a diamond, p. 328; the diamond weighed
thirteen grains. 101. On the conversion of diamond into
charcoal, and on the disoxigenization of sulphur, xxxii.
p. 62. 102. Comparison of the French and German
weights, p. 225. 103. Extract of Thenard’s memoir on
antimony, p. 257. 104. Chemical news, p. 328. 105.
Account of Libes’s theory of elasticity, xxxiii. p. 110.
106. On the colouring principle of the lapis lazuli, xxxiv.
p. 54, supposed to be a sulphuret of iron combined with
earth. 107. Note on adhesion, p. 199. 108. On the theory
of crystallization, Journal de 1’Ec. Polyt. i. p. 278. 109.
Analysis of a chalcedony, p. 287. 110. On the composi¬
tion and proportions of salts, M. Inst. Sc. ii. p.326. 111.
On anomalies in affinities, p. 460, v. p. 55. 112. On the
composition of the alcalis, iii. p. 321; supposing them to
contain lime. 113. On a metal proper for small coins, vii.
ii. p. 80. 114. On the measurement of high temperature,
and on expansion, ix. ii. p. i.; a thermometer of platina.
115. On the tenacity of ductile metals, and on the differ¬
ent densities of lead, x. p. 267 ; Extract Ann. Chim.
Ixxi. p. 189. To return to the Annales de Chimie, in
which he continued to be an active co-operator to the Guyton if
close of his life, we find a multiplicity of his essays and Murveau.
abstracts in the latter volumes. 116. On lime and mor-
tar, xxxvii. p. 253. 117. Report on the tartaric acid,
xxxviii. p. 30. 118. On a lamp, p. 135. 119. On Wood-
house’s opinion of phlogiston, p. 272. 120. On a cold com¬
bustion of the carbonic oxyd, xxxix. p. 18. 121. Traite
des moyens de desinfecter fair ; Extr. Annales Chimie,
xxxix. p. 74. Dutch, by Luitschius, noticed Ann. Chim.
xlvi, p. 105. 122. On the analysis and synthesis of earths,
p. 171. 123. On a stove, xli. p. 79. 124. On bell-metal,
p. 167. 125. On an instrument for examining gold coin,
xlii. p. 23. 126. On Burkitt’s apparatus for distillation,
p. 191. 127. Note on propolis, p. 195. 128. Extract
from Nicholson, p. 205. 129. On Davy’s eudiometer, p.
301. 130. On some alloys of iron, xliii. p. 47. 131. On
the dilatation of gases, p. 153, 154, 156. 132. On prussic
precipitates, p. 185. 133. On colcothar for polishing, p.
331. 134. Extract from Nicholson, xliv. p. 21. 135. On
Mitchell’s nomenclature, p. 305. 136. On fumigation, p.
286; xlvi. p. 113 ; li. p. 311 ; lii. p. 347 ; Ivi. p. 103, 114 ;
Ixii. p. 113 ; Ixiv. p. 183. 137. On a pyrometer of platina,
xlvi. p. 276. 138. On a native carbonate of magnesia,
xlvii. p. 85. 139. Extract of a vocabulary, p. 93. 140.
Italian novelties, p. 203, xlviii. p. 98, 186. 141. On a ve-
rificator for louis d’ors, xlvii. p. 291. 142. On an alloy
of gold and platina, p. 300. 143. Extract from Win-
terl, p. 312. 144. From Chenevix on the eye, xlviii. p.
74. 145. On a sulphate of magnesia, p. 79. 146. On a
proposal for washing with sea water, p. 108. 147. Note
of Hatchett’s memoir on alloys, 1. p. 113. 148. Extract
from Christobafs chemistry of the arts, liii. p. 115. 149.
Report on the effect of disagreeable odours on the health,
liv. p. 86 ; not necessarily noxious. 150. Report on chim-
nies, Iv. p. 5. 151. On a sculptured flint, Iviii. p. 75.
152. On filtering stones, and on specific gravities, lx. p.
121. 153. Extract on Galvanism, Ixi. p. 70. 154. On a
supposed antique emerald, p. 260. 155. On nitrous ether,
p. 282. 156. On the qualities of glass, Ixii. p. 5. 157.
Extract on pottery, p. 213. 158. On Galvanism, as affect¬
ing minerals, Ixiii. p. 113. 159. On chimnies, Ixiv. p. 113.
160. Extract on diamond, Ixv. p. 84. 161. On a hygro¬
meter for gases, Ixviii. p. 5. 162. On oxydation in a va¬
cuum, Ixix. p. 261. 163. On carbonate of potass as a me¬
dicine, Ixx. p. 32. 164. On a crystallization of the dia¬
mond, p. 60. 165. Oh Curaudau’s pyrotechny, Ixxi. p.
70. 166. On glass making, Ixxiii. p. 113. 167. On an
ore of platioa from St Domingo, p. 334. 168. On pyro-
metry, Ixxiv. p. 18, 129. 169. On potass and magnesia
as medicines, Ixxv. p. 204. 170. On laminated platina,
Ixxvii. p. 297. 171. On oxymuriatic acid as a medicine,
p. 305. 172. On the effects of continued heat on pyro-
metrical bricks,Ixxviii. p. 73. 173. On the pseudacorus as a
substitute for coffee, p. 95 ; Ixxxvi. p. 63. 174. On coffee
as a substitute for bark, Ixxviii. p. 203. 175. Official in¬
structions for preventing contagion, Ixxxii. p. 205. 176.
On a lime wash for walls, Ixxxiii. p. 285. 177. On the
diamond, Ixxiv. p. 20, 233. 178. On the non-existence
of sugar in diabetes, p. 225. 179. On an indigenous tea,
p. 333. 180. On Reid’s pendulum, Ixxxv. p. 183. 181.
On sugar boiling, p. 192. 182. On the diamond, Ixxxvi.
p. 22. 183. On chemical police, p. 105 ; xc. p. 101. 184.
On measures of zinc, Ixxxvi. p. 113. 185. On a meagre
lime, Ixxxviii. p. 19. 186. On biliary calculi, p. 84. 187.
On the solution of calculi in the bladder, Ixxxix. p. 92.
188. On phosphorescent urine, p. 182. 189. On album
graecum, p. 325. 190. On pyrometry, xc. p. 113, 225.
191. On magnesia as a medicine, xci. p. 224, 285. 192.
On tempering steel, xcii. p. 85. 193. On putrefaction, p.
160. 194. On poisons, from Brodie, xciii. p. 5. 195. On
the oxalic acid as a poison, p. 199. 196. On the effect
GYM
lisarof the phosphoric acid upon turmeric, xciv. p. 223; like
that of other acids. 197. On fumi<rations, xcy. p. 321 ;
na- xcvi. p. 5. 198. On a solvent for biliary calculi, p. 103 ;
'• from Durande’s paper. (Life by Dr Granville, Journ. R.
^ Inst. 1817.) O L-)
GUZELHISAR, a city of Asia Minor, built upon the
site of the ancient Magnesia. It is situated on a hill
about three miles in compass, level at the top, and hav¬
ing a steep declivity around. The modern city is at least
four miles in circumference, and surrounded by very slight
walls : the streets are broader and better laid out than
is usual in Turkish cities. It is one of the most con¬
siderable towns in Asia Minor, being the residence of
the pasha ; and carries on a great trade, especially in cot¬
ton and cotton yarn. It has also manufactures of coarse
calicoes ; and considerable quantities of European goods
are imported into the country. It is the residence of
many rich merchants, and of opulent families, particu¬
larly beys. It has a beautiful appearance, being full of
courts and gardens, planted with cypress and orange trees ;
and the view is beautiful over the plain of the Meander, a
finely-enclosed country planted with fig and almond trees.
Long. 27. 50. E. Lat. 37. 45. N.
GUZNOGUR, an Afghan district, in the province of
Cabul, situated between the thirty-fourth and thirty-
fifth degrees of north latitude. Its interior is but imper¬
fectly known. It is bounded on the north by Caffaristan,
and on the west by the Chuganserai river.
GYBING, the act of shifting a boom-sail from one side
of the mast to the other.
In order to understand this operation more clearly, it is
necessary to remark, that by a boom-sail is meant any sail,
the lowest part of which is extended by a boom, and the
fore-end hooked to its respective mast, so as to swing oc¬
casionally on either side of the vessel, describing an arch,
of which the mast is the centre. As the wind or the
course changes, it also becomes frequently necessary to
change the position of the boom, together with its sail,
which is accordingly shifted to the other side of the ves¬
sel, as a door turns upon its hinges. The boom is pushed
out by the effort of the wind upon the sail, and is restrain¬
ed in a proper situation by a strong tackle communicating
with the vessel’s stern.
GYGES, in fabulous history, a Lydian, to whom Can-
daules, king of the country, showed his wife naked. The
queen was so incensed at this instance of imprudence and
infirmity in her husband, that she ordered Gyges either
to prepare for death himself, or to put Candaules to death.
He chose the latter; and having married the queen, as¬
cended the vacant throne about 718 years before the
Christian era. He was the first of the Mermnadae who
reigned in Lydia. He reigned thirty-eight years, and
distinguished himself by the immense presents which he
made to the oracle of Delphi. (Herod, i. c. 8.) Accord¬
ing to Plato, Gyges descended into a chasm of the earth,
where he found a brazen horse, the sides of which he
opened, and saw within the body the carcass of a man of
uncommon size, from whose finger he took a brazen ring.
This ring, when he put it on his finger, rendered him invi¬
sible ; and by means of its virtue he introduced himself to
the queen, murdered her husband, married her, and usurp¬
ed the crown of Lydia.
GYMNASIARCH, in Antiquity, the director of the
gymnasium. This functionary had two deputies ; the one
called xystarch, who presided over the athletae, and had
the charge of wrestling; and the other gymnastes, who
had the direction of all other exercises.
GYMNASIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place fitted for
performing exercises of the body. The word is Greek, be¬
ing formed from yvfivog, naked ; because the youth ancient¬
ly put off their clothes, to practise with the more freedom.
GYM
93
Gymnasia, according to Potter, were first used at Lace- Gymna-
dsemon, but were afterwards common in all parts of Greece, sium.
from which the institution was transferred to Rome, where
it was much improved. There were three principal gym¬
nasia at Athens ; the academy where Plato taught; the Ly¬
ceum, noted for Aristotle’s lectures ; and the Cynosarges,
allotted for the populace.
Vitruvius describes the structure and form of the an¬
cient Gymnasia (lib. v. cap. 11). They were so called,
because several of the exercises were performed naked;
they derived the name o\'pulcestrce, from wrestling, which
was one of the most usual exercises there; and the Ro¬
mans sometimes denominated them thermae, because the
baths formed a principal part of the building. It appears
that in the time of Homer they did not perform their ex¬
ercises quite naked, but always in drawers ; which were
not laid aside before the thirty-second Olympiad. Orsip-
pus is said to have been the first who introduced this prac¬
tice; for having been worsted in consequence of getting
entangled by his drawers, he threw them aside ; and others
afterwards imitated his example. I he Gymnasia w ere
not single edifices, but a knot of buildings united, being
sufficiently capacious to contain many thousands of people
at once, and having likewise room enough for philosophers,
rhetoricians, and professors of all other sciences to read
their lectures, as well as for wrestlers, dancers, and all
others who had a mind to exercise, without the least dis¬
turbance or interruption. They consisted ol a great many
parts. Vitruvius mentions no fewer than twelve, namely,
1. The exterior porticoes, where the philosophers, rheto¬
ricians, mathematicians, physicians, and other virtuosi,
read public lectures, and where they also disputed and
rehearsed their performances ; 2. the ephebeum, where the
youth assembled very early, to learn their exercises in
private, without any spectators; 3. the coryceum, apody-
terion, or gymnasterion, a kind of ante-chamber, where
they stripped, either to bathe or exercise ; 4. the elczo-
thesium, alipterion, or unctuarium, appointed for the unc¬
tions, which either preceded or followred the use of the
bath, wrestling, pancratia, &c.; 5. the conisterium or
conistra, in which they covered themselves with sand or
dust, to dry up the oil or sweat; 6. the palaestra, proper¬
ly so called, where they practised wrestling, pugilation,
pancratia, and other exercises; 7. the sphaeristeriutn or
tennis-court, reserved for exercises in which balls were
used; 8. large unpaved alleys, which comprehended the
space between the porticoes and the w alls with which the
edifice was surrounded; 9. the xysti, or porticoes for the
wrestlers in winter or bad w-eather; 10. other xysti or
open alleys, allotted for summer and fine weather, some
of which were quite open, and others planted with trees;
11. the baths, consisting of several different apartments;
and, 12. the stadium, a large space of a semicircular form,
covered with sand, and surrounded with seats for the
spectators.
For the administration of the Gymnasia, there were of¬
ficers, the principal of whom were, 1. the gymnasiarcha,
who was the director and superintendent of the whole;
2. the xystarcha, who presided in the xystus or stadium;
3. the gymnasta, or master of the exercises, who under¬
stood their different effects, and could accommodate them
to the different complexions of the athletac ; 4. the paedo-
triba, whose business was mechanically to teach the exer¬
cises, without understanding their theory or use. Under
these four officers there were a number of subalterns,
whose names distinguished their different functions.
The gymnastic exercises may be reduced to two gene¬
ral classes ; those which depend on the action of the body
alone, and those requiring external agents or instruments.
The latter consisted chiefly in mounting the horse, driv¬
ing the chariot, and swimming. The former were chiefly
94 GYM
Gvmnas- of two kinds, orcJiestice andpaltpslrice. Tlie orchestice com-
tics. prehended, 1. dancing; 2. cubistice, or the art of tumb-
 ' ling ; 3. sphceristice or tennis, including all the exercises
with pilae or balls. The pafccstrice included all exercises
under the denomination palcestrce, as wrestling, boxing,
pancratia, hoplomachia, running, leaping, throwing the
discus, the exercise of the javelin, and that of the hoop,
denominated by the Greeks which consisted in roll¬
ing an iron hoop five or six feet in diameter, beset with
iron rings, the noise of which apprising the people to give
way, afforded them also an amusement. Both strength
and skill were requisite in directing this hoop, which was
driven with an iron rod. To these must also be added
the exercises belonging to the medicinal gymnastics ; as,
walking, vociferation or shouting, and restraining one’s
breath. Hoffman enumerates no fewer than fifty-five
sorts of exercises which wrerepractised in the Gymnasia.
■ GYMNASTICS, in the general acceptation of the term,
denotes every exercise which tends to develope and invi¬
gorate the bodily pov/ers ; such as walking, running, rid¬
ing, fencing, rowing, skating, dancing, and many others.
In a narrower sense gymnastics includes those manly and
healthful games, which have been encouraged by all high-
minded nations, as calculated to improve the physical
strength, and to keep alive the martial spirit, of their inha¬
bitants. In a yet more limited sense, the term gymnastics
has been employed to denote that modern system of bodi-
ly exercises, some account of which will be given in the
sequel of this article.
In the rudest states of society, such as that which ob¬
tains amongst the aboriginal tribes of America, the necessi¬
ty of repelling the aggressions and punishing the insults of
hostile tribes naturally leads to the cultivation of those phy¬
sical powers the development of which is essential to the
purposes of self-defence. Hence, even in this stage, wre
discover the elements of a gymnastic education. Want
and invention, in the history of mankind, stand to each
other in the relation of parent and offspring. Under the
operation of the law of necessity, wre find parents anxious
to nerve their children for the labours which in after-life
must procure them sustenance, and to habituate them to
the watchfulness and agility which alone can enable them
to baffle their foes. From infancy the latter are according¬
ly trained, by progressive steps, to the practice of archery ;
instructed to swim across the most rapid rivers ; and habi¬
tuated not only to remain for a considerable time beneath
the surface of the water, but also to make their way to its
lowest depths. Running over the roughest ways, hurling
missiles from the hand, and wielding clubs or hatchets with
effective force, are amongst the number of their accom¬
plishments ; and not the least remarkable part of their
training is that by which they are taught to acquire a mas¬
tery over physical pain. Under this rigid system of discip¬
line, enforced' by the elders of the tribe, the savage has
been found to acquire qualities which the milder institu¬
tions of civilised life are not calculated to unfold ; the phy¬
sical powers are developed with a symmetry and beauty
which remind the beholder of the finer forms of ancient
sculpture ; and the individual, conscious of his strength,
firmness, and resources in the midst of danger, walks with
a more independent tread, and indulges in the cheerfulness
natural to a fearless disposition.
The Greeks, in the earliest period of their history, seem
to have been little, if at all, advanced beyond the state
which we have here endeavoured to describe. It appears
from several passages in Homer, particularlyfrom the account
given in the twenty-third book of the Iliad, of the games
celebrated at the obsequies of Patroclus, that gymnastic
exercises were not unknown at the time of the Trojan war.
From this description, which is the earliest monument ex¬
tant on the subject, we learn that, on the occasion referred
GYM
to, there were chariot-races, foot-races, boxing, wrestling, Gytnnii
gladiatorial combats, throwing the discus, shooting with tics,
the bow, and hurling the javelin. At the period in ques- >-’Vs
tion, however, these exercises were no doubt equally rude
and inartificial with those of the Indian tribes to which we
have alluded ; but, in progress of time, when their impor¬
tance began to be fully perceived, areas and edifices were
allotted for their practice, masters were appointed to in¬
struct the youth, and prizes, contended for in the presence
of assembled nations, were awarded to the victors in the
different contests, with all the pomp and solemnity of a re¬
ligious celebration. The exercises of the Greek athletae,
namely, running, wrestling, boxing, throwing the discus
and the javelin, equitation, and charioteering, are known
to every classical scholar, and need not therefore be parti¬
cularly described. These were instituted originally with
the view, no doubt, of preparing the citizens, by a syste¬
matic course of training, for undergoing the toils and fa¬
tigues of w ar. But, by degrees, the natural vanity of ex¬
celling in that which all more or less cultivated, fostered
by the preposterous adulation bestowed on the victors in
the Olympic games, introduced the habit of cultivating one
exercise alone, instead of seeking to develope equally all
the bodily powers. A good wrestler, an expert boxer, or
one capable of carrying an immense weight, became in
some degree an article of luxury, or a subject of specula¬
tion. Persons of this description were kept and fed like
game-cocks, and destined for purposes of equal dignity and
importance. The object originally contemplated by the
patrons of the athletic exercises was completely lost sight
of; the real soldier learned to despise the bully of the gym¬
nasium and the palaestra ; gymnastics lost repute by being
at once perverted and degraded ; and the sarcastic remark
of the great Theban commander decided their fate.
Rome was from the first a species of camp, and war the
principal occupation of her people. The youth wrere train¬
ed to hardihood and exertion, but it was chiefly in actual
service, and as members of a great body, which moved as
if animated by only one soul. To act in concert and uni¬
son, to afford mutual support, to give simultaneous impe¬
tus to the charge, to preserve order in retreat, and in all
circumstances to observe the law of a stern discipline;
such was the great object of their study. Their exercises
were intended not so much to train the individual as to
form the mass; not to encourage isolated efforts, but to
produce unity and mobility. But when, in process of time,
the military became a distinct profession ; when the army
was composed of praetorian bands, and legionary soldiers
drawn from the conquered countries; Rome, having no
efficient academy for training her citizens to active exer¬
cises, began to decline. The ancient discipline gradually
relaxed; and her sons, instead of breasting the Tiber in
armour, or riding and hurling the javelin in the Campus
Martius, sought the cruel and debasing amusement of wit¬
nessing the massacre of slaves, or the combats with wild
beasts in the amphitheatre.
Of the gymnastic exercises practised by the Teutonic
nations who overthrew the Roman empire no satisfactory
account has reached us. But some of the later historians
of Rome speak with consternation of the manner in which
the Germans, by the aid of \heix framece, bounded over the
pikes of the foremost ranks, or sprung upon the hostile bat¬
tlements ; and Tacitus alludes to certain games in which
the German youth, naked and unarmed, danced amidst
pointed spears and drawn swords, displaying wonderful
quickness of eye, elasticity of limb, and fearlessness of dis¬
position. During the middle ages, the peculiar mode of
warfare introduced by the northern nations rendered it of
the utmost importance that the knights and men-at-arms
should be subjected to a system of severe physical training.
Hence they wrere taught to sustain during the heat of the
GYM
;G*I ias- day a heavy load of armour, to caiTy huge burdens, to run
4 J!- for a length of time, to climb tall ladders by the aid of their
'H! arms alone, to swim, to ride the great horse, and to run
with a spear against a target so arranged that he who miss¬
ed or struck foul received in return a blow from a pole at¬
tached to it.
But when the organization and movement of armies had
been reduced to system, when the art of war became a sub¬
ject of arithmetical calculation, and when the invention of
powder rendered bodily superiority in a great measure un¬
availing, athletic exercises were less insisted on than for¬
merly ; and the evil was increased, partly by the separation
of the military as a distinct class, and partly also by the
increasing sedentary habits of civilians. In short, physi¬
cal education was neglected in proportion as every other
bi’anch became more widely diffused and more zealously
cultivated; without considering the intimate connection be¬
tween the body and the mind, the former was suffered to
degenerate, whilst indolent and luxurious habits engender¬
ed nervous irritability, with a consequent predisposition to
mental disorders. Rousseau, in his Emile, was the first to
raise his voice against this degeneracy; and although the
world laughed at the ludicrous contradiction between his
practice and his precepts, yet the latter insensibly prevail¬
ed, and in time a more rational regard began to be paid
to the preservation of a firm and robust habit of body. In
all countries the manly amusements of an earlier age had
in some degree survived amongst the peasantry ; in some,
the pleasures of the chase had stimulated even the higher
classes to cultivate habits of hardihood and exertion. By
degrees, athletic exercises became once more fashionable ;
and then was invented that system of gymnastics which is
now taught in the military and other schools.
This system derives its immediate origin from the wide¬
ly-ramified confederacy which diffused throughout Germa¬
ny a spirit of disaffection to the French, and prepared the
people of that country to co-operate in shaking off the yoke
which had been imposed on them. Convinced from the
first that the deliverance of Germany could only be effect¬
ed by the sword, the leaders of this confederacy directed
their attention to the grand object of secretly training and
preparing soldiers for the approaching struggle. With this
view, whilst Von Stein was communicating to almost every
individual in the Prussian territories some notion of mili¬
tary discipline, and labouring to impress them with a no¬
tion of its importance, Jahn and his followers were esta¬
blishing gymnastic areas (turn-pldtze) throughout the
whole of Germany. The youth of different ages were en¬
couraged and incited to attend. They were taught to take
pleasure in their exercises; a spirit of emulation was sedu¬
lously cherished ; peals of laughter and merriment resound¬
ed in each area; and national songs, sung in chorus by the
friendly antagonists as they repaired to or returned from
the turn-pldtze, served at once to excite and sustain the ge¬
neral enthusiasm. In addition to the usual routine of run¬
ning, wrestling, and leaping, a series of exercises with
poles, bars, ropes, and ladders, was devised and introduced
into the turn-pldtze. In these areas, the youths were pre¬
pared for the toils and labours of the field ; and, when the
grand crisis arrived, the means were found adequate to the
end contemplated. For some time after the overthrow of
Napoleon, these exercises continued to be patronised by
the governments of Germany, and taught in all the public
schools. But the spirit which it had been found so easy to
raise against the dominion of Napoleon, and in support of the
old hereditary governments, did not so readily vanish when its
immediate task was accomplished. In adversity and in dan¬
ger promises had been made, the performance of which was
evaded in the hour of triumph; and, as some of the chief
patrons of physical education were amongst the loudest
in denouncing the faithlessness of their governments, the
GYM 95
German rulers gravely alleged that gymnastic exercises Gymnas-
necessarily engendered democratical principles; and on this "tics,
ingenious pretence all the public institutions for their promo-
tion were at once suppressed. A few private establishments
are still winked at, and, in some states, the military receive
regular instructions; but the day of gymnastics is for the
present over in Germany.
In other countries, however, the political logicians have
not yet discerned any necessary connection between gym¬
nastics and republicanism ; and accordingly those exercises
which have been anathematised in Germany as generative
of democracy, have been warmly patronized in France and
Switzerland, and are now steadily making their way even
in Britain, where innovations of all kinds, especially in
education, are most cautiously entertained. The propriety
of employing training to develope the powers of the body
is beginning in many parts to be as readily acknowledged,
as the necessity of education to cultivate the faculties of
the mind. But nothing is privileged from abuse ; and em¬
piricism, which has brought so many other things into dis¬
repute, has unluckily fastened upon gymnastics. In the
Encyclopedic Moderne we find the subject divided into,
1. Gymnastique civile et industrielle ; 2. Gymnastique mi-
litaire, terrestre et maritime; 3. Gymnastique medicale;
and, 4. Gymnastique scenique ou funambulique. Nor is
this all. Each of these divisions is subdivided into four
or five branches, as if the subject, forsooth, admitted of the
most systematic arrangement. Thus, under the head of
Gymnastique medicale, are included, first, Gymnastique
hygienique ou prophylactique, pour conserver une sariti ro-
buste; secondly, Gymnastique therapeutique, pour le trait-
ment des maladies; thirdly, Gymnastique analeptique, ou
des convalescens; fourthly, Gymnastique orthopedique, qui
a pour but la guerison des deformites. This affectation of
method is exceedingly absurd, inasmuch as it confounds with
the exercises themselves certain hypothetical uses, and as¬
sumes as the very basis of the classification residts which
have not been satisfactorily ascertained. But however
this may be, the importance of gymnastics, in another point
of view, cannot possibly be disputed. If persevered in,
they are calculated to develope every muscle of the trunk,
arms, and legs to its utmost extent; they give the student
the most perfect command of his whole bodily frame ; they
are the best preparatives for the elegant and manly accom¬
plishment of fencing, whether with the small or the broad
sword ; and they afford excellent training for the amateurs
of running, leaping, wrestling, and sparring. Nor are the
advantages derived from such exercises confined to the
soldier or the sailor ; their usefulness is experienced in ma¬
ny other situations of life. But their importance can only
be fully known when we are called upon in emergencies of
unexpected danger ; amidst fire, shipwreck, the destruction
of bridges, or the fall of buildings; to evince the superio¬
rity resulting from that presence of mind, and fertility of
resources, which are conferred by the consciousness of phy¬
sical strength and nerve, and by the habit of acting and
moving where other men would be instantly paralysed.
Lastly, clear heads and light hearts, the natural concomi¬
tants of health, are the untailing rewards of a judicious and
moderate prosecution of gymnastics.
The elementary exercises in gymnastics are performed
by means of the horizontal pole, the parallel bars, the masts
or poles, the ropes, the triangle and trapezium, the ladder,
the wooden horse, the inclined plane, and the flying course
or giant’s steps. The pupils, after being prepared by a
course of comparatively gentle but active exertion, proceed
to take lessons on the horizontal pole; the principal use of
which is to develope the strength of the hands and arms,
though many other exercises are performed on it. The
parallel bars are usually made circular, and vary from six to
eight feet in length, and from three to four inches in dia.-
96 GYM GYM
Gymnas- meter; they are fixed about two feet apart, and placed at a and healthy exertion, increasing the elasticity of the limbs, Gymnosr ^
tics. height of from three to four feet from the ground. Cap- improving the play of the lungs, and giving a firmness on P isk
tain Clias gives sixteen movements in this apparatus, and the legs and a power in the arms not otherwise attainable. ,
Colonel Amoros thirty-eight; but it is obvious that the Quickness of eye, and accuracy in measuring distances, are
lessons are susceptible of great variety, and that the inte- also acquired by the practice of boxing, by which, be it
rest may be increased by fixing the bars occasionally at observed, we mean sparring, as practised by gentlemen,
the height of six or seven feet from the ground, ihe ex- that graceful imitation battle, which differs as widely from
ercises on the masts or poles are varied by the latter being the brutalising exhibitions of prize-fighting, as the cestus
placed in'different positions, either vertically or angularly, with which Dares dashed out the teeth of Entellus differs
and by the introduction of rope-ladders or knotted ropes, from the well-stuffed gloves of Mr Roland. _ 3d, Riding,
The Topes are used sometimes plain, sometimes with large walking, and running, are exercises requiring strength,
knots in them, and sometimes with a bar across. They are perseverance, and activity; and, as a nation, our recorded
placed vertically, horizontally, and angularly, to give variety equestrian and pedestrian feats may challenge Europe,
to the exercises, which is also increased by loosening and We have, indeed, heard of three Frenchmen, Gervois,
tightening them. The triangle and trapezium are two of Labat, and Stumon, who are said to have run a French
the most amusing instruments in modern gymnasiums, and, league in ten minutes, an exploit which surpasses any
from the lightness of their construction, and their being thing in our sporting annals; but the story is too impro-
constantly in motion, give an appearance of ease and grace bable to be admitted without strong confirmation. 4th,
to all the revolutions performed on them. The invention Archery, one of our most ancient and manly recreations,
of the triangle has been claimed by Captain Clias, though is still kept up in many parts of England and Scotland;
of right it belongs to the mountebanks of Italy, wdio em- and although its champions would no doubt cut but a sorry
ployed it to amuse the public long before this celebrated figure in competition with the Lockesley of Ivanhoe, or
gymnast was heard of; the trapezium owes its origin, or even with him whose grandsire “ drew a good bow at
at least its introduction into the schools, to Colonel Amo- Hastings,” yet the spirit of emulation has produced no
ros. The wooden ladder is usually fixed firmly between mean degree of excellence in this graceful and healthy
two walls, with the lower end just high enough for the pu- exercise. 5th, Cricket, a noble game, is so indisputably
pils to reach it with both hands. Sometimes it is also our own, that nothing need be said upon the subject, ex-
placed perpendicularly with one end resting on the ground; cept that it is yearly becoming a greater favourite in Scot-
but the exercises admit of more variety when it is placed land, where formerly it was seldom played. 6th, Single-
in the position first described. The distance between the stick has now but a small number of admirers, and its pro¬
bars in the perpendicular ladder is commonly from eight fessors are of course still more limited ; in fact, it is seldom
to twelve inches ; but when its position is inclined the practised except from motives which few are willing to
spaces should always be wide enough to admit of the pupil avow. 7th, Rutting the stone and throwing the hammer fall
passing easily through them. The rope ladder is suscep- more appropriately under the head of Scottish gymnastics,
tible of still greater variety of position, and the bars are In the Highlands of Scotland there are instances of cele-
usually placed closer together, as few movements beyond brity in throwing the hammer descending from father to
the different modes of ascending and descending are prac- son for generations, as a family characteristic. This is
tised upon them. The wooden horse, although extremely most graphically described in the account given by Sir
interesting from the number of exercises practised on it, Walter Scott, of the contest between Norman nan Ord
both in vaulting and leaping, and in feats of actual strength, and Hal o’ Wynd, who is represented as a perfect prince
appears as yet to be but little known in the small gymna- amongst the gymnasts of an age when such accomplish-
siums of this country. It is necessary that there should be ments were in the highest repute. It may be added, that,
a graduated succession of seizes, to suit the height and pro- at the present day, the Scottish national games are kept
gress of the different classes. The inclined plane is ordi- up with great spirit, and that clubs have been instituted
narilyan unpolished boai-d of pine, varying from twenty-five in various parts of the country, ibr the purpose of encou-
to thirty feet in length, and about two feet in breadth ; it raging them, by awarding medals, and other honorary dis-
admits of some highly useful exercises, and has been recom- tinctions, to such as excel in these pastimes. (See Ro-
mended by medical men as tending to strengthen the hands, land’s Gymnastics, Edinburgh, 1831, in 8vo.) (a.)
arms, chest, abdomen, legs, and feet. The same observation GYMNOSOPHISTS, a set of Indian philosophers, fa-
applies to the inclined pole. The flying course, or giant’s mous in antiquity. The word is formed from the Greek,
steps, is amusing to young people; but it affords no advan- yvyvotoipierqg, a sophist or philosopher who goes naked,
tages which are not fully attained by the apparatus already This name was applied to the Indian philosophers, whom
described. For the detail of the exercises performed, with the excessive heat of the country obliged to go naked; as
figures illustrative of the different positions, we refer to the that of Peripatetics was given to those who philosophised
works of Clias, Amoros, and Roland. walking. The Gymnosophists, however, did not go abso-
Almost all the advantages which are generally supposed lutely naked, but only clothed themselves no further than
to result from gymnastic exercises, may be attained by the modesty required. There were some of these sages^ in
practice of our own national games, which, if not in every Africa ; but the most celebrated were those of India. The
case British in their origin, are peculiarly so by their African Gymnosophists dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia,
adoption and continued improvement. They merit notice, near the Nile, and did not form themselves into societies,
therefore, first, by reason of their nationality, and because, like those of India ; but each had his private recess, where
for the most part, they require in an eminent degree the he studied and performed his devotions by himself. If
union of strength, perseverance, and courage. 1st, Wrest- any person had by chance killed another, he applied to
ling, though conspicuously introduced into all foreign works these sages for absolution, and submitted to whatever pen-
on the present system of gymnastics, is little more than ances they enjoined. They observed an extraordinary fru-
theoretically known on the Continent; whereas, in some of gality, and lived only upon the fruits of the earth. Lucan
the English counties, the practical wrestlers are unrivalled, ascribes to these Gymnosophists several new discoveries in
We therefore claim this as one of our national games, and astronomy.
venture to affirm that its champions will not hesitate to As to the Indian Gymnosophists, they dwelt in the woods,
enter into competition with any foreign gymnasium. 2d, where they lived upon the wild products of the earth, and ne-
Boxing is an exercise which brings the body into active ver either drank wine or married. Some of them practised
GYP
’um physic, travelled from one place to another, and were particu¬
larly famous for their remedies against barrenness. Others
Oy| es> pretended to practise magic, and to foretell future events.
In general, however, the Gymnosophists were wise and
learned men ; for their maxims and discourses, recorded by
historians, do not in the least savour of a barbarous education,
but are plainly the result of great sense and deep thought.
They kept up the dignity of their character to such a de¬
gree, that they never waited upon any one, not even upon
princes. They believed the immortality and transmigra¬
tion of the soul; they placed the chief happiness of man
in a contempt of the goods of fortune and of the pleasures
of sense ; and they gloried in having given faithful and dis¬
interested counsels to princes and magistrates. It is said,
tliat when they became old and infirm, they threw them¬
selves into a pile of burning wood, in order to prevent the
miseries of advanced age. One of them, named Calanus,
burned himself in the presence of Alexander the Great.
Apuleius thus describes the Gymnosophists : “ They are
all devoted to the study of wisdom, both the older masters
and the younger pupils; and what to me appears the most
amiable thing in their character is, that they have an aver¬
sion to idleness and indolence. Accordingly, as soon as the
table is spread, before a bit of victuals be brought, the
youths are called together from their several places and
offices, and the masters examine them what good they have
done since the sunrise. Here one relates something he has
discovered by meditation; another has learned something
by demonstration ; and as tor those who have nothing to
allege why they should dine, they are turned out to work
fasting.”
GYNAICEUM, amongst the ancients, the apartment of
the wromen, a separate room in the inner part of the house,
where they employed themselves in spinning, weaving, and
needle-work.
GYISLECOCRACY denotes the government of women,
or that state where women are capable of the supreme
command.
GYNiECOCRATUMENI, an ancient people of Sar-
matia Europaea, inhabiting the eastern banks of the river
Tanais, near its opening into the Pains Maeotis, and so
called, because they had no women among them, or rather,
perhaps, because they were under the dominion of women.
The word is formed from yai/jj, woman, and jegarca/tsi'o;, the
participle of xgzrew, I overcome.
GYONGIOS, a large market-town of Hungary, in the
circle of the Hither Theis, with a Catholic university, and
800 inhabitants, who trade largely in wine, fruit, corn,
and the other internal products. Long. 20. 17. E. Lat.
47. 47. N.
GYPSIES, or Egyptians, a strange kind of common¬
wealth of wandering impostors and jugglers, who made
their first appearance in Germany about the beginning of
the sixteenth century. Munster, it is true, who is follow¬
ed and relied upon by Spelman, fixes the time of their first
appearance in the year 1417 ; but as he owns that the first
time he ever saw them was in 1529, it is probably an error
of the press for 1517 ; especially as other historians inform
us, that when Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in the year 1517,
several of the natives refused to submit to the Turkish yoke,
and revolted under one Zinganeus, whence the Turks call
them Zinganees ; but being at length surrounded and
banished, they agreed to disperse in small parties all over
the world, where their supposed skill in the black art gave
.them an universal reception in that age of superstition and
credulity. In the space of a very few years they gained
such a number of idle proselytes (who imitated their lan¬
guage and complexion, and betook themselves to the same
arts of chiromancy, begging, and pilfering), that they be¬
came troublesome, and even formidable, to most of the
states of Europe. Hence they were expelled from France
VOL. XI.
GYP 97
in the year 1560, and from Spain in the year 1591. But Gypsies,
the government of England took the alarm much earlier ;
for in 1530 they are described by statute 22 Henry VIII.
c. 10, as “ an outlandish people calling themselves Egyp¬
tians, using no craft nor feat of merchandise, who have
come into this realm, and gone from shire to shire, and
place to place, in great companies, and used great, subtle,
and crafty means to deceive the people ; bearing them in
hand that they by palmistry could tell men’s and women’s
fortunes ; and so many times by craft and subtility have
deceived the people of their money, and also have commit¬
ted many heinous felonies and robberies.” They are,
therefore, directed to avoid the realm, and not to return
under pain of imprisonment, and forfeiture of their goods
and chattels ; and it is further declared, that upon their
trials for any felony which they may have committed, they
shall not be entitled to a jury de medietate lingua. And
afterwards it was enacted, by statutes 1st and 2d Philip
and Mary, c. 4, and 5th Eliz. c. 20, that if any such per¬
sons shall be imported into the kingdom, the importer shall
forfeit L.40. And if the Egyptians themselves remain one
month in the kingdom, or if any person being fourteen
years old, whether natural-born subject or stranger, who
has been seen or found in the fellowship of such Egyptians,
or having disguised him or herself like them, shall remain
in the same one month at one or several times, it is felony
without benefit of clergy. And Sir Mathew Hale informs
us, that at one Suffolk assizes no less than thirteen persons
were executed upon these statutes a few years before the
restoration. But, to the honour of our national humanity,
there are no instances more modern than this of carrying
these laws into practice ; and the last sanguinary act itself
was repealed by 23 Geo. III. c. 54.
In Scotland they seem to have enjoyed some share of in¬
dulgence ; for a writ of privy seal, dated in 1594, supports
John Faw, lord and earl of Little Egypt, in the execution
of justice on his company and folk, conform to the laws of
Egypt, and in punishing certain persons therein named
who had rebelled, robbed him, absconded, and refused to
return home. James’s subjects are commanded to assist
in apprehending the fugitives, and in assisting Faw and
his adherents to return home. There is another writ in
his favour from Mary queen of Scots, 1553, and in 1554 he
obtained a pardon for the murder of Nunan Small; so that
it appears he had remained long in Scotland, and perhaps
spent some time in England. From him this kind of stroll¬
ing people received the name of the Faw Gang, which
they still retain among the common people.
A very circumstantial account of this singular race has
been given in a German treatise by Grellman, which has
been translated into English by Mr Raper, and published in
a quarto volume. It is incredible to think how tins regular
swarm of banditti has spread itself over the face of the
earth. They wander about in Asia, and in the interior parts
of Africa, and have overrun most of the European nations.
In the reigns of Henry VIII. and Queen Elizabeth, they
were set up as a mark of general persecution in England ;
yet their numbers do not appear to have much diminished
in consequence. They are scattered, though not in great
numbers, throughout Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and
Russia ; but their chief population is in the south-east parts
of Europe. For nearly four centuries they have wander¬
ed through the world ; and in every region, and amongst
every people, whether barbarous or civilized, they have
continued equally unchanged by the lapse of time, the va¬
riety of climate, or the force of example. Their singular
physiognomy and particular manners are the same in every
country. Their swarthy complexion receives no darker
shade from the burning sun of Africa, nor any fairer tinc¬
ture from the temperate climes of Europe ; they contract
no additional laziness in Spain, nor acquire any new indus-
N
98 GYP
Gypsies, try in England; in Turkey they behold the mosque and
the crescent with the same indifference as they do the Ca¬
tholic and the Reformed church in Europe. In the neigh¬
bourhood of civilized life they continue barbarous ; and, be¬
holding around them cities and settled inhabitants, they live
in tents or holes in the earth, and wander from place to
place as fugitives and vagabonds.
They are passionately fond of ornaments, in which how¬
ever they consult neither propriety nor consistency ; for
they will wear an old laced coat, whilst the rest of their
garments scarcely hang together. In Hungary and Tran¬
sylvania their summer habitations are tents; their winter re¬
sidences holes dug ten or twelve feet deep in the earth, ex¬
cept such as keep inns or exercise trades. They are fond
of plate, particularly silver cups, which they bury under
the hearth for security. Their principal occupations are,
smith’s-work, or tinkering, wooden ware, and horse-deal¬
ing ; and in Hungary and Transylvania they are execu¬
tioners of criminals, flayers of dead beasts, and washers of
gold. The women deal in old clothes, prostitution, wan¬
ton dances, and fortune-telling. Notwithstanding these
occupations, the majority of this people are lazy, beggars,
and thieves. They bring up their children to their own
professions, and are very fond of them.
The gypsies have, at least in T ransyl vania, a sort of regular
government, rather nominal than real or effective. They
have their leaders of chiefs, whom they distinguish by the
Sclavonian title waywode. To this dignity every person
is eligible who is of a family descended from a former
waywode; but the preference is generally given to those
who have the best clothes and the most wealth, or who
are of a large stature, and not past the meridian of life.
Of religion, however, they have no sense ; though, with
their usual cunning and hypocrisy, they profess the esta¬
blished faith of every country in which they live. They
also speak the languages of the respective countries, yet
have a language of their own, though whence derived au¬
thors are by no means agreed. It seems to be a sort of
linguafranca, formed out of fragments and corruptions of
many tongues. The only science which they have attain¬
ed is music. Their poetry is ungrammatical and inde¬
cent rhyme.
The origin of this people, as we have seen, has been
generally believed to be Egyptian ; and that belief is as
old as their existence in Europe. This theory, however,
according to Grellman, is without foundation. The Egyp¬
tian descent of these people, he thinks, is not only desti¬
tute of proofs, but the most positive evidence is found to
contradict it. Their language differs entirely from the
Coptic ; and their customs are very different from those
of the Egyptians. They are indeed to be found in Egypt;
but they wander about there as strangers, and form a dis¬
tinct people, as in other countries. The expressions of
Bellonius are strong and decisive: “ No part of the world,
GYP
I believe, is free from those banditti, wandering about in Gyy i
troops, whom we by mistake call Egyptians and Bohemu ^ I
ans. When we were at Cairo, and in the villages border¬
ing on the Nile, we found troops of these strolling thieves
sitting under palm trees ; and they are esteemed foreign¬
ers in Egypt as well as among us.”
The Egyptian descent of the gypsies being rejected, our
author next endeavours to show that they came originally (
from Hindustan. The same opinion is maintained by Mr ^
Marsden, in a paper on this subject in the seventh volume
of the Archceologia. Mr Grellman does not insist on the
similarity of colour between the two people, nor on the
cowardice common to both, nor on the attachment of the
Indians to tents, or letting their children go naked, all
these being traits to be met with in other nations ; but
he dwells on the word Polgar, the name of one of the first
gypsy leaders, and of the Hindustanee god of marriage ;
also on the correspondence between the travelling smiths
among the two people, who carry two pairs of bellows,
the Indian’s boy blowing them in India, the wife or child
of the gypsy.in Europe; as if every travelling tinker, in
every nation where tinkers travel, had not the same jour¬
neymen. In lascivious dances and chiromancy the two
people agree ; nor are these uncommon in other parts of
the globe. The excessive loquacity of both is produced
as another coincidence ; as if no other nations in the world
were loquacious. The fainter resemblances are, a fond¬
ness for saffron, and the intermarrying only with their own
people. The last position in the author’s theory is, that
the gypsies are of the lowest class of Indians, namely,
Pariahs, or, as they are called in Hindustan, Sudras. He
compares the manners of this class with those of the
gypsies, and enumerates many circumstances in which
they agree ; but some of the comparisons are frivolous,
and prove nothing.
The objections, however, to which this learned author’s
theory is liable, are such as only show that it is not con¬
clusive, but do not prove that it is wrong. It may pos¬
sibly be right; and upon this supposition the cause of their
emigration from their country, he conjectures, not without
probability, may have been the war of Timour Beg in In¬
dia. In the years 1408 and 1409 this conqueror ravaged
India; and the progress of his arms was attended with
horrid devastation and cruelty. All who offered resist¬
ance were destroyed ; and those who fell into the enemy’s
hands were made slaves, of whom, however, one hundred
thousand were put to death. As on this occasion an uni¬
versal panic took place, what could be more natural than
that a great number of terrified inhabitants should endea¬
vour to save themselves by flight ? In the last place, the
author endeavours to trace the route by which the gypsies
came from Hindustan to Europe ; but here he franldy ac¬
knowledges that all that can be said on the subject is mere
surmise.
99
^ j TT the eighth letter and sixth consonant in our alpha-
I Xl <f bet; though some grammarians conceive it to be
tb kkuk. only an aspiration, or breathing. But nothing can be more
^ ridiculous than to dispute its being a distinct sound, and
formed in a particular manner by the organs of speech, at
least in our language: witness the words eat and heat,
arm and harm, ear and hear, at and hat, as pronounced
with or without the h. This letter is pronounced by a
strong expiration of the breath between the lips, closing
as it were by a gentle motion of the lower jaw to the up¬
per, and the tongue nearly approaching the palate. There
seems to be no doubt that our h, which is the same with
that of the Romans, derived its figure from that of the He¬
brew rr. And, indeed, the Phoenicians, and the ancient
Greeks and Romans, used the same figure with our H,
which in the series of all these alphabets keeps its primi¬
tive place, being the eighth letter. H, used as a nume¬
ral, denotes 200, and with a dash over it, H 200,000. As
an abbreviation, H was used by the ancients to denote
homo, hceres, hora, &c. Thus H. B. stood for hares hono-
rum; H. S. corruptly for L L S. sesterce; and H. A. for
Hadrianus.
HAARLEM, or Haeblem, a city of the Netherlands,
the capital of the province, and of a circle of the same
name. It lies about four miles from the sea-shore, on an
extensive lake of fresh water, which it is now under consi¬
deration to drain and convert into meadows. It is a well-
built town, with a fine market-place; but some of the
streets, though well built and paved, are narrow. It is the
seat of a Catholic bishop, vrho officiates in a cathedral; but
the largest church, called the Dome Church, is occupied
by the Protestants. It has one of the most powerful and
best-toned organs in Europe, with 8000 pipes, some thirty-
two feet in length. It contains, besides these, seven Ca¬
tholic, five Calvinist, and one Lutheran church, and cha¬
pels for some smaller sects. The houses are about 8000,
and the inhabitants amounted in 1831 to 21,667.
The trade and manufactures are extensive. The water
is deemed peculiarly adapted for bleaching, and many fine
linens made in Germany and Holland are sent here to re¬
ceive the desired whiteness. There are printed cottons
well executed; and vast quantities of small wares, such as
thread, tapes, bobbins, and Dutch lace, still made, though
the rivalry of England has diminished the sale for them.
One great trade of Haarlem is in flower seeds, flowers, and
bulbs, which are sent on a large scale from beautifully ar¬
ranged and ornamented gardens around the city. Near it
are some magnificent country houses, especially that of the
Hopes, occupied by Louis Buonaparte whilst king of Hol¬
land. In the market is a statue of Coster, who in Haerlem
is contended to have been the inventor of printing. Long.
4. 29. 25. E. Lat. 52. 22. 16. N.
HABAKKUK, one of the twelve lesser prophets, whose
prophecies are admitted into the canon of the Old Testa¬
ment. The name is written in the Hebrew with n, heth,
and signifies a wrestler. There is no precise time men¬
tioned in Scripture when this Habakkuk lived ; but from
his predicting the ruin of the Jews by the Chaldaeans, it
may be concluded that he prophesied before Zedekiah, or
about the time of Manasseh. He is reported to have been
the author of several prophecies which are not extant; but
those which are indisputably his are contained in three
chapters. In these the prophet complains very patheti¬
cally of the disorders which he observed in the kingdom of
Judaea. God reveals to him that he would shortly punish
the Jews in a very terrible manner by the arms of the
Chaldaeans. He foretells the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar,
his metamorphosis, and death ; and also predicts, that the
vast designs of Jehoiakim would be frustrated. He speaks
against a prince, probably the king of Tyre, who built
with blood and iniquity ; and he accuses another king,
perhaps the king of Egypt, of having intoxicated his friend
in order to discover his nakedness. The third chapter is a
song or prayer to God, whose majesty he describes with
the utmost grandeur and sublimity of expression.
HABDALA, a ceremony of the Jews, observed on the
evening of the Sabbath when every one of the family has
returned home. Then they light a taper or lamp, with at
least two wicks ; upon which the master of the family
takes a cup, with some wine, mixed with fragrant spices,
and having repeated a passage or two of Scripture, he
blesses the wine and spices. He afterwards blesses the
light of the fire; and then casts his eyes on his hands and
nails, as if remembering that he is going to work. The
whole is intended to signify that the Sabbath is over, and
is from that moment divided from the day of labour which
follows. For this reason the ceremony is called Habdala,
which signifies distinction. After the ceremony is con¬
cluded, and the company breaks up, they wish one another,
not a good night, but a good week.
HABEAS Corpus, the most celebrated writ in the Eng¬
lish law. Of this there are various kinds made use of by
the courts at Westminster, for removing prisoners from
one court into another for the more easy administration of
justice. The habeas corpus ad respondendum is issued
when a man has a cause of action against one who is con¬
fined by the process of some inferior court, in order to re¬
move the prisoner, and charge him with this new action
in the court above. The habeas corpus ad satisfaciendum
issues when a prisoner has had judgment against him in an
action, and the plaintiff is desirous to bring him up to some
superior court to charge him with the process of execution.
The similar writs ad prosequendum, testificandum, delibe¬
randum, issue when it is necessary to remove a prisoner,
in order to prosecute or bear testimony in any court, or. to
be tried in the proper jurisdiction in which the fact was
committed. Lastly, the common writ ad faciendum et re¬
cipiendum, issues out of any of the courts of Westminster
Hall, when a person is sued in some inferior jurisdiction,
and is desirous to remove the action into the superior
court; commanding the inferior judges to produce the
body of the defendant, together with the day and cause of
his caption and detainer (whence the writ is frequently de¬
nominated an habeas corpus cum causa), to do and receive
whatsoever the king’s court shall consider in that behalf.
But the great and efficacious writ, in all manner of illegal
confinement, is that of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, di¬
rected to the person detaining another, and commanding
him to produce the body of the prisoner, with a specification
of the day and cause of his caption and detention, ad faci¬
endum,, subjiciendum, et recipiendum, to do, submit to, and
receive whatsoever the judge or court awarding such writ
shall consider in that behalf. This is a high prerogative
writ, and therefore by the common law issues out of the
Court of King’s Bench, not only in term-time, but also dur¬
ing the vacation, by a fiat from the chief-justice, or any other
of the judges, and runs into all parts of the king’s domi¬
nions, except Scotland ; for the king is at all times entitled
to have an account why the liberty of any of his subjects
is restrained, wffierever that restraint may be inflicted. If
it issues in vacation, it is usually returnable before the
judge himself who awarded it, and he proceeds by himself
Habdala
Habeas
Corpus.
100 H A B H A B
Habeas thereon; unless the terra should intervene, and then it the proper court of judicature. 4. That officers and keep- Hat*]
orpiis niay be returned in court. Indeed, if the party were pri- ers neglecting to make due returns, or not delivering to schwer
vileged in the Courts of Common Pleas and Exchequer, as the prisoner or his agent, within six hours after demand, a 8
being an officer or suitor of the court, an habeas corpus ad copy of the warrant of commitment, or shifting the custody ^ber
subjiciendum might also have been awarded from thence ; of a prisoner from one to another without sufficient reason i_f10n'
and if the cause of imprisonment were palpably illegal, or authority (specified in the act), shall for the first offence °
they might have discharged him. But if he were commit- forfeit L.100, and for the second offence L.200, to the
ted for any criminal matter, they could only have remanded party grieved, and be disabled to hold his office. 5. That
him, or taken bail for his appearance in the Court of King’s no person, once delivered by habeas corpus, shall be re-
Bench, which occasioned the Common Pleas to discounte- committed for the same offence, under a penalty of L.500.
nance such applications. It has also been said, and by 6. That every person committed for treason or felony shall,
very respectable authorities, that the like habeas corpus if he requires it the first week of the next term, or the
may issue out of the Court of Chancery in vacation ; but first day of the next session of oyer and terminer, be in-
upon the famous application to Lord Nottingham by Jenks, dieted in that term or session, or else admitted to bail, un-
notwithstanding the most diligent searches, no precedent less the king’s witnesses cannot be produced at that time;
could be found where the chancellor had issued such a and if acquitted, or if not indicted and tried in the second
writ in vacation, and therefore his lordship refused it. term or session, he shall be discharged from his imprison-
In the Court of King’s Bench it was, and still is, neces- ment for such imputed offence ; but that no person, after
sary to apply for it by motion to the court, as in the case the assizes shall be opened for the county in which he is
of all other prerogative writs, such as certiorari, prohibi- detained, shall be removed by habeas corpus, until after
tion, mandamus, and the like, which do not issue as of the assizes are ended, but shall be left to the justice of the
mere course, without showing some probable cause why the judges ot assize. 7. That any such prisoner may, however,
extraordinary power of the crown is called in to the party’s move for and obtain his habeas corpus, as well out of the
assistance. For, as it was argued by Lord Chief-Justice Chancery or Exchequer as out of the King’s Bench or Com-
Vaughan, it is granted on motion, because it cannot be mon Pleas; and the Lord Chancellor or judges denying
had of course, and there is therefore no necessity to grant the same, on sight of the warrant, shall, on oath that the
it; for the coui t ought to be satisfied that the party has same is refused, forfeit severally to the party grieved the
a probable cause to be delivered.” And this seems the sum of L.500. 8. That the writ of habeas corpus shall
more reasonable, because, when once granted, the person run into the counties palatine, cinque ports, and other pri-
to whom it is directed can return no satisfactory excuse for vileged places, and the islands of Jersey and Guernsey,
not bringing up the body of the prisoner, bo that, if it 9. I hat no inhabitant of England, except persons contract-
issued of mere course, without showing to the court or judge ing, or convicts praying to be transported, or having corn-
some i easonable ground for awarding it, a traitor or felon mitted some capital offence in the place to which they are
under sentence of death, a soldier or mariner in the king’s sent, shall be sent prisoners to Scotland, Ireland, Jersey,
service, a wife, a child, a relation, or a domestic, confined Guernsey, or any places beyond the seas, within or with¬
er insanity or other piudential reasons, might obtain a tern- out the king’s dominions, on pain that the party commit-
porary enlargement by suing out an habeas corpus, though ting, his advisers, aiders, and assistants, shall forfeit to the
sure to be remanded as soon as brought up to the court, party grieved a sum not less than L.500, to be recovered
And therefore Sir Edward Coke, when chief-justice, did with treble costs, shall be disabled from holding any office
not scruple (in 13 Jac. I.) to deny a habeas corpus to one of trust or profit, shall incur the penalties oi' preemunire,
confined by the Court of Admiralty for piracy, there appear- and shall be incapable of the king’s pardon,
ing, upon his own showing, sufficient grounds to confine This is the substance of that great and important sta-
him. On the other hand, if a probable ground be shown tute, which, however, extends only to the case of com-
that the party is imprisoned without just cause, and there- mitments for such criminal charges as can produce no in-
ore las a right to be delivered, the writ of habeas corpus convenience to public justice by a temporary enlargement
is then a writ of right, which “ may not be denied, but of the prisoner; all other cases of unjust imprisonment
ought to be granted to every man that is committed, or being left to the habeas corpus at common law. But even
detained in prison, or otherwise restrained, though it be upon writs at the common law it is expected by the court,
by the command of the king, the privy council, or any agreeably to ancient precedents and the spirit of the act
Par^ament> that this writ should be immediately obey-
Habeas Corpus Act is the famous act of 31 Car. II. ed, without waiting for any alias or pluries writ; otherwise
c. 2, which is frequently considered as another magna an attachment will issue. By these admirable regulations,
charta of the kingdom. It enacts, 1. That the writ oi ha- judicial as well as parliamentary, the remedy is now com-
beas corpus shall be returned, and the prisoner brought up, plete for removing the injury of unjust and illegal confine-
wit un a unite time according to the distance, not ex- ment; a remedy the more necessary, because the oppres-
ceeding in any case twenty days. 2. That such writs shall sion does not always arise from the ill-nature, but some-
be indorsed, as granted in pursuance of this act, and signed times from the mere inattention, of government. For it
by the person awarding them. 3. That on complaint frequently happens in foreign countries, and hashappen-
and request in writing by or on behalf of any person com- ed in England during the temporary suspension of the
mitted and charged with any crime, unless committed for statute, that persons apprehended upon suspicion have
treason or felony expressed in the warrant, or for suspicion suffered a long imprisonment, merely because they were
of the same, or as accessary thereto before the fact, or forgotten.
convicted or charged in execution by legal process, the HABELSCHWERT, a city of the Prussian province
Lord Chancellor, or any of the twelve judges in vacation, of Silesia, in the district of the same name, situated on
upon viewing a copy of the warrant, or affidavit that a copy the river Neisse. It is fortified, and stands in a very de¬
ls denied, shall, unless the party has neglected for two fensible situation. It contains 324 houses, and 3124 in¬
terms to apply to any court for his enlargement, award a habitants, mostly manufacturers of linens and woollens.
habeas corpus \ox such prisoner, returnable immediately Long. 16. 36. 10. E. Lat. 50. 14. 45. N.
before himself or any other of the judges ; and upon the HABERDASHER, in commerce, a seller of hats and
return made shall discharge the party, if bailable, upon other wares.
giving security to appear and answer to the accusation in HABERGION, or Haubergeon, Habergetum, a
H A B
i bit coat of mail, or ancient piece of defensive armour, in form
|| of a coat, descending from the neck to the middle, and
Hi burg, formed of little iron rings, or meshes, linked into each
'»• other. It is also written haberge, hauberge, havbere, hau-
bert, hautber, hautbert, and hauberk. Spelman derives it
from the ancient French hault, high, and berg, armour or
covering; as serving to defend the upper part of the body.
Du Cange and Skinner derive it from the Belgic hah, or
Teutonic haltz, neck, and bergen, to cover; that is, a de¬
fence for the neck. Others conceive that it is formed of
al, alia, meaning all, and bergen, to cover ; as importing a
cover for the whole body. In Scripture it seems to signi¬
fy an offensive weapon. “ The sword of him that layeth
at him cannot hold ; the spear, the dart, nor the haber¬
geon.” (Job, xli. 26.)
HABIT, an aptitude or disposition either of mind or
body, acquired by frequent repetition of the same act.
Habit is also employed to signify a dress or garb, or
the composition of garments, with which a person is cover¬
ed. The principal part of the dress worn by the Jew's and
Greeks was the )ga.nov and the •^truv. The i/xanov was an
upper garment, consisting of a loose square piece of cloth
wrapped round the body; the was an under gar¬
ment, or tunic, which was fastened round the body and
embraced it closely, falling down to the mid thigh. It is
proper to observe, however, that a person divested of this
upper garment or tfiunov is, in the language of the east,
styled naked; and in this sense David danced naked be¬
fore the ark.
Habit is particularly used to signify the uniform gar¬
ments of the religious orders, conformably to the rule of
which they make profession ; as the habit of St Benedict,
of St Augustin, St Francis, St Dominic, and the like.
In this sense we say absolutely, such a person has taken
the habit, meaning he has entered upon a noviciate in a
certain order. So he is said to quit the habit when he
renounces the order. The habits of the several religious
orders are not supposed to have been calculated for singu¬
larity or novelty. The founders of the orders, who were
at first chiefly inhabitants of deserts and solitudes, gave
their monks the habit usual amongst the country people.
The primitive habits of St Anthony, St Hilarion, St Be¬
nedict, and others, are described by the ancient writers
as consisting chiefly of sheep skins, the common dress of
the peasants, shepherds, and mountaineers of that time ;
and the same they gave to their disciples. The orders
established in and about cities and inhabited places took
the habit worn by other ecclesiastics at the time of their
institution. Thus, St Dominic gave his disciples the ha¬
bit of regular canons, which he himself had always worn
to that time. The same thing may be said of the Jesuits,
Barnabites, Theatins, Oratorians, and others, who took
the common habit of the ecclesiastics at the time of their
foundation. And what makes them differ so much from
each other, as well as from the ecclesiastical habit of the
present times, is, that they have always kept invariably
to the same costume ; whereas the ecclesiastics and laics
have been changing their mode on every occasion.
HABSAL, a circle of the Russian province of Estho-
nia, in the Gulf of Finland, extending over 1536 square
miles, partly on the continent, but comprehending the
islands Dagoe and Worms. It contains two towns, thir¬
teen parishes, and 113 noble estates, with 41,500 inha¬
bitants. The capital, of the same name, is situated in a
bay protected by the island of Worms. It contains only
148 houses, but the security of the harbour brings some
ships to it. Long. 23. 30. 55. E. Lat. 58. 56. 30. N.
HABSBURG, a small district of Switzerland, in the
canton of Lucerne, on the lake of that name. It is only
remarkable as the barony, once the family seat, of that
house which has long given emperors to Germany, and
HAD 101
now fills the throne of Austria. The chateau is a vene- Habur
rable heap of ruins, but of no great extent. 1|.
HABUR, a small island in the Red Sea, six miles from * atoning"
the Arabian shore. Lat. 16. 45. N.
HACKET, John, bishop of Litchfield and Coventry,
was born in the year 1592. In 1623 he was made chap¬
lain to James I. and prebendary of Lincoln ; and soon
afterwards he obtained the rectory of St Andrew’s, Hol-
born, with that of Cheam in Surrey, his patron observing,
that he intended Holborn for wealth, and Cheam for health.
In 1642 he was presented to a prebendary and residen¬
tiary ; but he was deprived of the enjoyment of them, as
well as of St Andrew’s, by the ensuing troubles. He then
lived retired at Cheam, until he recovered his preferments
at the restoration of Charles II. by whom he was prefer¬
red to the see of Litchfield and Coventry in 1661. Find¬
ing the beautiful cathedral of Litchfield almost battered
to the ground, he in eight years finished a complete church
superior to the former one, at an expense of L.20,000,
excepting L.1000 which he received from the dean and
chapter, with what he could procure from private bene¬
factors. He laid out L.1000 on a prebendal house, his
palaces at Litchfield and Eccleshall having been demo¬
lished during the civil wars; and, besides these acts of
munificence, he left several other benefactions at his death,
which took place in 1.670. He published, before he en¬
tered into orders, a comedy entitled Loyola, which was
twice acted before King James I. After his death there
appeared a Century of his Sermons on several Remark¬
able Subjects, in folio ; and The Life of Archbishop Wil¬
liams, also in folio, which was abridged by Ambrose Philips
in 1700.
HACKNEY, a large parish of the hundred of Osulton,
in the county of Middlesex. It is one of those villages
which, from a collection of scattered hamlets and a few'
houses round the parish church, have, in the course of a
century, so increased as to be more than equal to many
continental cities, and even to several capitals. Being
within three miles of London, the more wealthy of the
middle class of traders have fixed their residences in it.
It comprehends several hamlets, as they are still called,
though they have also become towns. These are Upper
and Lower Clapton, Dalston, Shackelwill, and Homerton.
A new parish church of appropriate size has been built;
and there are several chapels belonging to the establish¬
ed church, and places of worship for almost every descrip¬
tion of the sectaries of the kingdom. By the increase of
buildings in both directions, Hackney nearly joins the
parish of Shoreditch and of Spitalfields, so as to be in ap¬
pearance part of the capital. The schools of various kinds,
from the classical to those for elementary instruction of
the low'est grade, are very numerous. The most remark¬
able object is a nursery ground botanically arranged upon
a large scale, which contains a stupendous building cover¬
ed with glass and filled with all the forest trees of the tro¬
pical climates, in full growth. The population of this
parish amounted in 1801 to 12,730, in 1811 to 16,771, in
1821 to 22,494, and in 1831 to 31,047.
Hackney Coaches, those exposed in the streets of Lon¬
don, and some other great cities, to be hired at rates fixed
by authority. See Coach.
HADDINGTON, a royal burgh of Scotland, and ca¬
pital of the county of the same name. It is situated on
the left bank of the river Tyne, on the great road be¬
tween Edinburgh and London, about sixteen and a half
miles from the former capital. Haddington is a place of
considerable antiquity, but the exact date of its origin is
unknown. In records which belong to the twelfth century,
it comes into notice as a demesne of David L, who occu¬
pied it as his burgh, with a church, a mill, and other apur-
tenants of a manor. Ada, the wife of Henry, son and heir
r, -/>
I H >
102 HAD
Hadding- of this monarch, came into possession of the town, and was
ton. very attentive to its interests, founding here in 1178 a
convent of Cistertian nuns, which she endowed with the
, lands of Clerkington. Other lands, and several churches,
likewise belonged to the nuns of this place ; but these were
of course confiscated at the reformation. There was also
a monastery of Franciscan or Grey Friars at Haddington.
The choir of the church, which is now in ruins, wras an¬
ciently called the Lamp of Lothian (Lucerna Laudonice),
because of its beautiful structure, and from its being kept
constantly lighted, and thus rendered visible by night at
a considerable distance. On the east of what is called
the Nungate are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to St Mar¬
tin. Alter the death of Ada above mentioned, the town
became the property of her son William the Lion, whose
son Alexander II. was born here. For some time Had¬
dington seems to have been exempt from the miseries of
war ; but in 1216 it was burned by king John of England.
In 1244, and again about two hundred years ago, it suffer¬
ed a similar fate ; but these were accidental occurrences.
By the overflowings of the Tyne, it has likewise been re¬
peatedly inundated. So late as 1775, the suburb of the
Nungate was overwhelmed, and the whole town was sub¬
merged beneath the waters of the river, which had risen to
seventeen feet above their ordinary level. Haddington
was formerly surrounded by strong walls, which were pro¬
vided with gates and ports, and also fortified. It was taken
possession of by the English after the battle of Pinkie, and
in the year following endured a siege by the Scotch, which
makes some figure in history. Little, however, now re¬
mains of the ancient defences of this place ; and although,
as we have said, it was a royal residence, the only relics
which tradition points to as those of a palace or castle,
are found at a short distance from the western port of
Haddington, within the walls, on the site of which the
county buildings or court-house was recently erected. The
town at present consists of a main or High Street, which
stretches in a direction from east to wTest, and forms a portion
of the road from London to Edinburgh. It is a spacious and
handsome street, and possesses some elegant buildings. Pa¬
rallel to it, on the north, runs the Back Street, having two
cross streets at their eastern extremity. The town-house
is a respectable fabric, provided with a handsome spire 150
feet in height. Connected with this edifice are the depart¬
ments used as a jail for the town and county. The town is
connected with the ancient suburb of Nungate, by a bridge
• of four arches thrown over the Tyne. The old Franciscan
church is a fine Gothic building, although partly dilapidat¬
ed. It is 210 feet in length, and is surmounted by a square
tower ninety feet in height, and of handsome architecture.
Some years ago the chancel, or west end of the cross, was
repaired, and now forms a handsome parish church. Had¬
dington, being situated in the midst of a rich and populous
agricultural district, serves as the depot of inland trade, and
by this means its prosperity has been greatly advanced.
The market, which is held on Friday, is a favourite place of
resort for the sale and purchase of grain by the East Lothian
farmers, and corn-dealers from different quarters. The
town possesses no manufactories of any importance, if we
except a few tan-works ; and there are two distilleries and
two breweries ; but a number of extensive trades are also
carried on. For facilitating business, branches of tw o bank¬
ing establishments are here settled. As a royal burgh, the
civic government of Haddington is vested in a provost, two
merchant-bailies, a trades-bailie, a dean of guild, a trea¬
surer, and twelve councillors. Since the passing of the
burgh reform act, the deacons no longer sit as councillors,
the distinction between merchant and trades-councillors
having ceased to exist. The county courts of the sheriff
are held here every Thursday during session time, and a
sheriff small debt court every alternate Thursday. There
H A D
is also a justice of peace court held at various times during Haddi j
the year. Haddington is the seat of a presbytery ; and, be- ^nshii
sides the parish church, there are several chapels and meet-
ing-houses, where dissenting bodies assemble. There is
here an excellent academy, under the patronage of the
magistrates, a parochial school, and several private educa¬
tional establishments. There is also a school of arts insti¬
tution, connected with which is a library, and a collection
of philosophical apparatus. Besides a number of benefit
and friendly societies, there have been recently established
in Haddington The United Agricultural Society of East
Lothian, and the East Lothian Horticultural Society. The
population of the burgh and parish of Haddington amount¬
ed in 1821 to 5255, and in 1831 to 5883.
HADDINGTONSHIRE, or, as it is frequently called,
East Lothian, a county in Scotland, situated between
55° 47' and 56° 5' north latitude, and between 2° 25' and
3° 2' west longitude from Greenwich. Its boundaries are
the Frith of Forth and German Ocean on the north and
east, Berwickshire on the south, and Edinburghshire
or Mid Lothian on the west. From west to east its ex¬
treme length is about twenty-five miles, and its greatest
breadth from north to south seventeen ; but from the ir¬
regularity of its boundaries, the area is computed to be
only 272 square miles, or 174,080 English acres, of w’hich
about four fifths may be in tillage, or fit for cultivation,
and the remaining fifth, consisting of hills or moorish
ground, in its natural state, covered with heath and the
coarser grasses. Of this last description is the greater
part of the Lammermuir Hills, which bound the county
in a direction from south-west to north-east, where they
terminate in the bold promontory of St Abb’s Head.
From this range of hills on the south, Haddingtonshire
appears, when viewed from some commanding eminence
at a distance, to slope gradually to the Frith of Forth and
the German Ocean ; but, upon a nearer survey, the accli¬
vity from the sea is found to consist of nearly parallel
ridges, running from west to east, most of which com¬
mence near the western extremity of the county, and run
throughout the greater part of its length. At the termina¬
tion of these ridges on the east, there is a most fertile and
extensive plain, which has the Lammermuir Hills on the
south, and North Berwick Law on the north. Some of
the hills in the low country, though of no great elevation,
are very conspicuous objects, owing to their rising sud¬
denly from a flat surface, and being exposed to view on
all sides, surrounded by low grounds. North Berwick
Law on the coast, 940 feet high, Traprane Law, 700, and
the Garleton Hills, almost in the centre, not only them¬
selves hold a prominent place in the landscape, but afford
from their heights a view of some of the richest and most
beautiful scenery in Britain. The Lammermuir range on
the south, which, when viewed from the Garleton Hills,
appear to rise in the form of a vast amphitheatre, as if to
protect and shelter the lower part of the county, present
in their dark and rugged surface a striking contrast with
the highly cultivated plains below. Over these plains,
from the same station, the eye takes in the ports of Dun¬
bar, North Berwick, Prestonpans, and Cockenzie, with the
Bass Rock, the Isle of May, and others on the coast, and
the shipping in the Frith of Forth ; whilst nearer and all
around lies an extensive tract of the most fertile land in
the island, covered, if seen in a fine evening early in au¬
tumn, with rich crops of every hue, and studded with ha¬
bitations of great variety, from the princely mansion, in¬
distinctly traced through the variegated foliage of its
woods, to the cottage of the peasant, sending up its slen¬
der column of smoke in the rays of the setting sun.
Almost every variety of soil known in Britain is to be
found here ; but it appears from the Agricultural Survey
that clay and loam, nearly in equal proportions, though
HAD HAD 103
tej ding- each of various qualities, extend over about two thirds of
u hire, the county; yet a great deal of both descriptions is not
^ naturally very fertile, much of the clay, in particular,
being shallow, and incumbent on a wet bottom. Tracts
of moorish soil are also found interspersed among the
lower grounds. The climate, though as various as the
soil, is, in an agricultural point of view, perhaps the best in
Scotland, especially for the growth of corn. In the east¬
ern parts, very little rain falls during the summer months,
a circumstance to which is ascribed the superior quality
of the grain. Here also harvest commences ten days ear¬
lier than upon the coast lands on the north, though on
these last it is still earlier by three weeks or a month than
upon the hills. In the Lammermuir district, snow in some
seasons covers the ground entirely for three months, and
lies on the north sides of the hills till after midsummer,
though they are only thirteen or fourteen miles from the
sea, whilst upon the coast it commonly dissolves as it falls.
From December to May, the winds are chiefly from the
east and north ; in summer, when the weather is dry,
from the east; and in autumn, from west to south and
south-east, the last often accompanied with rain and fogs.
The north-west brings storms in winter; and from the
same quarter, and also from the south-west, come the
high gales which are sometimes so injurious in autumn.
Haddingtonshire, though it has a number of streams,
sufficient, perhaps, for the common purposes of its popu¬
lation, possesses no lakes of any magnitude. There is,
however, a beautiful sheet of water at Pressmenon, in the
midst of the most beautiful scenery ; and also Danskine
Loch, which is of much less magnitude and importance,
unless for the great number of wild ducks which fre¬
quent its waters. The Tyne is the largest river, but it is
inconsiderable, and enjoys no internal navigation nor
fresh-water fishery. The Tyne, which springs from the
Moor of Middleton in Edinburghshire, enters this coun¬
ty on the west, near Ormiston, and flowing nearly due
east, passes Haddington, the county town, and falls into
the sea beyond Tyningham, the seat of the Earl of Had¬
dington, after receiving Coalstone and a few other rills
from the south. Yet it has sometimes swelled to a great
height, and occasioned much damage. In 1775 the
whole suburb of Haddington called Nungate, and more
than half the town, were laid under water. A small
stream called the Peffer crosses part of the county from
east to west, in a very level swampy district. In one
part of its course so flat is the county, that one part of the
stream takes a westerly course, and empties itself into
Aberlady Bay, whilst another part takes an easterly direc¬
tion, and discharges itself into the sea about two miles
north from the Tyne. A number of brooks and rivulets
take their rise amongst the Lammermuir Hills, and run
in a south-east direction. The most conspicuous of these
are the Dye, the Fasney, the Whitadder, Bothwell Wa¬
ter, and Moneynut Water.
This county is not less fortunate in its mineral produc¬
tions than in its soil and climate. Coal, which has been
wrought here since the beginning of the thirteenth cen¬
tury, is found in great abundance in the western parts of
it, from the borders of Lammermuir to the sea; parti¬
cularly in the parishes of Tranent, Ormiston, Gladsmuir,
and Pencaitland. Hardly any part of the district is dis¬
tant six miles from limestone; several extensive parishes
rest on a bed of this rock. Marl is also found in different
parts, though, since the use of lime became so general, it
is not raised to a great extent. ^Sandstone or freestone,
which prevails very generally throughout the county, is
wrought, of an excellent quality, near Barra, and in Pen¬
caitland and Tranent. On the west side of the harbour
of Dunbar there is a remarkable promontory, resembling
the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland, composed of a red stone,
apparently a very hard sandstone. It runs out to the Hadding-
north about a hundred yards, and is twenty yards wide, tonshire.
having the sea on each side on the flow of the tide. The
diameter of its columns is from one to two feet, and their
length at low water thirty, inclining a little to the south.
Ironstone has been found in the parishes of Humbie,
Keith, Oldhamstocks, and Tranent; and mineral springs
at several places, some of which were once much resorted
to, but are in little repute at present.
Near the place where the Fasney joins the Whitad¬
der are to be found masses of.granite and other primitive
rocks, which have afforded much scope for geological spe¬
culation. At the termination of the granitic formation a
seam of copper has been discovered. Both in the high
and low districts of the county, the remains of numerous
old encampments may be traced, and also ancient castles
and other places of defence or retreat. Amongst the
Lammermuir Hills circles are frequently to be seen formed
of stones placed on end. It is a curious fact that the
number of these stones is either six or nine. Within
their enclosure vessels have occasionally been found, which
are supposed to be urns containing the ashes of the dead.
The county of Haddington was in 1811. divided into
183 estates, of which twenty-three were above L.2000
Scots of valuation, fifty-two above L.500, and 133 below
L.500. The valuation of the whole is L.168,873. 10s. 8d.
Scots, of which L.1305. 4s. 3d. belonged to corporations,
and LAG,257.3s. to estates held under entail. And in the
same year the real rent of the lands, as returned under the
property-tax act, was L.180,654. 5s. 9d. sterling, and of
the houses, L.6780. 15s. 2d. sterling. Thus the land-rent
of the whole county, the Lammermuir Hills included,
was almost a guinea an acre. Since 1811 the rent of land
has in many instances been much reduced, and in gene¬
ral it has been converted from money into grain, the quan¬
tity of which varies according to the soil, situation, and
other circumstances. At present the highest rent in the
county is about fifteen bushels three pecks of wheat per
acre, calculated at the second fiars, and the lowest is
about four bushels, estimated at the same rate. The no¬
bility who have seats in the county are the Duke of Rox¬
burgh, the Marquis of Tweeddale, the Earls of Hadding¬
ton, Wemyss, Hopetoun, Lauderdale, and Dalhousie ; the
Lords Sinclair, Blantyre, and Elibank. Several other
proprietors have elegant mansions, which tend greatly to
ornament the districts in which they are situate.
The farms are not generally what in some other parts
of Britain would be called large. Their average size may
be from 300 to 500 English acres over the whole of the
arable land, but smaller on the best soils, and larger, per¬
haps, on the inferior. On land of a medium quality, 300
acres are not considered as a small farm. All the farms are
held on leases, commonly for nineteen or twenty-one years,
which do not often contain any covenants that are not
equitable and liberal; except that here, as throughout the
rest of Scotland, the tenant is seldom allowed to sublet
his farm or assign his lease, or even bequeath it by testa¬
ment, the heir-at-law succeeding td the farm as a mat¬
ter of course, though not to the stock or crop upon it.
This arrangement has often been complained of by both
parties, though in few cases has it been set aside by mu¬
tual agreement. The landlord, on the one hand, would
wish to oblige the tenant to leave to his heir-at-law a
stock sufficient for the cultivation of the farm ; and the
tenant, on the other, desires that he should be left at li¬
berty to dispose of his lease, and the capital he may have
invested in the improvement of his farm, without any
other condition than that the possessor shall become
bound to the landlord for the performance of all the obli¬
gations he had himself come under.
Agriculture is the chief employment of the people of
104 HAD
Hadding- this district, which has long been celebrated for yielding
tons iire^ a „rea^er produce and higher rents than perhaps any other
tract of corn land of the same extent in any part of Bri¬
tain ; whilst, at the same time, the farmer and the labourer,
each in his own'condition, have long maintained a high
character for knowledge and industry; the one enjoying
the fair profits of his skill and capital, and the other the
reward of his useful services, in a degree of independence
and comfort which is perhaps far from having been so ge¬
neral in other parts of the island. The principal object
on the low grounds, in many situations almost the exclu¬
sive object, is the growing of corn ; the dryness of the
climate being thought to be less favourable to grazing and
cattle crops. Latterly, however, grazing has been more
generally practised, from the land being exhausted by
frequent croppinsr. The farmers have found this a more
profitable speculation, whilst at the same time it enriches
the soil. The general rule by which the course of crop¬
ping is regulated, is not to take two crops of corn succes¬
sively, but to interpose peas or beans, with cultivated herb¬
age, commonly rye-grass and clover, on the clays; and
turnips, with the same sort of herbage, on dry loams and
sandy soils. On strong clays, a clean fallowonce in four,
six, or eight years, is considered as indispensable. In a six
years’ course on clays, a third of the land is under wheat,
which is almost universally taken after the fallow, and also
after the beans ; the order being fallow, wheat, herbage,
oats, beans, and wheat. On inferior clays a fallow is made
every fourth year, and only a fourth of the land is usual¬
ly under wheat. On the best dry loams wheat, in a few
instances, may be taken ever}' second year, in the order
of turnips, wheat sown in winter and spring, herbage, and
wheat. But this severe course, if it be in any case profit¬
able for a number of years, can only be adopted in situa¬
tions where more manure can be applied than is made
from the produce of the farm itself. As there are no
towns of any size in the county, and few or no consider¬
able manufactories, an extra supply of manure could only
be procured from the lime-works, if it were not that much
of the coast land is plentifully supplied with sea-weed.
This article, as well as lime, is therefore used to a great
and most beneficial extent, and affords a degree of faci¬
lity in the cultivating of corn, without deteriorating the
soil, which does not exist in many other districts. Bone
dust is used to a great extent in raising turnips, and is
considered as the cheapest manure, particularly in inland
districts, on account of the cheapness of the carriage.
Tile draining has now been substituted for that effected
by stones, and it has been found to answer remarkably
well. Spade husbandry, or trenching, has lately been par¬
tially introduced. On well-managed soils, though not of
the first quality, the produce may be about thirty bushels
of wheat, forty-eight of oats, forty of barley, twenty-seven
of beans, and from one and a half to two tons of hay at
one cutting the English acre.
The farm-servants are, with very few exceptions, mar¬
ried ; they live in cottages on the farms, and for a long
time were paid altogether, or nearly so, in produce, each
having a cow kept for him throughout the year. An at¬
tempt, however, has been made to pay the servants with
money alone ; but this is not likely to succeed, the plan
being much opposed by the servants themselves. The oc¬
casional labourers reside in the villages which are scat¬
tered over the county; a much better situation for men
who depend upon several employers, than if they were
set down on particular farms. By this arrangement, which
is common to several other parts of Scotland, the labour¬
ing classes in agriculture possess all the advantages as¬
cribed to cottage farms, without being exposed to those
evils which both theory and experience assure us that a
general system of cottage farms is calculated to produce.
HAD
The breeding of live stock is almost confined to the Haddi
Lammermuir district, which is stocked chiefly with sheep tonsh
of the Linton or black-faced breed. On the low grounds,
it is thought to be more profitable to buy the animals at
a proper age than to rear them ; horses from the west of
Scotland, cattle from the north, and sheep from the hills
of Tweeddale and Roxburghshire. Generally speaking,
cattle are kept only in such numbers as to convert the
straw into manure, getting a few turnips along with it,
and are commonly sold in spring for the pastures of the
south ; and, in summer, the clovers, excepting that part
of them which is wanted for hay, are fed off, as well as
their turnips in winter, with sheep. The dairy is no¬
where an object of consideration beyond the supply of their
own domestic wants.
Haddingtonshire has taken the lead in several import¬
ant rural improvements. Lords Belbaven and Hadding¬
ton, early in the last century, wrote useful treatises on
husban.dry and forests. In 1750 the first turnpike act for
Scotland was obtained for repairing the post-road through
it. Wight, one of its farmers, who, like Arthur Young,
made tours for collecting agricultural information, contri¬
buted much, by his publications, to improve the practices
of this and other parts of Scotland ; and Meigle, an inge¬
nious mechanic, first brought the thrashing-mill into an
effective state. Where water-power cannot be obtained,
the steam-engine has been introduced, and almost totally
superseded the use of horses or windmills. Some defects
may be pointed out in the management of agricultural
matters ; but as improvements are always being introduced,
it is likely that the former will soon disappear. The drill
system, which is had recourse to in sowing wheat, barley,
and oats, is considered as a great improvement, since by
this means the soil is more effectually cleared of its annual
growth of weeds. In the neighbourhood of Dunbar there
is a common consisting of about 4000 acres, which seems
condemned to perpetual sterility. It was formerly claim¬
ed by the burgesses of Dunbar, but the right being disput¬
ed by the neighbouring proprietors, a division took place,
by which arrangement a very small part of it fell to the
share of the royal burgh.
The principal towns in Haddingtonshire are, the county
town of Haddington, Dunbar, and North Berwick. In
these places the principal manufactures are carried on.
See the articles Haddington and Dunbar.
The villages are, Tranent, where there is a market for the
sale of corn in bulk; Prestonpans, noted for its salt-works
and potteries, and formerly for an oyster fishery ; Ormiston,
Gladsmuir, Gifford, Saltoun, Aberlady, Cockenzie, Linton
Bridge, Dirleton, and a few others.
The Bass, Craigleith, Fidra, Lamb, and Idris, are islets
on the coast. The most noted of these is the Bass, a rock
about a mile from the shore, a mile in circuit, and inacces¬
sible on all sides, except the south-west. It has a spring
of fresh water near the summit, affords pasture for a few
sheep, and is frequented by great numbers of solan-geese
and other sea birds. The situation of this small island oc¬
casioned its being at different times a military station, a
state prison, and a place of resort for pirates, down to so
late a period as the Revolution.
Haddingtonshire has produced men of eminence in va¬
rious departments, amongst whom the names of Cockburn,
Fletcher, Dalrymple, and several members of the Mait¬
land or Lauderdale family, are conspicuous. Dunbar, the
poet, was born at Saltoun in the year 1465 ; Burnet, the
historian, was five years rector of the same parish. Blair,
author of the Grave, and John Home, author of the tra¬
gedy of Douglas, were both ministers of the parish of
Athelstaneford. George Heriot, the founder of the noble
hospital in Edinburgh which bears his name, was born in
the parish of Gladsmuir; and here Robertson composed
H A E
Hieln his History of Scotland. John Knox, the reformer, one of
the most extraordinary men whom any age or nation has
■i " produced, was born in the suburbs of Haddington, in 1505.
R The house, the place of his birth, which, with a few acres
of land adjoining, belonged, till lately, to a family of his
name, is still pointed out to strangers. A very conspicuous
monument to the memory of the late Earl of Hopetoun has
been erected on Garleton Hills, solely at the expense of
the tenants on the Hopetoun estate.
There are twenty-four parishes in this county, of which
twenty-three belong to the presbyteries of Haddington and
Dunbar, and one to the presbytery of Dalkeith. These
presbyteries constitute part of the synod of Lothian and
Tweeddale. The poor are for the most part relieved by
voluntary contributions ; and where assessments have been
found necessary, they have seldom exceeded two and a half
per cent, on the real rent, and this is paid in equal moie¬
ties by the landlord and tenant. There is a charitable es¬
tablishment for the education of boys at Preston, which
H A F 105
wras founded by James Schaw, the proprietor of that estate, Ilaemor-
who died in the year 1784 ; and another at Saltoun, for the rhagy
same and other objects, the work of Bishop Burnet, who >1
in 1711 bequeathed 20,000 merks for its support. J
The county of Haddington sends one member to parlia-
ment, and the three burghs of Haddington, Dunbar, and
North Berwick, join with Jedburgh and Lauder in electing
another. In 1755, the population, according to the returns
made to Dr Webster, was 29,709 ; and, in 1811, it w'as
31,164, being an increase of about four and a half per cent,
in a period of fifty-six years. The numbers given by the
writers of Sir John Sinclair’s Statistical Account of Scot¬
land denote a decrease, between 1755 and the years 1790-
1797, of 743, the population at the latter periods being
only 28,966. We annex an abstract of the census taken
in 1811, 1821, and 1831. (See Somerville’s Survey of East
Lothian ; Beauties of Scotland, vol. i.; General Report of
Scotland; Playfair’s Description of Scotland, vol. i.; and
Chalmers’s Caledonia, vol. ii.)
YEAR.
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
5882
6230
6561
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
7407
7934
8080
500
379
388
OCCyPATlONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
3180
3009
2811
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
2355
2947
2627
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
1922
1978
2642
Males.
14,232
16,828
17,397
Females.
16,932
18,299
18,748
Total of
Persons.
31,164
35,127
36,145
HADELN, a district of the kingdom of Hanover, ex¬
tending over 232 square miles of rich marsh land, near the
mouth of the Elbe. It contains two market-towns and
twelve parishes, wuth 15,670 prosperous inhabitants. It is
chiefly remarkable for the privileges it enjoys of a very
slight fixed taxation, and a freedom from the quartering of
troops, which have been granted on account of the great
expenditure incurred by erecting and keeping up dikes, to
prevent the irruption of the sea. It produces abundant
crops of corn, beans, rapeseed, flax, and garden fruits, and
fattens many oxen. The chief town is Altenbruck, which
contains 2450 inhabitants.
HADERSLEBEN, a city of Denmark, the capital of
the bailiwick of the same name, in the province of Sles-
wick. The harbour has within a few years been nearly
choked up, and cargoes are discharged by boats. It con¬
tains 400 houses, with about 3600 inhabitants. Long. 9.
25. E. Lat. 55. 15. N.
HADES, in the Scriptures, is used in a variety of senses.
Sometimes it signifies the invisible regions of the dead,
sometimes the place of the damned, and sometimes the
grave. In the Greek authors it is in general used to sig¬
nify the regions of the dead.
HADID A, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates, consist¬
ing of 300 houses, surrounded with fruit gardens. It is
about thirty miles south-east of Anna.
HADIE, a town of Yemen, in Arabia, situated on an
eminence, sixteen miles east of Beit El Fakieh.
HADLEIGH, a market-towm of the county of Suffolk,
in the hundred of Cosford, sixty-five miles from London.
It was formerly a borough and a trading place, but it has
lost its charter; and the trade, which was chiefly in spin¬
ning, has given way to machinery. It has a market, which
is held on Monday. The population amounted in 1801 to
2332, in 1811 to 2592, in 1821 to 2929, and in 1831 to
3425.
HAERLEBEKE, a town of the Netherlands, in the
von. XI.
province of West Flanders, and circle of Courtray. It
stands on the right bank of the Lys, and on the chaussee
from Cambray to Ghent. It contains 3280 inhabitants.
HiEMORRHAGY (compounded of od/Aa, blood, and
{nyiufu, or fasu, to break, rend, ox force asunder),
in medicine, a flux of blood at any part of the body, arising
either from a rupture of the vessels, as when they are too
full or too much pressed, or from an erosion of the same, as
when the blood is too sharp and corrosive. The haemor-
rhagy, properly speaking, as understood by the Greeks, w as
only a flux of blood at the nose ; but the moderns extend
the name to any kind of bloody flux, whether from the
nose, mouth, lungs, stomach, intestines, fundament, matrix,
or any other part.
HiEMORRHOIDAL, an appellation given by anato¬
mists to the arteries and veins running to the intestinum
rectum.
HAEMORRHOIDS, or Piles, an haemorrhage or issue
of blood from the haemorrhoidal vessels.
HiEMUS, Emineii Dag, or Balcan, a lofty chain of
mountains separating Thrace from Moesia, and running from
the sources of the Hebrus towards the east of the Black Sea.
From its summit, it was said, the Euxine, the Adriatic, the
Danube, and the Alps, could be seen at one view ; and it
was with the intention of beholding this magnificent pros¬
pect that Philip king of Macedon ascended the mountain.
(Liv. xl. 21 ; Polyb. xxxiv. 10, 15; Strab. vii. 313.)
H^ERETICO Comburendo, a wTit which anciently lay
against an heretic, who, having once been convicted of
heresy by his bishop, and having abjured it, but afterwards
falling into it again, or into some other, is thereupon com¬
mitted to the secular power.
HAFAR, a considerable river-canal in the province of
Irak Arabi. It proceeds from the river Karoon, which,
after its confluence with the Abzal at Bandikeel, and be¬
fore its separation, contains a greater body of waters than
either the Tigris or the Euphrates. On its arrival at
o
10« HAG H A I
Hagarens Sabla, a ruined village, thirty miles east of Bassora, it dis-
I! unites, and the largest division, taking the name of Ha-
Hagiogra- farj after a course of fourteen or fifteen miles, again sepa-
, rates. The greater proportion of the waters continue
their course in an oblique direction to the east; but the
name of Hafar is still given to a canal which flows west¬
ward, and joins the Euphrates by an artificial cut three
miles in length. This canal is of sufficient depth to ad¬
mit vessels of any size to pass at high water
HAGARENS, the descendants of Ishmael. They were
also called Ishmaelites and Saracens, and lastly by the ge¬
neral name of Arabians. As to the Hagarens, they dwelt
in Arabia Felix, according to Pliny. Strabo joins them
with the Nabathaeans, and Chavlotasans, whose habitation
was rather in Arabia Deserta. But others think that their
capital was Petra, otherwise Agra, and consequently that
they should be placed in Arabia Petraea. The author of
the eighty-third psalm joins them with the Moabites ; and
in the Chronicles (1 Chron. v. 10), it is said that the sons of
Reuben, in the time of Saul, made war against the Haga¬
rens, and became masters of their country eastward of the
mountains of Gilead. This therefore was the true and an¬
cient country of the Hagarens. When Trajan entered
Arabia, he besieged the capital of the Hagarens, but did
not succeed in taking it. The sons of Hagar valued them¬
selves of old upon their wisdom, as appears by Baruch
HAGEN, a town of Prussia, the capital of a circle of
the same name in the Arensberg division of the province
of Westphalia. It contains 329 houses, and 2540 inhabi¬
tants, who are employed in making hats, hosiery, linen
goods, and small wares.
HA GENA U, a city of the department of the Lower
Rhine, in the arrondissement of Strasbourg, in France. It
is situated on the navigable river Motter, which near it
joins the Rhine. It is fortified, but not strongly, and is
well built. It contains 900 houses and 7694 inhabitants.
There are many small manufactures carried on, and it is a
great corn market. Long. 7. 42. E. Lat. 48. 48. N.
HAGGAI, the tenth of the small prophets, was supposed
to have been born at Babylon in the year of the world
3457, and to have returned thence with Zerubbabel. It
was this prophet who by the command of God (Ezra, v. 1,
2, &c.) exhorted the Jews, after their return from the cap¬
tivity, to finish the rebuilding of the temple, which they
had intermitted for fourteen years. His remonstrances had
the desired effect; and to encourage them to proceed in the
work, he assured them from God, that the glory of this lat¬
ter house should be greater than the glory of the former ;
which was accordingly fulfilled when Christ honoured it
with his presence. We know nothing certain of Haggai’s
death. The Jews pretend that he died in the last year
of the reign of Darius, at the same time with the prophets
Zechariah and Malachi, and that thereupon the spirit of
prophecy ceased amongst the children of Israel. Epipha-
nius affirms that he was buried at Jerusalem amongst the
priests. The Greeks keep his festival on the 16th of De¬
cember, and the Latins on the 4th of July.
HAGIOGRAPHA, a name given to part of the books
of Scripture, called by the Jews Ketuvim. The word is
compounded of uyiog, holy, and ygoupu, I write. The name
is very ancient. St Jerome makes frequent mention of it,
and, before him, St Epiphanius called these books simply
Tgapzia. I he Jews divide the sacred writings into three
classes: the Law, which comprehends the five books of
Moses ; the Prophets, which they call Neviim ; and the
Ketuvim, D'DinD, called by the Greeks Hagiographa, com¬
prehending the books of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel,
Ezra, together with the books of Nehemiah, Chronicles,
Canticles, Ruth, the Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Es¬
ther. The Jews sometimes call the books the Writings,
by way of eminence, as being written by immediate inspi¬
ration of the Holy Spirit. This is stated by Kimchi in %
his preface to the Psalms, Maimonides in More Nevoch II
and Elias Levita in his Thisbi, under the word ana. ThevHain'!
distinguish the hagiographers, however, from the prophets,
in this, that the authors of the former did not receive the
matters contained in them by the way called prophecy
which consists in dreams, visions, whispers, ecstacies and
the like, but by the immediate inspiration and direction
of the Spirit.
HAGUE, a large city, formerly denominated a village,
in the province of Holland, in the Netherlands, about ten
miles from Leyden, and thirty from Amsterdam, and three
miles from the sea-shore. It is the chief seat of govern¬
ment, the residence of the king, and the place of assem¬
bly for the states-general and the several boards of the
executive administration. It is situated amono-st rich
meadows, intersected by canals, used both as roads and
for the conveyance of heavy goods. The streets are
straight, broad, and clean, the public buildings magnificent,
and the private houses commodious and handsome. It
has a few squares, and a beautiful park joined to the city,
with groves of trees and excellent promenades. Within
the town the canals have lime trees on their banks. The
royal palace is a handsome old building, and in the stadt-
house there is a very fine collection of paintings. It con¬
tains fourteen churches, two synagogues, a poor-house
and orphan-house, and other institutions of beneficence,
with about (in 1831) 56,105 inhabitants. It is not a place
of trade beyond the preparation of gold and silver ar¬
ticles and jewellery, and of such other articles as the
luxury of a capital requires. Long. 4. 11. 20 E Lat
52. 3. 5. N. '
HAIL, in Meteorology, a meteor generally defined fro¬
zen rain, but differing from it in this, that the hailstones
are not formed of single pieces of ice, but of many little
spherules agglutinated together. Neither are these sphe¬
rules all of the same consistence; some of them being
hard and solid like perfect ice, others soft, and mostly
like snow hardened by a severe frost. Sometimes the
hailstone has a kind of core of this soft matter; but more
frequently the core is solid and hard, whilst the outside
is formed of a softer matter. Hailstones assume various
figures, being sometimes round, sometimes pyramidal,
crenated, angular, thin, and flat, and sometimes stellated,
with six radii like the small crystals of snow. See Me¬
teorology.
HAILSHAM, a market-town of the county of Sussex,
in the rape of Pevensey, and hundred of Dill, fifty-seven
miles from London, with a small market, which is held on
Wednesday. The population amounted in 1801 to 897,
in 1811 to 1029, in 1821 to 1278, and in 1831 to 1445.
HAINAN, or Hainam, a large island in the China
Sea, situated at the southern extremity of that empire,
and subject to its authority. It lies between the eigh¬
teenth and twentieth degrees of north latitude, and is
about 196 miles in length by seventy in average breadth.
Although placed so near the tract of ships bound to Can¬
ton, very few particulars respecting this island are known.
On the south coast are several fine bays, affording good
anchorage and shelter from the north-east monsoon ; these
have been occasionally visited by ships which have met
with disasters in the China Seas. Captain Krusenstern
mentions that the Ladrone pirates who infest the China
Seas have obtained possession of this island.
HAINBURG, a city of Austria, on the river Danube.
It was burnt down in 1827, but has been since rebuilt. It
is the seat of the greatest imperial tobacco and snuff ma¬
nufactory in the empire. The town-house is remarkable
for a Roman altar and a Roman tower, wlfich commands a
vast and fine prospect over the surrounding country. The
city now contains 2700 inhabitants.
H A I
H A I 107
r. HAIR, small filaments issuing out of the pores of the
skins of animals, and serving most of them as a tegument
or covering.
Though the external surface of the body is the natural
place of hairs, we have instances of these being found also
on the internal surface. Amatus Lusitanus mentions a
person who had hair upon his tongue. Pliny and Vale¬
rius Maximus assure us that the heart of Aristomenes the
Messenian was hairy. Cselius Rhodiginus relates the
same of Hermogenes the rhetorician; and Plutarch, of
Leonidas the Spartan. Hippocrates is of opinion, that the
glandular parts are the most subject to hair ; but bundles
of hair have been found in the muscular parts of beef, and
in such parts of the human body as are equally firm.
By the Jews the hair was wTorn naturally long, just as
it grew; but the priests had theirs cut every fortnight
whilst they were in waiting at the temple ; they made
use of no razors, however, but of scissors only. The Na-
zarites, whilst their vow continued, were forbidden to
touch their heads with a razor. The hair of both Jewish
and Grecian women engaged a principal share of their at¬
tention, and the Roman ladies seem to have been no less
curious respecting theirs. They generally wore it long,
and dressed it in a variety of ways, bedecking it with gold,
silver, pearls, and other ornaments. On the contrary, the
men amongst the Greeks and Romans, and amongst the
Jews at a later period, wore their hair short, as may be
collected from books, medals, statues, and other monu¬
ments or remains. This formed a principal distinction in
dress between the sexes. Amongst the Greeks, both
sexes, a few days before marriage, cut off and consecrated
their hair as an offering to their favourite deities. It was
also customary amongst them to hang the hair of the dead
on the doors of their houses previous to interment. They
likewise, when mourning for their deceased relations or
friends, tore, cut off, and sometimes shaved their hair,
which they laid upon the corpse, or threw into the pile,
to be consumed along with the body. The ancients ima¬
gined that no person could die till a lock of hair was cut
off; and this act they supposed was, performed by the
invisible hand of death, or some other messenger of the
gods. The hair, thus cut off, it was supposed, conse¬
crated the person to the infernal deities, under whose ju¬
risdiction the dead were supposed to be placed. It was a
sort of first fruits, which sanctified the whole. Whatever
was the fashion with respect to the hair in the Grecian
states, slaves were forbidden to imitate the freemen. The
hair of the slaves was always cut in a particular manner,
which they no longer retained after they procured their
freedom.
It was esteemed a distinguished honour amongst the
ancient Gauls to have long hair, and hence came the ap¬
pellation Gallia Comata. For this reason Julius Caesar,
upon subduing the Gauls, made them cut off their hair as
a token of submission. It was with a view to this, that
those who afterwards quitted the world to go and live in
cloisters had their hair shaven off, to show that they bade
adieu to all earthly ornaments, and made a vow of perpe¬
tual subjection to their superiors.
Gregory of Tours assures us, that in the royal family
of France it was a long time the peculiar mark and privi¬
lege of kings and princes of the blood to wear long hair,
artfully dressed and curled, every body else being obliged
to be polled, or cut round, in token of inferiority and obe¬
dience. Some writers assure us, that there were differ¬
ent cuts for all the different qualities and conditions ; from
the prince who wore it at full length, to the slave or vil¬
lein who was quite cropt. To cut off the hair of a son of
Irance, under the first race of kings, was to declare him
excluded from the right of succeeding to the crown, and
reduced to the condition of a subject.
In the eighth century it was the custom of people of
quality to have their children’s hair cut the first time by
persons they had a particular honour and esteem for, and
who, in virtue of this ceremony, were reputed as a sort
of spiritual parents or godfathers. This practice appears
to have been more ancient, inasmuch as we read that
Constantine sent to the pope the hair of his son Hera-
clius, as a token that he desired him to be his adoptive
father.
The parade of long hair became still more and more
obnoxious in the progress of Christianity, as something
utterly inconsistent with the profession of persons who
bore the cross. Hence numerous injunctions and canons
to the contrary were published. Pope Anicetus is com¬
monly supposed to have been the first who forbade the
clergy to wear long hair; but the prohibition is of older
standing in the churches of the East, and the letter in
which the decree in question is written is of a much later
date than this pope. The clerical tonsure is, according to
Isidore, of apostolical institution.
Long hair was anciently held so odious, that there is a
canon still extant of the year 1096, importing, that such
as wore long hair should be excluded from church whilst
living, and not be prayed for when dead. There is a fu¬
rious declamation of Luitprand against the Emperor Pho-
cas, for wearing long hair, after the manner of the empe¬
rors of the East; excepting Theophilas, who being bald,
enjoined all his subjects to shave their heads.
The French historians and antiquaries have been very
exact in recording the capillary honours of their several
kings. Charlemagne wore his hair very short, his son
shorter, Charles the Bald had none at all. Under Hugh
Capet it began to appear again ; but this the ecclesiastics
took in dudgeon, and excommunicated all who let their
hair grow. Peter Lombard expostulated so warmly with
Charles the Young on the subject, that the latter cut off
his hair, and his successors for some generations wore it
very short. A professor of Utrecht, in 1650, wrote ex¬
pressly on the question, whether it be lawful for men to
wear long hair ; and concluded in favour of the negative.
Another divine, named Reves, who had written in sup¬
port of the affirmative, replied to him.
The ancient Britons were extremely proud of the length
and beauty of their hair, and they were at much pains in
dressing and adorning their heads. Some of them car¬
ried their fondness for and admiration of their hair to an
extravagant height. It is said to have been the last and
most earnest request of a young warrior, who had been
taken prisoner and condemned to be beheaded, that no
slave might be permitted to touch his hair, which was
remarkably long and beautiful, and that it might not be
stained with his blood. Not contented with the natural
colour of their hair, which was commonly fair or yellow,
they made use of certain washes to render it still brighter.
One of these washes was a composition of lime, the ashes
of certain vegetables, and tallow. They also employed
various arts to make the hair of their heads grow thick
and long; which last was not only esteemed a great
beauty, but was considered as a mark of dignity and no¬
ble birth. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, is described by
Dio as having long hair, flowing over her shoulders, and
reaching down below the middle of her back. The Bri¬
tons shaved all their beards except their upper lips; the
hair of which they, as well as the Gauls, allowed to grow
to a very inconvenient length.
In after times the Anglo-Saxons and Danes also con¬
sidered fine hair as one of the greatest beauties and or¬
naments of their persons, and were at no small pains in
dressing it to advantage. Young ladies before marriage
wore their hair uncovered and untied, flowing in ringlets
over their shoulders; but as soon as they were married
Hair.
108 H A I
Hair, they cut it shorter, tied it up, and put on a head-dress of
some kind or other, according to the prevailing fashion.
To have the hair entirely cut off was so great a disgrace,
that it formed one of the most severe punishments inflict¬
ed on those women who had been guilty of adultery. The
Danish soldiers who were quartered upon the English, in
the reigns of Edgar the Peaceable and of Ethelred the
Unready, were the beaux of those times, and were parti¬
cularly attentive to the dressing of the hair, which they
combed at least once every day, and thereby captivated
the affections of the English ladies. The clergy, both
secular and regular, were obliged to shave the crowns
of their heads, and keep their hair short, which distin¬
guished them from the laity; and several canons were
made against their concealing their tonsure, or allowing
their hair to grow long. The shape of this clerical ton-
sure was the subject of long and violent debates between
the English clergy on the one hand, and those of the
Scots and Piets on the other; amongst the former it was
circular, amongst the latter only semicircular. It appears,
indeed, that long flowing hair was universally esteemed a
great ornament; and the tonsure of the clergy was con¬
sidered as an act of mortification and self-denial, which
many of them submitted to with reluctance, and endea¬
voured as much as possible to conceal. Some of them
who affected the reputation of superior sanctity inveighed
with great bitterness against the long hair of the laity ;
and laboured earnestly to persuade them to cut it short,
in imitation of the clergy. Thus the famous St Wulstan,
bishop of Worcester, is said to have declaimed with great
vehemence against luxury of all kinds, but chiefly against
long hair as the most criminal and most universal. “ The
English,” says William of Malmsbury in his life of St Wul¬
stan, “ were very vicious in their manners, and plunged in
luxury, through the long peace which they had enjoyed
in the reign of Edward the Confessor. The holy prelate
Wulstan reproved the wicked of all ranks with great bold¬
ness ; but he rebuked those with the greatest severity who
were proud of their long hair. When any of those vain
people bowed their heads before him to receive his bless¬
ing, before he gave it, he cut a lock of their hair with
a little sharp knife, which he carried about him for
that purpose; and commanded them, by way of penance
for their sins, to cut all the rest of their hair in the same
manner. If any of them refused to comply with this
command, he denounced the most dreadful judgments
upon them, reproached them for their effeminacy, and
foretold, that as they imitated women in the length of
their hair, they would imitate them in their cowardice
when their country was invaded, which was accomplished
at the landing of the Normans.”
Phis continued long to be a topic of declamation amongst
the clergy, who even represented it as one of the greatest
crimes, and most certain marks of reprobation. Anselm,
archbishop of Canterbury, went so far as to pronounce the
sentence of excommunication against all who wore long
hair ; and for this pious zeal he was very much commend¬
ed. Serlo, a Norman bishop, acquired great honour by a
sermon which he preached before Henry I. in the year
1104, against long and curled hair, with which the king
and all his courtiers were so much affected that they con¬
sented to resign their flowing ringlets, of which they had
been so vain. The prudent prelate gave them no time
to change their minds, but immediately pulled a pair of
shears out of his sleeve, and performed the operation
with his own hand. Another incident happened about
twenty-five years thereafter, which gave a temporary
check to the prevailing fondness for long hair. It is thus
related by a contemporary historian : “ An event hap¬
pened in the year 1129, which seemed very wonderful to
our young gallants ; who, forgetting that they were men,
H A J
had transformed themselves into women by the length of Hair
their hair. A certain knight, who was very proud of II
his long luxuriant hair, dreamed that a person suffocated
him with its curls. As soon as he awoke from his sleep,
he cut his hair to a decent length. The report of this
spread over all England, and almost all the knights redu¬
ced their hair to the proper standard. But this reforma¬
tion was not of long continuance; for in less than a year
all who wished to appear fashionable returned to their
former wickedness, and contended with the ladies in length
of hair. Those to whom nature had denied that orna¬
ment supplied the defect by art.”
Hair, or Down, of plants, a general term expressive of
all the hairy and glandular appearances on the surface of
plants, to which these are supposed by naturalists to serve
the double purpose of defensive weapons and vessels of se¬
cretion.
These hairs are minute threads of greater or less length
and solidity; some of them being visible to the naked eye,
whilst others are rendered so only by the help of glasses.
Examined by a microscope, almost all the parts of plants,
particularly the young stalks or stems, appear covered with
hair s.
Hairs on the surface of plants present themselves under
various forms ; in the leguminous plants, they are general¬
ly cylindric ; in the mallow tribe, they terminate in a point;
in agrimony, they are shaped like a fish-hook; in nettle,
they are awl-shaped and jointed ; and in some compound
flowers wdth hollow or funnel-shaped florets, they termi¬
nate in two crooked points.
Probable as some experiments have rendered it, that the
hairs on the surface of plants contribute to some organical
secretion, their principal use seems to be to preserve the
parts in which they are lodged from the effect of violent
friction, from winds, from extremes of heat and cold, and
such like external injuries.
M. Guettard, who, from the form, situation, and other
circumstances of the hairy and glandular appearances on
the surface of plants, established a botanical method, has
demonstrated, that these appearances are generally con¬
stant and uniform in all the plants of the same genus. The
same uniformity seems likewise to characterise all the dif¬
ferent genera of the same natural order.
The different sorts of hairs which form the down upon
the surface of plants were imperfectly distinguished by Grew
in 1682, and by Malpighi in 1686. M. Guettard was the
first who examined the subject both as a botanist and a phi¬
losopher. His observations were published in 1747.
HAJYGUNGE, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Bengal, pleasantly situated on the south bank of the
Ganges, which is here a mile broad, and in the rainy sea¬
son runs with great rapidity. It is twenty-nine miles south-
west of Dacca. Long. 89. 53. E. Lat. 23. 31. N. The
name Hajji is the Arabic for pilgrim, and is prefixed to a
number of towns in Mahommedan countries.
HAJYKAN, a large district within the Afghan territo¬
ries, situated along the western bank of the Indus, between
the 29th and 31st degrees of north latitude. It is chiefly
a stripe of land, bounded by the Indus on the east, and a
ridge of mountains on the west. Under a regular govern¬
ment it might be rendered fertile and productive ; but it is
chiefly inhabited by predatory tribes of Afghans and Bal-
voches, who neglect agriculture. The country has been
imperfectly explored, and its limits have never been very
distinctly defined. The great majority of the inhabitants
are of the Soonee sect of Mahommedans.
HAJYPOOR, a district of Hindustan, in the province
of Bahar, situated principally between the 25th and 26th
degrees of north latitude. It is fertile and well cultivated,
and produces a quantity of opium and saltpetre} the
greater part of the company’s investment being manufac-
HAL
HAL
109
H e
Ha r-
st t.
tured in this country, and in the adjacent territory of Sarun.
The farmers breed a number of horses ; and at Hajypoor,
or Hurryhurchitter, an annual fair is held for the sale of
these animals, the breed of which has been much improv¬
ed by the English. The principal towns are, Hajypoor,
Singhea, and Mowah. Hajypoor is the principal town,
situated on the north-east side of the Ganges, at its con¬
fluence with the Gunduck, nearly opposite to Patna. It
was founded by Hias Hajy, the second independent Mahom-
medan king of Bengal. In 1574 it was taken by the troops
of the Emperor Akbar, after a gallant resistance. Long.
85. 21. E. Eat. 25. 41. N. Hajypoor is also the name of
a small town in the Sikk territories, in the province of La¬
hore, situated on the north side of the Beyah river, which
is here a hundred yards broad. Sixty-live miles south-east
from Lahore. Long. 74. 51. E. Lat. 26. 20. N.
HAKE, the English name of a fish, common in the Eng¬
lish and some other seas, and called by authors the mer-
lucius, or lucius marinus. This fish was used of old dried
and salted. Hence the proverb in Kent, As dry as a hake.
HAKLUYT, Richard, a celebrated naval historian,
descended from an ancient family at Eton or Yetton, in
Herefordshire, is supposed to have been born in London
about the year 1553. He was educated at Westminster
School; and thence, in 1570, he removed to Christ Church
College, Oxford, where he applied himself particularly to
the study of cosmography, and read public lectures in that
science. When Sir Edward Stafford w^as sent ambassador
to France in 1583, Mr Hakluyt attended him, probably in
the capacity of chaplain. He was at this time master of
arts and professor of divinity. In 1585 he obtained the
royal mandate for the next vacant prebend of Bristol, to
which preferment he succeeded during his residence at
Paris. Constantly attentive to his favourite cosmographi-
cal inquiries, Hakluyt, in searching the French libraries,
found a valuable manuscript history of Florida, which had
been discovered about twenty years before by Captain Lou-
doniere and others; and this he caused to be published in
the French language, at his own expense. Soon afterwards
he revised and republished Peter Martyr’s book De Orbe
Novo, with marginal notes, a commodious index, and a map
of New England and America. After five years residence
in France, Hakluyt returned to England in 1588 ; and in
1605 he was appointed prebendary of Westminster, which,
with the rectory of Wetheringset in the county of Suffolk,
seems to have been the summit of his preferment. He
died in 1616, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Hakluyt was an indefatigable and faithful historian, and
his various collections are equally curious, instructive, and
interesting. His works are, 1. A collection of Voyages
and Discoveries, in one small volume; 2. History of Flo¬
rida ; 3. The principal Navigations, Voyages, and Discove¬
ries of the English Nation, made by Sea or over Land to
the farthest distant Quarters of the Earth, at any time
within the compass of these 1500 years, in three vols. folio ;
4. The Discoveries of the World, from the first Original to
the year 1555, w'ritten in the Portugal tongue by Antonio
Galvano, corrected, much amended, and translated into
English, by Richard Hakluyt; 5. Virginia richly valued,
by the Description of the Main Land of Florida, her next
neighbour, written by a Portugal gentleman of Elvas, and
translated by Richard Hakluyt. Besides these, he left seve¬
ral manuscripts, which were printed in Purchas’s collection.
HAL, or Halle, a city of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of South Brabant. It is situated on the river Senne,
ten miles from Brussels; and has extensive breweries, dis¬
tilleries, salt-refineries, paper-mills, and tanneries, with 700
houses, and 4612 inhabitants.
11ALBERSTADT, a city, the capital of a circle of the
same name, of the province of Saxony, in Prussia, and si¬
tuated on the river Plolzemmte. It is wulled, and contains
nine churches, six hospitals, 1861 houses, and 14,670 inha¬
bitants, with some establishments for education. It was
formerly a manufacturing place, but has for some years ,
been gradually on the decline. Long. 10. 58.11. E. Lat. 51.
53. 55. N.
HALBERT, or Halbard, in war, a well-known wea¬
pon, formerly carried by the serjeants of foot and dragoons.
It was a sort of spear, the shaft of which was about five
feet long, and made of ash or other wood. Its head was
armed with a steel point, not unlike the point of a two-
edged sword. Besides this sharp point, which was in a
line with the shaft, there was a cross piece of steel, flat,
and pointed at both ends, but generally with a cutting
edge at one extremity, and a bent sharp point at the other;
so that it served equally to cut down or to push withal.
It was also useful in determining the ground between the
ranks, and adjusting the files of a battalion. The word is
formed from the German hal, hall, and bard, an hatchet.
Vossius derives it from the German hallebaert, a compound
of hel, clarus, splendens, and baert, axe. The halbert was
anciently a common weapon in the army, where there were
companies of halberdiers. It is said to have been used by
the Amazons, and afterwards by the Rhaetians and Vinde-
licians about the year 570. It was called the Danish axe,
because the Danes carried a halbert on the left shoulder.
From the Danes it passed to the Scotch, from the Scotch
to the English Saxons, and from them to the French.
HALCYON, the ancient name of the alcedo or king’s
fisher.
Halcyon Days, in Antiquity, a name given to seven
days before and as many after the winter solstice; be¬
cause, at this season, the halcyon, invited by the calmness
of the weather, laid its eggs in nests built in the rocks,
close by the brink of the sea ; and hence halcyon days is a
phrase expressive of times of peace and tranquillity.
HALDE, John Baptist du, was born at Paris on the
1st of February 1674, and having entered into the society
of Jesus, he was at length appointed to succeed Father
Legobien, who had been intrusted with the duty of col¬
lecting and arranging the letters which they received from
different quarters of the globe. He was also for some
time secretary to the famous Father Letellier, confessor
to the king of France. Towards the close of his life he
was attacked with acute spasms, which he endured with
exemplary resignation, and died on the 18th of August
1743. Duhalde is represented as a man,of mild and ami¬
able character, and as remarkable alike for his unaffected
piety and unwearied industry. He was the author of
some Latin poems, which do not evince any superior de¬
gree of excellence ; but the productions for which he is
principally distinguished are, 1. Lettres Edifiantes et Cu-
rieuses ecrites des Missions Etrangeres, which he edited
with great ability from the ninth to the twenty-sixth vo¬
lume inclusively, and which have been translated into Eng¬
lish and German; 2. Description Geographique, Histo-
rique, Chronologique, Politique, et Physique, de 1’Empire
de la Chine et de la Tartaric Chinoise, Paris, 1735, in four
volumes large folio, with figures and an atlas by D’Anville.
This work, the first in which China is described with so
much exactness and detail, is at the same time a beautiful
monument of French typography. The description con¬
tained in this work and in the Lettres Edifiantes has fur¬
nished materials to almost all the modern writers who
have treated of that vast empire, and has contributed ma¬
terially to advance the science of geography. (a.)
H ALDUBARRY, a town of Hindustan, in the district
of Purneah, Bengal, situated on the east bank of the Ma-
hanuddy river, fifty-five miles north-east from Purneah.
Long. 87. 59. E. Lat. 26. 20. N.
HALE, Sir Matthew, the lord chief justice of the
King’s Bench in the reign of Charles II., was the son of
Halbert
II
Hale.
110 HAL
Hale. Robert Hale, Esq. a barrister of Lincoln’s Inn, and was
born in 1609. He was educated at Oxford, where he made
considerable progress in learning ; but he was afterwards
diverted from his studies by the levities of youth. From
these, however, he was recalled by Mr John Glanvill, ser¬
jeant-at-law ; and having applied to the study of the law,
he entered himself of Lincoln’s Inn. Noy the attorney-
general took early notice of him, and directed him in his
studies. Selden also distinguished him; and it was this
acquaintance which first led Hale to a more enlarged pur¬
suit of learning, having before confined his studies to his
own profession. During the civil wars he behaved so well
as to gain the esteem of both parties. Fie was employed in
practice by all the king’s party ; and he was also appointed
by the parliament as one of the commissioners to treat with
the king. The murder of King Charles gave him very sen¬
sible regret. However, he took the engagement, and vras
appointed, with several others, to consider of the reforma¬
tion of the law. In 1653 he was by writ made serjeant-
at-law, and soon afterwards appointed one of the justices
of the Common Pleas. Upon the death of Oliver Crom¬
well, he refused to accept of the new commission offered
him by Richard, his successor. He was returned as one of
the knights of Gloucestershire in the parliament which
recalled Charles II. Soon afterwards he was made lord
chief baron of the Exchequer ; but he declined the honour
of knighthood, till Lord Chancellor Hyde, sending for him
upon business when the king was at his house, told his
majesty that there was his modest chief baron ; upon
which he was unexpectedly knighted. He was one of the
principal judges who sat in Clifford’s Inn about settling
the difference between landlord and tenant, after the fire
of London; in which capacity he behaved to the satisfac¬
tion of all parties concerned. As chief baron he likewise
acted with inflexible integrity. A peer of the highest rank
went once upon a time to his chamber, and told him, that
having a suit in law to be tried before him, he was then to
acquaint him with it, that he might the better understand
it when it should come to be tried in court. Upon this the
lord chief baron interrupted him, and said that his grace
(for he was a duke) did not deal fairly to come to his cham¬
bers about such affairs, for he never received information
of such causes but in open court, where both parties were
to be heard alike. His grace then went away not a
little dissatisfied, and complained of it to the king as a
rudeness which was not to be endured; but his majesty
bid him content himself that he was not worse used, add¬
ing, that he verily believed Hale would have used him no
better if he had gone to solicit him in any of his own
causes. Another remarkable incident happened in one of
his circuits. A gentleman who had a tidal at the assizes
had sent him a buck for his table. When Judge Hale
heard his name, he asked if he was not the same person
who had sent him the venison ; and being answered in
the affirmative, told him that he could not suffer the trial
to go on till he had paid him for his buck. The gentle¬
man answered, that he never sold his venison, and that
he had done nothing to him which he did not do to every
judge who had gone that circuit; which was confirmed
by several gentlemen present. The lord chief baron,
however, would not suffer the trial to proceed till he had
paid for the present, upon which the gentleman withdrew
the record. This upright judge was in 1671 advanced to
be lord chief justice of the King’s Bench ; but about
four years after this promotion his health declined, and
he resigned his high office in February 1676, and died in
December following. This excellent man, who was an
ornament to the bench, to his country, and to human na¬
ture, was the author of, 1. An Essay touching the Gravi¬
tation or Non-Gravitation of Fluid Bodies; 2. Difficiles
Nuga, or Observations on the Torricellian Experiment;
HAL
3. Observations on the Principles of Natural Motion ; 4. Hales
Contemplations Moral and Divine ; 5. An English Trans- S,^Y>
lation of Nepos’s Life of Pomponius Atticus ; and, 6. The
Primitive Origination of Mankind. At the time of his de¬
cease he also left other works, which were afterwards
published, viz. 1. Judgment of the Nature of True Reli¬
gion ; 2. Several Tracts, including a Discourse of Reli¬
gion, under three heads; 3. A Letter to his Children;
4. A Letter to one of his Sons on his recovery from the
small-pox ; 5. A Discourse of the Knowledge of God and
of Ourselves, first, by the Light of Nature, and second¬
ly, by the Sacred Scriptures. All these, under the title
of Hale’s Moral and Religious Works, were published by
Thirlwall in 1805, in two volumes 8vo, with a life of the
author by Bishop Burnet. Of his Law Tracts one only ap¬
peared in his lifetime, viz. London Liberty, or an argu¬
ment of Law and Reason, 1650, reprinted in 1682. Af ter
his death were published, 1. Pleas of the Crown, or a Me¬
thodical. Summary, 1678, in 8vo, continued by Jacob, and
reprinted in 1716 ; 2. Treatise on the enrolling and regis¬
tering of all Conveyances of Land, 1694, in 4to, reprint¬
ed with additions in 1756 ; 3. Tractatus de successionibus
apud Anglos, or a Treatise on Hereditary Descents, 1700
and 1735, in 8vo ; 4. A Treatise on the original Institu¬
tion of Parliaments, 1707, republished by Hargrave in
1796, 4to ; 5. Analysis of the Law, without date ; 6. His¬
tory of the Common Law of England, in twelve chapters,
1713, in 8vo; 7. Historia Placitorum Cor once, or History
of the Pleas of the Crown, 1739, in two volumes folio,
edited by Emelyn. There are a few other tracts and opi¬
nions of his, which have been published by Hargrave and
succeeding writers on law in their collections. Sir Mat¬
thew Hale, by his will, bequeathed to the society of Lin¬
coln’s Inn his collection of manuscripts, which he had
been nearly forty years in making, and on which he had
spared neither labour nor expense.
HALES, Stephen, a celebrated divine and philoso¬
pher, was born in the year 1677. He was the sixth son of
Thomas Hales, the eldest son of Sir Robert Hales, creat¬
ed a baronet by King Charles II., and Mary, the heiress of
Richard Langley of Abbotswood in Hertfordshire. In
1696 he was entered as a pensioner at Bennet College,
Cambridge, was admitted a fellow in 1703, and became ba¬
chelor of divinity in 1711. Fie soon discovered a genius for
natural philosophy ; but botany was his first study; and
he used frequently to make excursions among Gogmagog
Hills, in company with Dr Stukely, with a view of prose¬
cuting that study. In these expeditions he likewise col¬
lected fossils and insects, having contrived a curious in¬
strument for catching such of the latter as had wings. In
conjunction with this friend he also applied himself to the
study of anatomy, and invented a curious method of ob¬
taining a representation of the lungs in lead. They next
applied themselves to the study of chemistry ; but in this
science they did not make any remarkable discoveries. In
the study of astronomy Mr Hales was equally assiduous.
Having made himself acquainted with the New'tonian sys¬
tem, he contrived a machine for showing the phenomena,
on much the same principles with that afterwards con¬
structed by Rowley, and, from the name of his patron,
called an Orrery.
About the year 1710 he was presented to the perpetual
cure of Teddington, near Twickenham, in Middlesex; and
he afterwards accepted the living of Porlock in Somerset¬
shire, which vacated his fellowship in the college, and
which he exchanged for the living of Faringdon in Hamp¬
shire. Soon afterwards he married Mary, the daughter
and heiress of Dr Newce, who was rector of Halisham in
Sussex, but resided at Much-Haddam in Hertfordshire.
On the 13th of March 1718, he was elected a member of
the Royal Society ; and on the 5th of March in the year
HAL
H ?s. following, he exhibited an account of some experiments
which he had recently made on the effect of solar heat in
raising the sap in trees. This procured him the thanks of
the society, who also requested him to prosecute the sub¬
ject. With this request he complied ; and on the 14th of
I . June 1725 exhibited a treatise, in which he gave an ac¬
count of his progress. This production being highly ap¬
plauded by the society, he further enlarged and improved
it; and in April 1727 he published it, under the title of
Vegetable Statics. He dedicated the work to his majesty
•King George II. who was then Prince of Wales; and he
was the same year appointed one of the council of the
Royal Society, Sir Hans Sloane being at the same an'nual
election chosen their president. His book being well re¬
ceived, there wras published in 1731 a second edition, in
which Mr Hales promised a sequel to the work, which he
accordingly published in 1733, under the title of Stati¬
cal Essays. In 1732 he was appointed one of the trustees
for establishing a new colony in Georgia. On the 5th of
July 1733 the university of Oxford honoured him with a
diploma, conferring the degree of doctor in divinity; a
mark of distinction the more honourable, as it was not
usual for one university to confer academical honours upon
those who had been educated at another. In 1734, when
the health and morals of the lower and middling class of
people were subverted by the excessive drinking of gin,
he published, though without his name, A Friendly Ad¬
monition to the Drinkers of Brandy and other Spirituous
Liquors, which was twice reprinted. Towards the close
of the same year, he published a sermon which he preach¬
ed at St Bride’s before the rest of the trustees for esta¬
blishing a new colony in Georgia. In 1739 he printed a
volume in octavo, entitled Philosophical Experiments on
Sea-water, Corn, Flesh, and other Substances. This work,
which contained many useful instructions for voyagers,
was dedicated to the lords of the admiralty. The same
year he exhibited to the Royal Society an account of
some further experiments towards the discovery of medi¬
cines for dissolving the stone in the kidneys and bladder,
and preserving meat in long voyages; and for this he re¬
ceived the gold medal of Sir Godfrey Copley’s donation.
The year following he published some account of experi¬
ments and observations on Stephen’s Medicines for dis¬
solving the Stone, in which their dissolvent power is in¬
quired into and demonstrated.
In 1741 he read before the Royal Society an account
of an instrument which he had invented, and called a. ven¬
tilator, for conveying fresh air into mines, hospitals, prisons,
and the confined parts of ships. He had communicated
it to his particular friends some months before; and it is
very remarkable, that a machine of the same kind, for the
same purpose, was in the spring of the same year invent¬
ed by one Martin Triewald, an officer in the service of
the king of Sweden, for which the king and senate grant¬
ed him a privilege in October following, and ordered every
ship of war in the service of that country to be furnished
with one of them. A model of this machine was also sent
into France, and all the ships in the French navy were
in consequence ordered to have a ventilator of the same
sort. It happened likewise, that about the same time one
Sutton, who kept a coffee-house in Aldersgate Street, in¬
vented a ventilator of another construction, to draw off
the foul air from ships by means of the cook-room fire;
but poor Sutton had not interest enough to make mankind
accept the benefit he offered them, though its superiority
to Dr Hales’s contrivance was evident, and though Dr
Mead and Mr Benjamin .Robins gave their testimony
m its favour. The public, however, is not less indebted
to the ingenuity and benevolence of Dr Hales, whose
ventilators came more easily into use for many purposes
of the greatest importance, particularly for keeping corn
HAL m
sweet, by blowing through it currents of fresh air; a prac- Hales,
tice very soon adopted by France, where a large granary
was constructed, under the direction of Duhamel, for the
preservation of corn in this manner, with a view to render
the practice general.
In 1743, Dr Hales read before the Royal Society a de¬
scription of a method of conveying liquors into the abdo¬
men during the operation of tapping; and it was afterwards
printed in their Transactions. In 1745, he published some
experiments and observations on tar-water, which he had
been induced to make in consequence of the publication of
a work called Siris, in which Dr Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne,
had recommended tar water as an universal medicine. On
this occasion several letters passed between them on the
subject, particularly with respect to the use of tar-water in
the disease of the horned cattle. In the same year he com¬
municated to the public, in a letter addressed to the editor
of the Gentleman!s Magazine, a description of a back-heav¬
er, calculated to winnow and clean corn much sooner and
better than can be done by the common method. He also,
at the same time, and by the same channel, communicat¬
ed to the public a cheap and easy way to preserve corn
sweet in sacks; an invention of great benefit to farmers,
especially to poor lessees, who want to keep small quanti¬
ties of corn for some time, but have no proper granary or
repository for the purpose. He likewise the same year
took the same method to publish directions how to keep
corn sweet in heaps without turning it, and to sweeten it
when musty. He published a long paper, containing an
account of several methods to preserve corn by ventila¬
tors ; with a particular description of several sorts of ven¬
tilators, illustrated by a cut, so that the whole mechanism
of them might be easily known, and the machine con¬
structed by a common carpenter. He published also in the
same volume, but without his name, a detection of the
fallacious boasts concerning the efficacy of the liquid shell
in dissolving the stone in the bladder. In 1746 he com¬
municated to the Royal Society a proposal for bringing
small passable stones soon, and with ease, out of the blad¬
der ; and this was also printed in the Transactions of that
body. In the Gentlemans Magazine for July 1747 he
published an account of an improvement of his back-heav¬
er, by which it was rendered capable of clearing corn of
the small grain, seeds, blacks, smut-balls, and other im¬
purities, to such perfection, as to make it fit for seed-corn.
In 1748 he communicated to the Royal Society a proposal
for checking, in some degree, the progress of fires, occa¬
sioned by the great fire which happened that year in Corn-
hill ; and the substance of this proposal was printed in
the Transactions of the society. In the same year he also
communicated to the society two memoirs, which are
printed in their Transactions; one on the great benefit of
ventilators, and the other on some experiments in electri¬
city. In 1749 his ventilators were fixed in the Savoy pri¬
son, by order of Henry Fox, then secretary at war, and
afterwards Lord Holland ; and the benefit proved so great,
that though previously fifty or a hundred in a year often died
of the jail distemper, yet from the year 1749 till the year
1752 inclusive, not more than four persons died, though
in the year 1750 the number of prisoners was two hun¬
dred and forty; and of those four, one died of the small¬
pox, and another of intemperance. In the year 1750 he
published some considerations on the causes of earth¬
quakes, occasioned by the slight shocks felt that year in
London. The substance of this work was also printed in
the Philosophical Transactions. The same year he exhi¬
bited an examination of the strength of several purging
waters, especially of the water of Jessop’s Well, which is
printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
Dr Hales had been several years honoured with the es¬
teem and friendship of Frederick prince of Wales, who
112 HAL
Hales, frequently visited him at Teddington, from his neighbour-
ing palace at Kew, and took pleasure in surprising him in
the midst of those curious researches which almost inces¬
santly employed him. Upon the prince’s death, which
happened this year, and the settlement of the household of
the princess-dowager, he was, without his solicitation, or
even knowledge, appointed clerk of the closet, or almoner,
to her royal highness. In 1751 he was appointed by the Col¬
lege of Physicians to preach the annual sermon called
Crowne’s Lecture ; Dr William Crowne having left a lega¬
cy for a sermon to be annually preached on “ the wisdom
and goodness of God displayed in the formation of man.”
Dr Hales’s text was, With the ancient is wisdom, and in
length of days understanding (Job, xii. 12). This sermon,
as usual, was published at the request of the college. In
the latter end of the year 1752, his ventilators, worked by
a windmill, were fixed in Newgate, with branching trunks
to twenty-four wards ; and it appeared that the dispropor¬
tion of those who died in the jail before and after this es¬
tablishment was as sixteen to seven. He published also a
further account of their success, and some observations on
the great danger arising from foul air, exemplified by a
narrative of several persons seized with the jail-fever by
working in Newgate.
Upon the death of Sir Hans Sloane, which happened in
the year 1753, Dr Hales was elected a member of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris i.i his room. The same
year he published some further considerations about the
means of expelling foul air from the sick-rooms of occasional
army hospitals, and private houses in town. He also pub¬
lished many other curious particulars relative to the use and
success of ventilators. The same year a description of a
sea-gage, which he had invented to measure unfathomable
depths, was communicated to the public. This paper was
drawn up about the year 1732 or 1733, for Mr Colin Camp¬
bell ; and the latter employed Mr Hawksbee to make the
machine it describes, which was tried in various depths,
and answered with great exactness. It was however lost
near Bermuda. In 1754 he communicated to the Royal
Society some experiments for keeping water and fish sweet
with lime-water, an account of which Avas published in the
Philosophical Transactions. He also continued from this
time till his death to enrich their memoirs with many use¬
ful articles, particularly a method of forwarding the distil¬
lation of fresh from salt water, by blowing showers of fresh
air up through the latter during the operation. In 1757
he communicated to the editor of the GentlemarHs Maga¬
zine an easy method of purifying the air, and regulating its
heat, in melon-frames and green-houses; also further im¬
provements in his method of distilling sea-water.
His reputation and the interest of his family and friends
might easily have procured him further preferment; but of
this he was not desirous ; for being nominated by his
majesty to a canonry of Windsor, he engaged the princess
to request his majesty to recall his nomination. I hat a
man so devoted to philosophical studies and employments,
and so conscientious in the discharge of his duty, should
not desire any preferment which might reduce him to the
dilemma of either neglecting his duty, or foregoing his
amusement, is not strange; but that he would refuse an
honourable and profitable appointment, for which no duty
was to be done that could interrupt his habits of life, can
scarcely be imputed to his temperance and humility, with¬
out impeaching his benevolence. If he had no desire of
any thing more for himself, a liberal mind would surely
have been highly gratified by the distribution of so consi¬
derable a sum as a canonry of Windsor would have put in
his power, in the reward of industry, the alleviation of
distress, and the support of helpless indigence. He was,
however, remarkable for the social virtues and sweetness of
temper; his life was not only blameless, but exemplary in
HAL
a high degree ; he was happy in himself, and beneficial to Hales(
others, as appears by this account of his attainments and II
pursuits; whilst the constant serenity and cheerfulness of Hali<
his mind, and the temperance and regularity of his life,
concurred, with a good constitution, to preserve him in r
health and vigour to the uncommon age of fourscore and
four years. He died at Teddington in 1761, and was bu¬
ried under the tower of the parish church, which he had
built at his own expense not long before his death. Her
royal highness the Princess of Wales erected a monument
to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
HALESOWEN, a market-town of the county of Salop,
in the hundred of Brimstrey, but partly in the county of
Worcester, 127 miles from London. The market is held
on Monday, but it is thinly attended. There are in the town
some inferior branches of the iron manufacture. It is
chiefly remarkable for the grounds of the house of the
Leasowes, once the residence of the poet Shenstone, to
whom a monument has been erected in the parish church,
wdiich was'formerly an ancient monastery. The inhabi¬
tants amounted in 1811 to 6888, in 1821 to 8187, and in
1831 to 9765.
HALESWORTH, a town of the county of Suffolk, in
the hundred of Blything. It is situated on the river Blyth,
101 miles from London, and has a good market for corn on
Tuesday, and a navigable canal to the sea at Southwold,
about nine miles distant. Near to it is a mineral spring
frequented by patients afflicted with diseases of the eyes.
Halesworth had some trade in spinning w ool, which has
nearly disappeared. It is a place of considerable antiquity,
but of unknown date. The population amounted in 1801
to 1676, in 1811 to 1810, in 1821 to 2166, and in 1831
to 2473.
HALF-WAY-ISLAND, a small island in the South
Pacific Ocean, in Torres Strait, about a mile in circumfe¬
rence, and surrounded with coral reefs. It suffers from a
want of fresh water. Long. 143. 18. E. Lat. 10. 8. S.
HALFPENNY, a copper coin, the value of which is
expressed by its name, in reference to the penny.
HALI-BEIGH, first dragoman or interpreter at the
Grand Signior’s court in the seventeenth century, was
born of Christian parents in Poland; but having been
taken by the Tartars when young, they sold him to the
Turks, who brought him up in the Mahommedan religion in
the seraglio. Flis name, in his native country, was Bobowski.
He learned many languages, and Sir Paul Ricaut owns that
he was indebted to him for several things which he relates in
his Present State of the Ottoman Empire. He maintained
a correspondence with the English, who persuaded him to
translate some books into the Turkish language; and he
proposed to return into the bosom of the Christian church,
but died before he could accomplish the design. Dr Hyde
published his book Of the Liturgy of the Turks, their Pil¬
grimages to Mecca, their Circumcision and Visiting of the
Sick. He translated the catechism of the church of Eng¬
land and the bible into the Turkish language. The manu¬
script is lodged in the library of Leyden. He wrote like¬
wise a Turkish grammar and dictionary.
HALICARNASSUS, a city of Caria, on the coast of
Asia Minor, opposite to the island of Cos, founded by a
colony of Trcezenians (Strab.), who were joined by a
party of Argeians under the command of Melas and Ar-
vanias (Vitruv. ii. 8). We are told by Herodotus (i. 144),
that it originally belonged to the "Dorian confederacy,
which consisted of six cities, and that it lost this privilege
because Agasicles, one of its citizens, carried off the tri¬
pod, which had been adjudged to him in the games in
honour of the Triopian Apollo, instead of dedicating it to
the god, as had always been the custom. The other ci¬
ties, indignant at this breach of the law, met and declared
Halicarnassus unworthy of participating in their privileges;
HAL
He 7. and from that time the Dorian confederacy consisted of
*| five cities, and was called Pentapolis. We have no means of
Ial]x- discovering at what period this event took place ; but about
^ ^ the year 500 b. c. we find it subject to Lygdamis, whose
daughter, Artemisia, comrfianded a squadron of ships in
the fleet of Xerxes, and behaved so nobly in the battle of
Salamis, 480 b. c. (Herod, viii. 87.) It was probably
during the reign of her son, called Lygdamis, that Hero¬
dotus, unwilling to witness the tyrannical acts of a despot,
abandoned his native city and retired to Samos. (Suid.)
A considerable period now elapses, in which we know no¬
thing of the history of Halicarnassus ; but about 350 b. c.
we find it under princes of Carian extraction. Hecatom-
nus is mentioned by Strabo (xiv. 656) as king of the Ca-
rians; and he left three sons, Mausolus, Hidrieus, and
Pixodarus, and two daughters, Artemisia and Ada, who
were married to the two elder brothers. On the death of
Mausolus, his wife and sister became queen, and is best
known in history as the builder of that celebrated tomb
to her husband, which she called from him mausoleum,
(see Mausoleum), and which was reckoned one of the
seven wonders of the world. She was succeeded by her
second brother Hidrieus, whose sister and wife, Ada,
was driven from the kingdom by her brother Pixodarus.
At this period Alexander the Great arrived with his forces
in Caria, and having razed Halicarnassus to the ground,
restored Ada to the sovereignty of Caria. It seems to
have been rebuilt, but never regained its former degree of
splendour. Cicero speaks of his brother restoring Hali¬
carnassus (ad Q. Fr. i. 8), and Tacitus (Ann. iv, 55) tells
us that the people of this place were anxious to erect a
temple to Tiberius. It was the birthplace of Herodotus,
and of Dionysius, author of the Roman Antiquities. Its
ruins are still found at Bondroun, and are thus described
by Captain Beaufort:—“ The spot where Halicarnassus
was placed rises gently from a deep bay, and commands a
view of the island of Cos and the southern shore of the Ce¬
ramic Gulf as far as Cape Krio. In front of the town a
broad square rock projects into the bay, on which stands
the citadel. The walls of the ancient city may be here
and there discerned; and several fragments of columns,
mutilated sculpture, and broken inscriptions, are scattered
in different parts of the bazaar and streets. Above the
town are the remains of a theatre.” (Karamania, p.
95-98.)
HALICZ, a town of the circle Strey, in the Austrian
kingdom of Gallicia, situated on the river Dniester. It
contains a Catholic and a Greek church, and two syna¬
gogues, with 357 houses, and 3120 inhabitants, the greater
part of whom are Jews of the Caramite sect. It has a con¬
siderable internal trade.
HALIEUTICS, Halieutica, 'AXnvrixa, formed from
a?usu£, fisherman, which again is derived from aX$, the sea,
mean books treating of fishes, or the art of fishing. We
have still extant the halieutics of Oppian.
HALIFAX, a town and large parish in the wapentake
ofMorley, of the west riding of the county of York, 196
miles from London. The town is situated in a valley,
through which the river Calder runs in its course to join
the Aire at Wakefield. It is an ancient borough, and
once had criminal jurisdiction even in capital offences, the
punishment of which was inflicted by a machine called the
Maid of Halifax, which was copied in Scotland, and after¬
wards by Dr Guillotin in France, whose name it has since
borne. As the town is the centre of the woollen trade of
the whole extensive parish, a magnificent building, called
the Piece Hall, for the sale of goods, has been erected,
covering more than 10,000 square yards, and containing
upwards of 300 separate rooms, in which individuals de-
dispose of their goods. This, and a venerable
church, distinguished by its size and its numerous monu-
vol. XI.
HAL 113
ments, are the only public buildings which merit notice. Halifax
The streets are narrow, some of them steep, and have ra- II
ther a gloomy appearance, though the houses, mostly of
stone, are large and well built. The population amounted
in 1801 to 8886, in 1811 to 9159, in 1821 to 12,628, and
in 1831 to 15,382.
The parish is nearly sixty miles in length, and has a me¬
dium breadth of seven miles. It contains twenty-three
townships, whose population amounts to upwards of 100,000
persons, by whom are carried on extensive manufactures
of woollen, and, latterly, of cotton goods, which commerce
disperses over every country of the globe ; and the extent
and value of the machinery by which the operations are
executed are beyond calculation. By the law of 1832 Hali¬
fax was erected a borough, and elects two members. The
number of voters is about 530. The population of the pa¬
rish amounted in 1821 to 92,050, and in 1831 to 109,899.
FIalifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, in North America,
and also of a county of the same name. It is situated on
a peninsula near the centre of the eastern coast, and pos¬
sesses one of the finest harbours in the world, originally
called Chebucto, on a bay sixteen miles in length. It was
founded in 1749, by General Cornwallis, and has since car¬
ried on nearly the whole trade of the country. Halifax
stands on the west side of the harbour, upon the declivity of
a hill, and is laid out in oblong squares, the streets running
parallel to each other at right angles. The government-
house is one of the most splendid edifices in North Ame¬
rica. There is here a splendid royal dock-yard, which,
during war, is an important naval station, being particular¬
ly well calculated for the shelter, repair, and outfit of fleets
cruising on the American coast and in the West Indies.
The harbour is at all times accessible, and is rarely imped¬
ed by ice. Ships generally anchor abreast of the town,
where the harbour is rather more than a mile in width.
After narrowing to about one fourth of that width, it sud¬
denly expands into a noble sheet of water called Bedford
Basin, completely land-locked, with deep wrater throughout,
and capable of containing the whole navy of Great Britain.
There is a considerable fishery at Halifax; but the colo¬
nists are neither so enterprising nor so successful as the
New Englanders. The principal trade of the town and
province is with the West Indies, Great Britain, and the
United States. To the former are exported dried and
pickled fish, lumber, coals, grindstones, cattle, flour, butter,
cheese, oats, potatoes, and other produce. The same arti¬
cles are exported to the southern parts of the United
States, and gypsum to the eastern parts of New England.
To Great Britain, are sent timber deals, whale, cod, and
seal oil, furs, and other articles. The imports consist
chiefly of colonial produce from the West Indies, all sorts
of manufactured articles from Great Britain, and of flour,
lumber, and other kinds of goods from the United States,
principally for re-exportation to the West Indies. Go¬
vernment packets sail regularly once a month from Hali¬
fax to Falmouth; and recently packets to Liverpool have
been established. There are two private banking compa¬
nies in this town. About one hundred large square-rigged
vessels, and about the same number of large schooners,
with several smaller craft, belong to Halifax. A canal
across the country from this town to the basin of Minas,
which unites with the bottom of the Bay of Fundy, has
been commenced. It is expected, that when completed,
this work will be of essential service to the trade of Hali¬
fax. The population, exclusive of the military, amount to
about 18,000. Long 63. 28. W. Lat. 44. 36. N.
Halifax, Earl of. See Saville.
HALL, a city of the Austrian province of Tyrol. It is
situated on the river Inn, which is thus far navigable for
large vessels. It has a provincial mint, and a mining col¬
lege. Near to it is worked a large mine of rock-salt,
114 HAL
Hall, which, when melted and refined, yields annually about
300,000 quintals of salt. It contains 460 houses, with
4290 inhabitants.
Hall, or Suabian Hall, a city of the kingdom of Wir-
temberg, in the circle of the Jaxt, the capital of a baili¬
wick of the same name, which extends over 153 square
miles, and contains a population of about 24,000 inhabi¬
tants. The city is built on both banks of the river Kocher,
and, including its suburbs, is surrounded with strong walls,
defended by lofty towers and ditches. It has a beautiful
town-hall, a Gothic cathedral, and six other churches, and
contains 740 houses and 6950 inhabitants. Theie is a
gymnasium with nine professors and a good library. It is
Celebrated for its saline springs, from which, by thirty-two
pans, nearly 100,000 quintals of culinary salt is annually
made. Its chief trade consists in corn, wood, soap, starch,
and cattle.
Hall, a city of the Austrian province of the Tyrol, in
the circle of the Valley of the Lower Inn, on the left bank
of which river it stands, and by which it has the benefit of
a water communication with Vienna. It is situated be¬
tween two picturesque mountains, and is surrounded with
walls and adorned by a fine old Gothic church. In the city
there is a very extensive salt work; the salt is made from
a natural spring of brine, which is also used for salt-water
bathing. The population consists of 4270 persons, some
of whom are employed in spinning cotton, and in knitting
hosiery goods.
Hall, in Architecture, a large room at the entrance of
a fine house and palace. Vitruvius mentions three kinds
of halls ; the tetrastyle, with four columns supporting the
platfond or ceiling ; the Corinthian, with columns all round
let into the wall, and vaulted over; and the iEgyptian,
which had a peristyle of insulated Corinthian columns,
bearing a second order with a ceiling.
Hall is also particularly used to signify a court of justice,
or an edifice in which there is one or more tribunals. In
Westminster Hall are held the great courts of England,
viz. the King’s Bench, Chancery, Common Pleas, and Ex¬
chequer. In adjoining apartments is likewise held the high
court of parliament.
Hall, Joseph, an eminent prelate of the church of Eng¬
land, was born in 1574, and educated at Cambridge. He
became professor of rhetoric in that university, and was
then successively made rector of Halsted in Suffolk, pre¬
sented to the living of Waltham in Essex, made preben¬
dary of Wolverhampton, dean of Worcester, bishop of Exe¬
ter, and, lastly, bishop of Norwich. His works testify his
zeal against Catholicism, and are much esteemed. He la¬
mented the divisions of the Protestants, and wrote con¬
cerning the means of putting an end to these schisms.
In 1616, he accompanied the embassy of Lord Doncaster
into France, and upon his return was appointed by his
majesty one of the divines who should attend him into
Scotland. In 1618 he was sent, with other divines, to the
synod of Dort, and pitched upon to preach a Latin sermon
before that assembly. But being obliged to return before
the synod broke up, on account of his health, he was by
the states presented with a gold medal. His works, con¬
sisting of Miscellaneous Epistles, Mundus alter et idem, a
just Censure of Travellers, the Christian Seneca, Sa¬
tires, a Century of Meditations, and many other produc¬
tions, were published at various periods in folio, quarto, and
duodecimo. They have, however, been collected in a hand¬
some, correct, and well-arranged edition, by the Reverend
Josias Pratt, in ten vols. 8vo. As a moralist, Bishop Hall
has been entitled the Christian Seneca. His knowledge of
the world, depth of thought, and elegance of expression,
place him nearer our own times than many of his contem¬
poraries ; whilst he adorned his own age by his learning,
piety, and uniform exercise of all the Christian graces.
UAL
He died on the 8th of September 1656, in the eighty-se- Hall
cond year of his age. "'•’V'
Hall, Robert, a distinguished writer and preacher, was
born at Arnsby, a small village about eight miles from
Leicester, on the 2d of May 1764. His father, who had
the pastoral charge of a Baptist congregation in this place,
was a man of talents and piety, as well as an eloquent and
successful preacher. Robert was the youngest of four¬
teen children ; and, whilst an infant, his health was so de¬
licate that slender hopes were entertained of his ever reach¬
ing manhood. A nurse was employed, whose duty it was
to carry him about in the open air ; but in the discharge of
her duty she used to loiter in a burying-ground which lay
in the vicinity of his father’s house. It is worthy ot no¬
tice, that amidst the memorials reared to commemorate the
dead, and which, by reminding man of his mortality, tend
to fill the mind with sentiments of religious awe, the fu¬
ture orator should have learned to articulate that language
in which he was afterwards, with the most powerful elo¬
quence, to bring home to the heart a conviction of the frail
tenure by which we hold this life, and the certainty of that
which is to come. The nurse, judging from the peculiar
character and habits of the child, that he was desirous of
knowing the meaning of the inscriptions and carved figures
upon the tombstones, by their aid taught him the letters,
and finally to speak and to read. This occurred before he
had completed his third year ; and being naturally of an in¬
quisitive disposition, he was continually putting questions,
and soon became a rapid talker, which he always continued
to be. After receiving regular instructions from two fe¬
male teachers, he was at six years of age placed under the
master of a village school situated about four miles from
Arnsby. Previously to this arrangement, he had evinced
an extraordinary thirst for knowledge, and had become a
collector of books. He was in the habit of retiring to the
church-yard with some favourite volume, spreading it out
before him, and poring over it until the shades of evening
reminded him of home. The course of instruction pur¬
sued at the village school was by no means extensive; and
the ardent scholar found ample leisure to gratify his pas¬
sion for reading. The books which he selected were not
those of mere amusement, but .such as required the exer¬
cise of deep and long-continued reflection. His favourite
works were those of Jonathan Edwards on the Affections
and on the Will, and Butler’s Analogy. Before he was nine
years of age, he had repeatedly perused these productions,
had written several essays upon religious subjects, and was
in the habit of calling together a juvenile congregation to
hear him preach. Such indications as these are not to be
mistaken ; they indubitably presage future eminence. At
eleven years of age, he was placed as a boarder at a school
in the neighbouring town of Northampton, where he re¬
mained about a year and a half, and, according to his father’s
account, made great progress in Latin and Greek. After
having for some time studied divinity and other collateral
subjects, principally under the guidance of his father, he was,
in his fifteenth year, sent to the Bristol Education Society,
or academy for the instruction of young men preparing for
the ministerial office amongst the Baptists. The system of
tuition at this seminary comprehended not merely the learn¬
ed languages and the rudiments of science, but a specific
course of preparation for the ministerial office, including
the writing of essays and the habit of public speaking*
That the progress which young Hall made in his studies
was rapid, is sufficiently attested by the fact, that on the
13th of August 1780, he was solemnly “ set apart to pub¬
lic employ” as a preacher of the gospel, in connection with
the body of dissenters to which his father belonged. In
about a year after this event, he was sent to King’s Col¬
lege, Aberdeen, w here, amongst other friendships, he made
that of Mr, afterwards Sir James, Mackintosh. When
H A
. these eminent individuals became first acquainted, Sir James
was in his eighteenth year, and Mr Hall about a year
older. Notwithstanding some differences of taste as well
as of intellectual pursuits, a strong and mutual friend¬
ship commenced between the two students. They were
almost inseparable, and read together much of Xeno¬
phon, Herodotus, and Plato; but the arena in which they
most frequently met was that of morals and metaphysics,
subjects which afforded ample opportunities for disputa¬
tion. Many years afterwards, Sir James Mackintosh, in a
letter to Mr Hall, thus alludes to their early attachment:
“ On the most impartial survey of my early life, I could see
nothing which tended so much to excite and invigorate my
understanding, and to direct it towards high, though per¬
haps scarcely accessible objects, as my intimacy with you.
Five-and-twenty years are now past (the letter is dated
Bombay, 1805) since first we met, yet hardly anything
has occurred since which has left a deeper or more agree¬
able impression on my mind. I now remember the extra¬
ordinary union of brilliant fancy with acute intellect, which
would have excited more admiration than it has done, if it
had been dedicated to the amusement of the great and the
learned, instead of being consecrated to the far more noble
office of consoling, instructing, and reforming the poor and
the forgotten.” These distinguished individuals entertain¬
ed a mutual esteem and veneration, which continued una¬
bated till the close of life.
In 1783, Mr Hall received an invitation from the church
at Broadmead in Bristol, to associate himself with Dr
Evans, as assistant pastor. This offer he accepted after
much hesitation; and it was finally arranged, that dur¬
ing the interval between the college sessions of 1784 and
1785, Mr Hall should reside at Bristol, and then return
to Aberdeen to complete his studies. In the course of
his last session he applied himself with much assiduity,
especially to the study of the Greek language, moral phi¬
losophy, and metaphysics in general, as w ell as to other
branches of learning more immediately connected with the¬
ology. After completing his academical career, which was
a bright one, and calculated to raise the highest expecta¬
tions, Mr Hall entered upon his pastoral avocations. The
life of a divine situated as Mr Hall was, is little distin¬
guished by those incidents which give attraction to biography.
The events are in general few in number, and possess a same¬
ness which deprives them of interest. From the commence¬
ment of his ministrations, Mr Hall’s preaching attracted an
unusual degree of attention ; and if he was not listened to
by such multitudes as surrounded Whitfield and Wesley, he
found fit audience though few in the great and distinguished
men of the day. His eloquence, remarkable alike for its
brilliancy and its force, was a general theme of praise; and
by his instructive and fascinating conversation in private
he called forth equal admiration. Besides his clerical du¬
ties, he had to perform those of classical tutor in the Bris¬
tol Academy; an appointment which was conferred upon
him shortly after his arrival in the place, and which he held
for more than five years, labouring with active zeal and
with commensurate success. At this period of his life, Mr
Hall was distinguished for the dexterity with which he
wielded the weapons of wit and raillery; and it would appear
that the religious opinions he entertained, and which in
private, though never in the pulpit, he professed to hold,
were considered as somewhat latetudinarian by indivi¬
duals of the persuasion to which he belonged. Certain it is,
indeed, that it was not until many years afterwards that his
mind became fairly settled with regard to some of the most
important doctrines of Christianity. On several momentous
points he was considered as deviating considerably from the
accredited standards of even moderate orthodoxy. In 1790,
when he was on the eve of dissolving his connection with
the church in Bristol, he addressed to his congregation a
L L.
frank exposition of his opinions; and, amongst other startling
notions, he confessed that he held that of materialism. In
a letter to his congregation, there is the following passage :
“ My opinion however upon this head is, that the nature of
man is simple and uniform; that the thinking powers and
faculties are the result of a certain organization of matter;
and that after death he ceases to be conscious until the resur¬
rection.To those who are acquainted with the general
character of English dissenters, and their strict adherence
to what are denominated the evangelical doctrines of
Christianity, it will not be matter of surprise, that the in¬
dividual who entertained such notions, and who could sup¬
port them with such metaphysical acumen and powerful
eloquence, was a pastor rather to be admired for his genius
than implicitly relied on as a spiritual guide. It is not
however to be inferred from this that he promulgated
error from the pulpit; on the contrary, he was careful to
exclude such doubtful speculations from his discourses:
but it seems certain that they gave rise to vexations and
perplexities, which, with other circumstances, induced him
to accept of an invitation to take the pastoral charge of a
church at Cambridge. He entered on the new scene of his
labours in 1791. In the same year he lost his father, an
event which made a deep impression upon his mind, and
wrought a considerable change in him relative to some of
his doctrinal sentiments. Amongst other things, he re¬
nounced materialism, which he often afterwards declared
he had buried in his father’s grave.
The congregation with which Mr Hall was now associ¬
ated had considerably declined from the orthodox stand¬
ard of their church with reference to some important
doctrines of Christianity. Their former pastor, from the
profession of orthodox opinions, had become more lax in
his views, which gradually degenerated into Socinianism,
if not for a time into infidelity itself. The contagion was
• ;ommunicated to the members of the church, not a few of
whom adopted the opinions of their spiritual guide. The
faithfulness with which Mr Hall discharged his ministe¬
rial duties under such disadvantages, is sufficiently attest¬
ed by the fact, that in a short time he succeeded in re¬
claiming from their errors the greater proportion of his
flock. About this period Mr Hall published a pamphlet
entitled An Apology for the Freedom of the Press.
The author’s object was a vindication of the principles
maintained by the friends of liberty, especially by those
who avowed evangelical sentiments; and although, in-a
spirit of self-depreciation, in which Mr Hall always in¬
dulged with regard to his own writings, he did not place
a very high value upon this production, it was received
with marked favour by the public. Several editions were
rapidly sold off, and it was largely quoted by the periodi¬
cals of the day. The celebrity which Mr Hall now en¬
joyed gave rise to inconveniences which interfered with
the more solemn duties of his calling. It withdrew him from
study, and induced individuals whose conduct and cha¬
racter he could not approve, to intrude on his retirement.
He therefore resolved, without retracting his principles,
to embark no more on the stormy element of political de¬
bate. His next publication was in more perfect keeping
with the sacred office which he held, being a sermon, en¬
titled Modern Infidelity considered with respect to its
Influence on Society. It appeared in the year 1800, and
wras at once acknowledged as a masterpiece of eloquence
and reasoning. It is a rare felicity of circumstances that
a work which has excited unusual attention is allowed
to enjoy popular favour without censure or interruption.
The sermon on Modern Infidelity formed no exception to
the general rule; and a controversy ensued, in which in¬
sidious attempts were made to misinterpret the motives of
the author, and even to depreciate his character. Detract
tion, however, originating with such individuals as now at-
116 H A
Hall, tacked him had little effect, and the petty clamour was
  1—' drowned in the general applause. The critical journals
of the day were lavish of their praise, and some of the
most distinguished men of the time paid their tribute of ap¬
probation to the author. The reputation of Mr Hall as a
profound thinker and eloquent writer was now complete¬
ly established ; and his church became a place of fre¬
quent resort to many members of the university. His
next production was a sermon entitled Reflections on
War, which was preached on the occasion of a general
thanksgiving for the peace of Amiens, celebrated on the
1st of June 1802. This suspension of arms, as is well
known, was of short duration ; and war having been again
declared in the following year, Mr Hall evinced his pa¬
triotism and love of country by publishing a sermon en¬
titled The Sentiments proper to the Present Crisis. It
was preached on the 19th of October 1803, being the day
appointed for a general fast. This sermon perhaps ex¬
cited still more universal admiration than any of the au¬
thor’s previous productions; and the latter part of it was
considered by the most competent judges, amongst whom
was Mr Pitt, as fully equal in genuine eloquence to any
passage of the same length in ancient or modern orations.
Mr Hall had been for some time afflicted with a pain in
his back, and in 1803 it had increased to such a degree,
that, in order to enjoy exercise, it was found advisable to
remove to a place a few miles distant from Cambridge.
This arrangement was not ultimately productive of bene¬
ficial results; on the contrary, a severe calamity which
overtook him may in part be attributed to it. He had al¬
ways been remarkable for his love of solitary study, and
frequently remained for more than twelve hours together
wrapt in abstract thought. The effects of this violent in¬
fringement of the physical laws of our nature were in some
measure alleviated at Cambridge, by the pretty regular
habit which he had of spending his evenings in the society
of the intelligent classes of his congregation. Such a source
of relief from severe study was denied him in the place to
which he had removed; and he was likewise cut off from
the tender sympathies of his flock, by whom he was much
beloved. The consequence was, that being left too much
alone, and exposed to the morbid influences of a diseased
body and an overwrought mind, the latter lost its equili¬
brium ; and he who had so long been the theme of uni¬
versal admiration now became the object of as extensive
sympathy. This afflicting event occurred in November
1804 ; but it was of short duration ; for, by the assiduous
care of his medical adviser, he was in about two months
restored to mental and bodily health. About twelve
months afterwards a recurrence of the same malady again
laid him aside from public duty. He soon, however, re¬
covered ; but it was deemed essential to his complete
restoration to health and vigour that he should resign his
pastoral charge at Cambridge, abstain from preaching,
and avoid as far as possible all strong excitement.
It may be well believed that two visitations of a cala¬
mity so humiliating were calculated to make a powerful
impression upon a mind so alive to religious influences as
that of Mr Hall. Without dwelling upon this theme, it
is sufficient to state in what light they were regarded by
the sufferer himself. He was persuaded that, however
strong his religious convictions, and however correct his
doctrinal sentiments had hitherto been, yet that he had
not undergone a thorough transformation of character
until the first of these attacks. The permanent impres¬
sion upon his character was.hence exclusively religious.
His piety assumed a more exalted tone, his habits be¬
came more strictly devotional, and his exercises more
fervent and elevated, than they had ever hitherto been;
and he watched with jealous care over the whole tenor
of his conduct, as well as every movement of his heart.
L L.
For some time Mr Hall enjoyed in his native villase, Hal!
and other places, an exemption from active duty, during
which period his attention was engaged in biblical study,
and in other pious and literary occupations, which could
be abandoned or resumed at pleasure. He also preached
occasionally, especially at Leicester; and from a church
in this place he accepted of an invitation to become its
stated pastor. Over this congregation he presided twenty
years; a period undistinguished by any incident of par¬
ticular moment excepting his marriage, which took place
in March 1808. This was a fortunate event for Mr Hall;
for, whilst it called into livelier activity those sympathies
with which his mind was richly fraught, and thus gave
greater variety to the exercise of his mental powers, it
likewise reclaimed him from those habits of abstract spe¬
culation, the indulgence in which had already proved so
pernicious, and rendered him more familiar with the
everyday events of life, and the common feelings, aims,
and pursuits of human nature. The endearments of do¬
mestic life also served to compensate the physical pain to
which he was doomed to be a martyr till the close of his
career, whilst they deepened his impressions of tenderness,
benevolence, and sympathy. In proof of this, his biogra-
pher, Dr Olinthus Gregory, produces a beautiful instance.
“ Not long after his marriage,” says he, “ when his own
pecuniary resources were much restricted, he proposed
to fast on certain days, that he might have it in his power
to distribute more among the needy ; and he thought it
wrong to have more than two coats, when so many per¬
sons around him were clothed in rags.” During his re¬
sidence at Leicester, Mr Hall gave to the world seve¬
ral valuable productions, which extended his fame and his
influence over society. He occasionally appeared as a
critic in the Eclectic Review and other periodicals, and
published various sermons, of which that on the death of
the Princess Charlotte in 1817 is allowed to surpass all
that were produced upon the occasion, if not to stand un¬
rivalled as a model of pulpit eloquence. A controversy
on what is called The Terms of Communion, engaged
some share of his attention. The Baptists as a body
were, and still are, very strict in their administration of
the Lord’s Supper. Mr Hall, with his usual energy and
eloquence, and with considerable success, advocated the
principle of more open communion. In the year 1823 he
engaged in a controversy of another description, ■with a
Unitarian preacher, who had provoked him to the contest
by delivering what are usually denominated challenge lec¬
tures. Mr Hall preached twelve lectures, which were
serviceable in checking the diffusion of Socinianism.
These compositions, however, were not published, although
he was strongly urged to take this step ; but a concise
outline of them has been given in his works. By his
constitutional complaint Mr Hall was subjected to severe
suffering, which increased so much with his growing
years, that, to alleviate the pain, he was compelled to take
copious draughts of laudanum. His mental vigour, how¬
ever, was but slightly impaired ; yet a little difference was
discernible in his conversation, which had always been
remarkable'for its brilliancy and vivacity.
In 1825 Mr Hall received an invitation to assume the
pastoral charge of the church at Broadmead, Bristol. This
he accepted ; and after taking a touching farewell of his
Leicester friends, he removed in 1826 to Bristol, the place
where his ministerial career began, and where it was des¬
tined soon to come to a close. Reading and study, which
had always been at once his bane and antidote, suffered
no abatement on account of his increasing infirmities. His
opinion was, that every species of knowledge might be
rendered subservient to religion; and works of almost
every description he laid under contribution. When above
sixty years of age he commenced the study of the Italian
] 11.
HALL.
117
language, of which he had been before ignorant, in order
to settle a point of interest relative to the Divina Comedia
of Dante. His pastoral duties were discharged with his
usual faithfulness; but the decay of locomotive power,
which age brought in the train of its infirmities, was a
source of much uneasiness to his mind, as it prevented
him from associating privately with his flock. Besides
his old disease, indications of a plethoric habit of body
became more and more apparent, until in 1830 he was
compelled to try a change of air and scene. No ultimate
benefit was derived from this treatment, and after suffer¬
ing severely from a complication of disorders, he departed
this life on the 21st of February 1831. By his marriage
Mr Hall had five children, of whom four, with their mo¬
ther, survived him.
Mr Hall was not only the most distinguished ornament of
the Christian body to which he belonged, but as a preacher
his claims to pre-eminence were acknowledged by the ablest
judges of every creed. Dr Parr has drawn his character in
language strong, concise, and comprehensive. “ Mr Hall,”
says he, “ has, like Bishop Taylor, the eloquence of an ora¬
tor, the fancy of a poet, the acuteness of a schoolman, the
profoundness of a philosopher, and the piety of a saint.”
“ As a preacher,” says Mr John Foster, who knew him in¬
timately, “ none of those contemporaries who have not seen
him in the pulpit, or of his readers in another age, will be
able to conceive an adequate idea of Mr Hall. His per¬
sonal appearance was in striking conformity to the structure
and temper of his mind. A large-built, robust figure, was in
perfect keeping with a countenance formed as if on purpose
for the most declared manifestation of internal power; a
power impregnable in its own strength, as in a fortress, and
constantly, without an effort, in a state for action. That
countenance was usually of a cool unmoved mien at the be¬
ginning of the public service; and sometimes, when he was
not greatly excited by his subject, or was repressed by
pain, would not acquire a great degree of temporary ex¬
pression during the whole discourse. At other times it
would kindle into an ardent aspect as he went on, and
toward the conclusion become lighted up almost into a
glare.”
His voice was somewhat feeble, but his articulation was
distinct, although he spoke with great rapidity. At the
commencement of his discourse attention was secured by
the simplicity and solemnity of the speaker’s deportment;
and as he advanced and became animated with his subject,
such was the impression which he produced, that his auditors
one by one rose from their seats, “ until,” says Dr Gregory,
“ long before the close of the sermon, it often happened that
a considerable portion of the congregation were seen stand¬
ing.” His mental endowments were of the highest order, and
his excellency consisted not in the predominance of one, but
in the exquisite proportion and harmony of all his powers.
A mind naturally of great capacity had been enriched by
a course of reading which extended nearly to the limits of
human investigation, and he was thus enabled to draw his
illustrations from an infinite variety of sources. He also
possessed a wonderful ability for comprehensive reason¬
ing ; whilst his quickness of apprehension, his powers of
analysing a subject, and seizing on the most essential points,
and of placing in a clear, intelligible light, what was be¬
fore obscure or perplexed, were of the very highest order.
His oratory was brilliant, but not unnecessarily showy, or
encumbered with poetical images. The works of this great
preacher display a union of elevation with elegance, to
which it will be difficult to find a parallel amongst the
works of divines. With high excursive powers of imagi¬
nation, and an equal talent for close reasoning and metaphy¬
sical speculation, he neither indulged in meretricious orna¬
ment or rhetorical flourishes, nor perplexed his hearers
with subtile distinctions. No writer ever displayed more
taste and discrimination in the choice of language, and he Hall,
formed for himself an ideal standard of excellence which
could not be reached. His style is at once clear and sim¬
ple ; and the construction of his sentences is characterised
by ease, united with strength and compactness. There is
no pomp of words in his most magnificent excursions of
fancy, and he rises to the summit of eloquence without the
least effort or appearance of straining after greatness. He
is elaborately correct, yet perfectly inartificial, and free
from antithesis; pregnant with weighty meaning, yet easily
understood. In him are united richness with simplicity,
transparency with depth, and symmetry with strength.
The reader of his w orks frequently meets w ith passages of
extraordinary beauty; but these will in no instance be found
to have been introduced simply for effect; they are inse¬
parably connected with the subject, and, seeming to grow
out of it, appear with all the appropriateness of a natural
relation. “ He displayed in a most eminent degree,” says
Mr Foster, “ the rare excellence of a perfect conception and
expression of every thought, however rapid the succession.
There w^ere no half-formed ideas, no misty semblances of
a meaning, no momentary lapses of intellect into an utter¬
ance at hazard, no sentences without a distinct object, and
serving merely for the contiguity of speaking; every senti¬
ment had at once a palpable shape, and an appropriate¬
ness to the immediate purpose.” If such was a charac¬
teristic of his preaching, part of which was extemporaneous,
it is almost unnecessary to say that the same excellence
distinguishes the sermons which he prepared for the press.
He surpasses perhaps all preachers of modern times in hav¬
ing alw ays a definite purpose, a distinct assignable object in
view in his discourses. Hence each of them affords afine spe¬
cimen of a comprehensive and perfect whole. The piety of
Mr Hall w^as pure, sincere, exalted, and untainted by bigotry
or intolerance. As a pastor he was zealous, affectionate,
and indefatigable in the discharge of his duties. His fame
as an orator receives additional lustre from the excellence
of his moral nature. In him benevolence and humility were
conspicuous, and his affections were as warm as his intellect
was strong. In social life he was open, communicative, sin¬
cere, unostentatious. His conversation was on a level with
his preaching, and displayed the same varied excellences.
He had, however, an inclination to sarcasm, which in some
of his earlier productions he allowed to poison the edge of
his polemical weapon. Occasionally, also, he argued more
perhaps for victory than for truth; but he never volun¬
tarily chose the wrong side of a question, or allowed him¬
self to tamper with the sanctities of religion. Mr Hall
took the degree of A. M. at King’s College, Aberdeen ; and
that of doctor in divinity was conferred on him unsolicited
by Marischal College; but, either from his humility, or from
some scruples as to propriety, he never assumed the title.
Mr Hall’s works consist of, 1. Christianity consistent with
the Love of Freedom, being an Answer to a Sermon by
the Rev. John Clayton, 1791, 8vo; 2. Apology for the
Freedom of the Press, and for general Liberty, with Re¬
marks on Bishop Horsley’s Sermon, preached 13th January
1793, 8vo; 3. Modern Infidelity considered with respect
to its Influence on Society; a Sermon preached at Cam¬
bridge, 1800, 8vo ; 4. Reflections on War, a Sermon on
June 1, 1802, being the Day of Thanksgiving for a Gene¬
ral Peace; 5. The Sentiments proper to the present Crisis,
a Fast Sermon at Bristol, October 19, 1803 ; 6. The Effects
of Civilization on the People in European States, 1805; 7.
The Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower Classes, a
Sermon at Leicester, 1810; 8. The Discouragements and
Supports of the Christian Minister, an Ordination Sermon,
1812; 9. The Character of the late Rev. Thomas Robin¬
son, Vicar of St Mary’s, Leicester, 1813; 10. Address to
the Public on an important Subject connected with the
Renewal of the Charter of the East India Company, 1813;
118 H A L
Hallage 11. An Address to the Rev. Eustace Carey, January 19,
II 1814, on his Designation as a Christian Missionary to In-
Haller. . jg. On Terms of Communion, with a particular view
to the Case of the Baptists and the Paedo-Baptists, 1815;
13. The essential Difference between Christian Baptism
and the Baptism of John more fully stated and confirmed;
14. A Sermon occasioned by the Death of the Princess
Charlotte of Wales, preached at Leicester, 1817; 15. A
Sermon on the Death of Dr Ryland, 1826. His collected
works, with various posthumous productions, and a memoir
of his life by Dr Gregory, were published in 1832, in six
volumes 8vo. • (u. r. r.)
HALLAGE, a fee or toll paid for cloth brought to be
sold in Blackwell Hall, London.
HALLAMAS, in our old writers, the day of all-hal-
lows, or all-saints, viz. the 1st of November. It is one of
the cross quarters of the year, which was computed, in
ancient writings, from Hallamas or Candlemas.
HALLE, a city, the capital of a district of the same
name, in the province of Saxony in Prussia. It is situated
on the river Saale, which divides above the town into seve¬
ral streams, and these form a number of islands, on which
it is built, and which are connected by several bridges. It
contains 2212 houses, and 21,570 inhabitants, including
the university and the suburbs. The university is an an¬
cient institution, with a great number of professors, and
about five hundred pupils. It has a botanical garden, a
chemical laboratory, and an observatory, with a library of
50,000 volumes. It is highly esteemed as a school of
surgery, medicine, and midwifery. There is also an or¬
phan-house with two hundred children. It is a manufac¬
turing town for coarse cloths, flannels, and friezes, and
for hats and hosiery. Long. 11.53.40. E. Lat. 51. 29. 5. N.
HALLEIN, a city of the circle of Salzach or Salzburg,
in the Austrian province of the Upper Ens. It is situated
on the river Salza, and is celebrated for its extensive salt¬
works, which employ upwards of two thousand workmen,
partly in drawing the rock-salt from the mines, and partly
in the subsequent process of refining it. As this place is
close to the Bavarian frontier, that kingdom draws from
thence 13,000 tons of culinary salt, and about 10,000 are
furnished to the Austrian dominions. There are some
manufactures of hosiery and of cotton goods. It con¬
tains three churches, 320 houses, and 4640 inhabitants.
HALLELUJAH, a term of rejoicing, sometimes sung
rehearsed at the end of verses on such occasions. The
word is Hebrew, or rather it is composed of two Hebrew
words; one of them nbbrr, hallelu, and the other rr, jah,
an abridgment of the name of God mrr, Jehovah. * The
first signifies laudate, praise ye, and the other, Domi-
num, the Lord. St Jerome first introduced the word
hallelujah into the church service. For a considerable time
it was only used once a year in the Latin church, viz. at
Easter ; but in the Greek church it was much more fre¬
quently employed. St Jerome mentions its being sung
at the interments of the dead, which still continues to be
done in that church, as also on some occasions in the Latin
church, especially Lent. In the time of Gregory the Great,
it was appointed to be sung all the year round in the Latin
church, which raised some complaints against that pontiff,
as giving too much in to the Greek form, and introducing
the ceremonies of the church of Constantinople into that
of Rome. But he excused himself by alleging that this
had been the ancient usage of Rome, and that it had been
brought from Constantinople at the time when the word
hallelujah was first introduced under Pope Damascus.
HALLER, Albert Van, an eminent physician, was
born at Berne, on the 16th of October 1708. He was
the son of an advocate of considerable eminence in his
profession. His father had a numerous family, and Albert
was the youngest of five sons. From the first period of
HAL
his education he showed a great genius for almost every Hal
kind of literature. To forward the progress of his studies, ^
his father took into his family a private tutor, named
Abraham Billodz; and such was the discipline exerted
by this pedagogue, that the accidental sight of him at any
future period of life excited in Haller great uneasiness,
and renewed all his former terrors. According to the
accounts which are given us, the progress of Flaller’s stu¬
dies, at the earliest periods of life, was rapid almost be¬
yond belief. When other children were beginning only
to read, he was studying Bayle and Moreri; and at nine
years of age he was able to translate Greek, and begin¬
ning the study of Hebrew. Not long after this, however,
the course of his education was somewhat interrupted by
the death of his father, an event which happened when
he was in the thirteenth year of his age. After this he
was sent to the public school at Berne, where he exhi¬
bited many specimens of early and uncommon genius.
He was distinguished for his knowledge of the Greek and
Latin languages; but he was chiefly remarkable for his
poetical genius; and his essays in verse, published in the
German language, were read and admired throughout the
whole empire. In the sixteenth year of his age he be¬
gan the study of medicine at Tubingen, under Duvernoy
and Camerarius ; and continued there for the space of
two years, when the great reputation of Boerhaave attract¬
ed him to Leyden. Nor was this distinguished teacher
the only man by whose superior abilities he had there an
opportunity of profiting. Ruysch was still alive, and Al-
binus was rising into fame. Animated by such examples,
he spent all the day, and the greater part of the night, in
the most intense study; and the proficiency which he
made gained him universal esteem both amongst his teach¬
ers and his fellow students. From Holland he, in the
year 1727, proceeded to England, where, however, his
stay was but short; and, in fact, it was rather his intention
to visit the illustrious men of that period, than to prose¬
cute his studies in London. But he formed connections
with some of the most eminent persons of the time. He
was honoured with the friendship of Douglas and Che-
selden ; and he met with a reception proportioned to his
merit from Sir Hans Sloane, president of the Royal So¬
ciety. After his visit to Britain he proceeded to France,
and there, under Winslow and Le Dran, with the latter of
whom he resided during his stay in Paris, he had oppor¬
tunities of prosecuting anatomy, which Ire had not before
enjoyed. But the zeal of the young anatomist was great¬
er than the prejudices of the people at that period, even
in the enlightened city of Paris, could tolerate. An in¬
formation being lodged against him to the police for dis¬
secting dead bodies, he was obliged to cut short his ana¬
tomical investigations, and effect a precipitate retreat.
Still, however, intent on the further prosecution of his
studies, he went to Basil, where he became a pupil of
the celebrated Bernoulli.
Ihus improved and instructed by the lectures of the
most distinguished teachers of that period, by uncommon
natural abilities, and by unremitting industry, he returned
to the place of his nativity in the twenty-sixth year of
his age. Not long after this he offered himself as a can¬
didate, first for the office of physician to an hospital, and
afterwards for a professorship. But neither the character
which he possessed before he left his native country, nor
the fame which he had acquired and supported whilst
abroad, were sufficient to combat the interest opposed to
him. He was disappointed in both; and it was even with dif¬
ficulty that he obtained, in the following year, the appoint-
ment of keeper of a public library at Berne. The exercise
of this office was indeed by no means suited to his great
abilities ; but it was agreeable to him, as it afforded him
an opportunity for indulging that extensive reading by
HAL
ga r. which he has been so justly distinguished. The neglect
',21. ^ of his merit which marked his first outset, neither dimi¬
nished his ardour for medical pursuits, nor detracted from
his reputation either at home or abroad. Soon afterwards
he was nominated by King George II. a professor in the
university of Gottingen. The duties of this important
office he discharged with no less honour to himself than
advantage to the public, for the space of seventeen years,
and it afforded him an ample field for the exertion of
those great talents which he possessed. Extensively ac¬
quainted with the sentiments of others respecting the
economy of the human body, struck with the diversity of
opinions which they held, and sensible that the only
means of investigating truth was by careful and candid
experiment, he undertook the arduous task of exploring
the phenomena of human nature from the original source,
viz. life. In these pursuits he was no less industrious than
successful, and there was hardly any function of the body
on which his experiments did not reflect either a new or a
stronger light. Nor was it long necessary for him, in this
arduous undertaking, to labour alone. The example of
the preceptor inspired his pupils with the same spirit of in¬
dustrious exertion. Zinn, Zimmerman, Caldani, and many
others, animated by a generous emulation, laboured with
indefatigable industry to prosecute and to perfect the disco¬
veries of their master. The mutual exertion of the teacher
and his students not only tended to forward the pro¬
gress of medical science, but placed the philosophy of the
human body upon a surer and almost entirely new ba¬
sis. But the labours of Dr Haller, during his residence
at Gottingen, were by no means confined to any one de¬
partment of science. He was not more anxious to be an
improver himself, than to instigate others to similar pur¬
suits. To him the anatomical theatre, the school of mid¬
wifery, the chirurgical society, and the royal academy of
sciences at Gottingen, owe their origin. Such distinguished
merit could not fail to meet wuth a suitable reward from
the sovereign under whose protection he then taught. The
king of Great Britain not only honoured him with every
mark of attention which he himself could bestow, but also
procured him letters of nobility from the emperor. On
the death of Dillenius, he had an offer of the professorship
of botany at Oxford; the states of Holland invited him
to fill the chair of the younger Albinus; and the king of
Prussia was anxious that he should become the successor of
Maupertuis at Berlin. Marshal Keith wrote to him in the
name of his sovereign, offering him the chancellorship of
the university of Halle, vacant by the death of the cele¬
brated Wolff. Count Orloff invited him to Russia, in the
name of his mistress the empress, offering him a distin¬
guished place at St Petersburg. The king of Sweden con¬
ferred on him an unsolicited honour, by raising him to the
rank of knight of the order of the polar star ; and the em¬
peror of Germany did him the honour of a personal visit,
during which he passed some time with him in the most
familiar conversation.
Thus honoured by sovereigns, revered by men of learn¬
ing, and esteemed by all Europe, he had it in his power
to have held the highest rank in the republic of letters.
Yet, declining all the tempting offers which were made to
him, he continued at Gottingen, anxiously endeavouring
to extend the rising fame of that medical school. But af¬
ter seventeen years residence in that university, an ill state
of health having rendered him less fit for the duties of the
important office which he held, he solicited and obtained per¬
mission from the regency of Hanover to return to his na¬
tive city of Berne. His fellow-citizens, who might at first
have fixed him amongst themselves, with no less honour
than advantage to their city, were now as sensible as others
of his superior merit. A pension was settled upon him for
life, and he was nominated at different times to fill the
HAL 119
most important offices in the state. These occupations, Halley,
however, did not diminish his ardour for useful improve-
ments. He was the fii'st president, as well as the greatest
promoter, of the Economical Society at Berne ; and he may
be considered as the father and founder of the orphan hospi¬
tal of that city. Declining health, however, restrained his
exertions in the more active scenes of life, and for many
years he was confined entirely to his own house. Even
this, however, could not put a period to his utility ; for,
with indefatigable industry, he continued his favourite
employment of writing till within a few days of his death,
which happened on the 12th of December 1777, in the
seventieth year of his age. The works of Haller are, 1.
Opuscula Botanica, Gottingen, 1749, in 4to ; 2. Historia
Stirpium Helvetia indigenarum incoata, Berne, 1768, in
three vols. folio; 3. Opera Minora, Lausanne, 1762-1768,
in three vols. 4to ; 4. Elementa Physiologic, Lausanne,
1757-1766, in eight vols. 4to ; 5. Four Bibliothecce, con¬
taining chronological lists of every book of every age, coun¬
try, and language, which had come to his knowledge, re¬
specting medicine, with brief analyses and opinions sub¬
joined. Of these he published the Bibliotheca Botanica,
Zurich, 1771 ; Bibliotheca Chirurgica, Berne, 1774; Bib¬
liotheca Anatomica, Zurich, 1774 and 1777, each in two
vols. 4to; and the Bibliotheca Medicine Practice, Bale,
1776, in three vols. 4to. One of his earliest, and, in his
opinion, one of his best works, was his leones Anatomicce,
which he began to publish in 1743, in fasciculi or numbers,
and which principally related to the blood-vessels in situ
naturali. But the reputation of Haller rests chiefly on his
ElementaPhys-iologice; a work which astonished the learned
world by the excellence of its arrangement, the precision
of the style, the immense detail into which the author
enters on the structure of the parts, the profound discus¬
sion of all the opinions previously delivered as to their
functions and uses, the exact and prodigiously numerous
references to all those passages in authors where allusion
was made to the smallest matters connected with the
science, and the revolution it almost instantaneously ef¬
fected in physiology, owing to the substitution of induc¬
tion for hypothesis. The principle which pervades the
work, and which is also the great discovery of the author,
is that of irritability, considered as a force peculiar to the
fleshy fibre, independently of sensibility properly so called,
and distributed in a manner altogether different.
HALLEY, Dr Edmund, an eminent astronomer, was the
only son of a soap-boiler in London, and was born in 1656.
He first applied himself to the study of the languages and
sciences, but at length gave himself up wholly to that of as¬
tronomy. In 1676 he went to the island of St Helena to
complete the catalogue of fixed stars, by the addition of
those situated near the south pole ; and having delineated
a planisphere, in which he laid them all down in their exact
places, he returned to England in 1678. In the year
1680 he performed what is called the grand tour, accom¬
panied by his friend Mr Nelson. About half way between
Calais and Paris, Halley obtained a sight of a remarkable
comet, as it then appeared a second time that year, in
its return from the sun. In the preceding November he
had seen it in its descent; and now hastened to complete
his observations by viewing it from the royal observatory
of France. His design in this part of his tour was to es¬
tablish a friendly correspondence between the two astro¬
nomers royal of Greenwich and Paris, and in the mean
time to improve himself under so great a master as Cas¬
sini. From France he proceeded to Italy, where he spent
the greater part of the year 1681, and then returned to
England. In 1683 he published his Theory of the Varia¬
tion of the Magnetical Compass, in which he supposes the
whole globe of the earth to be a great magnet, with four
magnetical poles or points of attraction; but afterwards
]20
HAL
HAL
Halliar. conceiving that this theory was liable to great exceptions,
he caused an application to be made to King William, who
appointed him commander of the Paramour, with orders
to seek by observations the discovery of the rule of va¬
riations, and to lay down the longitudes and latitudes of
his majesty’s settlements in America. He set out on this
attempt on the 24th of November 1698; but on crossing
the line his men grew sickly, and his lieutenant having
mutinied, he returned home in June 1699. Having got
the lieutenant tried and cashiered, he set sail a second
time in September following, with the same ship, and an¬
other of less size, of which he had also the command.
He now traversed the Atlantic Ocean from one hemi¬
sphere to the other; and having made his observations
at St Helena, Brazil, Cape Yerd, Barbadoes, Madeira, the
Canaries, the coast of Barbary, and in many other lati¬
tudes, he returned in September 1700, and the next year
published a general chart, showing at one view the varia¬
tion of the compass in all those places. Captain Halley,
as he was now called, had been at home little more than
half a year, when he was sent by the king to observe the
course of the tides, with the longitude and latitude of the
principal headlands in the British Channel; and having
executed this task with his usual expedition and accuracy,
he published a large map of the British Channel. Soon
afterwards the emperor of Germany having resolved to
construct a harbour for shipping in the Adriatic, Captain
Halley was sent by Queen Anne to survey the different
ports on the coast of Dalmatia. He embarked on the
22d of November 1702, passed over to Holland, and tra¬
velling through Germany to Vienna, proceeded to Istria;
but as the Dutch opposed the design, it was laid aside.
The emperor, however, made him a present of a rich dia¬
mond ring from his finger, and honoured him with a let¬
ter of recommendation, written with his own hand, to
Queen Anne. Soon after his return he was again dis¬
patched on the same business. Upon his arrival at Vienna
he was the same evening presented to the emperor, who
sent his chief engineer to attend him to Istria, where they
repaired and added new fortifications to those of Trieste.
Mr Halley returned to England in 1703; and the same
year he was appointed professor of geometry in the uni¬
versity of Oxford, in the room of Dr Wallis, and had the
degree of doctor of laws conferred on him by that univer¬
sity. He is said to have lost the professorship of astro¬
nomy in that university because he would not profess his
belief of the Christian religion. He was scarcely settled
at Oxford, when he began to translate into Latin from the
Arabic, Apollonius de Sectione Rationis, and to restore
the two books of the same author, De Sectione Spatii,
which are lost, from the account given of them by Pap¬
pus; and he published the whole in 1706. He had after¬
wards a share in preparing for the press the Conics of
Apollonius, and he ventured to supply the whole of the
eighth book, the original of which is also lost. He likewise
added Serenus on the section of the cylinder and cone,
printed from the original Greek, with a Latin translation,
and published the whole in folio. In 1713 he was made
secretary of the Royal Society ; in 1720 he was appointed
the king’s astronomer at the royal observatory at Green¬
wich, in the room of Mr Flamsteed; and in 1729 he was
chosen as foreign member of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris. He died at Greenwich in 1742. His principal
works are, 1. Catalogus Stellarum Australium ; 2. Tabu¬
la Astronomicce; 3. An Abridgment of the Astronomy
of Comets. We are also indebted to Halley for the pub¬
lication of several of the works of Sir Isaac Newton, who
had a particular friendship for him, and to whom he fre¬
quently communicated his discoveries.
HALLIAR, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Gujerat, extending along the eastern shore of the Gulf of
Cutch. The general characteristic of this district is bar- Halm H
renness, with particular spots in a high state of cultivation. ||
The ruler of the country has lately given orders to the halt! 1
zemindars to plant annually a certain number of mango ^ lstae *
and other trees, in order to improve the appearance of
the country. The princes themselves breed a number of
horses and camels. The inhabitants never shoe their
horses, yet they gallop at full speed over the worst
ground ; and by such training their hoofs become as hard
as the rocks over which they tread. The natives of this
country have a practice of suspending rags on trees, which
example being followed by others, the tree, according to
the popular superstition, becomes consecrated, and is
styled the Chintra Peer, or Ragged Saint. The country
is possessed by independent native chiefs, who claim de¬
scent from Rawul, the youngest son of Rai Humeer, the
sovereign of Cutch. This prince usurped the throne of
his father, but was afterwards compelled to resign it to
his brother, and leave the country. He crossed the Runn
at Mallia, and finally established his headquarters at a
village where Noanagur now stands. His followers in the
course of a few years added to their possession two vil¬
lages, which received the name of Halliar, an appellation
it still retains.
HALMOTE, or Halimote, is identical with what is
now called a court-baron, the word implying a meeting of
the tenants of the same hall or manor. The name is
still retained at Luston, and other places in Hereford¬
shire.
HALMSTAD, a province in the south of Sweden,
bounded by Gottenburg, Elfsborg, Jonkoping, and Krons-
burg. It is mountainous in the eastern part, but to the
west level and sandy. The soil is poor, stony, and ill
cultivated, so that it is necessary to import one third of
the corn required for food. The inhabitants subsist either
by their dairies, or by the fisheries, which employ a great
proportion of them. It is divided into four bailiwicks, in
which are four towns and 3536 farming establishments,
with 71,500 inhabitants. The capital is the city Halmstad,
situated at the mouth of the river Nissa, by which it
trades in deals, pitch, and tar. It contains a church, a
stadthouse, 199 dwellings, and 1634 inhabitants. Long.
12. 46. 40. E. Lat. 56. 39. 45. N.
HALO, or Corona, in Natural History, a coloured
circle appearing round the body of the sun, moon, or any
of the large stars.
HALSTEAD, a market-town of the county of Essex,
in the hundred of Hinchford, forty-six miles from Lon¬
don. The river Colne runs at the bottom of the town,
from which the streets gently rise. It has a good corn-
market on Friday, and once employed many persons in
the woollen manufacture, which is now nearly extinct.
There is a good foundation grammar-school, and the
county bridewell is established in the town. The popu¬
lation amounted in 1801 to 3380, in 1811 to 3379, in 1821
to 3858, and in 1831 to 4637.
HALTERISTiE, in Antiquity, a kind of players at
discus, who were so denominated from a peculiar kind of
discus, called by the Greeks aArjjg, and by the Latins
halter. (See Discus.) Some conceive the discus to have
been a leaden weight or ball which the vaulters bore in
their hands, to secure and keep themselves the more
steady in their leaping. Others think that the halter was
a lump or mass of lead or stone, with a hole or handle
fixed to it, by which it might be carried; and that the
halteristae were those who exercised themselves in remov¬
ing these masses from place to place. Mercurialis, in his
treatise De Arte Gymnastica (1. ii. c. 12), distinguishes
two kinds of halterista: (for though there was but one
halter, there were two ways of applying it) ; the one was
to throw or pitch it in a certain manner; the other only
HAM
Ha; note to hold it out at arm’s-end, and in this posture to perform
different motions, swinging the hand backwards and for-
f jn' wards, according to the figures given by Mercurialis. The
'■*’ halter was of a cylindrical figure, smaller in the middle,
where it was held, by one diameter, than at the two
ends. It was above a foot long, there was one for each
hand, and it was either of iron, stone, or lead. Galen
(De Tuend. Valetud. lib. i. v. and vi.) speaks of this exer¬
cise, and shows of what use it is in purging the body of
peccant humours.
HALYMOTE, properly signifies a holy or ecclesiasti¬
cal court. See Halmote.
HALYS, the largest river of Asia Minor, which, accord¬
ing to Herodotus (i. 72), rose in the mountains of Armenia,
and after flowing through that part of Cappadocia called
Cilicia, separated the Matieni from the Phrygians, and
then the Syrians of Cappadocia from the Paphlagonians.
Strabo (xii. 546) says that it rises in Great Cappadocia,
but towards Pontica, and the vicinity of the district Ca-
misene ; it runs a great way from east to west, then turn¬
ing to the north, traverses the country of the Galatae and
Paphlagonians. Pliny (vi. 2) makes it rise in Mount
Taurus, and flow through Cataonia and Cappadocia. Both
of these accounts are correct; for the Halys, now Kizil-
Ermak, has two main branches, the one rising in the
mountains of Taurus, and the other in those of Lesser
Armenia. This river derived its name from some salt
mines near which it flowed (Strab.), and, forming the
boundary of the Median and Lydian empires in the times
of Croesus, is connected with the ambiguous oracle which
led to the destruction of that prince. Tournefort de¬
scribes it near its mouth as being as wide as the Seine at
Paris. It has only one mouth, though modern maps give
it several.
HALYWERCFOLK, in old writers, were persons who
enjoyed land, by the pious service of repairing some
church, or defending a sepulchre. This word also signi¬
fied such persons in the diocese of Durham as held their
lands by the tenure of defending the corpse of St Cuth-
bert, and who thence claimed the privilege of not being
forced to go out of the bishopric.
HAM, or Cham, in Ancient Geography, the country of
the Zuzims (Gen. xiv. 5), the situation of which is not
known.
Ham, the youngest son of Noah, was the father of
Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan, each of whom had the
several countries peopled by them. With respect to Ham,
it is believed that he had all Africa for his inheritance,
and that he peopled it with his children. As for himself,
it is thought by some that he dwelt in Egypt; but Bas-
nage is of opinion that neither Ham nor Mizraim ever
were in Egypt, but that their posterity settled in that
country, and called it by the name of their ancestors.
And as to Ham’s being worshipped as a god, and called
Jupiter Hammon, he thinks people maj' have been led
into this mistake by the similitude of names; and that
Jupiter Hammon or Ammon was the sun, to which divine
honours were at all times paid in Egypt. However this
may be, Africa is called the land of Ham in several places
of the Psalms (Psal. Ixxvii. 51, civ. 23, cv. 22). In Plu¬
tarch, Egypt is called Chemia ; and there are some traces
of the name of Ham or Cham observed in Psochemmis
and Psittachemmis, which are cantons of Egypt.
Ham, a Saxon word, used to signify a place of dwell-
ing, a village or town; and hence the termination of some
of our towns, Nottingham, Buckingham, and the like. A
home, close, or little narrow meadow, is also denominated
a ham.
Ham is likewise part of the leg of an animal, being the
inner or hind part of the knee, or the ply or angle in which
the leg and thigh, when bent, incline to each other.
VOL. xi.
H AM 121
Ham, in Commerce, means a leg or thigh of pork, dried, Ham
seasoned, and prepared, to make it keep, and to give it a II
brisk agreeable flavour. Hamah.
HAM AD AN, or Amadan, a city of Persia, in the pro-
vince of Irak, which stands upon the site of the ancient Ec-
batana. It was taken and destroyed by Timour or Tamer¬
lane, and has never recovered its former splendour. The
wall, with the citadel, was entirely pulled down by order
of the conqueror, and has never since been rebuilt. It
was long one of the most flourishing and prosperous cities
of the East, but had been for many years on the decline,
when it received its final blow from Timour the Tartar,
who sacked and pillaged it, destroyed its walls and finest
buildings, and reduced it from being a great and opulent
city to a heap of ruins. In that dismantled state it re¬
mained a mere clay-built suburb of what it had been ; but
it possessed its iron gates, until within the last fifty years,
when, by the orders of Aga Mahommed Khan, every ves¬
tige of its ancient greatness was destroyed. The mud
alleys, which now occupy the site of ancient streets or
squares, are narrow, interrupted by large hollows, and
heaps of fallen crumbled walls of deserted dwellings. A
miserable bazar is to be seen here and there in traversing
the town; and large lonely spots, marked by broken low
mounds, cover more ancient ruins. It is still a considerable
place, however, and a known mart of trade between Ispa¬
han and Bagdad, and between the latter place and Tehe¬
ran, and is famed for the manufacture of leather, in which
it carries on an extensive trade. Kinneir mentions that
when he was in this place he was shown the tomb of Mor-
decai and Esther, a circumstance which he considers as a
proof of the antiquity of the place. The Persians them¬
selves say that it was the favourite summer residence
of most of their sovereigns, from the days of Darius
to those of Ghengis Khan. The situation is fine. Dur¬
ing eight months of the year the climate is delightful.
But in winter the cold is excessive, and fuel is with difficul¬
ty procured. The surrounding plain is intersected by
innumerable little streams, covered with gardens and vil¬
lages, and the vegetation is most luxuriant. It contains
at present ten thousand meanly-built houses, and about
forty or forty-five thousand inhabitants, amongst whom
are about six hundred Jewish families, and nearly the
same number of Armenians. Long. 40. E. Lat. 34.
53. N.
HAMADRYADES (formed of a/*a, together, and dgvct(,
dryad, from dgvs, oak), in Antiquity, certain fabulous dei¬
ties revered amongst the ancient heathens, and believed
to preside over woods and forests, and to be enclosed un¬
der the bark of oaks. The Hamadryades were supposed
to live and die with the trees which they were attached to,
as is observed by Servius on Virgil (Eclog. x. ver. 62), after
Mnesimachus, the scholiast of Apollonius, who mentions
other traditions relating to the same subject. The poets,
however, frequently confound the Hamadryades with the
Naiads, Napseae, and rural nymphs in general. (See Ca¬
tullus, Carm. Ixviii.ver. 23; Ovid, Fast. iv. 229 ; Met. i.
ver. 695, xiv. ver. 628; Propertius, Eleg. xx. 32; Virg.
Eel. x. ver. 64; Georg, iv. ver. 382, 383.) Eestus calls
them Querquetulance, as having issued or sprung from oaks.
An ancient poet, Pherenicus (Athenaeus, lib. hi.), calls the
vine, fig-tree, and other fruit-trees, hamadryades, from the
name of their mother the oak.
HAMAH, a flourishing town of Syria, situated on the
Orontes, and generally supposed by some to be the an¬
cient Apamea; but, according to Dr Pococke, the ancient
Epiphania. The celebrated Arabic historian Abulfeda
was formerly prince of Hamah. The sheiks of the town
still enjoy high consideration, and inhabit a splendid pa¬
lace. It is the only market for the Arabs, who roam over
the desert between it and Tadmor; and it derives great
Q
122 HAM
Hamax- advantage from this trade. It is 62 miles south-south-
obii west of Aleppo. Long. 37. 10. E. Lat. 34. 45. N.
HAMAXOBII, Hamaxobians, in the ancient geogra-
phy, a people who had no houses, but lived in carriages.
The word is formed from a carriage or chariot,
and /3/os, life. The Hamaxobii, called also Hamaxobitce,
were an ancient people of Sarmatia Europaea, who inha¬
bited the southern part of Muscovy, and instead of houses,
had a sort of tents made of leather, and fixed on carriages,
to be ready for shifting and travel.
HAMBLEDON, or Hambledown, a town in the
county of Hants, in the division of Portsdown, sixty-four
miles from London. It has a small market for corn, which
is held on Mondays. As it is at the foot of the Southdown
hills, the climate is considered as favourable for pulmo¬
nary patients. The population amounted in 1801 to 1358,
in 1811 to 1495, in 1821 to 1886, and in 1831 to 2026.
HAMBURG, a republican state in Germany, consist¬
ing of the city of that name, and of the territory around it,
though some portions are encompassed by the dominions
of Denmark and of Hanover. It has also, in union with
the state of Lubeck, the bailiwick of Bergedorf, with the
town of that name, containing 2000 inhabitants. The baili¬
wick of Ritzebuttel, of which Hamburg is the sovereign,
contains the town of that name, and also Cruxhaven, and
extends between the mouths of the rivers Elbe and We-
ser, over about thirty-four square miles, and contains 4000
inhabitants.
The city of Hamburg, one of the greatest emporiums
of foreign commerce on the continent of Europe, is situat¬
ed on the north bank of the river Elbe, about seventy-five
miles from its mouth, by which the larger class of mer¬
chant vessels can reach it with facility. It was strongly
fortified both on the land and the river sides, but during
the revolutionary wars its defences were found to require
so large a garrison, that since peace has restored it to in¬
dependence, the walls have been converted into pleasant
gardens and promenades. It has two lakes on its eastern
side, the Great and Little Alster, on one of which a row
of trees forms a pleasant walk, called the Junfersteign or
Young Lady’s Walk, which is the scene of the recreation
of the inhabitants, and on which are the best hotels of the
city.
The city, like other ancient towns, consists of narrow
and crooked streets, of houses large, lofty, and gloomy,
and of canals communicating with the river, by which the
craft can convey goods from the ships on the river to the
various stores of the merchants. None of the public build¬
ings display remarkable taste. The stadthouse is large
and heavy ; and under it are those large wine-cellars be¬
longing to the city, which, before the French seized it, were
filled with nearly 400 large casks, containing about sixty
hogsheads each of Rhenish wine of all ages, from 160 to
one year old. There are in Hamburg sixteen Lutheran, two
Calvinist, and one Catholic church, besides chapels for
the English, and for some small sects. St Michael’s
church is the most striking, and has a tower 450 feet in
height. The bank, the exchange, the admiralty, the house
of industry, and other public buildings, are appropriated
for their specific purposes, but exhibit nothing peculiar
in their architecture. During the French possession, the
military commandant compelled the city to construct a
bridge across the Elbe, which is near seven miles in breadth,
at avast expense; but upon recovering their independence,
it was taken down, and the timber of which it was com¬
posed was sold. The intercourse with Harburg on the
opposite bank is now maintained by means of barques,
steam-boats, and other craft, which pass to and fro al¬
most hourly. The government of Hamburg resides in the
senate, which is composed of thirty-six members, four of
whom are termed burgomasters, four syndics, one the pro-
HAM
thonotary, one the keeper of the archives, and two secreta-Hambm
ries. They are chosen by the body of the citizens, who for y>
this purpose are formed into five divisions or classes. The
administration of civil as well as of criminal law is confided
to three graduated courts, with a power of appeal from the
lower to the higher courts. The principles of the Roman
law are acted upon in the several courts. The police is
well regulated, and maintains what is called a city guard
of 400. It maintains a regular military body of 1850 men,
besides an organized corps of city militia. The revenue is
derived from personal imposts on the different classes of
burghers, and from tolls on foreign ships, and slight duties
on importation, amounting to about L.150,000 yearly. The
debt owing by the state is about L.650,000, but it is annually
diminishing. The commerce of the city is carried on with
other countries, both by Hamburg and foreign-built ships.
The former, constructed in their own ship-yards, are com¬
monly well built, of great strength and burden, and gene¬
rally proceed to sea well equipped. Many of them repair
to the Greenland fishery, and return with blubber, which
is converted into oil at appropriate places on the verge of
the city. Other Hamburg ships repair to America, Asia,
and the Mediterranean. The greater part, however, of the
ships that convey cargoes to Hamburg are foreigners;
the largest number are British, next to them are the
North American, and some are of almost every maritime
country, all of whom have consuls to protect their several
interests. From the position of Hamburg, near the mouth
of a river navigable more than five hundred miles above
its embouchure, it enjoys a prodigious internal trade. It
is the necessary entrepot for a great part of Prussia,
for the whole of the kingdom of Saxony, for Bohemia, and
for several portions of other states in the interior of Ger¬
many. As these have no other channel of intercourse
with the sea, they obtain their sugar, coffee, rice, tobacco,
cotton, wine, rum, fruits, tea, besides articles of clothing,
from the stores deposited in Hamburg. They export also
through the same channel their corn, flax, linen yarn and
cloths, wax, honey, rags, feathers, and the various pro¬
ducts of the soil. Thus in Hamburg, as in London, the
commodities of every country, and of every climate, may
at all times meet both purchasers and sellers.
The manufacturing industry of Hamburg is likewise very
considerable. It is exhibited in sugar refineries, in spin¬
ning-mills, hat-making, in linen, silk, and velvet weaving,
in calico-printing, snuff and tobacco preparing, whalebone
cutting, in making gold and silver articles, and in several
other ways. The schools are conducted in a beneficial
manner for the education and improvement of the inha¬
bitants. A gymnasium or high school, a kind of college,
has five professors ; and the Johanneum, of the same kind,
has one director and seventeen tutors, and both are well
regulated, as are also the schools for the rudiments of
learning. The institutions for the relief of poverty, sick¬
ness, and old age, are benevolently and economically sup¬
ported. There are both French and German theatres,
and the gratifications of music and dancing are amply
provided for. This city is situated in longitude 9. 46. 27.
east, and latitude 53. 84. 32. north. The total number of
the inhabitants amounted, in 1832, to 122,000 within the
city.
HAMEL, John Baptiste du, a very learned philoso¬
pher and writer, born at Vire in Normandy in 1624, was
the son of an advocate esteemed for his knowledge, pro¬
bity, and conciliating spirit. He commenced his studies
at Caen, and completed them at Paris. Flis progress in
philosophy was rapid, and at eighteen he wrote a treatise,
in which he explained the Spherics of Theodosius, to
which was added a tract upon Trigonometry, designed as
an introduction to astronomy. Natural philosophy, as
then taught, was only a collection of vague, puzzling, and
HAM HAM
H ieln barren questions ; but Duhamel undertook to establish it
■j11 upon right principles, and with this view published his
] mi. Astronomia Physica. In 1666 Colbert having proposed
to Louis XIV. a scheme, which was approved of by his ma¬
jesty, for establishing a Royal Academy of Sciences, Du¬
hamel was appointed perpetual secretary ; a situation for
which he was eminently qualified, both by his acquire¬
ments and by his talent for managing the different parties
into which that learned society was divided. Besides, he
wrote in Latin with remarkable purity and elegance (a
great advantage at a period when the French had not be¬
come an European language) ; and, by reason of this ac¬
complishment, he accompanied Colbert first to the con¬
gress of Aix-la-Chapelle, and afterwards to England,
when his patron proceeded to that country in the capacity
of French ambassador. He subsequently visited Holland,
and then returned to France, where, between 1670 and
1673, he gave to the world the results of his observations,
in three publications. Flis next production was a course
of philosophy, which he composed for the use of the stu¬
dents in the College of Burgundy ; a work in which, if he
did not exclude the ancient systems, the weakness and
absurdity of which already began to be perceived, he at
least combated their grosser errors, and succeeded in re¬
commending new truths, without in any degree involving
himself in trouble by doing so. He then published a
course of theology, which met with great success, and of
which he was required to execute an abridgment for the
use of the schools. But all his labours did not prevent
him from assiduously attending the sittings of the Aca¬
demy, of which he was preparing a history : his zeal en¬
abled him to surmount all difficulties ; even the very infir¬
mities which announced his approaching dissolution could
not abate his ardour for study ; and he was still meditating
new undertakings, when death surprised him in the midst
of his projects, on the 6th of August 1706, at the age of
eighty. His principal works are, 1. Astronomia Physica,
Paris, 1660, in 4to; 2. De Meteoris et Fossilibus, ibid.
1660, in 4to ; 3. De Consensu Veteris et Novae Philoso-
phiae libri iv. Paris, 1663, in 4to ; 4. De Corporum Affec-
tionibus, cum manifestis turn occultis, libri duo, Paris,
1670, in 12mo ; 5. De Mente Humana, libri iv. Paris,
1672, in 12mo; 6. De Corpore Animate, libri iv. Paris,
1673, in 12mo ; 7. Philosophia Vetus et Nova ad usum
Scholae accommodata, Paris, 1678, in four vols. 12mo; 8.
Theologia Speculatrix et Practica, Paris, 1691, in seven
vols. 8vo; 9. Regiae Scientiarum Academiae Historia,
Paris, 1698 and 1701, in 4to. Duhamel also translated
into Latin the Traite des Droits de la Peine sur plusieurs
Etats de la Monarchic d’Espagne of Bilain, Paris, 1667,
in 4to.
HAMELN, a city of the kingdom of Hanover, in the
province of Kalenberg. It stands on the river Weser,
where that stream receives the water of the Hamel. It
is surrounded by walls scarcely defensible ; and the citadel
of Fort George was destroyed by the French in 1806. It
contains 674 houses, and 5454 inhabitants. There are
some very large breweries, and several tanneries ; and
some linen goods are also made. The navigation of the
Weser was dangerous near this place, but the danger has
been removed by the erection of new locks.
HAMESECKEN, or Hamesucken. Burglary, or noc¬
turnal housebreaking, was, by the ancient English law,
called Hamesecken, as it is in Scotland to this day.
KAMI, a region of Central Asia, in Mongolia, situat¬
ed in the heart of the great desert of Gobi, and on the
great caravan route to China, to whose jurisdiction it is
subject. The soil is barren, and it contains only one
city and a few villages. It produces, however, melons
of an exquisite flavour. The inhabitants are Mohamme¬
dans.
HAMILCAR Barcas, a Carthaginian general, the fa-B
ther of Hannibal, of a family which pretended to trace v
its descent to the ancient kings of Tyre, and which, from
the warlike nature of its policy, was a favourite with the
people. It was the eighteenth year of the first Punic
war (247 b. c.), when Hamilcar was appointed to the com¬
mand of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily, from which
they were nearly expelled. With his fleet he plundered
the land of the Bruttii and Locrians, and then took up
his station near Eryx, from which no power of the Ro¬
mans could dislodge him. For five years he continued to
desolate the coast of Italy, and to dispute the posses¬
sion of Sicily, but his exertions were destined to prove of
no avail. The fate of the war was decided without his
intervention, in the naval engagement oft' the Insulae GEga-
tes, and he had nothing but the humiliating duty to per¬
form of arranging with the Romans the terms on which
peace would be granted.
The Carthaginians were no sooner relieved from this
critical position than they were threatened with a war of
a still more alarming character. Their own mercenaries
having assembled at Carthage to receive their arrears of
pay, became clamorous and unreasonable in their demands,
and at last proceeded to make open war on the country
in whose defence they had been hitherto employed. Ha¬
milcar was again called into active service, and soon re¬
lieved his country from all fear of these leagued banditti.
The insulting conduct of the Romans was keenly felt by
Hamilcar, and the whole object of his life was now di¬
rected to find the means of taking vengeance on his proud
foe. For this purpose he procured his appointment to
the command of the troops in Spain, with the hope of
uniting to his country the whole of the peninsula. Here
he expected to find resources which would enable him to
make a successful attack on the Romans; and during the
course of nearly nine years he continued extending the
dominions of the republic, and reducing many nations un¬
der the Carthaginian yoke. At last he fell in an engage¬
ment with the Vettones, 229 b. c., and his son-in-law
Hasdrubal, succeeded to the command. (Polyb. ii. 1.)
HAMILTON, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Lanark. It is pleasantly situated upon the banks of the
Clyde and Avon, near their confluence, in the midst of
a highly fertile and cultivated district. The town ori¬
ginated in the fifteenth century,' under the protecting in¬
fluence of the lords of Hamilton, who constituted a place
called the Orchard, between this point and the Clyde, the
principal messuage of the barony, and which is still the chief
seat of the Hamilton family. There may however have
been a hamlet here prior to this transaction. In the vi¬
cinity was situated the church of the parish, which in 1451
was elevated to the dignity of a collegiate foundation. In
17l32, when anew church was built, the old one was almost
entirely pulled down. East from the modern church, which
occupies an eminence, and is an elegant structure, the pre¬
sent town of Hamilton has been reared. It consists of se¬
veral streets of well-built houses, somewhat irregularly dis¬
persed, but handsome in appearance. There is a neat town-
house and a commodious market-place. Besides the parish
church, there are four meeting-houses for dissenters. The
weaving of cotton goods is here carried on to a consider¬
able extent; and there is also a good inland trade, Ha¬
milton being the capital of a populous agricultural district.
It possesses two academies, three hospitals, and several other
charitable institutions. The town is governed by a provost,
three bailies, and eight councillors. The justices of peace
hold regular courts ; and the town has a stamp-office, tax-
office, and post-office. In the vicinity are spacious cavalry
barracks, which are generally occupied. The great objects
of attraction in this quarter are the palace of the Duke of
Hamilton, and the surrounding pleasure-grounds. This
1
124 HAM
Hamilton, magnificent mansion, which was rebuilt in the years 1695—
v"'w 1696, is finely situated on a flat expanse of ground between
the town and the river Clyde. It has recently been greatly
modernized, and increased in size and accommodation. Se¬
veral of the rooms are large, particularly the gallery, which
contains a splendid collection of pictures. Hamilton is si¬
tuated at the distance of about ten miles and a half from
Glasgow, fifteen from Lanark, and thirty-six from Edin¬
burgh. The population amounted in 1821 to 6000, and
in 1831 to 9513. Hamilton is attached to the Falkirk
district of burghs in sending a member to parliament.
Hamilton, Anthony, Count, was descended from a
younger branch of the great family of Hamilton, and born
in Ireland about the year 1646. His mother was sister of
the Duke of Ormond, then viceroy of that country. The
troubles of that period compelled his family to retire to
France whilst he was only an infant, and he was brought
up in the language and religion of that country. He made
different visits to England in the reign of Charles II., but
he was prevented from obtaining any public employment
in consequence of his religious opinions, to which he con¬
stantly adhered. He received from James II. a regiment
of infantry in Ireland; but when that monarch’s affairs be¬
came ruined, Count Hamilton accompanied him to France,
which he never afterwards quitted. He was very much
admired on account of his wit and politeness, as well as
for the many estimable qualities of his heart. His writings
are lively, yet his conversation was serious, and he perhaps
indulged too much his propensity to satire. He died in
the year 1720 in the seventy-fourth year of his age. The
works of the Count, written in the French language, were
printed in 1749, in six vols. 12mo., and consist of poems,
fairy tales, and the Memoires de Grammont, the best of
all his compositions. Of this production Voltaire remark¬
ed, “ It is of all books that in which the most slender
gx-oundwork is set off with the gayest, most lively, and
agreeable style.” A splendid edition, adorned with fine
engravings from original portraits, was published by Lord
Orford, at his own private press.
Hamilton, George, Earl of Orkney, and a brave war¬
rior, was the fifth son of William earl of Selkirk, and early
betook himself to the profession of arms. Being made co¬
lonel in 1689-1690, he distinguished himself by his bravery
at the battle of the Boyne; and soon afterwards at those
of Aghrim, Steinkirk, and Landen, and at the sieges of
Athlone, Limerick, and Namur. His eminent services in
Ireland and Flanders, tln-ough the whole course of the war,
recommended him so highly to King William III. that,
in 1696, he advanced him to the dignity of peer of Scot¬
land, by the title of Earl of Orkney ; and his lady, the sister
of Edward Viscount Villiers, afterwards Earl of Jersey, had
a grant made to her, under the great seal of Ireland, of
almost all the private estates of King James, which were
of any considerable value. Upon the accession of Queen
Anne to the throne, he was promoted to the rank of major-
general, and, in the year 1703, to that of lieutenant-ge¬
neral, and was likewise made knight of the Thistle. His
lordship afterwards served under John duke of Marlbo¬
rough, and contributed by his bravery and conduct to the
glorious victories of Blenheim and Malplaquet, and to the
taking of several towns in Flanders. In the beginning of
1710, his lordship, as one of the sixteen peers of Scotland,
voted for the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel; and the same
year he was sworn of the privy council, and made general
of infantry in Flanders. In 1712, he was appointed colo¬
nel of the royal regiment of fusileers, and served in Flan¬
ders under the Duke of Ormond. In 1714, he was made
gentleman-extraordinary of the bed-chamber to King George
I. and afterwards governor of Virginia. At length he was
appointed constable, governor, and captain of Edinburgh
Castle, lord-lieutenant of the county of Clydesdale, and
H A M
field-marshal. Fie died at his house in Albemarle Street Hamilto
in the year 1737. ’'—■'vs
Hamilton, John, the twenty-fourth bishop of St An¬
drews, to which he had been translated from Dunkeld. He
was natural son of James, the first Earl of Arran, and was
in great favour at court whilst his friends remained in
power. He was one of Queen Mary’s privy council, and
a steady friend of that unfortunate princess. He performed
the ceremony of christening her son, and was at different
times lord privy seal and lord treasurer. The queen had
reason to lament her not following the advice of this pre¬
late, after the fatal battle of Langside, when he urged her
not to trust her person in England. By the Earl of Mur¬
ray, the regent, he was declared a traitor, and obliged to
seek shelter amongst his friends. But being unfortunately
in the castle of Dumbarton when that fortress was taken
by surprise, he was carried thence to Stirling, where, on
the 1st of April 1570, he was executed, with the uncere¬
monious barbarity peculiar to the time.
Hamilton, Robert, a distinguished mathematician, and
author of several works on finance and political economy,
was born at Edinburgh on the 11th of June 1743. Dr Ha¬
milton’s family was a branch of that of Preston, the eldest
cadet of the ducal house of Hamilton. His grandfather was
Dr William Hamilton, professor of divinity, and principal of
the University of Edinburgh. His father was Gavin Ha¬
milton, an eminent publisher, and distinguished by his loy¬
alty to the House of Hanover during the rebellion in 1745,
at which time he acted as chief magistrate of Edinburgh.
His mother was Helen Balfour, daughter of James Bal¬
four, Esq. of Pilrig, and the subject of this notice was the
eighth child.
Like many other men who have distinguished themselves
by the strength and vigour of their mental powers in after¬
life, Dr Hamilton was very delicate in his youth; yet though
never robust, he lived to a very advanced age. This may
in some degree be attributed to the great regularity of his
life, and to his moderation in all things, and not a little to
the admirable control under which he had brought every
inclination and passion, being thus exempted from those
violent emotions which wear out our mortal frames.
His education was entirely conducted in Edinburgh; he
was an excellent scholar, and gave complete satisfaction to
his teachers, applying himself with diligence and success
to the various branches of study usually taught in Scot¬
land. He appears to have had from his earliest years an
earnest desire after every sort of learning; -and even late in
life, when his professional duties and his studies in finance
and political economy would have seemed more than enough
to occupy all his time, he was able to keep himself acquaint¬
ed not only with all the discoveries of science, but also with
the modern literature of his own and other countries.
His habits and inclinations led him to desire to pass his
life in literary pursuits; but the circumstances of his fa¬
ther’s numerous family obliged him to devote himself to
mercantile business. To prepare himself for this, he spent
some time in a banking-house in Edinburgh, a circum¬
stance which he doubtless regretted at the time, but which
probably proved of the utmost value to him in after-life;
for the accurate habits of business he then acquired were
never lost, but were most useful to himself and to others
on many occasions, and perhaps even laid the foundation
of his work on finance. Whilst a clerk in the banking-
house he pursued his studies as far as his leisure permitted.
He and some of his companions formed themselves into a
literary society, which subsisted for several seasons, and
eventually gave rise to the Speculative.
Lord Kaimes was at that time the leading literary man
in Edinburgh, and Dr Hamilton became personally ac-'
quainted with him, in a manner equally creditable to both.
He had written an anonymous criticism on one of Lord
HAM HAM 125
on. Kaimes’s works, with which his lordship was so much The first work which Dr Hamilton gave to the public Hamilton.
—' pleased that he expressed an anxious wish to become ac- was his Merchandise, the first edition of which appeared —
quainted with the author. He was with some difficulty in 1777. It has gone through many editions, the last of
persuaded to reveal himself, and Lord Kaimes expressed which, not long before his death, was, with the author’s ap-
much surprise at the youth of his able critic. He gave probation, edited by Mr E. Johnstone of Edinburgh. In
him a general invitation to his house, then the resort of all 1790, he printed, for the use of his pupils, a set of mathe-
the literary characters of the day, which proved to him a matical tables, which were reprinted with great accuracy
source both of pleasure and improvement. and care in 1807. The labour of preparing and correct-
The life of a man devoted to literary pursuits rarely ing such tables for the press is most irksome, and every
furnishes much matter for the biographer, and that of Dr student of mathematics can well appreciate their value. In
Hamilton is unusually devoid of incident. In the year 1796 he published his Arithmetic, which has gone through
1766 the mathematical chair in Marischal College, Aber- several editions ; and in 1800 he published, for the use of
deen, became vacant by the death of Professor Stewart, his pupils, Heads of a Course of Mathematics. These are
Although only twenty-three years of age, Dr Hamilton’s his published works on what may be called professional
friends were so well aware of his talents and acquirements, subjects. It is known that he also prepared a work of con-
that they prevailed upon him, against his own inclination, siderable extent on Practical Astronomy ; but no trace of
to become a candidate. He was not successful; but the it was found among his papers after his decease,
appearance which he made at the various examinations did In 1790 he published anonymously, an Essay on Peace
him great credit. Two of his rivals were men of great and War. The object of this work was to show the trifling
eminence, viz. Dr Trail, who obtained the chair, but after grounds on which wars are often undertaken, and how
a short period resigned it, and entered the English church seldom, at least comparatively speaking, the avowed ob-
(his high attainments in mathematics appear from his life ject for which they were undertaken has been attained,
of Simpson) ; and Professor Playfair, whose name deserv- even by their successful termination; and the inadequacy
edly ranks amongst the greatest of whom Scotland can of the advantages which are obtained to compensate fox-
boast. An account of the comparative trial has been pre- the expenditure of blood and treasure necessarily incurred,
served, by which it appears that the questions embraced But Dr Hamilton’s most important work, the publication
almost every branch of mathematics; and the sum of the of which places him amongst the greatest benefactors to
merits of the candidates is thus stated, Trail 126, Hamil- his country, appeared in 1813, under the title of an Inquiry
ton 119, Playfair 90, Fullarton 58, Stewart 47, Douglas 16. concerning the Rise and Progress, the Redemption and
The talent he displayed on this occasion was not forgotten, Present State, and the Management, of the National Debt
and eventually led to his obtaining the situation of which of Great Britain. Up to the period of the appearance of
he was at this time disappointed. this work, the efficacy of the Sinking Fund system was
On his return from Aberdeen he entered into partner- received by all parties almost as an axiom. It was brought
ship with his father in a paper-mill near Edinburgh ; but forward for the public advantage by Mr Pitt, with perfect
his father died soon afterwards, and as the management of good faith; and it continued to be acted upon by his suc-
this concern was wholly foreign to his habits and inclina- cessoi-s, without being called in question even by political
tions, he took the first opportunity of placing himself in a antagonists. Dr Hamilton’s work at once showed the un-
more congenial situation, and in 1769 obtained the rector- soundness of the whole system, and that so clearly, that
ship of the academy of Perth. In 1771 he married Anne, soon after its publication it would have been difficult to
daughter of Alexander Mitchell, Esq. of Ladath, who died find any one who would defend the plans so long pursued,
in 1778, leaving him three daughters, who still survive. The work immediately attracted notice in all quarters, and
In 1779 he was appointed by the crown to the chair of though the readers of such books are not very numerous,
Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen. At it passed through three editions in a few years. But to
the same time that Dr Hamilton received this appointment, the author the most satisfactory approval was that which
Dr Copland obtained that of professor of Mathematics, he received from the gradual but complete adoption of his
They taught their respective classes for one session; but principles by the British government. It is not a little
each feeling the subject, allotted to the other to be more remarkable, that no one ever attempted fairly to refute his
congenial to his talents, they agreed to exchange classes; work, although many able men had every inducement to
and in future Dr Hamilton taught mathematics, and Dr do so if they could. Every thing connected with the fund
Copland natural philosophy; an arrangement which was as was so enveloped in technical jargon, that, to all but the
beneficial to the students, and acceptable to the University, initiated, they were an unintelligible mystery. Dr Hamil-
as it was agreeable to the two professors. ton divested the subject of this encumbrance ; he gave a
In this situation Dr Hamilton remained till the close of distinct detail of the progress of our debt, explaining the
his life, although much pressed by some of his friends, at origin and nature of the different stocks in plain and simple
least on one occasion, to remove to what they considered a language.
wider field of usefulness, by accepting a chair in another He commences his work by laying down twelve general
university. In 1782 he married Jane, daughter of James principles of finance, each of which is so incontrovertible,
Morison, Esq. of Elsick. In 1814, finding the duty of as hardly to require the support of argument. The second
teaching his three mathematical classes rather too much part of it is occupied by the history of our debt, and the
for him, he was allowed by the Senatus to employ an as- different plans proposed or adopted for its discharge, and
sistant. His choice fell on Mr, now Professor Cruickshank, their operation ; and the third part is devoted to the appli-
who was soon afterwards appointed by the patrons to be cation of the twelve principles to these schemes, and an
also his successor; Dr Hamilton himself at the same time examination of the different methods adopted in conducting
being regularly inducted into the chair of mathematics, the our financial concerns. The scope of the whole work may
classes of which he had so long taught. In 1825 he had be summed up in two plain statements: first, that, as with
the misfortune to lose his second wife, by whom he had no private individuals, so with nations, the only really effectual
family, and from that period he withdrew very much from sinking fund is a surplus of income over expenditure, and
his active employments and from general society, and spent therefore that no nation whose finances are managed on
most of his time at his country house, where he expired opposite principles can avoid ruin in the end, however skil-
on t‘le 14th of July 1829, in the eighty-seventh year of his fully its affairs may be conducted ; secondly, that to raise
a£e* money at a low nominal rate of interest, by promising to
126 HAM
Hamilton, repay a larger sum than is received, is a trifling advantage
at first, but incurs a large certain loss on redemption of the
debt. These appear so self-evident that it might have been
thought a waste of time to prove them, had not long and
fatal experience shown that they were neither believed nor
acted upon by those men who conducted the finances of
the nation. Now, however, they are universally admitted,
and no financier of the present day is found bold enough
to propose the redemption of our national debt by any other
means than keeping the income above the expenditure.
In 1822, Dr Hamilton published a small pamphlet on
the Poor Laws; a subject by which he was deeply inter¬
ested. This pamphlet contains a brief but distinct expo¬
sition of the principles on which relief to the poor ought
to be afforded in a Christian country. It had probably
little circulation beyond the town of Aberdeen, as great
part of it is occupied by local details; but the publication
of it may fairly be considered as having at least for a num¬
ber of years delayed the infliction of poor-rates on that city.
The last work of Dr Hamilton’s which was given to the
public is entitled The Progress of Society ; this was left
by the author ready for the press. He had been occupied
in the preparation of it for many years, and continued to
correct it till within a few days of his death. It consists of
twenty-one essays on different branches of political eco¬
nomy, published at a time (1830) when the minds of all
thinking men in this country were directed to those most
momentous political changes which absorbed the public
attention, to the almost total exclusion of every other sub-
ject.
This work attracted less attention than his National Debt.
It is written in his usual plain and perspicuous style, and
his deductions from admitted facts appear to be in general
incontrovertible, though they lead at times to conclusions
widely different indeed from those of most modern writers
on political economy. But when the time shall come
that a greater number of fixed principles on political eco¬
nomy shall be established, and the subject shall thus be
brought in truth to be a science, then it is expected that
this work will be found to contain more sound doctrine
than most of its precursors. Much of the author’s bene¬
volence appears in its pages, and of his desire for the ge¬
neral good, and not that of particular classes of society.
The whole is pervaded by his favourite doctrine, that the
object of government should be the moral good, and not
the wealth or the grandeur, of a people. In 1831 Dr Ha¬
milton’s family reprinted privately his Essay on Peace and
War, which had become very scarce, as well as that on
the Poor Laws, omitting the local details; and to these
were added an unfinished fragment of an essay on Go¬
vernment. It cannot now be ascertained at what time it
was written ; but probably it was during the progress of the
French Revolution, of which Dr Hamilton always spoke
in terms of the strongest reprobation. In 1814 Dr Ha¬
milton was elected one of the three judges for awarding the
Burnet prize, for the best essay on the Being of a God.
The lai’ge amount of the prizes (L.1200 and L.400) at¬
tracted many competitors, and rendered the duty of the
judges laborious. Dr Hamilton applied himself to the work
with his wonted care, and wrote out a full abstract of each
of the fifty treatises, to enable him to come to a right de¬
cision on their respective merits ; a labour which occupied
many hours a day for several months.
His work of finance brought him into correspondence
with several of the leading members of both houses of par¬
liament, and also with some foreign economists who were
interested in the subject, particularly J. B. Say, who notices
the Inquiry in terms of strong commendation, in his Traite
de VEconomic Politique (vol. ii. p. 381).
He was also frequently consulted on mathematical ques¬
tions by his former pupils; and as he never ceased to feel
HAM
an interest in their progress through life, so he had much Hami
pleasure in assisting them when in his power, as many still
remember with gratitude. In like manner, his advice was
sought and obtained as to the various schemes for equa¬
lizing weights and measures, for supplying the town of
Aberdeen with water, for calculating the invaluable fund
for the widows of the clergy of the church of Scotland,
and a similar institution for the widows of advocates in
Aberdeen. To the management of the poor’s funds, and
the various charitable institutions in Aberdeen, and of the
funds of the college of which he was a member, much of
his time and attention were devoted. He was never idle,
and all his talents were ever ready to be employed for the
service of those who required them.
Dr Hamilton’s personal appearance was striking : he was
naturally tall and thin, but with a considerable stoop, which
increased with his years: his countenance was mild and
very intelligent, often with a certain air of abstraction ; but
when animated, as it often was, particularly in conversation,
it was remarkably expressive. His habits and pleasures
were completely domestic, and he enjoyed the society of
his friends with the keenest relish. For many years he
made annually a tour to some part or other of Britain, and
at the age of seventy-eight visited the Low Countries and
the north of France. From these tours he acquired much
information of immediate use to his studies on political eco¬
nomy, and he was in the habit of noting down every day
whatever came before him worthy of remembrance.
In pursuing his studies he followed a similar plan, rarely
reading a work of importance without committing to writ¬
ing his remarks upon it; and the result was, that he pos¬
sessed a fund of solid information rarely to be met with.
His natural diffidence prevented his displaying his resour¬
ces in general society, where he was more anxious to hear
than to speak; but in the circle of his intimate friends his
conversation was in the highest degree pleasing and in¬
structive. Flis favourite relaxation was the cultivation of
flowers, a taste in perfect unison with the simplicity of his
whole character. Dr Hamilton was no party man, although
he was often unjustly regarded as such. He used his strong
powers of mind to judge of public measures by their own
merits, without regard to party ; and it is pleasing to remark
the gentleness and candour with which in his works he ani¬
madverts on those from whose opinions and principles he
dissents.
It is not necessary to add much on his private character;
he was full of benevolence, active as well as speculative.
Amongst his papers were found “ Regulations for his future
conduct,” drawn up at the early age of twenty-two ; and on
reviewing the long course of his subsequent life, it is clear
that he never lost sight of the high standard which he had
then proposed for himself. His piety was always sincere,
though unostentatious; it became more and more fervent
as his earthly career approached its termination; and for
some time previous to his decease, it was his practice to
retire to his closet three times a day for private devotion.
His faculties continued unimpaired to the last, and his end
was perfect peace. Soon after his death a subscription was
proposed, to erect a monument to his memory ; and so ge¬
neral was the respect entertained for him, that a large sum
was immediately raised. The monument has been lately
erected in the burying-ground of St Nicholas, Aberdeen,
not far from his grave. It consists of a solid basement, six
feet high, on which are placed four fluted Doric columns,
each of one block of granite, supporting an entablature of
the same order, above which rises a low roof. Under this
roof stands an urn, and on the last side of the basement is a
tablet with the following inscription:
Memorise Sacrum
Roberti Hamilton, LL.D.
In Academia Mariscallana
HAM
et Mathesis Professoris,
Qui XIV. die Julii A. D. MDCCCXXIX.
er- et aetatis suse LXXXVII. obiit.
'• Gives, Amici, et Discipuli,
Hoc Monumentum posuere.
The height of the whole structure is twenty-one feet six
inches. The design is correctly classical, and the execu¬
tion of it is the best specimen we have seen of any mo¬
dern work in granite.
HAMLET, Hamel, or Hampsel (from the Saxon ham,
domus, and the German let, membrum), signifies a little
village, or part of a village or parish. According to Spel-
man, there is a difference between villam integrant, villam
dimidiam, and hamletam, which, according to Stow, means
the seat of a freeholder. Several county-towns have ham¬
lets, as there may be several hamlets in a parish ; and some
particular places may be out of a town or hamlet, though
not out of the county.
Hamlet, a prince celebrated in the annals of Den¬
mark, and whose name has been rendered familiar in this
country, by forming the subject of one of the noblest
tragedies of Shakspeare. Adjoining to a royal palace,
which stands about half a mile from that of Cronberg, in
Elsineur, is a garden, which, Mr Coxe informs us, is called
Hamlet’s Garden, and, according to tradition, is the very
spot where the murder of his father was perpetrated. The
house is of modern date, and is situated at the foot of a
sandy ridge near the sea. The garden occupies the side
of the hill, and is laid out in terraces rising one above
another. Elsineur is the scene of Shakspeare’s Hamlet;
and the original history from which our poet derived the
principal incidents of his play is founded upon facts, but so
deeply buried in remote antiquity, that it is difficult to dis¬
criminate truth from fable. Saxo Grammaticus, who flou¬
rished in the twelfth century, is the earliest histoi’ian of
Denmark who relates the adventures of Hamlet. His ac¬
count is extracted, and much altered, by Bellefbrest, a
French author, an English translation of whose romance
was published under the title of the Historye of Hamblet;
and from this translation Shakspeare formed the ground¬
work of his play, though with many alterations and addi¬
tions.
HAMMER, a well-known tool used by mechanics, con¬
sisting of an iron head fixed crosswise upon a handle of
wood. There are several sorts of hammers used by black¬
smiths ; as, first, the hand-hammer, which is of such weight
that it may be wielded or governed with one hand at the
anvil; second, the up-hand sledge, used with both hands,
and seldom lifted above the head ; third, the about-sledge,
which is the biggest hammer of all, and held by both hands
at the farthest end of the handle, and being swung at arms’
length over the head, is made to fall upon the work with as
heavy a blow as possible. There is also another hammer
used by smiths, called a riveting hammer, which is the
smallest of all, and is seldom used at the forge unless upon
small work. Carpenters and joiners have likewise ham¬
mers accommodated to their several purposes.
HAMMERING, the act of beating or extending and
fashioning a body under the hammer. When this opera¬
tion is performed on iron heated for the purpose, it is usu¬
ally called forging.
Hammering, in coining. A piece of money or a medal
is said to be hammered when struck, and the impression
given, with a hammer, and not with a mill.
HAMMERSMITH, a large village, a part of the parish
of Fulham, in the hundred of Ossulton, in the county of
Middlesex. It is about three or four miles from the capital;
but from thence to the end of it are continued streets,
which make it a kind of prolongation of the metropolis. It
stands on the Thames, on whose banks, within this district,
are many beautiful villas and splendid houses. There is
HAM 127
an establishment for the education of young ladies of the Hammock
Roman Catholic church, amongst whom are some professed II
nuns. There are also a great number of other boarding Hammond,
schools of various classes. There is a chapel in the centre
of the village, of the established religion, and several for
both Catholic and Protestant dissenters. The population
amounted in 1801 to 5600, in 1811 to 7393, in 1821 to
8809, and in 1831 to 10,222.
HAMMOCK, or Hamac, a kind of hanging bed, sus¬
pended between two trees, posts, hooks, or the like, and
much used throughout the West Indies, as also on board
of ships.
HAMMOND, Henry, one of the most learned English
divines of the seventeenth century, was born in 1605. He
studied at Oxford, in 1629 entered into holy orders, and in
1633 was inducted into the rectory of Penshurst in Kent.
In 1643 he was made archdeacon of Chichester ; and in the
beginning of 1645 he was appointed one of the canons of
Christ Church, Oxford, and chaplain in ordinary to King
Charles I. who was then in that city. Fie was also chosen
public orator of the university. In 1647 he attended the
king in his confinement at Woodburn, Cavesham, Hamp-
ton-Court, and the Isle of Wight, where he continued till
his majesty’s attendants were again dismissed. He then
returned to Oxford, where he was chosen sub-dean ; and
continued there till the parliamentary visitors first ejected
him, and then imprisoned him for several weeks in a pri¬
vate house in Oxford. During this confinement he began
his Annotations on the New Testament. At the beginning
of the year 1660, when every thing visibly tended towards
the restoration of the royal family, Dr Hammond was de¬
sired by the bishops to repair to London to assist there in
composing the breaches of the church, his station in which
was designed to be that of Bishop of Worcester ; but on
the 4th of April he was seized with a fit of the stone, of
which he died on the 25th of that month, at the age
of fifty-five. Besides the above work, he wrote many
others ; all of which have been published together in four
volumes folio.
Hammond, Anthony, an English poet, descended from
a good family of Somersham Place, in Huntingdonshire,
was born in 1668. After having received a liberal educa¬
tion at St John’s College, Cambridge, he was chosen mem¬
ber of parliament, soon distinguished himself as a fine
speaker, and became a commissioner of the royal navy,
which place, however, he quitted in 1712. He published
a miscellany of original poems by the most eminent hands,
in which himself, as appears by the poems marked with his
own name, had no inconsiderable share. He also wrote the
life of Walter Moyle, prefixed to his works, and died about
the year 1726.
Hammond, James, known to the world by the Love-
Elegies, which, some years after his death, were published
by the Earl of Chesterfield, was the son of Anthony Ham¬
mond above mentioned, and was preferred to a place about
the person of the late Prince of Wales, which he held till
an unfortunate accident deprived him of his senses. The
cause of this calamity was a passion he entertained for a
lady, who did not return it; upon which he wrote those
love-elegies that have been so much celebrated for their
tenderness. The editor observes, that he composed them
before he was twenty-one years of age ; a period when
fancy and imagination are apt to run riot at the expense of
judgment and correctness. He was as sincere in his love
as in his friendship ; and wrote to his mistress, as he spoke
to his friends, nothing but the genuine sentiments of his
heart. Tibullus seems to have been the model our author
judiciously preferred to Ovid ; the former wrote directly
from the heart to the heart, the latter too often addressed
himself to the imagination. Mr Hammond died in the year
1743, at Stow, the seat of Lord Cobham, who, as well as
128 HAM
Ham- the Earl of Chesterfield, honoured him with a particular
Tsklld intimacy*
Hammond’s Islands, several small islands in the South
Hamp- Eacific Ocean, forming part of Solomon’s Islands. Long,
shire. 157. 5. E. Lat. 8. 46. S.
HAMPDEN, John, a celebrated patriot, descended
of the ancient family of Hampden in Buckinghamshire,
was born in 1594. On leaving the university he entered
the inns of court, where he made considerable progress
in the study of the law. He was chosen to serve in the
parliament which assembled at Westminster on the 5th of
February 1626, and served in all the succeeding parlia¬
ments in the reign of Charles I. In 1636 he became uni¬
versally known by his intrepid refusal to pay ship-money,
as an illegal tax. Upon this he was prosecuted, and his
conduct throughout the transaction gained him great re¬
putation. When the Long Parliament began, the eyes of
all men were fixed on him as the father of his country.
On the 3d of January 1642, the king ordered articles of
high treason and other misdemeanours to be prepared
against Lord Kimbolton, Mr Hampden, and four other
members of the House of Commons, and went to that
house to seize them; but they had retired. Mr Hamp¬
den afterwards made a speech in the house to clear him¬
self of the charge brought against him. In the beginning
of the civil war he commanded a regiment of foot, and did
good service to the parliament at the battle of Edgehill.
But he received a mortal wound in an engagement with
Prince Rupert, in Chalgrave-field in Oxfordshire, and died
in 1643. He is said to have possessed in a high degree the
Socratic art of interrogating, and, under the notion of
doubts, insinuating objections, so that he infused his own
opinions into those from whom he pretended to learn and
receive them. According to his panegyrists, he was a
very wise man, and had the greatest talents for gaining
popular influence that were ever possessed by any man.
He was master of all his appetites and passions, and had
thereby a very great ascendency over other men. He
was also of an industry and vigilance never to be tired
out, of parts not to be imposed upon by the most subtile,
and of courage equal to his talents. (See Life of Hamp¬
den, by Lord Nugent, and more particularly the critique
on that work in the Edinburgh Review.)
HAMPSHIRE, or, as it is sometimes called, the county
of Southampton, or of Hants, a shire of England, on the
British Channel. It is bounded on the east by Surrey and
Sussex, on the north by Berkshire, on the west by Wilt¬
shire and Dorsetshire, and on the south by the sea. Its
extreme length is fifty-five miles, but, owing to a projection
at its south-west extremity, its mean length is not more
than forty-four miles, and its breadth thirty-nine miles. Its
area, including the Isle of Wight, which is at the extreme
points twenty-three miles long and thirteen broad, is 1645
square miles, or 1,052,800 statute acres.
The whole population amounted in 1801 to 219,656, in
1811 to 245,080, in 1821 to 283,208, and in 1831 to
314,700. It appears, by the registers of burials, that the
deaths between 1801 and 1811, were one in forty-six of
the whole number of inhabitants, that from 1811 to 1821
they were one in fifty-four, and from 1821 to 1831, not¬
withstanding an increase of mortality by the cholera, they
were only one in fifty-six; thus a great and regular increase
ot the longevity of the population has become apparent.
4 he occupations, at the last census, were as follow: Occu¬
piers of land employing labourers, 2774; occupiers of land
not employing labourers, 1234; labourers employed in
agriculture, 24,675; persons employed in manufactures,
292; employed in retail trade or handicraft, 23,164; capi¬
talists, bankers, and others, 3784 ; labourers not agricultu¬
ral, 10,348; other males twenty years of age, 10,348;
male servants, 3295; female servants, 12,724.
HAM
As a whole, few counties in England are superior to this, Ha®,
or have a less proportion of uncultivated land. But at the SQ
western extremity, bordering on Dorsetshire, a small por-
tion of sandy heath is scarcely productive of any thing but
pasture for sheep, or honey. A considerable tract, extending
from Winchester to the northern extremity of the coun¬
ty, is down land, principally used for sheep-pasture, but,
when brought under the plough, is very fertile in barley,
turnips, clover, and sainfoin. Another portion is forest
land, including the New Forest of about 92,000 acres, but
within whose boundary a great part of the land is highly
cultivated, and very fertile. The abundance of timber
trees of large dimensions, the open glades between, and
the variety of foliage, as well of the trees as of the under¬
wood, render the scenery of the district highly delightful.
The oaks are the principal beauty of this forest; they do
not grow to a great height, but swell to large dimensions in
the trunk, and shoot out strong crooked branches, which
give them a very picturesque appearance, and add to their
value as naval timber, by being well adapted to be used as
knees for ships of the largest size. The beech trees also
grow to a very great size, and contribute to the beauty as
well as the profits of the forest. The other forests are
Alice, Holt, and Woolmer, extending over about 15,500
acres, of which nearly one half belongs to the crown, and
affords excellent oak timber; and Bere Forest, of 16,000
acres, whose timber has been much neglected. In these
forests there are abundance of deer belonging to the crown,
some of which are annually killed, and distributed, accord¬
ing to ancient prescription, to the various officers of the
government and the royal household. The greater part of
the county is enclosed, and even the down lands are so in
a great measure.
The principal rivers are the Itchen, which forms a part
of the estuary of Southampton Water; the Avon, which
falls into the sea at Christchurch Bay; the Boldre, which
empties itself at Lymington. The Anton, which falls into
the Tees, receives many small brooks before it reaches
Southampton, where it is lost in that arm of the sea. The
canals of the county are but two. The Bassingstoke was
begun in 1778, to communicate between that town and
London. It is thirty-seven miles in length, and terminates
near Guildford, in the river Wey, which falls into the
Thames. It passes through a tunnel, near three quarters
of a mile in length, under Grewell Hill, near Odiham.
This canal was not completed till 1794, when it had cost
L.100,000; and the tolls are not yet sufficient to pay the
interest. The Andover Canal was begun in 1789 at that
town, and terminates at Redbridge; and is useful to con¬
vey coals and other heavy commodities to the centre of
the county.
The soil of this county is very various, but, in almost
every part, it rests on a calcareous subsoil. The uplands
are generally appropriated to breeding sheep, and hence
the culture of turnips has been much extended. After the
turnips are fed on the land, barley is usually sown, and
with it clover, or other artificial grass-seeds. To the clo¬
ver succeeds sometimes wheat or oats, and, when the land
is somewhat heavier in texture, occasionally beans; but in
few parts of England are the rotations of crops more diver¬
sified. The average produce of corn on these high lands
is not more than sixteen bushels of wheat, twenty-two of
barley, and twenty-four of oats to the acre. The plough¬
ing is almost universally performed by horses, which are
of a very excellent race. On much of the stiffer lands
four of these strong horses are thought necessary; but on
lighter lands, and with a single-wheeled plough, sometimes
two or three are used, and very rarely are harnessed abreast
of each other. On the higher lands, the hay for winter
consumption is generally made from sainfoin, a plant which
peculiarly flourishes when the subsoil is calcareous. It is
HAM
lau laid down with much care in extirpating all weeds, and every
shir other description of grasses, and will usually continue for
"V " ten years to be fit for mowing; and on some soils it has been
found to last even twenty years, and yield abundant crops
of hay. There is no part of England in which this valua¬
ble grass is so w’ell or so extensively cultivated.
The corn lands on the lower levels of the county are
much more productive ; but on those districts they have
no occasion for sainfoin, and scarcely for clover, as their
rich water meadows supply them with a sufficiency of hay.
Some of these meadows are perhaps the most valuable of
any lands in this island, and are managed with great skill
and attention. Where a rapid stream of water can be
passed over them during the whole winter, it seldom be¬
comes frozen ; and the grasses grow during the cold wea¬
ther, so as to be fit for pasture at an early period in the
spring, before any traces of vegetation appear in the sur¬
rounding fields. This young grass is a provision for the
sheep, when no other green food is to be found, and sup¬
plies them to the beginning of May, when it is laid up,
and in six or eight weeks it is fit to be mowed, and yields
most abundant quantities of hay. There is much of this
valuable description of land in the fertile valley that ex¬
tends from Overton to Redbridge, by Stockbridge.
In the eastern part of the county, bordering on Surrey,
there are extensive hop plantations, the produce of which
is equal in flavour to those in the adjoining villages of that
country near Farnham.
The original race of Hampshire sheep were white faced,
with horns; but these have been so often crossed with
other races, that few of an unmixed breed are left. Most
of the flocks now are of the Southdown kind ; they are
found to be more beneficial, both on account of the supe¬
rior quality of their wool, and the tendency to fatten with
a less quantity of food than any others. The cows are
not much attended to, and are not generally of the best
kind. The introduction of the Welsh breed has made
some improvement, but there is room for much more.
The breeding and fattening of pigs has long been a most
important part of Hampshire husbandry. The bacon from
them is the principal animal food of the rural inhabitants.
In the vicinity of the forests they are fed on acorns and
beech-mast; and those so fattened are considered as the
best, either as pickled pork, or when converted into ba¬
con. The average weight of these animals, when deem¬
ed fit for slaughter, is about 440 or 450 pounds, but many
of them weigh 800 pounds.
The manufactures of this county are neither numerous
nor extensive, except those carried on at Portsmouth, for
warlike purposes. Besides the ship-building in the royal
yard, there are many vessels, both for war and trade, built
on the river Itchen at Buckler’s Hard, on the river
Boldre, and on the banks of Southampton Water. The
manufacturing of their woollen goods upon a small scale
is carried on at Andover, Romsey, Alton, and Basingstoke.
Paper is made at Romsey and at Overton. The mills at
the latter place have supplied the whole of the thin paper
used by the Bank of England for their notes, ever since the
reign of George I. Ringwood has been long celebrated
for the excellence of the strong beer brewed there, but
the quantity has declined of late years. On the sea-shore
at Lymington, and on the island of Hayling, near Havant,
some salt is made by the evaporation of sea-water. The
quantity depends on the degree of heat which prevails
during the summer season, as the first part of the process
of evaporation is performed by the heat of the sun alone ;
the brine is afterwards conveyed to iron pans, and the
process completed by artificial heat, which, as coals, the
only fuel, are dear, makes the whole expensive, and pre¬
vents the proprietors from competing with the northern
manufacturers of salt.
VOL. XI.
HAM 12!)
The foreign commerce of the county is inconsiderable. Hamp-
Many merchant ships repair to Portsmouth with stores shire,
for the naval arsenal; and, in time of war, many prizes
are carried thither for sale, which creates some extensive
trade. Southampton imports much wine from Portugal,
which, before the introduction of the bonding system,
used to be deposited in the islands of Guernsey and Jer¬
sey, to save the interest upon the amount of the duties.
At Christ-church there are a few vessels fitted for the
Newfoundland fishery.
The most populous town in the county is Portsmouth,
which, with its adjuncts, Portsea and Gosport, with the
adjacent villages, contains between fifty and sixty thou¬
sand inhabitants. The far greater part of these are the
families of officers of the navy, army, and marines, and of
the arsenal, with the various artificers.
The harbour of Portsmouth is perhaps one of the best
in the world. Its entrance is narrow, and therefore easily
defended. The approach to that entrance is defended by
batteries, that can rake any ship before it reaches the fire
of the castles, at the two narrowest points. The depth
of water is sufficient for the largest ships, and the interior
spreads out into an extensive basin of still water, in which
there is room for all the British fleet to anchor. The sys¬
tem of building no ships of war in private yards has much
increased the number of artificers of every description.
The mast-making, anchor-making, cable-making, and par¬
ticularly the making of blocks, are all conducted within
the walls of the arsenal, which, as a whole, is a most as¬
tonishing combination of vast powers simply and econo¬
mically directed to naval purposes. The gun-wharf, vic¬
tualling office, the king’s mill, and many other public
buildings, merit rather a detailed description than such
brief notices as our limits allow. One of the finest objects
depending on the naval establishment is the hospital for
sick and wounded seamen at Haslar. It is 567 feet in
length. It is divided into 100 wards, each sixty feet long
and twenty-four broad, calculated to receive twenty pa¬
tients, with apartments adjoining for nurses and atten¬
dants.
Southampton is celebrated for the beauty of its envi¬
rons, the elegance of the streets and buildings, and the
purity and salubrity of its air ; and it is much frequented
for salt-water bathing, as well as on account of a cha¬
lybeate spring of considerable repute. In the' summer
season it is a place of fashionable resort to those who
wish to enjoy rides amongst the pleasing scenery of the
New Forest.
Winchester, a city of ancient date, has fallen into de¬
cay, and now depends on its being the county town, the
see of the bishop of an extensive diocese, the station of
his courts, and a collegiate place, in which many youths
of the first families in the kingdom receive their classical
education. The cathedral and the castle are venerable
piles of antiquity, though the former was much damaged
and the latter blown up by the soldiers of Cromwell, after
his capture of the city.
The antiquities of this county are very numerous, and
may be contemplated in the ruins of numerous castles,
abbeys, and shattered towers, which add not a little to the
beauty of the scenery. The most remarkable of these
are Calshot Castle, Netley Abbey, Hurst Castle, Por-
chester Castle, and Beaulieu Abbey. Antiquities of more
early date, of ancient British or of Roman origin, are scat¬
tered over the county. The numerous barrows are as¬
cribed to the former, and many vestiges of intrenched
camps and castles to the latter.
The beauty of the country has attracted to it a greater
number of families of rank and fortune than almost any
other county can enumerate, the bare list of which would
fill a page.
s
K
130 HAM
Hampstead The most considerable towns, with their population, ac
II cording to the census of 1831, were,
Hampton. Portsmouth and Portsea 50,389
Southampton 19,324
Gosport, with Alverstoke 12,636
Winchester  9,012
Romsey  5,432
Fareham  4,402
Andover  4,843
Ringwood  3,434
Titchfield  3,712
Basingstoke  3,581
Lymington  3,361
Alton    2,742
Fordingbridge  2,611
By the law of 1832 this county has, for election pur¬
poses, been divided into the northern and southern parts,
each of which returns two members to the House of Com¬
mons. The northern division contains about 2400 voters.
The place of election is Winchester, and the other polling
places are, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Kingsclere,
Droxford, Odiham, and Petersfield. The southern divi¬
sion has about 3150 voters ; the election is held at South¬
ampton, and the other polling places are Fareham, Ly¬
mington, Ringwood, and Romsey. By the same law the
boroughs of Whitchurch, Stockbridge, Yarmouth, and
Newton have been disfranchised, and the boroughs of
Petersfield and Christ-church, which used to elect two
members, now choose only one each. The towns which
now return two members each are, Winchester, South¬
ampton, Andover, Lymington, Newport, and Portsmouth,
with which has been incorporated the adjacent large town
of Portsea.
See Brayley and Britton’s Beauties of England and
Wales ; Driver’s Reports to the Board of Agriculture ;
Milner’s Winchester; Hampshire Repository; Warner’s
Walks through Southampton ; Worsley’s Isle of Wight.
HAMPSTEAD, a large parish of the hundred of Ossul-
ton, in the county of Middlesex, four miles from London.
It stands on one of those hills which command a view of
the metropolis from the north. From its situation the air
is deemed remarkably pure, and convalescents in great num¬
bers repair to it to recruit their strength. It is chiefly
composed of respectable houses, the owners of which are
engaged in active pursuits during the busy part of the day,
and repair to their families after their fatigue is ended.
There are in the vicinity, however, several magnificent
houses, especially that of Lord Mansfield, called Caen Wood.
There are two churches, and several chapels for the various
classes of dissenters. The population amounted in 1801
to 4343, in 1811 to 5483, in 1821 to 7263, and in 1831 to
8588.
HAMPTON, a village of the hundred of Spelthorne, in
the county of Middlesex, twelve miles from London. It is sit¬
uated on the north bank of the Thames, opposite to where
the river Mole pours its stream into that river. It is the resi¬
dence of many families of distinction, but chiefly remark¬
able for the royal palace of Hampton Court, its gardens,
and Bushy Park adjoining. The palace consists of two
parts, the elder built by Cardinal Wolsey, the later by
William III. after a design by Sir Christopher Wren. It is
a heavy pile of building, excepting the front to the river,
which is 330 feet in length, and relieved by a noble porti¬
co. The interior contains a valuable collection of paint¬
ings from the best ancient masters, but especially the car¬
toons of Raphael. This palace was occupied by Charles
I., and of late years by the father of the present king of
Holland, then Prince of Orange. The gardens are laid
out magnificently, but rather too much in the Dutch style.
The graping is a very striking object, on account of the
vast quantity of fruit produced from a single vine. The
HAN
population of the parish amounted in 1801 to 1722, in 1811 Hanant. I
to 1984, in 1821 to 2288, and in 1831 to 2529.
HANAPER, or Hamper, an office in chancery, under Haiid. &
the direction of a master, his deputy and clerks, and an- J
swering, in some measure, to the Jiscus among the Romans.
Hanaper, Clerk of the, sometimes styled warden of the
hanaper, an officer who receives all monies due to the king
for seals of charters, patents, commissions, and writs, and
attends the keeper of the seal daily in term time, and at all
times of sealing, and takes into his custody all sealed char¬
ters, patents, and the like, which he receives into bags, but
anciently, it is supposed, into hampers, which gave to the
office the denomination it still retains. There is also an
officer who is comptroller of the hanaper.
HANAU, one of the provinces of the principality of Hesse-
Cassel. It was anciently a sovereignty of two branches,
which, becoming extinct in 1736, devolved on the then
landgrave of Hesse. It extends over 452 square miles,
and comprehends sixteen cities and towns, 101 villages and
hamlets, with 9608 houses, and 61,700 inhabitants. It is
divided into nine bailiwicks, besides the capital. It is a
district of better agriculture than any other of the princi¬
pality, and especially for the growth of edible vegetables and
fruit, with which it chiefly supplies the city of Frankfort.
It yields some wine; and there are within it some salt
springs, and some iron mines in active work. The capital
is in part a well-built city, which stands near the river
Maine, about twelve miles from Frankfort, on a well-culti¬
vated plain. It contains 1460 houses, and 12,750 inhabi¬
tants. There is a high school belonging to the Lutherans.
It is divided into the old and new town, each of which has
its distinct municipality. It contains several manufactories,
especially of carriages, of hats, gloves, linen, and other ar¬
ticles. Long. 8. 46. E. Lat. 50. 31. N.
HANCES, Hanches, Haunches, or Hanses, in Ar¬
chitecture, certain small intermediate parts of arches be¬
tween the crown and the spring at the bottom, being pro¬
bably about one third of the arch, and placed nearer to the
bottom than the top, which are likewise denominated the
spandrels.
HAND, a part or member of the body of man, forming
the extremity of the arm. The mechanism of the hand is
very curious, indeed excellently contrived to fit it for the
various uses and occasions we have for it, and the great
number of arts and manufactures it is to be employed in.
It consists of a compages of nerves, and little bones joined
into each other, which give it a great degree of strength,
and at the same time an unusual flexibility, to enable it to
handle adjacent bodies, lay hold of them, and grasp them, in
order either to draw them towards us or thrust them off.
In Scripture the word hand is variously applied. To
pour water upon any one’s hand signifies to serve him. To
wash the hands was a ceremony made use of to denote in¬
nocence of murder or manslaughter. To kiss the hand
was an act of adoration. To fill the hand signifies taking
possession of the priesthood, and performing its functions.
To lean upon any one’s hand was a mark of familiarity and
superiority. To give the hand signifies to grant peace,
swear friendship, promise security, or make alliance. The
right hand was the emblem of honour and respect. Amongst
the Greeks and Romans it was customary for inferiors to
walk on the left hand of superiors, that their right hand
might be ready to afford protection and defence to their
left side, which was, on account of the awkwardness of the
left hand, more exposed to danger.
Imposition, or laying on of Hands, signifies the confer¬
ring of holy orders; a ceremony in which the hands are
laid on the head of a person as a sign of a mission, or of a
power given him to exercise the functions of the ministry
belonging to the order. The apostles began to appoint
missionaries by the imposition of hands.
HAN
Ha Hand, in falconry, is used to indicate the foot of the
li hawk. To have a clean, strong, slender, glutinous hand,
Har '!• well clawed, is amongst the good qualities of a hawk or fal-
con.
Hand, in the manege, sometimes stands for the fore¬
foot of a horse. It is also used to signify a division of the
horse into two parts with respect to the rider’s hand. The
fore-hand includes the head, neck, and fore-quarters ; the
hind-hand is all the rest of the horse.
Hand is likewise used for a measure of four inches, or
of a clenched fist, by which the height of a horse is com¬
puted.
Hands are borne in coat-armour, dexter and sinister, that
is, right and left, expanded or open ; and also in other man¬
ners. A bloody hand in the centre of the escutcheon is
the badge of a baronet of Great Britain.
HANDEL, George Frederick, the most illustrious of
all musical composers, was born at Halle, in Upper Saxony,
on the 24th of February 1684. His father was an emi¬
nent physician of the same place, and upwards of sixty
years old when this son, the issue of a second marriage,
was born. From his very childhood Handel discovered a
passion for music which could not be subdued by the com¬
mands of his father, who intended him for the profession of
the law. Notwithstanding that he was forbidden to touch
a musical instrument, the boy found means to get a little
clavichord conveyed secretly into one of the attics of the
house. To this room he constantly repaired when the fa¬
mily had retired to rest, and, by his assiduous labours at the
midnight hour, made considerable progress in his favourite
pursuit.
It happened, when Handel was about seven years old,
that his father had occasion to pay a visit to a son by a
former wife, who was then serving as attendant to the
Duke of Saxe-Weissenfells. Handel implored that he
might be permitted to accompany him ; and, on being re¬
fused, he followed the carriage some way on the road,
till he overtook it. His father at first chid him for his dis¬
obedience ; but, yielding to his solicitations, at last took
him into the carriage. During his stay at the ducal resi¬
dence, he continued to show the same irresistible inclina¬
tion for music. He could not be kept away from harpsi¬
chords, and he contrived to gain admission into the organ
gallery at church, and to play when the service was over.
Upon one of these occasions, the duke happening to leave
the chapel later than usual, was attracted by the uncom¬
mon style in which the instrument was touched. Inquir¬
ing who played, he heard to his astonishment that it was a
boy of seven years of age. The duke immediately desired
to see young Handel, and was so much pleased with his
precocious genius, that he prevailed upon his father to al¬
low him to follow the bent of his inclinations. He made
the boy a present, and told him that if he was attentive to
his studies he should not want encouragement.
On his return to Halle, Handel was placed by his father
under Zachau, organist of the cathedral church of that
city ; a man of considerable abilities, and proud of his pu¬
pil. By the time he was nine years old, our young musi¬
cian w^as not only able to supply his master’s place at the
organ, but began to study composition. At this early pe¬
riod of his life, he wrote a service, or spiritual cantata,
every week, for voices and instruments, and continued this
labour for three years successively. He also composed so¬
natas for the oboe, which was his favourite instrument.
Handel appears to have studied in his native city till he
was about the age of fourteen. He then, as Zachau himself
acknowledged, far excelled his master; and it was recom¬
mended to his father to send him to Berlin. Thither he
accordingly went in 1698. The opera at Berlin was then in
a very flourishing state, under the direction of Buononcini
and Attilio. Handel distinguished himself in this city as
HAN 131
an astonishing musician for his years, and gave earnest of Handel,
such great talents, that the elector of Brandenburg offered
to take him into his service, and send him to Italy to com¬
plete his studies. But his father declining this honour,
from a spirit of independence, Handel returned to Halle.
Not long after this, his father died, and Handel not being
able to go to Italy on account of the expense, removed to
Hamburg, in order, by his musical talents, to procure a
subsistence.
Mattheson, an able musician and voluminous writer on
the subject of music, who resided at Flamburg, tells us that
Handel arrived there in the summer of 1703. “ Here,”
says Mattheson, “ almost his first acquaintance was my¬
self, as I met him at the organ of St Mary Magdalen’s
Church, July the 30th, whence I conducted him to my fa¬
ther’s house, where he was treated with all possible kind¬
ness as well as hospitality ; and I afterwards not only at¬
tended him to organs, choirs, operas, and concerts, but re¬
commended him to several scholars. At first he only play¬
ed a ripieno violin in the opera orchestra; and being natu¬
rally inclined to indulge in a kind of dry humour, pretend¬
ed unusual ignorance, in a manner that made the most se¬
rious people laugh, though he preserved his own gravity.
But his superior abilities were soon discovered; for the
harpsichord player of the opera having been absent for a
time, Flandel was persuaded to take his place, and on this
occasion showed himself to be a great master, to the asto¬
nishment of every one, except myself, who had frequent op¬
portunities of knowing his abilities on keyed instruments.”
Mattheson and Handel became intimate acquaintances,
and did not allow any professional rivalsbip to interfere
with their friendship, until the occurrence of the follow¬
ing adventure. Mattheson had composed an opera called
Cleopatra, which was performed in Hamburg, and in
which he acted the part of Antony himself, and Handel
played the harpsichord. Mattheson was accustomed, upon
the death of Antony, which happened early in the piece,
to preside at the harpsichord, in the character of composer;
but one evening Handel refused to indulge his vanity by
relinquishing this post to him. This occasioned so violent
a quarrel between them, that, on going out of the house,
Mattheson gave him a blow on the face; upon which both
immediately drew their swords, and a duel ensued in the
market-place, before the opera-house. Luckily the sword
of Mattheson broke against a metal button on Handel’s
coat, or, as some allege, a score of music which he carried
under it, which put an end to the fight.
This rencontre happened upon the 5th of December,
1704; but, as a proof of a speedy reconciliation, Mattheson
mentions, that on the 30th of the same month, he accom¬
panied the young composer to the rehearsal of his first
opera of Almira, at the theatre, and performed the prin¬
cipal part in it; and that afterwards they became greater
friends than ever. Whilst he remained at Hamburg,
Handel composed his opera of Nero, oder die dureh Blut
und Mord erlangte Hebe, which was very successful. He
also produced two operas entitled Florinda, and Dafne,
and wrote innumerable songs, cantatas, and pieces, for the
harpsichord. His style, Mattheson allows, was greatly im¬
proved by his constant attendance at the opera; and he was
esteemed a more powerful player on the organ than the
famous Kuhnau of Leipsic, who was at this time regarded
as a prodigy.
Handel having now acquired, by his operas at Ham¬
burg, a sum sufficient to enable him to visit Italy, he set
out for that seat of the muses. He staid some time at
Florence, where he composed his opera of Rodrigo. From
this city he went to Venice, where, in 1709, he produced
his Agrippina, which was received with acclamation, and
ran for thirty nights. Here he met with Domenico Scar-
letti, Gasparini, and Lotti. He next visited Rome, where
132 HAN
Handel, he had an opportunity of hearing compositions and per-
formers of the first class. At Cardinal Ottoboni’s, by
whom Handel was greatly caressed, he had frequently the
advantage of hearing the celebrated Corelli perform his
own works. During his stay at Rome, our young com¬
poser produced a serenata entitled 11 Triunfo del Tempo ;
after which he went to Naples, where he set Acis and Ga¬
latea in Italian.
Handel returned to Germany about the beginning of
the year 1710, and was made Maestro di Capella to the
elector of Hanover, afterwards George I. He does not
appear, however, to have remained long in the service of
the elector, but bent his course to London, where a pas¬
sion for dramatic music had already manifested itself in
several awkward attempts at operas, and to which place
he had received invitations from several of the nobility
he had seen in Italy and Hanover. His reception in Eng¬
land was flattering to himself and honourable to the na¬
tion, at this time no less successful in war than in the cul¬
tivation of the arts of peace. To the wit, poetry, litera¬
ture, and science, which marked this period of our history,
Handel added all the blandishments of a nervous and
learned music, which he first brought hither, planted, and
lived to see grow to a very flourishing state. The first
opera he wrote in England was Rinaldo, taken from Tas¬
so’s Gierusalemme, which at once established his reputation.
He afterwards produced his Pastor Fido, Theseus, and, in
1715, Amadis of Gaul. In all of these, Nicolini and Ya-
lentini, the first Italian singers that appeared in England,
performed. When the peace of Utrecht was brought to a
conclusion, Handel was employed to compose the Hymn
of Gratitude and Triumph on the occasion. The grand
Te Deum and Jubilate he produced was composed with
such force, regularity, and instrumental effect, as to excite
universal delight.
On the arrival of George I. Handel was honoured with
the most flattering marks of royal favour from the king
and queen, who added largely to the pensions previously
conferred on him by Queen Anne.
We now come to the busiest and most glorious period
of Handel’s life. His great natural powers had been
highly improved by cultivation; his genius for composi¬
tion was unbounded; he stood at the head of his profes¬
sion, esteemed alike by the sovereign, the nobility, and
the public, of a great and powerful nation, at a period of
its greatest happiness and prosperity. Such were Handel’s
circumstances, when the Royal Academy, or an associa¬
tion for the establishment of an Italian opera in England,
was formed. Handel was appointed director and com¬
poser, engaged singers, and, although he had to contend
with several rivals, at length, by the superior grandeur
and invention of his operatic music, distanced them all.
About this period of his career Handel unfortunately be¬
came involved in a quarrel with the vocalist Senesino, the
particulars of which we pass over. The result was to
break up the academy ; and it not only proved injurious to
the fortune of our composer, but was the cause of infinite
trouble and vexation to him during the rest of his life.
From the institution of the academy till its dissolution
in 1729, Handel produced about thirty operas. The
greater part of these had immense success ; yet such was
the influence of opposition and neglect, that none of his
operas composed subsequently to 1740, although actually
his highest achievements in operatic composition, were re¬
ceived with the admiration due to their merit.
Following the narrative of Burney in his sketch of
Handel’s life, we leave his dramatic transactions, and
come now to notice the sacred dramas or oratorios of this
great musician. The oratorio of Esther was the first he
composed; and in 1733 Deborah was given to the public.
It was during these early performances of oratorios that
HAN
Handel first played his organ concertos, a species of mu- Hand,
sic wholly of his own invention, in which he usually intro-
duced an extempore fugue, a diapason-piece, or an adagio,
displaying not only great fertility and readiness of inven¬
tion, but the most perfect accuracy and neatness of exe¬
cution. In 1735 he produced Acis and Galatea, and
Alexanders Feast; in 1738, Israel in Egypt; and in
1739, LAllegro ed il Penseroso. In 1740 the oratorio of
Saul was performed at the theatre in Lincoln-Inn Fields;
and from this period Handel almost entirely devoted his
labours to the service of the church. The profits arising
from the performance of his oratorios were not sufficient
to indemnify his losses; and it remains a stigma upon the
taste of the nation, that the Messiah at first proved nei¬
ther successful, nor remunerative to the composer. Cha¬
grined with repeated disappointments, Handel went to
Ireland, in order, as Burney remarks, “ to try whether
his oratorios would be out of the reach of prejudice and
enmity in that kingdom.” In allusion to this, Pope wrote
his well-known lines, supposed to be addressed by the
poet personifying the Italian opera, to the goddess of Dul-
ness.
Strong in new arms, lo, giant Handel stands,
Like bold Briareus, with his hundred hands;
To stir, to rouse, to shake the soul he comes,
And Jove’s own thunders follow Mars’ drums,
Arrest him, empress, or you sleep no more :—
She heard, and drove him to the Hibernian shore.
After remaining about nine months in Ireland, where
his exertions were successful, Handel returned to Lon¬
don, and produced Samson and the Messiah, which latter
work was now received with universal applause. This
truly sublime oratorio was performed annually at the laud¬
able and benevolent instigation of the author, and under his
direction, for the benefit of the Foundling Hospital; and
the produce of these performances, from the year 1749
to the year 1777, amounted to nearly L.l0,300. Al¬
though the Messiah was performed almost always to crowd¬
ed houses, the other oratorios were but thinly attended.
This was owing no less to the capriciousness of public
taste than to the extraordinary hostility of some of his
powerful adversaries. The king, however, continued his
steady patron, and attended his oratorios when they were
neglected by the rest of the court.
Towards the close of his life Handel was afflicted with
blindness, which, however, did not affect his faculties, as
he continued to play to the last with his wonted vigour.
“ To see him, however,” says Burney, “ led to the organ
after this calamity, at upwards of seventy years of age,
and then conducted towards the audience to make his
accustomed obeisance, was a sight so truly afflicting and
deplorable to persons of sensibility, as greatly diminished
their pleasure in hearing him perform.” It was remarked,
that with many parts of his music he was unusually agi¬
tated, particularly with that affecting air in Samson,
“ Total eclipse—no sun, no moon,” which so peculiarly
applied to his own situation. The last oratorio he attended
and superintended was upon the 6th of April, and he expired
on Friday the 13th, or Good Friday 1759, the very day
he had seriously wished that event should happen, “ in
hopes,” as he said, “ of meeting his good God, his sweet
Lord and Saviour, on the day of his resurrection,” mean¬
ing the Easter Sunday following.
The musical powers of Handel can perhaps be best ex¬
pressed by Arbuthnot’s reply to Pope, who seriously ask¬
ed his opinion of him as a composer. “ Conceive,” said
he, “ the highest you can of his abilities, and they are
much beyond any thing you can conceive.” He excelled
in almost every style of composition. The church, the
theatre, and the chamber, were equally adorned by his
talents. The best of his Italian operas are superior in
HAN
E$H) pike variety and ingenuity to those of all preceding and con¬
temporary composers throughout Europe. In his full,
Han ial. masterly, and admirable, organ fugues, upon remarkably
^ ^ natural and pleasing subjects, he has surpassed the most
renowned writers in this difficult and elaborate species of
composition; and every judicious and unprejudiced musi¬
cian, when he hears or peruses the noble, majestic, and
sublime oratorios and anthems of Handel, must allow,
with readiness and rapture, that they are unacquainted with
any thing equal to them among the works of the greatest
masters that have existed since the invention of coun¬
terpoint. (z. z.)
HANDSPIKE, a wooden bar used as a lever to heave
about the windlass, in order to draw up the anchor from
the bottom, particularly in merchant ships. The handle
is round and tapering, and the other end is square, to con¬
form to the shape of the holes in the windlass. It is also
employed as a lever on many other occasions, as stowing
the anchors, provisions, or cargo, in the ship’s hold. The
gunner’s handspike is shorter and flatter than the above,
and armed with two claws for managing the artillery.
HANGTCHEOTOU, alargeand splendid city of China,
in the province of Tchekiang, of which it is the capital. It
is situated at the extremity of the great canal which ex¬
tends southward from Pekin, on the banks of a great river
called Tsien-tang, which passes by its walls, and affords ex¬
tensive means of communication with the southern province.
This city is said, in the accounts of the Chinese, to contain
a million of inhabitants ; and its population seems little if
at all inferior to that of Pekin. It is but poorly built, the
streets being narrow and the houses low; but the shops
and warehouses are large, and well stored with goods.
The silk trade is carried on to a great extent, and is sup¬
posed to employ about 60,000 persons. This city is cele¬
brated by the Chinese as a terrestrial paradise. It com¬
municates with the sea by means of the river. Europeans
are rigorously excluded from it, as from all the other Chi¬
nese cities. Long. 119. 46. E. Eat. 30. 20. N.
HANGCLIFF, a remarkable point of land on the east
coast of the largest of the Zetland Islands. It is frequently
the first land seen by ships in northern voyages. Captain
Phipps determined its situation to be in long. 56. 30. W.
and lat. 60. 9. N.
HANGWELLE, a town and fortress of the island of
Ceylon. It was attacked in 1803 by the king of Candy,
who was repulsed by the British garrison. It is eighteen
miles east from Columbo. Long. 80. 3. E. Lat. 7. 1. N.
HANLEY, a town of the county of Stafford, in the
hundred of Pirehill. It is one of those large places which
have grown up with rapidity of late years, from the great
extension of the manufacture of earthenware and porcelain.
It is only a part of the parish of Stoke-upon-Trent, but
has churches, markets, post-office, and all the other appen¬
dages of a town. By the census of 1832, it contained 1402
families, with 7121 inhabitants. Of the families, 1120 were
occupied in trade or in manufactures, forty-nine in agricul¬
ture, and 233 were of neither of these descriptions.
HANNIBAL, a Carthaginian general, son of Hamilcar
Barcas, was born 247 b. c. in the eighteenth year of the
first Punic war, the same year in which his father first took
a prominent part in public affairs. His family was one of
the most distinguished in Carthage, and, claiming to be de¬
scended from the ancient kings of Tyre, it ruled its native
city with almost regal power. The history of Hannibal
forms an epoch in the destinies of Rome. We can have little
difficulty in forming a true estimate of his character when
we know that, almost unaided by his countrymen, he sus¬
tained for upwards of sixteen years a struggle for the em¬
pire of the world with a nation which had hitherto been vic¬
torious in every contest it had undertaken, and had at its
disposal the resources of the greater part of Italy. It was
HAN 133
the last struggle which the republic of Rome maintained for Hannibal,
existence ; and there was none which called forth more con- '
spicuously the energies of her mighty warriors, or displayed
more fully their unconquerable perseverance and undaunt¬
ed bearing in the most untoward circumstances. If Han¬
nibal had been properly supported by his countrymen at
home, the star of Rome would probably have set for ever,
and Carthage would then have stood forth as the conqueror
of the world, and the source of civilization. The key to all
Hannibal’s proceedings is to be found in his hatred of the
Romans, a feeling indelibly impressed upon his mind by
his father, when he made him swear at the altar of his
country that he would pursue the Romans with unrelent¬
ing hatred.
The military education of Hannibal must have com¬
menced from boyhood, but of his early years we have no
detailed account. He was eighteen years of age on his fa¬
ther’s death (229 b. c.), and probably spent the greater part
of the next eight years in the camp of his brother-in-law
Hasdrubal, who had succeeded to the command of the
troops in Spain on the death of Hamilear, and who pursued
the same line of policy as his predecessor, in trying to ob¬
tain entire possession of the resources of Spain as a means
of attacking Rome. Private revenge cut off’ Hasdrubal in
the midst of his career (221 b. c.), and the soldiers by ac¬
clamation raised Hannibal to the vacant command. The ap¬
pointment was ratified by the senate at home, and from this
moment Hannibal regarded Italy as his province, and war
with Rome as the only object worthy of his attention. The
conciliatory measures of Hasdrubal had succeeded in unit¬
ing the greater part of the nations of Spain to the domi¬
nions of Carthage; and those w ho still maintained indepen¬
dence Hannibal determined to reduce at once by the energy
and activity of his proceedings. He led his troops into the
country of the Olcades, a people who seem to have been
situated in the mountainous district of Cuenca, near the
sources of the river Xucar; and having taken their chief
city, he entirely defeated them. He was equally successful
in his attack on the Vaccaei, a people inhabiting the country
round Salamanca; and having subdued all the nations south
of the river Ebro, except the Saguntines, he was prepared
to complete his conquests by the reduction of their city.
The attention of the Romans, which had latterly been
much occupied with the affairs of the north of Italy, was
now drawm towards Spain, and they became alarmed at the
proceedings of Hannibal. An embassy from Saguntum
roused them to active measures, and deputies were hurried
off to remonstrate with Hannibal for his interference, con¬
trary to treaty, with an ally of the Roman people. Poly¬
bius enters into a discussion whether we ought to consider
this attack on Saguntum as the real cause of the second
Punic w ar, and wisely, we think, decides that it was merely
the pretext. We must go farther back, and search more
deeply, to discover the real motives which induced the Car¬
thaginians to support Hannibal in his attack on Rome. It
was the unfair advantage that had been taken to wrest from
them Sardinia, that had made an indelible impression on
the minds of the Carthaginians; and the Barcine faction,
which wras now headed by Hannibal, used all its influence
to keep alive the national feeling of hatred to Rome.
There w as indeed a party for peace, headed by Hanno, but
the still small voice was drowned amidst the din of w arlike
preparations. Hannibal was already busily engaged in the
siege of Saguntum, a city situated on the east of Spain,
about one mile from the sea, and the ruins of which are
still to be seen near Murviedro (Muri Veteres'), when the
Roman deputies made their appearance, and demanded an
audience. This was refused by Hannibal, under pretence
that he could not guarantee their personal safety in the
midst of so many barbarous nations ; and the deputies found
themselves obliged to continue their journey to Carthage.
134 HAN
Hannibal. Here they were not more successful, and immediately
returned to Rome to hasten the preparations for war.
Meanwhile Hannibal continued the siege of Saguntum,
which was defended with all the obstinacy for which the
Spaniards have ever been distinguished; but it was at
last taken, after a brave resistance of eight months, and
delivered over to all the horrors of a captured city. Thus
the way was cleared for an attack on Italy; and though
the Romans had evidently never imagined it possible that
such a daring measure would for a moment be entertained,
it is quite clear that Hannibal, from the first day of his
command, had resolved to put it into execution without
delay. The Romans intended that Spain should be the
scene of action; but Hannibal boldly determined to attack
them in the very centre of their power, on the plains of
Italy.
Hannibal spent the winter of 219 B. c. in preparations
for his gigantic undertaking, and omitted nothing which he
thought likely to forward his object. He allowed many of
his soldiers to visit their homes, as it might be their last
opportunity; he drew up instructions for the use of his
brother Hasdrubal, whom he intended to govern Spain in
his absence ; and prudently secured the maintenance of
peace in both Africa and Spain, by an exchange of the
troops of the two countries. Neither did he neglect to
make himself acquainted with the feelings of the people
through whose territory he must pass in his way to Italy,
and sent secretly to Cisalpine Gaul to secure the co-opera¬
tion of the disaffected tribes as soon as he should make his
appearance amongst them. He discovered also that the
passage across the Alps was practicable, though it might
be attended with great difficulty.
Having thus made his preparations, Hannibal began his
march from Carthago Nova, now Carthagena, in the be¬
ginning of spring 218 b. c. with an army of ninety thou¬
sand foot and twelve thousand horse. As the river Ebro
had been made by treaty the boundary between the Roman
and Carthaginian portion of Spain, he found all the tribes
at the foot of the Pyrenees ready to dispute his passage, and,
he did not reduce them without a considerable diminution
of his forces. He found, besides, many of his Spanish sol¬
diers frightened at the dangers which lay before them, and,
making a virtue of necessity, he sent a considerable portion
of them back. The troops that passed the Pyrenees were
thus reduced to fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse;
but they were mostly men whose bodies were inured to
hardships by a long course of war. Hannibal had reached
the banks of the Rhone before the Romans were aware that
he had moved from Carthagena ; and Publius Scipio, who
had been dispatched with sixty ships towards Spain, was
much surprised to find, on reaching the mouths of the
Rhone, that Hannibal was in that neighbourhood. He
landed his troops, and prepared to attack Hannibal; but
the energy of that general had anticipated his intention,
and the first slopes of the Alps were already ascended be¬
fore Scipio moved from his position. The road which
Hannibal pursued across the Alps is a much disputed point,
but this is not the place to enter at any length into such a
subject. We feel more confidence in the statements of
Polybius, who tells us (iii. 48) that he had examined the
passages of the Alps with great care, than in those of Livy,
who, though admirable for the beauty of his style, has no
pretensions to geographical accuracy. Yet, even from Po¬
lybius, all that we can gather with certainty is, that Han¬
nibal passed the Alps to the north of the river Isara (Isere),
and descended into the Insubrian territory in Italy. It
was therefore across the Alpes Graiae (Little St Bernard),
that he passed, and not the Alpes Cottiae (Mount Genevre),
as Livy, and Strabo (iv. 209), evidently think. But be this
as it may, Hannibal succeeded in crossing the Alps in fif¬
teen days, though not without great difficulty, and the loss
HAN
of many of his troops. He found on examination that he Hannik
had not more than 20,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry. The
whole journey from Carthago Nova had occupied five *
months.
Scipio had no sooner convinced himself that Hannibal
was serious in his intention of crossing into Italy, than he
hurried back with part of his troops, and, to the astonish¬
ment of Hannibal, was ready on the banks of the Po to
oppose his progress. It was necessary for Hannibal that a
conflict should immediately take place, to confirm the wa¬
vering minds of the Gauls ; and the battle fought on the
banks of the river Ticinus, in which he defeated Scipio,
and compelled him to retire beyond the Po, was the signal
for a general rising. Hannibal pursued Scipio across the
river, and found that he had taken up his position on the
banks of the river Trebia, near to Placentia (Piacenza).
Scipio now saw that his true policy was to weary out Han¬
nibal, and to give him no opportunity of attacking; but the
Roman general was wounded, and could take no active part
in the proceedings. His colleague Tiberius Sempronius,
elated by some partial success, ventured beyond the in-
trenchments, and the result was the speedy and complete
defeat of the Romans. Placentia soon afterwards fell into
his hands ; and thus, within a couple of months, the whole
of the north of Italy was at his disposal. The Romans
heard this intelligence with great dismay, but took active
measures to maintain the contest. The two consuls now
took a position where they could watch the proceedings
of Hannibal, who would naturally advance to the south as
soon as the rigour of the winter months had abated. Ac¬
cordingly, in the beginning of spring 217 b. c. Hannibal
crossed the Apennines into Etruria, by a road, the posi¬
tion of which has been as much disputed as that by which
he passed the Alps. We are satisfied with Vaudoncourt,
who has minutely examined this point, that he crossed
the Apennines by the road which leads from Parma to
Pontremoli and Sarzana, and that the marshes, where
Hannibal had nearly lost his life, are those now called
Paludi di Fuccechio, a little above the place where the
Arno falls into the sea.
Hannibal found the consul Flaminius posted at Arre-
tium, a city situated on the slopes of the Apennines, and
ready to dispute his advance. He laid waste the country
on every side, and drew Flaminius into an ambuscade
which he had laid for him on the banks of the Thrasy-
mene Lake, where the consul fell, and his whole army was
defeated. The road to Rome was now open to him, and
it has often been matter of surprise that he did not march
directly upon the city, and by one bold stroke put an end
to the war. We have no means of knowing the reasons
which deterred him from this obvious proceeding ; but he
turned to the east, at the city of Spoletium (Spoleto), and
proceeding through Umbria and Picenum, where he seems
to have met with no resistance, he entered -the rich pro¬
vince of Apulia, where he wintered. The following year,
216 b. c., he found himself opposed by the cautious policy
of Fabius ; and though Hannibal used every means to pro¬
voke the Roman general to action, his temper and pru¬
dence were proof against every attack. Towards the end
of the year, however, Hannibal again asserted his supe¬
riority ; and the battle of Cannae, fought at a small village
of Apulia, on the banks of the Aufidus, on the 2d of Au¬
gust, was as celebrated a defeat as the Romans had ever
sustained. Fortune now again seemed to point the way
to Rome ; and it seems impossible not to feel convinced
that Hannibal committed an unpardonable blunder in not
attacking the city itself. He wintered at Capua, and the
enervating luxury of that district is said to have entirely
changed the character of his soldiers. The progress of
Hannibal was by no means so rapid as might have been
anticinated from his victories. Many of the cities of
HAN
ann 1. Campania made a successful resistance; and the obsti-
^ nacy with which they maintained their alliance with the
Romans, proves that the sway of that people must have
been by no means burdensome. It appears to us that the
failure of Hannibal was chiefly owing to the small number
of his troops, which did not enable him to garrison the
cities which he took, or to station bodies of men in vari¬
ous parts of the country to repress insurrectionary move¬
ments. Nor do the Carthaginians seem to have entered
into the contest with that spirit which the greatness of
the prize might have fully justified. Had the number of
his men enabled him to follow up his victories by active
measures, there can be no doubt that Rome must have
fallen into his hands.
The next year produced no action of any importance on
either side, though Hannibal gradually lost ground. He
pressed earnestly for reinforcements ; and his brother Has-
drubal crossed the Alps with a considerable body of troops,
207 b. c. which might again have changed the aspect of
affairs. Fortune, however, had deserted him; for Hasdru-
bal fell in an engagement on the banks of the river Me-
taurus, and his army was entirely defeated. Hannibal was
now left to his own resources, and he was obliged to con¬
fine himself to defensive measures. Meanwhile Scipio had
commenced his career of conquest in Spain, and had sub¬
dued the whole country as far as Gades. He crossed into
Africa, and, assisted by Masinissa, attacked the Carthagi¬
nians in their own territory. Hannibal was thus obliged
to return to the defence of his country, 203 B. c., after he
had maintained his footing in Italy for sixteen years. The
battle of Zama, fought in Africa 202 b. c., in which Hanni¬
bal was completely defeated, left nothing for the Carthagi¬
nians but humble submission to the conqueror. Peace was
granted, though on hard conditions, and Hannibal now took
an active part in the domestic arrangements of his coun¬
try. He attempted to reform the numberless abuses which
had crept into the constitution; but he at the same time
excited the enmity of the great body of the aristocracy, who
were ready to seize the first opportunity of banishing him.
They accused him to the Romans of keeping up an active
communication with Antioehus, king of Syria, then sup¬
posed to be preparing w ar against them ; and when the Ro¬
mans sent three commissioners to take cognizance of the
affair, Hannibal did not choose to await the result, but fled
towards the east, and reached Tyre in safety. Here he
staid a few days, and was received with much honour, whilst
at Carthage his property w^as confiscated, and his house razed
to the ground. He then proceeded to Ephesus, where he
was kindly welcomed by the king, and consulted as to the
best mode of attacking the Romans. With Antiochus he
remained several years, though his advice was by no means
always listened to. At last, when Antiochus was defeated,
190 b. c., the king was unable any longer to protect him
from the vengeance of his enemies : he therefore fled first
to Crete, and afterwards to Prusias, king of Bithynia, where
he resided several years, and assisted him in his war against
Eumenes, king of Pergamus, the ally of the Romans. Here
too the vengeance of his enemies reached him. Ambas¬
sadors from Rome demanded that he should be given up;
and as Prusias was ungenerous enough to accede to the
demand, Hannibal resolved to free himself from all further
persecution, and swallowed poison, which he always carried
with him. In what year he died is a point in which the
ancients do not agree. According to Atticus (apud Nep.
Hannib. c. 13), and Valerius Antias (apud Liv. xxxix. 5G),
and Cassiodorus, it was 183 e. c., the same year in which
Philopcemen and the elder Scipio died. Polybius, how¬
ever, makes it 182, and Sulpicius 181 b. c. Thus died the
most celebrated of the Carthaginians, the only man who
could have saved his country from ruin, and restored it to
its ancient glory.
HAN m
HANNO, a Carthaginian, celebrated for a voyage of Hamm
discovery along the western coast of Africa, but at what II
period it was made is not known with any degree of cer- Hanover,
tainty. The different writers who have examined the
point have fixed him at various periods between 1000
and 300 b. c. ; but we are inclined to agree with Rennell,
who thinks he must have lived about 570 b. c. The
principal object of this expedition is set forth in the jour¬
nal, which begins with these words:—“ It was decreed by
the Carthaginians that Hanno should undertake a voyage
beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and found Libyphcenician
cities. He accordingly sailed with sixty ships, of fifty oars
each, and a body of men and women to the number of
thirty thousand, and provisions and other necessaries.”
It is much to be regretted that this curious remnant of
antiquity should have been exceedingly brief, and that it
should not have come down to us in its original form, for
it is evidently a mere abstract of a larger work. Some
indeed have endeavoured to strip it of all pretensions to
credit, and to rank it with the Arabian tales ; but though
some of the stories may have the appearance of fable, such
as fiery torrents, and women covered with hair, the facts
which are susceptible of verification, either by the test of
geography, or a comparison with the descriptions of travel¬
lers, are of too consistent a nature to allow us to doubt that
the voyage was really undertaken. It would appear that the
first city was founded at no great distance from the Strait
of Gibraltar, the rest to the north of Cape Bojador. This
voyage extended a little to the south of Sierra Leone; but
we must refer the reader to the writers who have examined
the subject, for a detailed account of his geographical state¬
ments. The title of the Periplus is “ An Account of the
Voyage of Hanno, commander of the Carthaginians, round
the parts of Libya beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which
he deposited in the Temple of Saturn.” It has been pub¬
lished by Hudson (Geogr. Min. vol. i.), and Falconer (Ox¬
ford, 1797), with an English translation and explanations;
also by Kluge, Hannonis Navigatio, textum critice recogn.
et adnotat. illustravit, Leip. 1829. The following authors
have also published commentaries on the voyage, viz. Bo-
chart, Campomanes, Dodwell, Bougainville, Gosselin, Hee-
ren, and Rennell.
Hanno, a senator of Carthage, who headed the party
opposed to the warlike policy of the Barcine faction. He
was first appointed to the command of the troops in the
interior of Africa, and was successful in reducing Heca-
tompylos, with the adjoining country. When the merce¬
nary troops which had been employed in the first Punic war
became clamorous for their arrears of pay, and at last ven¬
tured to make open war on Carthage, Hanno was appoint¬
ed to the command of the forces to be employed against
them. His talents, however, seem to have been by no
means fitted for the field, and affairs assumed such a threat¬
ening aspect under his mismanagement, that the Carthagi¬
nians began to be alarmed for the very existence of their
state. They therefore appointed as his colleague Hamilcar
Barcas ; but the enmity which existed between the generals
completely neutralised the good that might have been de¬
rived from their abilities. At last, however, the dangerous
position of affairs compelled them to forget their diffe¬
rences, and to unite cordially in resisting their common
enemy. (Polyb. i. 73-88.)
He continued during his whole life to be the advocate
of peace, in opposition to the ambitious policy of Hannibal;
and when that general sent his brother Mago, after the
battle of Cannae, to obtain reinforcements, Hanno exerted
all his influence to prevent this request being granted, and
even proposed that Hannibal should be given up to the Ro¬
mans. (Liv. xxi. 3, 9; xxiii. 13.)
HANOVER, a kingdom in Germany, formed out of the
duchies which formerly belonged to several families of the
136
HANOVER.
Hanover, junior branch of the house of Brunswick. In the course
'w~v'■'w, of the revolutionary war, under the influence of France,
the dukedoms of Bavaria, of Saxony, and of Wirtemburg
had been raised to the rank of kingdoms; and when the
overthrow of Bonaparte was accomplished, the dukedoms
which had composed the electorate of Hanover were
thought by the allied powers of sufficient consequence to
be elevated to the same dignity, as, with the additions
then made to them, they were nearly equal in extent and
population to the other portions of Germany whose rulers
had received that rank. It accordingly assumed that grade
in 1814, under George III., and was acknowledged as such
by all the powers of Europe.
The obscurity in which antiquity has involved the early
history of nations can only be in a slight degree cleared up
by tracing the origin of the families that maintained the
continued rule over them. The ruling family of Hanover
has been traced, by the combined efforts and researches
of Muratori and Leibnitz, to an Italian origin, in the dark
ages, that is, to the princely house of Este ; and by Gibbon,
from that house up to the descendants of Charlemagne. A
Marquis of Este, in the eleventh century, married Cuniza
or Cunegonda, an heiress of a princely family in Bavaria,
whose son received the name of Guelph, derived from his ma¬
ternal ancestors, and inherited their dominions, including the
dukedom of Bavaria. The grandson of this Guelph, named
Henry the Black, and his son named Henry the Proud,
acquired by marriage new and extensive dominions on the
banks of the Elbe and the Weser; and Henry the Lion, the
most powerful prince of his age, was the first of the race
who assumed the title of Duke of Brunswick. Under this
Henry, who distinguished himself as a great warrior, an
uncle wrested from him the southern portion of his terri¬
tory in Bavaria and Suabia, and left him, at the conclusion
of most bitter hostility, in the possession of the northern
portion of it. He made the city of Brunswick the capital
of his dominions, and, being in possession of the rich silver
mines of the Hartz, was enabled to extend his power over
the tribes of Northern Germany, inhabit ing Holstein, Meck¬
lenburg, and nearly the whole coast of the Baltic Sea.
Henry the Lion was twice married. By his first wife he
left no family ; and by his second wife, who was Maud, the
daughter of Henry II. of England, though he had several
sons, none of them left any issue except William, under
whose only son Otho the partition of the house took place,"
Brunswick and Luneburg being divided into two duke¬
doms. The latter branch received the Hanoverian portion
as a fief from William Sigefred, bishop of Hildesheim.
After the death of Otho, and of his two sons Otho and
William, who successively followed, the male line became
extinct in 1369. Otho, elector of Saxony, who had mar¬
ried a daughter of William, was, by the influence of the
emperor of Germany, Charles IV. invested with the go¬
vernment. He died without issue, having by his testament
bequeathed the dukedom to his uncle Wenceslaus, elector
of Saxony; a bequest which was contested by Torquatus
Magnus, duke of Saxony, but at length was terminated in
a compromise, by which Bernard, the eldest son of Tor¬
quatus, obtained the dominion, and reigned until 1434.
After several successions, the power became vested in Er¬
nest of Zell, who first introduced the Lutheran religion into
his states, and died in the year 1546. The succession since
has been, William, who died in 1592; Ernest, in 1611;
Christian, in 1633; August, in 1636; Fredrich, in 1648;
Ernest Augustus, bishop of Osnaburg, who was made an
elector of the German empire in 1692, and died in 1698;
George Louis, who, after the death of his uncle George
William, inherited the dukedom of Zell in 1705, and suc¬
ceeded to the crown of Great Britain by the title of George
I. in 1714. He died in 1727, since which period the suc¬
cession has been the same as in that kingdom.
The accession of the electors of Hanover to the throne Hano
of Great Britain, though it has led ultimately to a great '-■’y
extension of territory, has, on the other hand, subjected the
electorate to sufferings and to oppression during the wars
between Great Britain and France. At the commencement
of the Seven Years’ War, a French army invaded it; and the
forces under the Duke of Cumberland, being unequal to
its defence, were compelled, by the convention of Kloster-
Severn, to abandon the country to the invaders. By the
peace of 1763 it was again restored to its ancient sovereign.
At the renewal of hostilities after the treaty of Amiens,
Hanover was once more seized upon by the French, and
by them delivered over to the king of Prussia, who ruled it
till after his defeat at Jena. It was then incorporated as
part of the kingdom of Westphalia, erected in favour of
Jerome Bonaparte. This rule was terminated by the
battle of Leipsic, by which Hanover, with the rest of Ger¬
many, was delivered from French domination, and returned
to its ancient sovereigns, with the addition of the provinces
of Hildesheim, Osnaburg, East Friesland, Goslar, and
some other territories. On the other hand, Hanover gave
up the ancient duchy of Lauenburg, which was transferred
to Denmark, and some portions or bailiwicks, a part to
Prussia, and a part to the Duke of Oldenburg.
Hanover has thus become a compact dominion, extend¬
ing over 14,720 English square miles. It lies between 50°
18' and 53° 54' north latitude, and 6° 58' and 11° 56' east
longitude. It is bounded on the north by the duchy of
Oldenburg, the bailiwick of Ritzebiittel, belonging to Ham¬
burg, and the mouth of the Elbe. On the north-east the river
Elbe divides it from Holstein and Luneburg, belonging to
Denmark, and from the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin;
but it possesses the small territory of Neuhof on the right
bank of that river. On the east it is bounded by the Prus¬
sian province of Saxony, and by the duchy of Brunswick ;
on the south it touches the dominions of Prussia, of Hesse-
Cassel, of both the Lippes, and of Westphalia ; and on the
west the kingdom of the Netherlands is the boundary.
The kingdom of Hanover is divided in the following
manner:—
Provinces.
Extent in
English Acres.
Population.
Number of
Dwelling-
Houses.
Hanover 
Hildesheim.
Luneburg....
Stade  
Osnabruck..
Aurich 
Claus thal...
1,601,280
1,121,920
2,871,040
1,725,440
1,441,280
743,040
122,080
9,626,080
296,000
322,000
285,000
244,000
244,000
152,000
26,000
1,569,000
40,745
44,199
37,037
37,747
39,411
24,261
2,738
226,138
A new survey and division of provinces has been made
within the last four years. The population returns are
grounded on a census taken in 1817, since which the deaths
have been deducted and the births added each year.
This gives an increase of inhabitants of 236,400 in fifteen
years. In the year 1832 the births appear to have been
48,273, and the deaths 39,806. The capital of each of
the provinces is the city of the same name.
The chief cities and their population are as follows : Ha¬
nover, 26,300; Hildesheim, 13,800; Luneburg, 12,500;
Emden, 12,100; Osnabruck, 11,800; Gottingen, 11,000;
Zell, 10,300; Claus thal, 8850; Goslar, 7160; Leer, 6340;
Hameln, 5750; Norden,-5600; Stade, 5500; Eimbeck,
5100.
The province of Hildesheim is somewhat mountain¬
ous, and that of Clausthal, containing the Hartz, is
HANOVER.
137
lam t. wholly so, as well as some parts near Gottingen. The
other provinces form a part of that extensive plain which
commences on the shores of the German Ocean, and ter¬
minates on the frontiers of Russia. The whole plain is
a sandy soil, resting on a bed of granite, and is generally
sterile, except on the banks of the various rivers that water
it, or near the cities, where cultivation has improved it by
artificial means. The most fruitful part of the kingdom is
on the banks of the Elbe, and near the German Ocean,
where, as in Holland, rich meadows are preserved from
being immersed in water, by broad dykes and deep ditches,
constructed and kept in repair at a great expense.
The most remarkable mountains are those of the Hartz
Forest, three fifths of which are in this kingdom, and two
fifths in the duchy of Brunswick. These mountains are
not a part of any chain, but rise from a plain in a group
by themselves, the highest points of which are nearly in
the centre. The mass is about eighty miles in length from
east to west, and about twenty-eight in breadth from north
to south. The highest points, and their height above the
level of the sea, are Bruchberg, 3020 feet; Wormberg,
2880 feet; Achtermanshohe, 2710 feet; the Little Winter-
berg, 2684 feet; Kahlenberg, 2180 feet; and the Ram-
melsbei'g, 1915 feet. These mountains are wholly covered
with forests. On their lower sides the trees are of the de¬
ciduous kinds, but the summits are exclusively covered with
pines. These mountains abound with minerals of almost
every kind, and the principal employment of the inhabitants
consists either in mining, or in manufacturing the iron and
copper into domestic utensils. Some of the mining and
manufacturing towns, as Clausthal, Andreasberg, Celler-
feld, and several others, are from 1700 to 1900 feet above
the level of the sea; and their population would sulfer
most severely from the cold of the severe winters, but for
the abundance both of wood and fossil coal with which
they are supplied.
The whole of the kingdom of Hanover dips towards the
north, and the courses of all the rivers are in that direc¬
tion. These are, first, the Elbe, which borders a large
part of the dominion, and receives into it the Ohre, which
rises in the province of Luneburg; the Aland and the
Jeetze, which come out of Prussia, and are navigable be¬
fore they terminate in the Elbe; the Ilmenau, which be¬
comes navigable at Luneburg; the Este, which is navi¬
gable to Buxtehude ; the Liihe, navigable to Hornburg; the
Schwinge, by which vessels reach Stade ; the Oste, which
passes Harburg, and is navigable to Kirchosters; and the
Medem, which runs through the land Hadeln, and admits
large vessels as high as Ottendorf. Second, the Weser,
which enters the dominions of Hanover at Miinden, being
there formed by the junction of the Fulda and the Werra.
It is navigable for barges from the spot at which its name
commences, and it receives, in its course, the Hamel, the
Aller, the Oertze, the Line, the Bbhme, the Eyther, the
Wiimme, the Lesum (formed by the three streams, Ro-
dau, Wiste, and Worpe), the Greste, and the Hunter ; all
of which are Hanoverian rivers, and continue their united
courses till they are lost in the German Ocean near Bre¬
men. Third, the Ems, a river rising in the Prussian pro¬
vince of Westphalia. After entering Hanover, it receives
the waters of the Aa, the Hase, the Else, and the Leda.
Before reaching the sea, it falls into the Dollart near Em-
den, which is the principal seaport in the kingdom. The
vessels belonging to this port are about 270, and their ton¬
nage 19,289 lasts. There are equipped at the mouth of this
river upwards of fifty busses, w hich are employed in the
herring fishery, and usually take and cure from 12,000 to
14,000 tons of that fish annually. Fourth, the Vecht, a
river of short course, rising in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, and terminating in the Zuyder Zee. Its prin¬
cipal importance is derived from a navigable canal, which
VOL. XI.
commences at the city of Munster, and is the channel of Hanover,
some trade through the Vecht to Amsterdam.
Though Hanover is generally a sandy soil, it has some
small fresh-water lakes. The Dummersee, in Diepholtz,
is about twelve miles in circuit. The Steinhudermeer, in
the province of Kalenburg, is about four miles long and
two broad; and the Dollart, at the mouth of the Ems,
which is rather an estuary than a lake, is twelve miles
across. The canals are all of short course. The Bremen
Canal is designed to unite the Hamme, the Oste, and the
Schwinge; and the Treckschuit Canal is intended to con¬
nect Witmund with Aurich. The Pappenburg Canal is
only navigable from the Ems to that city.
Though considerable variations, in conformity to the
different natures of the soils, occur in the husbandry of
Hanover, yet it may be generally described as at a very
low standard. The land mostly belongs either to the king,
or to the nobles, as lords of the soil, who have under them
a species of tenants called bauers, having the use of small
portions of land, under many and various feudal conditions.
These bauers pay little or no rent in money, but render
the lord a stipulated number of days’ work in seed time
and harvest on his demesne lands, or give him a certain
proportion of the proceeds of their crops. In most in¬
stances the lords have the right of pasture for their cattle
over the whole land, and are the proprietors of most of the
sheep and cows. There is an exception to this mode of
holding, called the meyer law ; but it extends over so small
a portion of the kingdom as not to merit a detailed notice
of it. The rotation of crops usually followed in Hanover
is first a fallow, on which the land is cultivated to potatoes,
peas, or flax ; then follows winter corn, either rye or wheat,
but chiefly the former ; and to these succeeds summer corn,
either barley or oats. As the fields are usually divided
into small portions, like many of our common fields in
England, and the larger divisions must all be cultivated
alike, though belonging to different occupiers; and as the
course that has prevailed from time immemorial must be
continued ; there is little or no room for improvement, and
little encouragement for superior knowledge or greater ac¬
tivity. Such is the bad state of cultivation, that the in¬
crease of grain is not estimated to exceed four for one of
the quantity sown throughout the whole kingdom. The
breeding and fattening of cattle is a branch of rural eco¬
nomy, confined to particular portions adapted to that pur¬
pose, and is in the same backward state as the agriculture.
By the latest enumeration of the live stock, which was pre¬
vious to some provinces of 600,000 acres in extent being
added to it, there were 224,500 horses ; 675,926 head of
horned cattle ; 1,540,794 sheep and lambs ; 15,728 goats
and kids; 176,974 swine; and 1498 asses and mules.
Much of the heath land, especially in the province of Lune¬
burg, is used for no other purpose but that of rearing bees
for the salve of their honey and wax. The hives are trans¬
ported in waggons, at the commencement of the spring, to
those more southern countries where the flowers bloom
early, and are afterwards brought back when the heath
flowers are fit for them, and remain till the proper time
for taking the contents of the hives. Large numbers of
geese are also kept by the bauers on the moist situations :
their flesh is salted for winter domestic consumption, and
their feathers are preserved for sale. These two sources,
affording wax, honey, and feathers, yield the principal dis¬
posable produce of some of the provinces.
The manufactures of Hanover are very numerous, but
none of them extensive. Except linen, linen yarn, and
domestic utensils, few of them afford a surplus beyond the
home consumption. The linen is of four kinds: first, that
called Hauseleinwand, or household linen, the making as
well as use of which is to be met with in every family ; se¬
condly, a coarse kind, that called the Lowentleinen; thirdly,
s
138
HANOVER.
Hanover, the fine linen, which is only made in some of the cities to
a small extent, and almost wholly consumed by the richer
families of the kingdom ; and, fourthly, sail-cloth and hemp¬
en linen, which is principally made in East Friesland and
the duchy of Bremen, and is mostly sold for foreign con¬
sumption. Besides the linen yarn used in the home fa¬
brics, a great quantity is spun for foreign trade. Spin¬
ning is indeed the constant operation of almost all the fe¬
males in the villages during the long nights of winter. The
spinning of coarse wool, and making it into cloth, either
by itself or mixed w ith linen, occupies a considerable por¬
tion of the industry of the peasantry, and furnishes them
w ith clothing from the produce of their own lands. Be¬
sides these, they spin cotton, and mixing the yarn with
that of linen, manufacture dresses for the females and the
younger part of their families. The stockings they wear,
whether of linen, cotton, or worsted, are usually made at
home. In some parts of the country much oil is made
from linseed. Coarse pottery ware is made in many parts.
Paper-mills, which supply about 80,000 reams annually,
are not sufficient for the home consumption. In the cities,
woollen cloths, silk goods, cotton of various kinds, hats,
hosiery, soap, and leather, are manufactured. The princi¬
pal branches that employ much capital are the breweries
of Hanover, Eimbeck, and Goslar, and the corn distilleries
which are to be found in all the cities. The former of
these are suffering a gradual declension, whilst the latter
are as rapidly increasing.
The mines are a source of wealth, which, from having
been neglected during the French occupation, have re¬
quired considerable expenditure to make them as produc¬
tive as they were before that calamitous period. The
gross quantities delivered of all the mines in the seventeen
years from the beginning of 1815 to the end of 1832, have
been as follows, viz.
Gold 103 merks.
Silver 878,699 ...
Lead 1,683,781 quintals.
Copper  33,509
Zinc   596
Sulphur  17,396
Vitriol  44,058
Lon  1,329,139
Salt  1,400,000
Fossil coal   17,500,000 cubic feet.
It is expected that in future the proceeds will be more
considerable, and the expense of working much less, as
some new shafts have been recently sunk, and the cost of
them deducted from the price of the metals.
As may be supposed from the small quantity of surplus
production, the trade of Hanover cannot be extensive.
Fhe principal port, Emden, has some export and import
trade; but from the state of the roads between that place
and the more populous parts of the kingdom, more of its
trade passes through Hamburg and Bremen than through
that city. . Besides the more considerable articles made
Lom flax, its honey, wax, feathers, and large quantities of
timber, are sent to Hamburg and Bremen. Hops, rape-
seed, oil-cake, fruit, hams, and sausages, form also articles
of export of small amount. In very fruitful years some
corn is exported, but in general the consumption is equal
to the produce. The imports consist principally of wine,
coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, tobacco, and a few manufactured
articles, which are consumed by the richer classes. As
the roads to the great fairs of Leipsic and Frankfort pass
through Hanover, the transit of goods by these create a
pretty large commission trade, and give employment to
many waggons, horses, and men, as well as to the barge
owners. The exports and imports nearly balance each
other, and the amount of neither exceeds L.500,000 ster¬
ling.
Hanover is a hereditary monarchy in the house of Han,
Guelph, with a Salic law, which prevents the throne be- 'wJ
ing filled by a female. In case the present branch becomes
extinct, the heir of the duchy of Brunswick will succeed.
The legislative powTer was vested in the several states
formerly, which caused a great complication, both in the
financial and the judicial departments. This arose from
the several parts which have successively been added to
Hanover having possessed ancient constitutions, with con¬
siderable differences in the laws, religion, and institutions.
By gradual arrangements these have been assimilated
into one system, and a legislative body formed, which, as
far as it has hitherto proceeded, works rather favourably
for the general good. It consists of two houses. The
upper house contains fifty-five members. They are in
part the mediatorial sovereigns within the kingdom, in
part the Protestant and the Catholic bishops or prelates
and in part the ministers at the head of the several de¬
partments of the government; but the greater number
consists of the representatives of the nobility, proprietors
of estates in the several provinces.
The second chamber is composed of seventy-two mem¬
bers, who are chosen for six years. Twenty-nine of them
are elected by the cities, and the remainder by the proprie¬
tors of the estates in their respective provinces. Amon<>-st
these are several clergymen and lawyers. The president
and vice-president are selected by the assembiy, but sub¬
ject to the approbation of the king, or, in his absence,
of the viceroy. They assemble every year, and their at¬
tention recently has been chiefly addressed to the simpli¬
fication of the finances, and to the abolition of those in¬
ferior local justiciaries, which had belonged to the pro¬
prietors of certain estates.
I he revenue of the kingdom is derived from various
sources, all of which have been clearly communicated to
the public by one of the chiefs of the board of revenue,
Mr Ubbelohde, up to the beginning of 1834.
The sovereigns of Hanover were, like most others in
Germany, the largest landed proprietors in their domi¬
nions. I heir land, called the domains, with what was de¬
nominated the royalties, such as the mines, the posting,
the road and harbour tolls, and other branches, amounted
to nearly as much as the taxes. These have recently
been given up by the crown, and form one branch of the
general revenue applicable by the legislature to the pur¬
pose of paying the interest of the public debt, and defray¬
ing the expenses of the several departments of the admi¬
nistration.
i he nett amount of this royal property, after deducting
the expense of management and collection, and the sum
appropriated to the viceregal household, appears to have
been, in 1833, 1,194,640 rixdollars, or L.89,598 sterling,
besides that derived from the mines and salt springs,
which amounted to 117,000 rixdollars, or L.8775 sterling.
Ihe remainder of the revenue is obtained by taxation of
vaiious kinds, such as land, house, personal, and income
taxes, by imposts on beer and corn spirits, by stamps, and
by a custom-duty on foreign goods. These are the chief
subjects of taxation, but there are some few of a smaller
kind, more troublesome than productive.
Ihe nett revenue now is found to produce as follows;
t. , , llixdollars. Sterling.
from the royal treasury 2,356,543 L.176,625
from the kingdom’s treasury 3,006,600 225,495
_ , , 5,363,143 L.402,235
Ihe whole expenses of the govern¬
ment, as enumerated below,
amounted in 1832 to 5,390,800 L.404,310
Thus leaving a deficit of.
41,485 L.2,075
HANOVER.
139
r.
The annual expenses are as follows :—
Itixdollars.
Cabinet ministers  90,950
Office in London  14,400
Bailiwick and other expenses in the country
parts, and police  618,350
Legislative body  76,400
Ministry of foreign affairs  70,000
Ministry of war 1,657,950
Ministry of justice  215,600
Ministry of religion and general instruction  97,650
Ministry of the interior  651,000
Ministry of trade      41,300
Ministry of finances   208,000
Interest of debt    1,306,400
Pensions  144,000
Expiring expenses  198,800
5,390,800
or L.404,310 sterling.
The public debt consists in part of annuities, and in part
of loans. The annual interest, as is shown in the account
of expenses, amounts to nearly one quarter of these. It
is, however, annually diminishing, by means of a sinking
fund, tillgungofond, the amount paid towards which is in¬
cluded in the 1,306,400 rixdollars of the expenditure. It
now amounts to 311,100 rixdollars, or nearly one quarter
of the annual interest.
In the expenditure of the ministry of the interior is
comprehended the cost of improving the roads, the dykes,
and the navigable rivers. It has been well expended,
especially that on the roads, which have, within the last
fifteen years, from the worst become some of the best in
any part of Europe.
The military force of Hanover consists of an engineer
and artillery corps, the latter composed of two companies
of horse and one of foot, a corps of riflemen, a battalion
of infantry, of which two are the guards and two light
troops, and four regiments of cavalry. The total num¬
ber amounts to about twelve thousand men, but many of
them are indulged with furloughs, so that the whole ex¬
pense of the army, including the repairs of the fortifica¬
tions, is very small. Hanover has a single vessel of war
moored in the Elbe to collect the dues on that stream,
and some small craft at the mouths of the Weser and of
the Ems.
The religious establishments of Llanover are the three
Christian sects in different parts. The Lutherans are the
most numerous, comprehending 1,235,200 persons, having
ten superintendents or bishops, and 924 clergymen. They
have also nine convents for men and eighteen for females,
but the members of these are not bound to celibacy. The
tithes are commonly paid in kind, but some of them have
stipends from the government. The Catholics are about
200,000, having one bishop, and 143 parish priests. The
Reformed are about 100,000, and have 114 parish churches,
and a minister to each. There are, besides, three Men-
nonite and one Moravian congregation. The Jews are
allowed the freest toleration as regards their worship, but
are excluded from some of the civil privileges. Their
number is about 12,000.
The business of education is well attended to, and
abundant means are supplied to aid it, both by the govern¬
ment and the voluntary contributions of corporations and
individuals. The first establishment is the university of
Gottingen, founded by George II. in 1734. Its profes¬
sors are scholars of great eminence in every branch of
science and literature, and in 1833 it contained 845
students. There are, besides, five ecclesiastical semina¬
ries, twenty-nine schools for the common sciences, and six¬
teen gymnasiums or public classical schools; and each vil¬
lage and town has the appropriate number of elementary Hanover,
schools, amounting to the number of 3560. All are taught '^**~\^**J
to read and to write, and the common rules of arithmetic.
There are also surgical and medical schools, hospitals for
midwifery, and a good veterinary college. The freedom
of the press is allowed to the professors of the university,
but all other writings must pass through a very mild cen¬
sorship ; though of late, from the proceedings of the diet
at Frankfort, some restrictions have been enacted against
the unlimited publication of political newspapers, and
other smaller works.
The poor are provided for wholly by voluntary contri¬
butions, which are made from house to house at stated
periods. They are in a great degree supported in work-
houses, where their own labour contributes in some mea¬
sure to their maintenance. Their food and clothing are
of the coarsest kind. There are many hospitals and other
charitable establishments for the relief and cure of the
diseased ; and, upon the whole, the poor are as well taken
care of as in other countries where their maintenance is
compulsory.
The language usually spoken in Hanover is the Plat-
Deutsche, a dialect of the High German, more pure, and
less complicated in its construction, but treated by the
learned with more contempt than it merits. As the ser¬
vice in the churches and the instruction in the schools
are exclusively in the High German, all the peasantry
understand it, though they never use it when they can
avoid it. The higher classes pride themselves in speaking
the High German with greater purity than is practised
in any other part of the empire.
Hanover has two standards of money, the Leipsiger
and the convention. The public accounts are kept in
the latter. The gold coin called Georgs d’or is five rix¬
dollars eight groschen in convention money ; or, in Leip¬
siger money, four rixdollars sixteen groschen. The
other gold coin, the Gold-Gulden, is two rixdollars six
groschen in convention, two dollars two groschen in Leip¬
siger money.
The long measure is the rood of eight ells ; the ell is
two feet; the foot twelve inches. Six Hanoverian are
equal to five Brabant ells. Land is measured by hufen
and morgens. The hufe is thirty morgens, the morgen
120 ruthen, equal to 24’844 Paris feet. The morgen by
which woodland is measured contains 160 ruthen. The
liquid measure is the eimen, of 3T36 cubic inches, or the
anker of T960 cubic inches. The latter makes sixteen
stiibchens or thirty-two kannen, and sixty-four quartiere
or 128 nosel. The weights in common use are ships-
pounds, lies-pounds, hundreds, and customary pounds.
The ships-pound is equal to twenty lies-pounds ; the hun¬
dred is 110 lies-pounds. The lies-pound is divided into
two marks, the mark into eight ounces, the ounce into
two loths, the loth into four quentins. The local weights
and measures vary from these standards in all the vil¬
lages of the several provinces.
See Erdebescreibung des Konigreichs Hannover^ von
Sonne ; Weiniarishe Erdebescreibung, vol. iv. part i.; Jacobs’
View of Germany, 8$c. 1820; Weimar Almanack, 1834;
Hodgskin’s Germany; Hannoverische Zeitungen, 1833 ; and
Uber die Finances des Konigreichs Hannover und deren
Verwaltung, von Hofrath, J. G. L. W. Ubbelohde, 1834.
Hanover, a city, the capital of the kingdom of the
same name, in Germany, as well as of the province of
Kalenburg. It is built on an extensive plain on the river
Leine, which receives the waters of the Ihme, and then
becomes navigable to the Weser. The former walls,
which were indefensible, have been destroyed, and plant¬
ed, and thus converted into pleasant promenades. The
city is divided into the old and the new town by the river.
The former is old, ill built, and dirty; the latter is much
140 HAN
Hanover, better, contains a fine square, some good streets, and seve-
New rai handsome public and private buildings. The most pro-
e minent of these are the palace of the Duke of Cambridge,
Towns t^e theatre> and the house of assembly of the states. The
royal library, containing 25,000 volumes, and the cabinet
of natural history, are objects of attention. The city con¬
tains seven Lutheran, two Reformed, and one Catholic
church, with 2195 houses, and about 25,000 inhabitants.
The chief trade is brewing beer, but it has those kinds
of manufactures which are naturally encouraged in the
capital of each kingdom, however small or poor. As
the residence of a court, of an armed force, of the le¬
gislature, the courts of justice, and of several of the nobi¬
lity, a great number of small tradesmen obtain subsist¬
ence by supplying their wants. The trade by water con¬
sists chiefly in transmitting wood, and some corn and
flax, to Bremen, where it is shipped for markets at a dis¬
tance. There is, however, an exchange and a chamber of
commerce, and some of the bankers are considerable ca¬
pitalists. It is situated in longitude 9. 39. 40. E. and
latitude 52. 22. 18. N. Near the city is the royal palace
of Hernhausen, with fine walks, gardens, graperies, and
plantations.
Hanover, New, an island in the Pacific Ocean, seen
by Captain Carteret in 1767, and, according to his account,
about thirty miles in length. The passage between this
island and New Zealand is obstructed by reefs and islets.
The south-west part is situated in long. 148. 27. E. and lat.
2. 49. S.
HANSE, or Hans, an ancient name for a society or
company of merchants, particularly that of certain cities in
Germany, hence called Hanse-towns. The word hanse is
obsolete High Dutch or Teutonic, and signifies alliance,
confederacy, association. But some derive it from the two
German words am-see, that is, on the sea, because the first
hanse towns were all situated on the sea-coast; and hence
the society is said to have been originally called am zee
stenen, or cities on the sea, and afterwards, by abbreviation,
hansee, and hanse.
Hanse Toivns. The Hanseatic society was a league
between several maritime cities of Germany, for the pro¬
tection of their commerce. Bremen and Amsterdam were
the first two that formed it; and the trade of these towns
experienced such advantage by their fitting out two men
of war in each to convoy their ships, that more cities en¬
tered into the league. Even kings and princes made trea¬
ties with the league, and were often glad of their assistance
and protection ; by which means they became so power¬
ful both by sea and land, that they raised armies as well as
navies, possessed countries in sovereignty, and made peace
or wrar, though always in defence of their trade, as if they
had been an united state or commonwealth.
At this time many cities, though they had no great in¬
terest in trade, or intercourse with the ocean, entered
into this alliance for the preservation of their liberties;
so that in 1200 we find no less than seventy-two cities in
the list of the towns of the Hanse, particularly Bre¬
men, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Dort, Bruges, Qs-
tend, Dunkirk, Middleburg, Calais, Rouen, Rochelle, Bor¬
deaux, St Malo, Bayonne, Biiboa, Lisbon, Seville, Cadiz,
Carthagena, Barcelona, Marseilles, Leghorn, Naples, Mes¬
sina, London, Lubeck, Rostock, Stralsund, Stettin, Wismar,
Konigsberg, Dantzig, Elbing, and Marienburg.
The alliance was now so powerful that their ships of
war were often hired by other princes to assist them
against their enemies. They not only awed, but often
defeated, all that opposed their commerce ; and in 1358
they took such revenge on the Danish fleet in the Sound,
for having interrupted their commerce, that Waldemar
III. king of Denmark, for the sake of peace, gave them up
Schonen for sixteen years, by which they commanded the
H A N
passage of the Sound in their own right. In 1428 they H
made war on Erick, king of Denmark, with two hundred To
and fifty sail, carrying on board 12,000 men. These so w
ravaged the coast of Jutland, that the king was glad to
make peace with them.
Many privileges were bestowed upon the Hanse Towns
by Louis XL, Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I.,
kings of France, as well as by the emperor Charles V.,
who had different loans of money from them, and by King
Henry III., who also incorporated them into a trading
body, in acknowledgment of money which they had ad¬
vanced to him, as well as for the good services they did
him by their naval forces in 1206.
These towns exercised a jurisdiction amongst them¬
selves ; and for this purpose they were divided into four
colleges or provinces, distinguished by the names of their
four principal cities, viz. Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and
Dantzig, in which were held their courts of judicature.
They had a common stock or treasury at Lubeck, and
power to call an assembly as often as was necessary.
They kept magazines or warehouses for the sale of their
merchandises in London, Bruges, Antwerp, Berg in Nor¬
way, Revel in Livonia, and Novogorod in Muscovy, which
were exported to most parts of Europe, in English, Dutch,
and Flemish bottoms. One of their principal magazines
was at London, where a society of German merchants was
formed, called the Steelyard Company. To this company
great privileges were granted by Edward I.; but these
were revoked, by act of parliament in 1552, in the reign
of Edward VI., upon a complaint of the English mer¬
chants that this company had so completely engrossed the
cloth trade, that in the preceding year they had exported
50,000 pieces, whilst the English had only shipped 1100
pieces. Queen Mary, who ascended the throne the fol¬
lowing year, having resolved to marry Philip, son of the
emperor Charles V., suspended the execution of the act
for three years ; but after that term, whether by reason
of some new statute, or in pursuance of that of King Ed¬
ward, the privileges of the company were no longer re¬
garded, and all efforts of the Hanse Towns to recover this
loss were unavailing.
Another accident which contributed to their mortifica¬
tion occurred whilst Queen Elizabeth was at war with the
Spaniards. Sir Francis Drake happening to meet sixty
ships in the Tagus, loaded with corn belonging to the
Hanse Towns, took out all the corn as contraband goods,
which they were forbidden to carry by their original pa¬
tent. The Hanse Towns having complained of this to the
diet of the empire, the queen sent an ambassador thither
to declare her reasons. The king of Poland likewise in¬
terested himself in the affair, because the city of Dantzig
was under his protection. At last, though the queen
strove hard to preserve the commerce of the English in
Germany, the emperor excluded the English company of
merchant-adventurers, who had considerable factories at
Stade, Emden, Bremen, Hamburg, and Elbing, from all
trade in the empire. In short, the Hanse Towns, parti¬
cularly in Germany, were not only in so flourishing, but
in so formidable a state, from the fourteenth to the six¬
teenth century, that they gave umbrage to all the neigh¬
bouring princes, who threatened a strong confederacy
against them, and, as the first step towards this, com¬
manded all the cities within their dominion or jurisdiction
to withdraw from the union or Flanse, and have no further
concern therein. This immediately separated from them
all the cities of England, France, and Italy. The Hanse,
on the other hand, prudently put themselves under the
protection ot the empire ; and as the cities just mentioned
had withdrawn from them, they withdrew from several
more, and made a decree amongst themselves, that none
should be admitted into their society but such as stood
HAN
HAN
141
within the limits of the German empire, or were depen-
dent thereon, except Dantzig, which continued a mem-
Kl. ZY though in nowise dependent on the empire. By this
> "l’s they maintained their confederacy for the protec¬
tion of trade, without being any more envied by their
pjo-hbours; but they were reduced to Lubeck, Bremen,
Hamburg and Dantzig, in the first of which they kept
their register, and held assemblies once in three years
at least. In the middle of the seventeenth century, Lu¬
beck Bremen, and Hamburg were all that continued to
acknowledge the authority of the league ; and even to this
dav the shadow of its power still exists, these places hav-
ini been acknowledged in the act for the establishment
of5the Germanic confederation signed at Vienna on the
8th of June 1815, as free Hanseatic cities.
HANSOOT, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Guierat, twelve miles south-west from Broach. Long. /2.
59. E. Lat. 21. 32. N.
HANSY, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Delhi,
and district of Hissar Feroseh, situated on the edge of the
canal, now in ruins, cut from the river Jumna about the
year 1353, by Sultan Feroy. It is a very ancient town,
and contains the tomb of a Mahommedan saint called
Sheikh Jemmal. It was taken by the Mahommedans ear¬
ly in 1035, and has experienced many revolutions. To¬
wards the end of the eighteenth century it was the capi¬
tal of the short-lived principality erected by the adven¬
turer George Thomas, and is now possessed by indepen¬
dent native chiefs. . , ™ . o
HANTCHAO, a small island in the Chinese Sea, not
far from the coast of Cochin-China, at the entrance of the
harbour of Turon. Lat. 16. 12. N.
HANTCHONG, a city of China, of the first rank, in the
province of Chensi, situated in a fertile countiy, and sur¬
rounded by mountains and forests. It carries on a trade
in honey, wax, musk, and cinnabar. Long. 106. 44. E.
Lat. 32. 59. N. .
HANYANG, a city of China, of the first rank, situated
at the confluence of the rivers Han and Yantse. Long.
113. 44. E. Lat. 63. 19. N.
HANWAY, Jonas, distinguished for his benevolent
designs and useful writings, was born at I ortsmouth, in
Hampshire, on the 12th ot August H12. His father,
Thomas Hanway, an officer in the naval service, and for
some years store-keeper to the dockyard at that place, was
deprived of his life by an accident, and left his widow with
four children, Jonas, William, Ihomas, and Elizabeth, all
of very tender age. Mrs Hanway having repaired to Lon¬
don after the death of her husband, put Jonas to school,
where he learned writing and accounts, and made some
proficiency in Latin. At the age of seventeen he was
sent to Lisbon, where he arrived in June 1729, and was
bound apprentice to a merchant in that city. On the ex¬
piration of his apprenticeship, he entered into business at
Lisbon as a merchant or factor; but he did not remain
there long before he returned to London.
He soon afterwards connected himself as a partner in
Mr Dingley’s house in St Petersburg, where he arrived on
the 10th of June 1743. The trade of the English nation
by the Caspian Sea to Persia had at this period been in¬
trusted to the care of Mr Elton, who, not content with the
pursuit of commercial affairs, had injudiciously engaged
in the service of Nadir Shah, to build ships on the Caspian
after the European manner. This had alarmed the mer¬
chants engaged in the Russian trade, and a resolution was
formed that one of their body should make a journey into
Persia. On this occasion Mr Hanway offered his service,
and was accepted. He set out on the 10th of September,
and, after experiencing a great variety of hazards in that
kingdom during the course of twelve months, returned to
St Petersburg on the first of January 1745, without hav¬
ing been able to establish the intended trade by the Cas- Hanway.
pian, partly through the jealousy of the Russian court on
account of Elton’s connections with the Persians, and part¬
ly from the troubles and revolutions by which the' latter
kingdom was distracted.
He now settled at St Petersburg, where he remained
five years. During this time he interested himself great¬
ly in the concerns of the merchants wrho had engaged in
the Caspian trade ; but the independence he had acquired
having excited a desire to revisit his native country', he
left St Petersburg on the 9th of July 1750. In 1753 he
published an Historical Account of the British Trade by
the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels from London
through Russia into Persia, and back again through Rus¬
sia, Germany, and Holland; a work which was received
with great attention by the public. In 1754, we find Mr
Hanway commending a plan offered for the advantage ot
Westminster, and suggesting hints for the further im¬
provement of it, in a letter to Mr John Spranger on his
excellent proposal for paving, cleansing, and lighting the
streets of Westminster, 8vo. A few years afterwards,
when a scheme of the same kind was carried into effect,
many of Mr Hanway’s ideas, thrown out in this pamphlet,
were adopted. In 1756, he printed a Journal of Eight
Days’Journey from Portsmouth to Kingston-upon-Thames,
with an Essay upon Tea, which was afterwards reprinted
in two volumes 8vo, 1757.
At this juncture, Great Britain being on the eve of a
war with France, Hanway published Thoughts on the
Duty of a good Citizen with regard to War and Invasion,
in a "Letter from a Citizen to his Friend, 8vo. About the
same time, several gentlemen formed a plan which was
matured and perfected by the assiduity of Hanway, for
providing the navy with sailors, by furnishing poor chil¬
dren with necessaries to equip them for the service of
the country. The success and propriety of this scheme
soon became apparent. Mr Hanway wrote and published
three pamphlets on the occasion ; and the treasurer of the
society, accompanied by Mr Hanway, having waited on
the king, the society received L.1000 from his majesty,
L.400 from the prince of Wales, and L.200 from the prin¬
cess dowager. This excellent institution was through life
the favourite object of Mr Hanway’s care, and it continued
to flourish under his auspices, greatly to the advantage ot
the community. In 1758 he became an advocate for an¬
other charitable institution, which derived considerable
emolument from his patronage. This was the Magdalen
Charity, to assist which he published a Letter to Robert
Dingley, Esq. containing a Proposal for the Relief and
Employment of friendless Girls and repenting Prostitutes,
4to. He also printed other small performances on the
same subject.
In 1759, Mr Hanway wrote Reasons for an Augmenta¬
tion of at least Twelve Thousand Mariners to be employ ed
in the Merchants’ Service and Coasting Trade, 4to. The
next year he published several productions, viz. 1. A
candid historical Account of the Hospital for the recep¬
tion of exposed and deserted young Children, 8vo ; 2. An
Account of the Society for the Encouragement of the Bri¬
tish Troops in Germany and North America, 8vo ; 3. Eight
Letters to Duke of , on the Custom of Vails
giving in England, 8vo. In 1761, he produced Reflec¬
tions, Essays, and Meditations on Life and Religion, with
a collection of Proverbs, and eighteen Letters written oc¬
casionally on several subjects, in 2 vols. 8vo.
In July 1762, he was appointed one of the commission¬
ers for victualling the navy; a post which he held above
twenty-one years. His attention having been particular¬
ly directed towards alleviating the miseries of young
chimney-sweepers, he published, in 1773, the State ot
the Chimney-sweepers’ Young Apprentices, showing the
142
HAP
HAP
Happiness, wretched condition of these distressed boys, the ill con-
duct of such masters as do not observe the obligation of
Indentures, and the necessity of a strict inquiry in order
to support the civil and religious rights of these appren¬
tices, 12mo. In the succeeding year, 1774, he enlarged a
former publication, entitled Advice from a Farmer to his
Daughter, and republished it under the title of Virtue in
Humble Life, containing Reflections on the Reciprocal
Duties of the Wealthy and Indigent, the Master and the
Servant, 2 vols. 8vo. This edition being sold, in a few
months he reprinted it in two-quarto volumes, with a de¬
dication to Mrs Montagu.
In 1783, finding his health decline, he determined to re¬
sign his office at the victualling board, which he did on the
2d of October that year ; and immediately received a grant
of his whole salary by way of pension during his life. In
the summer of 1786 Mr Han way’s health declined visibly.
He had long felt the approach of a disorder in the bladder,
which, increasing by degrees, caused a strangury, and at
length, on the 5th of September 1786, put a period to a
life spent almost entirely in the service of his fellow-ci-ea-
tures. On the 13th he was interred in-the family-vault at
Hanwell, being attended to the grave by a numerous re¬
tinue of friends; and after his death the public regard for
his virtues was displayed by a subscription of several hun¬
dred pounds for erecting a monument to perpetuate his
memory.
HAPPINESS, or Felicity, absolutely considered, de¬
notes the durable possession of perfect good without any
admixture of evil; or the enjoyment of pure pleasure un¬
alloyed with pain; or a state in which all the wishes are
satisfied. In these senses happiness is known only by name
upon the earth. The epithet happy, when applied to any
state or condition of human life, admits of no positive
definition, but is merely a relative term; in other words,
when we call a man happy, we mean that he is happier
than some others with whom we compare him, than the
generality of others, or than he himself was in some other
situation.
This subject has been treated by many eminent writers,
and in a great variety of ways; but by none does it appear
to have been set in a clearer and more definite point of
view than by Archdeacon Paley in the sixth chapter of his
Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. In strict¬
ness, says he, any condition may be denominated happy in
which the amount or aggregate of pleasure exceeds that of
pain ; and the degree of happiness depends upon the quan¬
tity of this excess. And the greatest quantity of it, ordi¬
narily attainable in human life, is what we mean by happi¬
ness, when we inquire or pronounce what human happi¬
ness consists in.
If any positive signification, distinct from what we mean
by pleasure, can be affixed to the term happiness, it may
be taken to denote a certain state of the nervous system
in that part of the human frame in which we feel joy and
grief, passions and affections. Whether this part be the
heart, which the turn of most languages would lead us to be¬
lieve ; or the diaphragm, as Buffon imagined; or the upper
orifice of the stomach, as Van Plelmont thought; or rather
a kind of fine net-work, lining the whole region of the pr£e-
cordia, as others have imagined; it is possible not only
that every painful sensation may violently shake and dis-
tuib the fibres at the time, but that a series of such may at
length so derange the very texture of the system, as to
produce a perpetual irritation, which will show itself by
fretfulness, restlessness, and impatience. It is possible
also, on the other hand, that a succession of pleasurable
sensations may have such an effect upon this subtle orga¬
nisation, as to cause the fibres to relax, and return into
then place and order; and thereby to recover, or, if not
lost, to preserve, that harmonious conformation which gives
to the mind its sense of complacency and satisfaction. Ha
This state may be denominated happiness ; and is so far dis- 'w-1
tinguishable from pleasure, that it does not refer to any par¬
ticular object of enjoyment, or consist, like pleasure, in the
gratification of one or more of the senses; but is rather
the secondary effect which such objects and gratifications
produce upon the nervous system, or the state in which
they leave it. The comparative sense, however, in which
we have explained the term happiness, is more popular;
and in prosecuting the subject, we may consider, first, what
human happiness does not consist in ; and, secondly, what
it does consist in.
I. First, then, happiness does not consist in the pleasures
of sense, in whatever profusion or variety they may be en¬
joyed. By the pleasures of sense are meant the animal gra¬
tifications of eating, drinking, and that by which the species
is continued, as well as the more refined pleasures of mu¬
sic, painting, architecture, gardening, splendid shows, thea¬
trical exhibitions, and, lastly, the pleasures of active sports,
as of hunting, shooting, fishing, &c. For, 1. These plea¬
sures continue but for a little while at a time. This is
true of them all, especially of the grosser sort. Laying
aside the preparation and the expectation, and computing
strictly the actual sensation, wm shall be surprised to find
how inconsiderable a portion of our time they occupy, how
few hours in the four and twenty they are able to fill up.
2. By repetition they lose their relish. It is a property of
the machine, for which we know no remedy, that the or¬
gans by which we perceive pleasure are blunted and be¬
numbed by being frequently exercised in the same way.
There is hardly any one who has not found the difference
betw een a gratification when new and when familiar, or
any pleasure which does not become indifferent as it grows
habitual. 3. The eagerness for high and intense delights
takes away the relish from all others ; and as such delights
fall rarely in our way, the greater part of our time becomes
from this cause empty and uneasy. There is hardly any
delusion by which men are greater sufferers in their happi¬
ness, than by their expecting too much from what is called
pleasure; that is, from those intense delights which vul¬
garly engross the name of pleasure. The very expecta¬
tion spoils them. When they do come, we are often en¬
gaged in taking pains to persuade ourselves how much we
are pleased, rather than in enjoying any pleasure which
springs naturally out of the object; and whenever we
depend upon being vastly delighted, we alweys go home
secretly grieved at missing our aim. Likewise, as has
been just now observed, when this humour of being pro¬
digiously delighted has once taken hold of the imagina¬
tion, it hinders us from providing for or acquiescing in those
gently soothing engagements, the due variety and succes¬
sion of which are the only things that supply a continued
stream of happiness.
Hie truth seems to be, that there is a limit at which
these pleasures soon arrive, and from which they ever af¬
terwards decline. They are by necessity of short dura¬
tion, as the prgans cannot hold on their emotions beyond
a certain length of time; and if you endeavour to com¬
pensate for this imperfection in their nature by the fre¬
quency with which you repeat them, you lose more than
you gain by the fatigue of the faculties and the diminution
of sensibility. We have in this account said nothing of
the loss of opportunities or the decay of faculties, which,
whenever they happen, leave the voluptuary destitute and
desperate ; teased by desires that can never be gratified,
and the memory of pleasures which must return no more.
It will also be allowed by those who have experienced it,
and perhaps by those alone, that pleasure which is pur¬
chased by the encumbrance of our fortune is purchased
too dear; the pleasure never compensating for the perpe¬
tual irritation of embarrassed circumstances.
HAP
II A P 143
a. These pleasures, after all, have their value; and as the
' young are always too eager in the pursuit of them, the old
are sometimes too remiss ; that is, too studious of their ease
to be at the pains which they really deserve.
Secondly, Neither does happiness consist in an exemp¬
tion from pain, labour, care, business, suspense, molesta¬
tion, and “ those evils which are withoutsuch a state
being usually attended, not with ease, but with depression
of spirits, a tastelessness in all our ideas, imaginary anxie¬
ties, and the whole train of hypochondriacal affections. For
this reason it seldom answers the expectations of those
who retire from their shops and counting-houses to enjoy
the remainder of their days in leisure and tranquillity;
much less of such as in a fit of chagrin shut themselves up
in cloisters and hermitages, or quit the world and their sta¬
tions in it, for solitude and repose.
Where there exists a known external cause of uneasiness,
the cause may be removed, and the uneasiness will then
cease. But those imaginary distresses which men feel for
want of real ones (and which are equally tormenting, and
so far equally real), as they depend upon no single or as¬
signable subject of uneasiness, so they admit oftentimes of
no application or relief. Hence a moderate pain, upon
which the attention may fasten and spend itself, is to many
a refreshment; as a fit of the gout will sometimes cure the
spleen. And the same may be said of any moderate agi¬
tation of the mind, as a literary controversy, a law-suit, a
contested election, and, above all, gaming, the passion for
which, in men of fortune and liberal minds, is only to be
accounted for on this principle.
Thirdly, Neither does happiness consist in greatness,
rank, or in elevated station.
Were it true that all superiority afforded pleasure, it
would follow, that by how much we are the greater, that
is, the more persons we are superior to, in the same pro¬
portion, as far as depends upon this cause, we should be
the happier; but so it is, that no superiority yields any sa¬
tisfaction, save that which we possess or obtain over those
with whom we immediately compare ourselves. The shep¬
herd perceives no pleasure in his superiority over his.dog;
the farmer in his superiority over the shepherd ; the lord
in his superiority over the farmer ; nor, lastly, the king in
his superiority over the lord. Superiority, where there is
no competition, is seldom contemplated, and is a thing of
which most men are quite unconscious. But if the same
shepherd can run, fight, or wrestle, better than the peasants
of his village; if the farmer can show better cattle, if he
keeps a better horse, or be supposed to have a longer purse,
than any farmer in the hundred; if the lord have more
interest in an election, greater favour at court, a better
house, or larger estate, than any nobleman in the county ;
if the king possess a more extensive territory, a more
powerful fleet or army, a more splendid establishment,
more loyal subjects, or more weight and authority in ad¬
justing the affairs of nations, than any prince in Europe;
in all these cases the parties feel an actual satisfaction in
their superiority. No superiority appears to be of any ac¬
count but a superiority over a rival. This, it is manifest,
may exist wherever rivalships do; and rivalships fall out
amongst men of all ranks and degrees. The object of
emulation, the dignity or magnitude of this object, makes
no difference; as it is not what either possesses that con¬
stitutes the pleasure, but what one possesses more than
the other. Philosophy smiles at the contempt with which
the rich and great speak of the petty strifes and com¬
petitions of the poor; not reflecting that these strifes and
competitions are just as reasonable as their own, and the
pleasure which success affords the same.
It appears evident, then, that happiness does not consist
in greatness, since what are supposed to be the peculiar
advantages of greatness, the pleasures of ambition and su¬
periority, are in reality common to all conditions. But Happiness,
whether the pursuits of ambition be ever wise, whether w-y-w
they contribute more to the happiness or misery of the
pursuers, is a different question, and a question concern¬
ing which we may be allowed to entertain great doubt.
The pleasure of success is exquisite ; so also is the anxiety
of the pursuit, and the pain of disappointment; but, what
is the worst part of the account, the pleasure is short-lived.
We soon cease to look back upon those whom we have
left behind; new contests are engaged in, new prospects
unfold themselves; a succession of struggles is kept up,
whilst there is a rival left within the compass of our views
and profession; and when there is none, the pleasure ter¬
minates with the pursuit.
II. Wre have seen what happiness does not consist in.
We are next to consider in what it does consist. In the
conduct of life, the great matter is to know beforehand
what will please us, and what pleasures will hold out. So
far as we know this, our choice will be justified by the
event. And this knowledge is more rare and difficult than
at first sight it may seem to be ; for sometimes pleasures,
which are wonderfully alluring and flattering in the pros¬
pect, are found in the possession to be extremely insipid,
or do not hold out as we expected. At other times plea¬
sures start up which never entered into our calculation,
and which we might have missed by not foreseeing ; and
hence we have reason to believe that we actually do miss
many pleasures from the same cause.
The original diversity of taste, capacity, and constitu¬
tion, observable in the human species, and the still greater
variety which habit and fashion have introduced, render it
altogether impossible to propose any plan of happiness
which will succeed to all, or any method of life which is
universally eligible or practicable. All that can be said is,
that there remains a presumption in favour of those con¬
ditions of life in which men generally appear most cheer¬
ful and contented ; for though the apparent happiness of
mankind be not always a true measure of their real happi¬
ness, it is the best measure we have.
Upon this principle, then, happiness appears to consist
in the exercise of the social affections. Those persons
commonly possess good spirits who have about them many
objects of affection and endearment, as wife, children, kin¬
dred, friends ; and to the want of these may be imputed
the peevishness of monks and of such as lead a monastic
life. Of the same nature with the indulgence of our do¬
mestic affections, and equally refreshing to the spirits, is
the pleasure which results from acts of bounty and be¬
neficence, exercised either in giving money, or in im¬
parting to those who want it the assistance of our skill
and profession.
Another main article of human happiness is, the exer¬
cise of our faculties, either of body or mind, in the pursuit
of some engaging end. It seems to be true that no pleni¬
tude of present gratification can make the possessor happy
for a continuance, unless he have something in reserve,
something to hope for and look forward to. This may be
inferred from comparing the alacrity and spirits of men
who are engaged in any pursuit which interests them, with
the dejection and ennui of almost all who are either born
to so much that they want nothing more, or who have used
up their satisfactions too soon, and drained the sources of
enjoyment. It is this intolerable vacuity of mind which
carries the rich and great to the race-course and the gam¬
ing table, and often engages them in contests and pursuits,
of which the success bears no proportion to the solicitude
and expense with which it is sought.
The question now occurs, how we are to provide our¬
selves with a succession of pleasurable engagements.
This requires tw7o things ; judgment in the choice of ends
adapted to our opportunities ; and a command of imagina-
144
HAP
Happiness, tion, so as to be able, when the judgment has made choice
of an end, to transfer a pleasure to the means ; after which
the end may be forgotten as soon as we will. Hence those
pleasures are most valuable, not which are most exquisite
in the fruition, but most productive of engagement and ac¬
tivity in the pursuit.
A man who is in earnest in his endeavours after the hap¬
piness of a future state, has in this respect an advantage
over all the world; for he has constantly before his eyes
an object of supreme importance, productive of perpetual
engagement and activity, and of which the pursuit (and
this can be said of no pursuit besides) lasts him to the end
of his life. Yet even he must have many ends beside the
far end; but then they will conduct to that, be subordi¬
nate, and in some way or other capable of being referred to
that, and derive their satisfaction, or an addition of satis¬
faction, from that.
Engagement is every thing. The more significant,
however, our engagements are, the better; such as the
planning of laws, institutions, manufactures, charities, im¬
provements, public works, and the endeavouring by our
interest, address, solicitations, and activity, to carry them
into effect; or, upon a smaller scale, the procuring of a
maintenance and fortune for our families, by a course of
industry and application to our callings, which forms and
gives motion to the common occupations of life ; training
up a child; prosecuting a scheme for his future establish¬
ment ; making ourselves masters of a language or a science ;
improving or managing an estate ; labouring after a piece
of preferment; and, lastly, any engagement which is in¬
nocent is better than none, as writing a book, building a
house, laying out a garden, digging a fish-pond, even rais¬
ing a cucumber or a tulip. Whilst the mind is occupied
with the objects or business before it, we are commonly
happy, whatever the objects or business be ; when the mind
is absent, and the thoughts are wandering to something
else besides what is passing in the place in which we are,
we are often miserable.
The art in which the secret of human happiness in a
great measure consists, is to set the habits in such a man¬
ner that every change may be a change for the better.
The habits themselves are much the same ; for whatever
is made habitual becomes smooth, and easy, and indiffe¬
rent. The return to an old habit is likewise easy, what¬
ever the habit be. Therefore the advantage is with those
habits which allow of indulgence in the deviation from
them. The luxurious receive no greater pleasure from
their dainties than the peasant does from his bread and
cheese ; but the peasant whenever he goes abroad finds a
feast, whereas the epicure must be well entertained to es¬
cape disgust. Those who spend every day at cards, and
those who go every day to plough, pass their time much
alike; intent upon what they are about, wanting nothing,
regretting nothing, they are both in a state of ease. But
then, whatever suspends the occupation of the card-player
distresses him, whereas to the labourer every interruption
is a refreshment; and this appears in the different effect
which the Sabbath produces upon the two, proving a day
of recreation to the one, but a lamentable burden to the
other. The man who has learned to live alone, feels his
spirits enlivened whenever he enters into company, yet
takes his leave of it without regret. Another, who has
long been accustomed to a crowd or continual succession
of company, experiences in company no elevation of spi¬
rits, nor any greater satisfaction than what the man of a
retired life finds in his chimney-corner. So far their con¬
ditions are equal; but let a change of place, fortune, or
situation, separate the companion from his circle, his visi¬
tors, his club, common-room, or coffee-house, and the dif¬
ference of advantage in the choice and constitution of the
two habits will show itself. Solitude comes to the one
H A R
clothed with melancholy; to the other it brings liberty
and repose. You will see the one fretful and restless, at a
loss how to dispose of his time, till the hour comes round fl
that he can forget himself in bed ; the other easy and sa- ^
tisfied, taking up his book or his pipe as soon as he finds
himself alone ; ready to admit any little amusement which
casts up, or to turn his hands and attention to the first bu¬
siness which presents itself; or content without either to sit
still, and let his trains of thought glide indolently through
his brain, without much use perhaps or pleasure, but with¬
out hankering after any thing better, and without irrita¬
tion. A reader who has inured himself to books of science
and argumentation, if a novel, a well-written pamphlet, an
article of news, a narrative of a curious voyage, or the
journal of a traveller, fall in his way, sits down to the re¬
past with relish, enjoys his entertainment while it lasts, and
can return, when it is over, to his graver reading without
distaste. Another, with whom nothing will go down but
works of humour and pleasantry, or whose curiosity must
be interested by perpetual novelty, will consume a book¬
seller’s window in half a forenoon, during which time he
is rather in search of diversion than diverted; and as
books to his taste are few and short, and rapidly read over,
the stock is soon exhausted, when he is left without re¬
source from this principal supply of innocent amusement.
As far as circumstances of fortune conduce to happiness,
it is not the income which any man possesses, but the in¬
crease of income, that affords the pleasure. Two persons,
of whom one begins with L.100, and advances his income
to L.1000 a year, and the other sets off with L.1000 and
dwindles down to L.100, may, in the course of their time,
have the receipt and spending of the same sum of money;
yet their satisfaction, as far as fortune is concerned, will
be very different; the series and sum total of their incomes
being the same, it makes a wide difference which end they
begin at.
Happiness consists in health, understanding by health,
not only freedom from bodily distempers, but also that
tranquillity, firmness, and alacrity of mind, which we call
good spirits, for the sake of health, according to this no¬
tion of it, no sacrifices can be too great. Whether it re¬
quires us to relinquish lucrative situations, to abstain from
lavourite indulgences, to control intemperate passions, or
to undergo tedious regimens; whatever difficulties it lays us
under, a man who pursues his happiness rationally and re¬
solutely will be content to submit to. When we are in
perfect health and spirits, we feel in ourselves a happiness
independent of any particular outward gratification what¬
ever, and of which we can give no account. This is an
enjoyment which the Deity has annexed to life, and pro¬
bably constitutes in a great measure the happiness of in¬
fants and brutes, especially of the lower and sedentary or¬
ders of animals, as of oysters, periwinkles, and the like.
Ihe above account of human happiness will justify two
conclusions, which, although found in most books of mo¬
rality, have seldom been supported by any sufficient rea¬
sons, viz. first, that happiness is pretty equally distributed
amongst the different orders of civil society ; and, secondly,
that vice has no advantage over virtue, even with respect
to this world’s happiness.
HA1 UE, a cluster of four or more low islets amongst
those called the friendly Islands. They are about six or
seven miles in length, and are joined together by reefs.
Ihey are fertile and well cultivated, and are situated in
long. 185. 36. to 185. 45. E. lat. 19. 39. to 19. 53. S.
HAQUE, in our old writers, a little hand-gun, forbid¬
den to be used for the destruction of game, by statute 33
Henry VIII. cap. 6, and 2 and 3 Edward VI. cap. 14. The
^em^la(ilue> comes also within the said acts.
AN, Chahran, or Charr.®, or Mesopotamia,
a city celebrated for having been the place were Abra-
H A R
H A R
145
I
Ha
hei
,e ham first retreated after he left Ur, and where Terah,
Abraham’s father, died and was buried. Thither likewise
Jacob retired to Laban, when he fled from the indignation
of his brother Esau. Lastly, at Haran or Charrae, in Me¬
sopotamia, Crassus, the Roman general, was defeated and
killed by the Parthians. Haran was situated between the
Euphrates and the river Chebar, at a considerable dis¬
tance from the place where these two rivers unite.
HARANGUE, a modern French term for a speech or
oration made by an orator in public. Menage derives the
word from the Italian arenga, which signifies the same
thing and is formed, according to Ferrari, from arringo,
a ioust, or place of jousting. Others derive it from the
Latin ara, an altar, by reason of the first harangues hav¬
ing been made before altars. The word is also frequent¬
ly used in a bad sense, for a pompous, prolix, or unsea¬
sonable speech or declamation.
HARBINGER, an officer of the king s household, hav¬
ing four yeomen under him, who ride a day’s journey be¬
fore the court when it travels, in order to provide lodg¬
ings and other necessaries. . .
HARBINGER’S Reefs, some reefs which lie in Bass s
Strait, New Holland, and extend in patches nearly two
leagues from the north end of King’s Island.
HARBOROUGH Market, a town of the county of
Leicester, within the hundred of Gastre, and eighty-three
miles from London. It consists of one long and well-
built street, in which is to be seen a great number of car¬
riages passing between London and the northern parts of
the kingdom. There was, till within a few years, a con¬
siderable quantity of thin worsted goods made in this
town, but the trade has nearly all proceeded farther north.
There is a market on Tuesday, which is well attended.
The population amounted in 1801 to 1716, in 1811 to
1754, in 1821 to 1873, and in 1831 to 2272.
HARBOUR, a general name given to any sea-port or
haven, and also to any place convenient for mooring ship¬
ping. The qualities requisite in a good harbour are,
that the bottom be entirely free from rocks or shallows ;
that the opening be of sufficient extent to admit without
difficulty the entrance or departure of large ships; that it
should have good anchorage ground, and be easy of ac¬
cess ; that it should be well defended from the violence
of the wind and sea; that it should have room and con¬
venience to receive the shipping of different nations,
and those which are laden with different merchandises;
that it should be furnished with a good light-house, and
have a variety of proper rings, posts, moorings, and the
like, in order to remove or secure the vessels contained
therein; and, finally, that it should have plenty of wood,
and other materials for fuel, besides hemp, iron, mariners,
and so forth.
HARBURG, a city of the kingdom of Hanover, in the
province of Luneburg, on the river Elbe. It stands oppo¬
site to the city of Hamburg, and was united to it by a
bridge seven miles in length, as long as that city was oc¬
cupied by the French. It has now hourly intercourse by
steam and other boats. It contains 3760 inhabitants.
HARCOURT, a market-town of the arrondissement
of Bernay, in the department of the Eure, in France, con¬
taining 1398 inhabitants, who are chiefly employed in cot¬
ton manufactures.
HARDERWYK, a city of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of Gueldres, on the Zuyder Zee. It was former¬
ly fortified, but the walls are decayed. There is a colle¬
giate institution of education. In 1831 it contained 4831
inhabitants, who were chiefly employed in fishing, and
trading in corn, especially oats, and in wood.
HARDHEIM, a town of the circle of Maine and Tau¬
ber, in the duchy of Baden, and bailiwick of Walldurn.
It stands on the river Erfa, and contains 296 houses, and
1906 inhabitants, amongst whom are linen weavers, distil- Hardness
lers, tanners, and curriers. „nrA •
HARDNESS, in bodies, a property directly opposite
to fluidity, and by which they resist the impression of any
other substance, sometimes in an extreme degree. Quist
and others have constructed tables of the hardness of dif¬
ferent substances. The method pursued in constructing
these tables was by observing the order in which the arti¬
cles tried were capable of cutting or making an impres¬
sion upon one another. The following table, extracted
from Magellan’s edition of Cronstedt’s Mineralogy, was
taken from Quist, Bergman, and Kirwan. The first column
shows the hardness, and the second the specific gravity.
Diamond from Ormus 20.
Pink diamond 19**
Bluish diamond 19 ••
Yellowish diamond 19..
Cubic diamond 18..
Ruby   1^..
Pale ruby from Brazil..... 16..
Ruby spinell 18..
Deep blue sapphire 16..
Ditto paler 17..
Topaz 15*.
Whitish ditto lU.
Bohemian ditto U*.
Emerald 12
Garnet 12-.
Agate 12-•
Onyx 12-.
Sardonyx 12..
Occidental amethyst 1L.
Crystal H"
Cornelian 11-
Green jasper U-
Reddish yellow ditto  9.
Schoerl 19.
Tourmaline 19.
Quartz 19.
Opal 19-
Chrysolite 19-
Zeolite   8.
Fluor  7.
Calcareous spar  6.
Gypsum  5-
Chcilk* ••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••• •••
HARDOUIN, John, a Jesuit, one of the most learned,
and at the same time most singular men whose names are
to be found in the history of letters, was born at Quimper,
in 1646. He was the son of a bookseller; and this cir¬
cumstance, in furnishing him with the means of instruc¬
tion, no doubt contributed to develope that desire for
knowledge which at first formed the principal trait of his
character. When his studies were terminated, he made
application to the Jesuits, into whose body he wished to
be received ; but he only obtained his admission after two
years of trial and examination ; from which it may reason¬
ably be conjectured that, at the age of twenty, he gave no
proofs of those brilliant qualities for which he was after¬
wards distinguished. For some time he professed rheto¬
ric, and then proceeded to Paris in order to complete his
course of theology. He was associated with Father Gar-
nier in classifying the books belonging to the college of
Louis the Great, and in 1683 he succeeded to the office
of librarian. The learned were then preparing editions of
the classical authors for the use of the Dauphin ; but none
of them had ventured to undertake the Natural History
of Pliny, a work the text of which has suffered more than
that of almost any other ancient author, and which, to be
thoroughly understood and appreciated, requires exten¬
sive knowledge of various kinds. Lather Hardouin un»
.3-7
.3-4
.3-3
.3-3
.3-2
.4*2
.3-5
.3-4
.3*8
.3-8
.4-2
.3-5
,.2-8
..2-8
.4-4
..2*6
.2-6
..2-6
..2-7
..2-6
..2-7
..2-7
..2-6
..3-6
..3-0
..2-7
..2-6
..3-7
..2-1
..3-5
..2-7
..2-3
..2*7
VOL XI.
146 H A R
Hardouin. dertook this task, to which he applied himself with incre-
dible zeal. In trying to determine the positions of the
towns mentioned by Pliny, he became sensible that a
knowledge of medals would assist him in clearing up dif¬
ferent points of ancient geography ; and with this view he
immediately applied to the study of numismatics, in which
he soon rendered himself profound. His edition of Pliny
was completed in five years, and, when it appeared, made
the learned and indefatigable editor known to all Europe.
This work, which, according to Huet, would have occu¬
pied any five ordinary scholars fifty years, met with so
flattering a reception, that Father Hardouin could not
enjoy his success with moderation. The commendations
which poured in upon him from all quarters intoxicated
him with pride; and he no longer spoke of other antiqua¬
ries, except with the utmost contempt. The latter, again,
set themselves to humble him in his turn, by depreciat¬
ing his merits, and exaggerating his faults. Hardouin re¬
plied with bitterness, and in his reasonings displayed more
subtlety than good faith; for rather than confess his er¬
rors, he attempted to palliate them by paradoxes, and,
proceeding from one thing to another, he at length came
to advance some so utterly extravagant, that, if they have
not ruined his reputation, as some pretend, they have at
least weakened the impression which would otherwise
have been produced by his really prodigious knowledge.
In one of his works, La Chronologie expliquee par les Me-
dailles, he ventured to maintain that ancient history had
been entirely recomposed in the thirteenth century, with
the help of the works of Cicero and Pliny, the Georgies
of Virgil, and the satires and epistles of Horace, the only
monuments which, in his opinion, had any claim to anti¬
quity. This strange assertion, which tended to raise
doubts as to the authenticity of the sacred Scriptures
themselves, caused his production to be suppressed, drew
down upon him the censure of his superiors, and obliged
him, in 1708, to make a retractation, but without in any
degree changing his opinions, which he reproduced in se¬
veral of his works. Besides his office of librarian, Har¬
douin filled a chair of theology; and, notwithstanding the
continual distractions to which he was exposed, he passed
few years without publishing some new writing, as re¬
markable for erudition as for novelty of the ideas. He
rose, summer and winter, at four in the morning, and con¬
tinued his readings until night was well advanced. En¬
dowed with an astonishing memory, and a sagacity which
made itself be remarked even in his greatest aberrations,
he would have more certainly obtained the glory he co~
veted if he had pursued it less eagerly. He thought him¬
self original when he was only singular; and he frequent-
y advanced vain subtleties or extravagant paradoxes, that
he might avoid repeating what others had said before him.
e prepared himself for death with Christian resignation,
and terminated his long career, which it would have been
easy for him to render more honourable, as well as more
useful, in the house of his order at Paris, on the 3d of
September 1729, in the eighty-third year of his age. His
H A R
epitaph, written by Jacob Vernet of Geneva, gives a very ga.
just idea of the celebrated personage, and of the strange f
mixture of pride and naivete, of scepticism and solid pie-Hare*
ty, which made up his character.1 His principal works
are: 1. Nummi antiqui Populorum et Urbium illustrati,
de re monetaria veterum Ilomanorum ex Plinii Secundi
sententia, Paris, 1684, in 4to; 2. Antirrheticus de Num-
mis antiquis Coloniarum et Municiporum ad Jo. Foy-
Vaillant, ibid. 1689, in 4to ; 3. C. Plinii Secundi Historic
Naturalis libri xxxvii. Paris, 1689, in five vols. 4to; 4. S.
Joannis Chrysostomi Epistola ad Caesarium monachum,
notis illustrata, Paris, 1686, in 4to; 5. Chronologise ex
Nummis antiquis restitutae specimen primum, Paris, 1696,
in 4to ; 6. Opera Selecta, Amsterdam, 1709, 1719, in fo¬
lio ; 7. Conciliorum Collectio Regia Maxima, Paris, 1715
and the following years; 8. Apologie d’Homere, ou Ton
explique le veritable dessein de ITliade, et la Theo-my-
thologie, Paris, 1716, in 12mo ; 9. Opera Varia Posthuma,
Amsterdam, 1733, in folio; 10. Commentarius in Novum
Testamentum, Amsterdam, 1742, in folio; 11. Prolego¬
mena ad censuram Scriptorum veterum, London, 1766,
in 8vo; and, 12. a very great number of Dissertations,
chiefly on Medals, in the Memoires de Trevoux. (a.)
HARDWICKE. See York.
HARE. See Mammalia.
Hare, Dr Francis, an English bishop, the date of
whose birth is unknown, but who was bred at Eton School,
and from that foundation became a member of King’s Col¬
lege, Cambridge, where he had the tuition of the Marquis
of Blandford, only son of the illustrious Duke of Marlbo¬
rough, who had appointed him chaplain-general to the ar¬
my. He afterwards obtained the deanery of Worcester,
and was thence promoted to the bishoprick of Chichester,
which he held with the deanery of St Paul’s till his death,
which happened in 1740. Owing to party prejudices, he
was dismissed from his office as chaplain to George I. in
1718, along with Dr Moss and Dr Sherlock, persons distin¬
guished for talents and learning. About the end of Queen
Anne’s reign, he published a remarkable pamphlet, entitled
The Difficulties and Discouragements attending the Study
of the Scriptures, in the way of private judgment, in order
to show, that since such a study of the Scriptures is an in¬
dispensable duty, it concerns all Christian societies to re¬
move, as much as possible, those discouragements. He
also published many pieces against Bishop Hoadley, in the
Bangorian Controversy, as it was called, besides other learn¬
ed works, which, after his death, were collected and publish¬
ed in four volumes 8vo. He likewise published an edition
of 1 erence, with notes, in 4to ; and the book of Psalms in
Hebrew, 4to. In this last work he pretends to have dis¬
covered the Hebrew metre, which was supposed to be ir¬
retrievably lost. But his hypothesis, though defended by
some, has been confuted by several learned men, particular¬
ly by Dr Lowth in his Metricce Hareance brevis Confutatio,
annexed to his lectures De Sacra Poesi Hebrceorutn.
HAREM OOD, a market-town of the wapentake of
Skyrack, in the west riding of Yorkshire, 204 miles from
1 Naked, unvarnished truth is a rare ingredient
sents, m tins respect, a remarkable exception : 
in epitaphs. T he following, however, which
In expectatione judicii
Hie jacet hominum paradoxotatos
Natione. Gallus, religione jesuita,
Orbis litterati portentym
Venerandse antiquitatis cultor et depnedator
Docte febricitans
Somnia et inaudita commenta vigilans edidit.
Scepticum pie egit
Credulitate puer
Audacia juvenis
Deliriis senex,
Verbo dicam, hie jacet Harduinus.
is that alluded to in the text,
pre-
H A R H A R 147
>ur London. It is situated on the beautiful river Wharfe, and many persons employed abroad in purchasing manuscripts Harlem
’*la is chiefly remarkable for the magnificent castle, the an- for Kim, and furnished them with written instructions
Ha ian c;ent residence of the Lascelles family, on whose head the for their guidance. By these means the collection was, in Haj!i;nn.
Coll i°n’foie of Earl of Harewood has been conferred. The popu- the year 1721, increased to near six thousand books, four-
^ ^ lation amounted in 1801 to 707, in 1811 to 771, in 1821 to teen thousand original charters, and five hundred rolls.
849 and in 1831 to 894. On the 21st of May 1724 Lord Oxford died; but his son
HARFLEUR, a sea-port of the arrondissement of Havre Edward, who succeeded to his honours and estate, still
de Grace, in the department of the Lower Seine, in France, further enlarged the collection ; so that when he died on
It is situated on the river Lezgarde, at the end of a valley the 16th of June 1741, it consisted of eight thousand vo-
between two mountains which terminate on the Seine. It lumes, several of them containing distinct and indepen-
contains about 400 houses, and 1862 inhabitants. There dent treatises, besides many loose papers which have since
are several establishments for refining sugar, and some ma- been arranged and bound up in volumes, and above forty
nufactures of china-ware. It is said to be the place where thousand original rolls, charters, letters-patent, grants,
William the Conqueror embarked on his successful invasion and other deeds and instruments of great antiquity. The
of England. Long. 0. 6. 22. E. Lat. 49. 30. 23. N. principal design of making this collection was the esta-
HARIHARA, a town and fortress of Southern Hindus- blishment of a manuscript English historical library, and
tan, in the Balaghaut ceded territories, and province of the rescuing from destruction such national records as
Bejapore, situated on the south-east bank of the Toom- had eluded the diligence of preceding collectors. But Lord
buddra river. In the fort there is a celebrated temple Oxford’s plan was more extensive ; for his collection
of Vishnu, and among the inhabitants there are many of also abounds with curious manuscripts in every science,
low caste. In this vicinity the inhabitants are poor, and This collection was purchased by government, and depo-
never marry, owing to the expense of the ceremony. Not sited in the British Museum. There is a printed cata-
many of the women, however, live in a state of celibacy, logue of its contents.
The* practice of polygamy is common amongst the rich. HARLEM Isle, an island of about four miles in cir-
The inhabitants in the neighbourhood are said to be noted cumference, lying off the north-w^est coast of the island
for their stupidity, in which reproach the Brahmins are in- of Ceylon, and affording excellent pasture for horses,
eluded; and many ridiculous anecdotes are related con- Long. 79. 54. E. Lat. 9. 41. N.
cerning them. The place being situated on the confines HARLEQUIN, in the Italian comedy, a buffoon, dress-
of two countries, has often changed masters. After the ed in parti-coloured clothes, and answering to our merry-
defeat of Ram Rajah, and the destruction of the Bijana- andrew or jack-pudding. We have also introduced har-
gur sovereignty, it became subject to the Adil Shahee dy- lequin upon our stage, and this is one of the standing
nasty of Bejapore. On the destruction of the dynasty by characters in the modern grotesque or pantomime enter-
the Moguls, it fell into the hands of the nabob of Savanoor, tainments. The term is said to have taken its origin from
from whom it was afterwards taken by the rajah of Ikery, a famous Italian comedian who appeared in Paris under
who was expelled by the Mahrattas; and these, after a pe- Henry III., and, from frequenting the house of M. de Har-
riod of fifteen years, were driven out by Hyder. On the lay, was called by his companions Harlequino, or little
death of Tippoo, and the division of his country, it was Harlay; a name which has descended to those of the
one of the districts ceded to the British, and is now in- same rank and profession.
eluded in the collectorship of Bellary. Long. 75. 48. E. HARLESTON, a town of Norfolk, in the hundred of
Lat. 14. 24. N. Earsham, a portion of the parish of Redenhall. It is si-
HARIORPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province tuated on the river Waveney, 100 miles from London,
of Orissa, and the capital of the district of Mohurbunge. and there is a good corn market on Thursday. The popu-
Itis possessed by independent zemindars, and is fifty miles lation amounted in 1801 to 1459, in 1811 to 1538, in 1821
south-west from Midnapoor. Long. 86. 52. E. Lat. 21. to 1641, and in 1831 to 1784.
52. N. HARLEY, Robert, Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, was
HARIOT, or Heriot, in Law, a due belonging to a the eldest son of Sir Edward Harley, and born in 1661.
lord at the death of his tenant, consisting of the best beast, At the Revolution, Sir Edward and his son raised a troop
either horse, or cow, or ox, which he had at the time of of horse at their own expense; and after the accession
his death ; and in some manors the best goods, piece of of William and Mary he obtained a seat in parliament,
plate, &c. were called hariots. His promotion was rapid. In 1/02 he was chosen Speaker
Hariot, Thomas. See Harriot. of the House of Commons; in 1704, he was sworn of
HARLECH, a market-town of Merionethshire, in Queen Anne s privy council, and the same year made se-
North Wales, within the hundred of Ardudwy. It is si- cretary of state; in 1706 he acted as one of the com-
tuated on the Irish Channel, with an ancient castle in missioners for the treaty of union with Scotland; and in
good preservation, originally built by King Edward L, 1710 he was appointed a commissioner of the treasury,
which was the last fortress that surrendered to the parlia- and chancellor and under-treasurer ot the exchequer. A
raentary forces in the civil wars of Charles I. There is a daring attempt was made on his life on the 8th of March
small market held on Saturdays. 1711, by the Marquis of Guiscard, a Frenchman, who,
HARLEIAN Collection, a most valuable collection when under an examination before a committee of the
of useful and curious manuscripts, commenced about the privy council, stabbed him with a penknife. Of this
end of the seventeenth century, by Robert Harley of wound, however, he soon recovered ; and he was the
Brampton Bryan, in Herefordshire, afterwards Earl of same year created Earl of Oxford and lord high treasu-
Oxford, and Lord Lligh Treasurer. He procured his rer, which office he resigned immediately before the
first considerable collection in August 1705, and in less queen’s death. In 1715 he was impeached of high trea-
than ten years he got together nearly two thousand five son, and committed to the lower; but he was cleared
hundred rare and curious manuscripts. Soon after this, of the charge by trial, and died in 1724. He was not
Dr George Hickes, Mr Anstis, Bishop Nicholson, and only an encourager of literature, but the greatest collec-
many other eminent antiquaries, not only offered him tor in his time of curious books and manuscripts. See
their assistance in procuring manuscripts, but presented Harleian Collection.
him with several very valuable ones. Being thus encou- HARLING. See Herling.
raged to persevere by the success he met with, he kept HARLING, East, a town of Norfolk, in the hundred
148
H A R
Harlingen of Guiltcross, ninety-three miles from London, with a
II market on Thursdays. The inhabitants amounted in
Harmat- ]801 tQ 674,} jn 18n tQ 732j in 182l t0 867? and in 1831
to 1031.
HARLINGEN, a city of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of Friesland. It is strongly fortified, stands on the
Zuyder Zee, at the mouth of the river Blies, and is sur¬
rounded by a fertile district. It has a good harbour, but
large ships must be lightened before they can enter it.
It contains five churches, a very fine admiralty, and about
1000 houses, with (in 1831) 7537 inhabitants. The streets
are broad, straight, and clean. There are many manufac¬
tures carried on, especially of cloth, half linen half cot¬
ton, and of sailcloth. There is also much trade in bricks
and tiles, and in timber of all kinds. Long. 5. 36. 30. E.
Lat. 53. 17. 20. N.
HARLOT, a woman given to incontinency. The word is
supposed by some to be the diminutive whorelet, but others
derive it from Arietta, mistress to Robert duke of Norman¬
dy, and mother to William the Conqueror. Camden, how¬
ever, derives it from Arlotha, concubine to William the
Conqueror. Harlots were tolerated amongst Jews, Greeks,
and Romans. Fornication indeed was prohibited amongst
the Jews, under severe penalties; but those they ex¬
plained as extending only to women of their own nation.
Ihe public stews were therefore stocked with foreign
prostitutes, who seem to have been taken under the pro¬
tection of government. This appears to be the reason
why the expression strange women is often found to sig¬
nify a harlot. At Athens the prostitutes were generally
strangers; and such as debauched an Athenian female
were liable to a severe penalty. Corinth was a remark¬
able nursery of loose women, and gave birth to the noted
Lais. Their accomplishments were oftentimes great, ex¬
tending to philosophy, dancing, singing, rhetoric, and other
acquisitions. Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, was ad¬
mired by Socrates for her learning. The more accom¬
plished females of this description frequently amassed
large fortunes. A remarkable instance of this we have in
Phryne, who offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, when
destroyed by Alexander, on condition that they would per¬
petuate her memory and profession by an inscription.
HARLOW, a town of the county of Essex, twenty-
three miles from London, in the hundred of the same
name. It had formerly a market, but of late years it has
not been frequented. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 1514, in 1811 to 1695, in 1821 to 1928, and in 1831
to 2101.
HARMATTAN, the name of a remarkable periodical
wind which blows from the interior parts of Africa to¬
wards the Atlantic Ocean. Of this wind we have an ac¬
count (Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixxi.) furnished by
Mr Norris, a gentleman who had frequent opportunities
of observing its singular properties and effects.
On that part of the coast of Africa which lies between
Cape Verde and Cape Lopez, an easterly wind prevails
during the months of December, January, and February,
which by the Fantees, a nation on the Gold Coast, is
called the Harmattan. Cape Verde is in 15° north lati¬
tude, and Cape Lopez in 1° south latitude; and the coast
between these two capes runs in an oblique direction
nearly from west-south-west to east-south-east, forming a
range of upwards of 2100 miles. At the Isles de Los,
which are a little to the northward of Sierra Leone, and
to the southward of Cape Verde, it blows from the east-
south-east, on the Gold Coast from the north-east, and at
Cape Lopez, and the river Gabon, from the north-north¬
east. This wind is by the French and Portuguese, who
frequent the Gold Coast, called simply the north-east
wind, the quarter from which it blows. The English
who sometimes borrow words and phrases from the Fantee
H A R
language, which is less guttural and more harmonious Ha
than that of their neighbours, adopt the Fantee word t
harmattan. w-
The harmattan comes on to blow at any hour of the
day, at any time of the tide, or at any period of the moon,
and continues sometimes only a day or two, sometimes
five or six days; but it has been known to last fifteen or
sixteen days. There are generally three or four returns
of it every season. It blows with a moderate force, not
quite so strong as the sea-breeze, which every day sets
in during the fair season from the west, west-south-west,
and south-west, but somewhat stronger than the land
wind at night from the north and north-north-west.
A fog or haze is one of the peculiarities which always
accompanies the harmattan. The gloom occasioned by
this fog is so great, as sometimes to obscure objects near
at hand. The English fort at Whyddah stands about
midway between the French and Portuguese forts, and
not quite a quarter of a mile from either, yet often nei¬
ther of the other forts can be discovered from the inter¬
mediate one. The sun, concealed during the greater
part of the day, appears only a few hours about noon, and
is then of a mild red, exciting no painful sensation in the
eye.
Extreme dryness is another property of this wind. No
dew falls during the continuance of the harmattan ; nor is
there the least appearance of moisture in the atmosphere.
Vegetables of every kind are much injured; all tender
plants, and most of the productions of the garden, are
destroyed; the grass withers, and becomes dry like hay;
the vigorous evergreens likewise feel its pernicious in¬
fluence ; the branches of the lemon, orange, and lime
trees droop; the leaves become flaccid, wither, and, if the
harmattan continues to blow for ten or twelve days, are so
parched as to be easily rubbed to dust between the fin¬
gers ; and the fruit of these trees, deprived of its nourish¬
ment, and stinted in its growth, only appears to ripen, be¬
coming, in fact, yellow and dry, without acquiring half
the usual size. The natives take the opportunity of the
extreme dryness of the grass and young trees to set fire
to them, especially near the roads, not only to keep those
roads open to travellers, but to destroy the shelter which
long grass, and thickets of young trees, would afford to
skulking parties of their enemies. A fire thus lighted
spreads with such rapidity as to endanger those who tra¬
vel. In this situation a common method of escape is, on
discovering a fire to windward, to set the grass on fire to
leeward, and then follow your own fire. There are other
extraordinary effects produced by the extreme dryness
of the harmattan.
1 he parching effects of this wind are likewise evident
on the external parts of the body. The eyes, nostrils,
lips, and palate, are rendered dry and uneasy, and drink
is often required, not so much to quench thirst, as to re¬
move a painful aridity in the fauces. The lips and nose
become sore, and even chapped; and though the air be
cool, yet there is a troublesome sensation of prickling heat
on the skin. If the harmattan continues four or five days,
the scarf skin peels off, first from the hands and face, and
afterwards from the other parts of the body, if it continue
a day or two longer. Mr Norris observed, that when
by exercise sweat was excited on those parts which were
covered by his clothes from the weather, it was peculiar-
y acrid, and tasted, on applying his tongue to his arm,
something like spirits of hartshorn diluted with water.
Salubrity forms a third peculiarity of the harmattan.
1 hough this wind is so very prejudicial to vegetable life,
and occasions such disagreeable parching eftects on the
uman species, yet it is highly conducive to health,
-those labouring under fluxes and intermitting fevers ge¬
nerally recover during an harmattan. Those weakened
H A R
~ j. jjy fevers, and sinking under evacuations for the cure of
^ d them, particularly bleeding, which is often injudiciously
repeated, have their lives saved, and vigour restored, in
Hal gpjte of the doctor. It stops the progress of epidemics ;
ni the smallpox and intermittent fevers not only disappear,
^ but those labouring under these diseases, when an har-
mattan comes on, are almost certain of a speedy recovery.
This account, however, differs from that given by Dr
Lind, who calls the harmattan a malignant and fatal wind.
(See his Diseases of Hot Climates.)
HARMODIUS and Aristogeiton, two Athenians,
whose names are connected with one of the brightest and
most celebrated deeds of Grecian story. The noble qua¬
lities of Pisistratus, and the mildness of his government,
seem to have reconciled the Athenians to the loss of
their independence, and enabled that prince to transmit
his power unimpaired to his twyo sons Hippias and Hip¬
parchus. It would appear that at first these young princes
wisely followed the footsteps of their father, and that all
classes hailed with joy their ascent to the throne. But
this feeling did not long continue ; for the possession
of unrestrained power soon perverted the minds of the
princes, and their tyrannical conduct excited conspiracies
against them. The one of which we have the most cir¬
cumstantial account is that headed by Harmodius and
Aristogeiton ; but the cause of its breaking out is vari¬
ously stated by different authors. According to AElian,
the refusal of Hipparchus to admit the sister of Harmo¬
dius to the Panathenaic festival was the reason ; whilst
Plato states one of a less honourable kind. But be this
as it may, Harmodius slew Hipparchus, 514 b. c., in the
midst of his guards, and was himself cut to pieces on the
spot. Aristogeiton was seized by Hippias, and torture ap¬
plied, with the view of discovering his associates. Aris¬
togeiton accused all the friends of Hippias, and when they
had been put to death, informed the tyrant of the strata¬
gem which he had employed (Polyaen. Strat. i. 22; Se-
nec. de Iva, ii. 23). Statues were afterwards erected to
their honour, which were still in existence in the time of
Pausanias, a. d. 174 (Pausan. i. 8, 5), and a law was pass¬
ed which forbade a slave to receive either of their names.
<Gell. ix. 2.)
HARMONIA, in fabulous history, the wife of Cadmus,
was, according to some, daughter of Jupiter and Electra,
but according to others, of Mars and Venus. Her mar¬
riage was a remarkable event in Grecian fable, and rivall¬
ed in magnificence those of Perseus, Pirithous, and Peleus.
The gods honoured it with their presence, and from them
she received a magnificent robe {jpeplum) and necklace,
the workmanship of Vulcan. But these divine gifts after¬
wards proved the cause of many catastrophes. (See Alc-
maeon, Eriphyle.) Harmonia had four daughters, Se-
mele, Ino, Agave, and Autonoe, and a son Polydorus.
When every species of calamity overwhelmed the race of
Cadmus at Thebes, she attended her husband to Epirus,
and was changed into a serpent. (Apollodor. iii. 4, 5;
Diodor. Sic. iv. 66, v. 49; Eustath.; Dionys. Peri. 391.)
HARMONIC signifies in general any thing belonging
to harmony, though in our language the adjective is more
properly written harmonical. In this case it may be ap¬
plied to the harmonical divisions, or to a monochord, or, in
a word, to consonances in general. As a substantive neu¬
ter, it imports all the concomitant or accessary sounds
which, upon the principles resulting from the experiments
made on sonorous bodies, attend any given sound what¬
ever, and render it appreciable. Thus all the aliquot
parts of a musical string produce harmonical sounds, or
harmonics.
HARMONICA. This word, when originally appropri¬
ated by Dr Franklin to that peculiar form or mode of mu¬
sical glasses which he himself, after a number of happy
H A R 149
experiments, had constituted, was written armonica. In Harmo-
this place, however, we have ventured to restore it to its nica-
native plenitude of sound. It is derived from the Greek
word agfiovia. The radical word is agsiv, to suit or fit one
thing to another. By the word ag/xowa the Greeks express¬
ed aptitudes of various kinds ; and from the use which
they made of that expression, we have reason to conclude
that it was intended to import the highest degree of re¬
finement and delicacy in those relations which it was
meant to indicate. Relations or aptitudes of sound, in
particular, were understood by it; and in this view Dr
Franklin could not have selected a name more expressive
of its nature and genius, for the instrument which we are
now to describe; as, perhaps, no musical tones can be
finer, or susceptible of juster concords, than those which
it produces.
The doctor, in his letter to Beccaria, has given a mi¬
nute account of the harmonica; nor does it appear that
his successors have either sensibly improved, or more ac¬
curately delineated, that instrument. The detail of his
own improvements, therefore, shall be given in his own
words.
“ Perhaps,” says he, “ it may be agreeable to you, as
you live in a musical country, to have an account of the
new instrument lately added here to the great number
that charming science was possessed of before. As it is
an instrument that seems peculiarly adapted to Italian
music, especially that of the soft and plaintive kind, I will
endeavour to give you such a description of it, and of the
manner of constructing it, that you or any of your friends
may be enabled to imitate it, if you incline so to do, with¬
out being at the expense and trouble of the many expe¬
riments I have made in endeavouring to bring it to its
present perfection.
“ You have doubtless heard the sweet tone that is drawn
from a drinking glass, by pressing a wet finger round its
brim. One Mr Puckeridge, a gentleman from Ireland,
was the first who thought of playing tunes formed of these
tones. He collected a number of glasses of different sizes;
fixed them near each other on a table; and tuned them,
by putting into them water, more or less as each note
required. The tones were brought out by pressing his
fingers round their brims. He was unfortunately burnt
here, with his instrument, in a fire which consumed the
house he lived in. Mr E. Delaval, a most ingenious mem¬
ber of our Royal Society, made one in imitation of it, with
a better choice and form of glasses, which was the first
I saw or heard. Being charmed with the sweetness of
its tones and the music he produced from it, I wished to
see the glasses disposed in a more convenient form, and
brought together in a narrower compass, so as to admit
of a greater number of tones, and all within reach of
hand to a person sitting before the instrument; which I
accomplished, after various intermediate trials, and less
commodious forms, both of glasses and construction, in
the following manner.
“ The glasses are blown as near as possible in the form
of hemispheres, having each an open neck or socket in the
middle. The thickness of the glass near the brim is about
the tenth of an inch, or hardly quite so much, but thicker
as it comes nearer the neck, which in the largest glasses is
about an inch deep, and an inch and a half wide within ;
these dimensions lessening as the glasses themselves dimi¬
nish in size, except that the neck of the smallest ought not
to be shorter than half an inch. The largest glass is nine
inches diameter, and the smallest three inches. Between
these there are twenty-three different sizes, differing from
each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. To make a
single instrument, there should be at least six glasses
blown of each size ; and out of this number one may pro¬
bably pick thirty-seven glasses (which are sufficient for
150
H A R
Harmo- three octaves with all the semitones), that will be each ei-
nica- ther the note one wants, or a little sharper than that note,
and all fitting so well into each other, as to taper pretty
regularly from the largest to the smallest. It is true there
are not thirty-seven sizes; but it often happens that two
of the same size differ a note or half a note in tone, by rea¬
son of a difference in thickness; and these may be placed
one in the other, without sensibly hurting the regularity of
the taper form.
“ The glasses being chosen, and every one marked with
a diamond the note you intend it for, they are to be tuned
by diminishing the thickness of those that are too shax^p.
This is done by grinding them round from the neck to¬
wards the brim, the breadth of one or two inches, as may
be required, often trying the glass by a well-tuned harp¬
sichord, comparing the note drawn from the glass by your
finger with the note you want, as sounded by that string of
the harpsichord. When you come near the matter, be
careful to wipe the glass clean and dry before each trial;
because the tone is something flatter when the glass is wet
than it will be when dry; and grinding a very little be¬
tween each trial, you will thereby tune to great exactness.
The more care is necessary in this, because, if you go be¬
low your required tone, there is no sharpening it again,
but by grinding somewhat off the brim, -which will after-
wards require polishing, and thus increase the trouble.
“ The glasses being thus tuned, you are to be provided
with a case for them, and a spindle on which they are to
be fixed. My case is about three feet long, eleven inches
every way wide within at the biggest end, and five inches
at the smallest end; for it tapers all the way, to adapt it
better to the conical figure of the set of glasses. This
case opens in the middle of its height, and the upper part
turns up by hinges fixed behind. The spindle is of hard
iron, lies horizontally from end to end of the box within,
exactly in the middle, and is made to turn on brass gud¬
geons at each end. It is round, an inch diameter at
the thickest end, and tapering to a quarter of an inch at
the smallest. A square shank comes from its upper end
H A R
that contains it; and it is from these exposed parts of each Han
glass that the tone is drawn, by laying a finger on one of ^
them as the spindle and glasses turn round.
“ My largest glass is G, a little below the reach of a com¬
mon voice, and my highest G, including three complete
octaves. To distinguish the glasses more readily to the
eye, I have painted the apparent parts of the glasses within
side, every semitone white, and the other notes of the oc¬
tave with the seven prismatic colours ; viz. C red, D orange,
E yellow, F green, G blue, A indigo, B purple, and G red
again; so that the glasses of the same colour (the white
excepted) are alwTays octaves to each other.
“ This instrument is played upon by sitting before the
middle of the set of glasses, as before the keys of a harpsi¬
chord, turning them with the foot, and wetting them now
and then with a spunge and clean water. The fingers
should be first a little soaked in water, and quite free from
all greasiness: a little fine chalk upon them is sometimes
useful, to make them catch the glass and bring out the
tone more readily. Both hands are used, by which means
different parts are played together. Observe, that the
tones are best drawn out when the glasses turn from the
ends of the fingers, not when they turn t'o them.
“ The advantages of this instrument are, that its tones
are incomparably sweet beyond those of any other; that
they may be swelled and softened at pleasure by stronger
or weaker pressures of the finger, and continued to any
length; and that the instrument, being once well tuned,
never again wants tuning.”
HARMONY, according to the modern definition of the
word, is a succession of chords, written according to the
laws of fundamental progression and modulation. Har¬
mony is a generic term when it signifies the doctrine of
chords; but we also make use of the expression to indi¬
cate the effect of a combination of sounds on the ear.
The history of harmony forms an interesting branch of
musical knowledge. In tracing its progress, we observe
an almost uninterrupted succession of discoveries in the
aggregate properties of sounds. These discoveries are re-
through the box, on which shank a wheel is fixed by a ferrible to the early felt and increasing desire to create no¬
screw. This wheel serves as a fly to make the motion velty of effect; to the boldness of human skill and inven-
equable, when the spindle, with the glasses, is turned by tion, to the improvement of instrumental music, and, with-
the foot like a spinning-wheel. My wheel is of mahogany, out doubt, also to the results of chance. The history of
eighteen inches diameter, and pretty thick, so as to con- the theory is necessarily dependent upon that of the prac-
ceal near its circumference about twenty-five pounds of tice of harmony ; for, in proportion as composers have at-
lead. An ivory pin is fixed in the face of this wheel, about tempted new combinations, it becomes more difficult to
four inches from the axis. Over the neck of this pin is trace their origin and reduce them to a general system.
Put the loop of the string that comes up from the moveable The innumerable modifications which chords undergo so
step to give it motion. Ihe case stands on a neat frame essentially change their primitive forms, that we can scarce-
w ith four legs. . ly wonder at the multiplicity of errors which have been
I o hx the glasses on the spindle, a cork is first to be committed in endeavouring to classify them,
tted in each neck pretty tight, and projecting a little We could almost persuade ourselves that harmony, from
wit out the neck, that the neck of one may not touch the its being so natural to man, must have been universally un-
insi e o another when put together, for that would make derstood in all ages. We learn, however, that the ancients
ajarnng. Ihese corks are to be perforated with holes of had scarcely any idea of it; and even now the oriental na-
(_ V C1,en,t iameters’ so^as suit that part of the spindle on tions are ignorant of harmonic relations, and our music af-
which they are to be fixed. When a glass is put on, by
holding it stiffly between both hands, while another turns
the spindle, it may be gradually brought to its place. But
care must be taken that the hole be not too small, lest, in
forcing it up, the neck should split; nor too large, lest the
glass, not being firmly fixed, should turn or move on the
spindle, so as to touch or jar against its neighbouring
glass. The glasses thus are placed one in another; the
largest on the biggest end of the spindle, which is to the
left hand. The neck of this glass is towards the wheel;
and the next goes into it in the same position, only about
an inch of its brim appearing beyond the brim of the first;
thus pioceeding, every glass when fixed shows about an
inch of its brim (or three quarters of an inch, or half an
inch, as they grow smaller) beyond the brim of the glass
fects them with disagreeable sensations. The knowledge
which the Greeks and Romans had of harmony has been
the subject of much controversy, but to little purpose.
Some treatises on music, written since the time of Alex¬
ander the Great, and towards the decline of the Grecian
empire, have come down to us; but in none of them do we
find the word harmony employed in the sense in which we
now understand it. The chant or song of an ode by Pin¬
dar, a hymn to Nemesis, and a few other fragments, with¬
out chords of any kind, are all that have been preserved as
specimens of ancient Greek music. Moreover, the form
of ancient instruments, and the small number of their
strings, all tend to render probable the opinion of those
who doubt the employment of harmony in the music of the
ancients. I heir opponents contend that harmony exists
H A R H A R 151
i / as an elementary part of our nature, and must have been of the Theory and Practice of Music, in which an ap- Harmostes
W j comprehended in the most primitive times ; but this opi- parent order and clearness is imparted to a system essen- ii
T nion we are strongly induced to disregard, from the fact, tially defective. Marpurg attempted to introduce these
that to this day the Turks, Arabians, and Chinese are un- doctrines into Germany without success. It is almost un-
acquainted with the simplest union of harmonies. necessary to add, that they are now universally rejected by
The first indications of an approach to harmony appear- all modern theorists,
ed among the writers of the middle ages, towards the ninth It was reserved for Kirnberger, a learned musician, to
century; but it remained in a state of barbarism till about discover the theory of suspensions, and explain, in his
the middle of the fourteenth century, when some Italian Wahren Grundsdtze sum gebrauch der Harmonic, pub-
musicians began to mould it into a somewhat agreeable lished in 1773, the laws of harmony, in a manner at once,
form. Amongst those who distinguished themselves at this natural and satisfactory. Catel has reproduced this system
remote epoch were, Francesco Cieco, so called from his in a clear and simple form, in his treatise on harmony,
blindness, and Francesco degli Organi, so designated from written for the conservatory of music in France. Albretz-
his skill in organ-playing, and Jacomo da Bologna. Har- berger, Reicha, and several other eminent theorists, have
mony was still further elucidated by two French musicians, propagated and elucidated the doctrines of Kirnberger
Guillaume Dufay and Giles Binchois, and by John Dun- with ingenuity and ability, and by their elaborate works
stable, an Englishman, who lived about the early part of have largely promoted the practical uses of harmony. In
the fifteenth century. The advancement of this science England the science has been as yet very imperfectly ex-
must, however, for a long period have been of small ex- plained. One of the best works w'e have met with in our
tent, and still less interest; for, up to the close of the six- language is by Kollmann, whose Treatise on Harmony dis-
teenth century, we find that consonant chords, and certain plays admirable systematic arrangement, although his ex*
discordant prolongations, or suspensions as they are now positions are rather dry and verbose. See Music, (z. z.)
called, were all that were known and used in music. Com- Harmony of the Spheres, or Celestial Harmony, a sort of
posed of such elements, harmony was too limited in its ope- music much talked of by many of the ancient philosophers
ration to become the groundwork of any intelligible sci- and fathers, and supposed to have been produced by the
ence. It appears indeed probable, that at this dark period sweetly-tuned motions of the stars and planets. This har-
of musical history, no systematic connection was even sup- mony they attributed to the various proportionate impres-
posed to exist between the chords, or the tones of which sions of the heavenly globes upon one another, acting at
they consisted. The intervals were considered only in a proper intervals. It is impossible, according to them, that
double relation; and the art of writing them, according to such prodigiously large bodies, moving with so much ra-
certain conditions, comprehended the whole doctrine of the pidity, should be silent. On the contrary, the atmosphere,
schools. % continually impelled by them, must yield a set of sounds
Towards the year 1590, a Venetian called Monteverde proportionate to the impression it receives; and as they
introduced the fundamental discord, and immediately a do not all run the same circuit, nor revolve with the same
new impulse was given to the art, which attracted the at- velocity, the different tones arising from the diversity of
tention of musicians. About fifteen years after this pe- motions, directed by the hand of the Almighty, must form
riod, Monteverde’s invention was disputed by Viadana and an admirable symphony or concert. They therefore sup-
some Germans, who represented harmony by figures, and posed that the moon, as being the lowest of the planets,
considered the nature of musical sounds separately. It was corresponded to mi. Mercury to fa, Venus to sol, the Sun
then that the term chord was introduced into the voca- to la, Mars to si, Jupiter to ut, Saturn to re, and the orb
bulary of music; and harmony, or the basso continuo as it of the fixed stars, as being the highest of all, to mi, or the
was styled, became a branch of scientific study. For near- octave.
ly a century, no further advances were made, although a HARMOSTES, or FIarmosta, in Antiquity, a sort of
number of elementary works had been published during magistrate amongst the Spartans. Of these there were
that interval, to explain the intricacies of the new science, several, whose business it w as to look to the building of cha¬
in 1699, Sauveur, a French geometrician, entertained dels, and repairing the forts and fortifications of the cities,
such a passion for music, that it became the object of all The word is ag/iotrr^s, formed from apto, concino,
his pursuits. The doctrine of sounds appeared to him to adapt or concert.
worthy of mathematical analysis, and his researches were HARMOSYN1ANS, dg/iotfuvo/, in Antiquity, were ma-
so successful, that he founded the science called Acoustics, gistrates amongst the Spartans, who, after the death of
Availing himself of the labours of Father Mersenne, Sau- Lycurgus, were appointed to enforce the observance of
veur also found that every sound, however simple, was al- that law of the Spartan legislator which required married
ways accompanied with other sounds less sensible. With women to wear a veil when they appeared in the streets,
this experiment Rameau set out, and upon it formed the by which they were distinguished from single females, who
basis of his harmonic system, which he demonstrated in a were allowed to appear abroad with their faces uncovered,
series of works published in the early part of the last cen- HARNESS, a complete armour, or the whole equipage
tury. Tartini, although following a different mode of in- and accoutrements of a cavalier heavily armed. The word
vestigation, arrived at conclusions similar to those of Ra- is formed from the French harnois, which some derive from
meau. The latter supposes the treble to be generated by the Greek agvccx/j, a lamb's skin, because they anciently co-
the bass ; the former makes the bass result from the tre- vered themselves therewith. Du Cange observes, that the
hie. Rameau deduces harmony from melody; Tartini, word harnesium is used in the corrupt Latin in the same
on the contrary, derives melody from harmony. To deter- sense, and that it comes from the High Dutch harnas or
mine from which of the two schools the best performances harnisch ; but others derive it from the Italian arnese, and
are likely to proceed, no more is necessary than to investi- others from the Celtic harnes, a cuirass,
gate the end of the composer, and discover whether the Harness is also used to signify the furniture put on a
air is made for the accompaniment, or the accompaniment horse to draw in a coach or waggon, or other carriage ; such
for the air. Rousseau, in his Musical Dictionary, gives a as collars, leathers, traces, and so forth,
decided preference to the system of Tartini; but this ce- HARO, a small town of Spain, in Old Castille, on the
lebrated author was not very profoundly versed in these Ebro, surrounded with walls. Long. 2. 23. W. Lat. 42.
matters. D’Alembert gave a familiar explanation of the 40. N.
doctrines of Rameau, and in 1752 published his Elements Haro, Harou, or Harol, in the Norman customs. C/a-
152 H A R
H A R
Harp, mour de haro is a cry or formula of invoking the assistance
of justice against the violence of some offender, who upon
hearing the word haro is obliged to desist, on pain of being
severely punished for his outrage, and to go with the party
before the judge. The word is commonly derived from ha
and roul, as being supposed an invocation of the sovereign
power, to assist the weak against the strong, because Ra¬
oul, first duke of Normandy, rendered himself venerable to
his subjects by the severity of his justice, and hence they
invoked him even after his death when they suffered any
oppression. Some derive it from Harola, king of Den¬
mark, who in the year 826 was made grand conservator of
justice at Mentz; and others from the Danish aa ran, sig¬
nifying help me, a cry raised by the Normans in flying from
a king of Denmark named Roux, who made himself duke
of Normandy. The, letters of the French chancery for¬
merly bore Nonobstant clameur de haro, &c. The haro had
anciently such vast power, that a poor man of the city of
Caen named Asselin, in virtue thereof, arrested the corpse
of William the Conqueror, in the middle of the funeral pro¬
cession, till such time as his son Henry had paid the value
of the land in question, being that on which the chapel was
built in which he was interred.
HARP, a musical instrument of the stringed kind, of a
triangular figure, and held upright between the legs of the
performer.
Papias and Du Cange conceive the harp to have taken
its name from the Arpii, a people of Italy, who were supposed
to have been the first who invented it, and from whom it
was borrowed by other nations. Menage derives the word
from the Latin harpa, and that from the German herp or
harp; others deduce it from the Latin carpo, because touch¬
ed or thrummed with the fingers. Dr Hickes derives it
from harpa or hearpa, which signifies the same thing. The
English priest who wrote the life of St Dunstan, and who
lived in the tenth century, says (cap. ii. n. \2),Sumpsit secum
ex more citharam suam, quam paterna lingua hearpam vo-
camus ; thus intimating that the word is of Anglo-Saxon
origin.
The harp was the favourite musical instrument of the
Britons and other northern nations in the middle ages.
Ihis is evident from their laws, and from every passage
in their history in which there is any allusion to music.
By the laws of Wales, a harp was one of the three things
which were necessary to constitute a gentleman or a free¬
man ; and none could pretend to that character who had
not one of these favourite instruments, or could not play
upon it. By the same laws, to prevent slaves from pretend¬
ing to be gentlemen, it was expressly forbidden to teach
or to permit them to play upon the harp; and none but
the king, the king s musicians, and gentlemen, were al¬
lowed to have harps in their possession. A gentleman’s
harp was not liable to be seized for debt, because the want
of it would have degraded him from his rank, and reduced
him to the condition of a slave. The harp was in no less
estimation, and in universal use, amongst the Saxons and
Danes. Those who played this instrument were declared
gentlemen by law; their persons were esteemed inviolable,
and secured from injuries by very severe penalties; and
they were readily admitted into the highest company, and
treated with distinguished marks of respect wherever they
appeared. J
There is some diversity in the structure of harps. That
which is called the triple harp has ninety-seven strings or
chords in three rows, extending from C in the tenor cliff to
double G in alt, making five octaves ; the middle row is for
the semitones, and the two outside rows are perfect unisons.
On the bass side, which is played with the right hand, there
are thirty-six strings; on the treble side, twenty-six; and
m the middle row thirty-five strings. There are two rows
at pins or screws on the right side, serving to keep the
strings tight in their holes, which are fastened at the other Be
end to three rows of pins on the upper side. The harp has ^
been in some degree improved by the addition of eight h s
strings to the unison, viz. from E to double F in alt. This ^ *
instrument is struck with the finger and thumb of both
hands. Its music is much like that of the spinet, all its
strings going from semitone to semitone ; and hence some
have called it an inverted spinet. It is capable of a much
greater degree of perfection than the lute.
King David is usually painted with a harp in his hands;
but we have no testimony in all antiquity that the Hebrew
harp, called chinnor, in any respect resembled ours. On a
Hebrew medal of Simon Maccabaeus we observe two sorts
of musical instruments; but they are both of them very
different from our harp, and only consist of three or four
strings. All authors agree that our harp is very different
from the lyra, cithara, or barbiton of the Romans. Fortu-
natus (lib. vii. carm. 8) mentions that it was an instrument
in use amongst the barbarians :
Itomanusque lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa,
Grsecus Achilliacha, crotta Britanna canat.
Bell-HARP, a musical instrument of the string kind, so
called from the common players swinging it about, as a bell
on its basis. It is about three feet in length; its strings,
which are of no determinate number, are of brass or steel
wire, fixed at one end, and stretched across the sound-board
by screws fixed at the other. It takes in four octaves, ac¬
cording to the number of the strings, which are struck only
with the thumbs, the right hand playing the treble and the
left hand the bass; and in order to draw the sound the
clearer, the thumbs are armed with a little wire pin. This
may perhaps be the lyra or cithara of the ancients; but we
find no mention made of it under the name it now bears,
which must be allowed to be modern.
HARPAGINES, in Antiquity, were hooks of iron,
hanging on the top of a pole, which being secured with
chains to the masts of ships, and then let down with great
velocity into the enemy’s vessels, caught them up into the
air. By way of defence against these machines, they co¬
vered their ships with hides, which broke and blunted the
force of the iron. The harpagines, by the Greeks called
aovayzg, owe their invention to Anacharsis the Scythian
philosopher.
HARPAGUS, one of the ablest and most confidential
ministers of Astyages, king of Media, whose history is given
with considerable detail by Herodotus. When Astyages,
warned by an oracle, feared deposition by the hands of his
grandson, Harpagus was employed to destroy the infant
Cyrus, and thereby remove all his fears. But, guided rather
by the dread of Mandane, the prince’s mother, than by a
feeling of humanity, he did not obey the command. His
disobedience reached the ears of the king, and he was
summoned to answer for his conduct. The king apparent¬
ly yielded to the reasons he gave, but having invited him
to supper, placed before him the body of his son prepared
as food. Indignant at this treatment, he assisted Cyrus to
dethrone his grandfather (about 561 b. c.), and having
been afterwards appointed as governor of Lydia (about
540 b. c.), he reduced under subjection the cities of Ionia
and the greater part of Asia Minor. (Herodotus, book i.)
HARP ALUS, a Greek astronomer, the place of whose
birth, and the exact period whenheflourished,itis impossible
to determine. He must have lived at least before the time
of Meton, 433 b. c. Harpalus is known for an attempt to
fix the cycle which the sun and moon require to run before
they reach the point from which they started. Before his
time, Cleostratus had fixed it at eight years, but he added
another and made it nine. It was Meton, however, who
discovered that the cycle was really nineteen years. (Fes-
tus Avienus.)
HARPIES, in Latin Harpyice, ancient goddesses, who
H A R
s seem to have presided over the winds and tempests, ge-
nerally considered as the daughters of Thaumas and Elec-
Hari tra (Apollod. i. 2, 6), or of Typhon (Val. Flac. iv. 515),
nu^ and originally two in number, Aello and Ocypete, to whom
J was added Celmno, or, according to Hesiod, Iris. I hey
are represented by Virgil as winged monsters, with the face
of a virgin, the body of a vulture, and the feet and fingers
armed with sharp claws. They carried off whatever food
was placed upon the table, or spoiled it by their filth.
(Virg. Mn. iii. 216.) They were sent by Jupiter to pu¬
nish Phineas, son of Agenor, kingof Salmydessus in Thrace,
where they remained till they were driven away during the
expedition of the Argonauts, by Zethus and Calais, when
they proceeded to the islands called Strophades, where
they were found by TEneas. (Pausanias, iii. 18, v. 17.)
HARPINGS, the fore-parts of the wales which encom¬
pass the bow of a ship, and are fastened to the stem, being
thicker than the after-part of the wales, in order to rein¬
force the ship in this place, where she sustains the great¬
est shock of resistance in plunging into the sea, or dividing
it, under a great pressure of sail.
HARPOCRATES, in Mythology, the son of Isis and
Osiris, an Egyptian deity, whose distinguishing attribute
it is, that he is represented with his fingers applied to his
mouthr denoting that he is the god of silence. The statue
of this idol was fixed in the entrance of most of the Egyp¬
tian temples, and he was commonly exhibited under the
figure of a young man naked, crowned with an Egyptian
mitre, holding in one hand a cornucopia, in the other the
flower of the lotus, and sometimes bearing a quiver.
HARPOCRATION, a grammarian of Alexandria, in
Egypt, respecting whose personal history we are entirely
ignorant, and even the period during which he flourished
is not clearly ascertained. Some have considered him to
be the Greek instructor of the Emperor Lucius Verus,
mentioned by Julius Capitolinus(Life of Verus, c. 2), whilst
others have made him live so late as a. d. 360, because se¬
veral passages are found in his work taken from Athenmus,
who is supposed to have flourished about A. d. 300. But
however this may be, we are indebted to him for a very
useful, though not very complete Dictionary on the ten
chief Attic Orators. It contains, though not in strictly al¬
phabetical arrangement, historical notices of more or less
known persons or circumstances, as also explanations of
phrases derived from common life, and of legal terms. Its
value perhaps has been enhanced by the accidental cir¬
cumstance of all the dictionaries on the Greek orators,
of which the ancients possessed many, being lost. Suidas
and the author of the Etymologicum Magnum have both
borrowed from this work. He is also the author of a work
entitled ’Avdyguv Suwxywyjj, a collection of beautiful passages
from various authors. The first edition was published
along with Ulpian’s Scholia to thePhilippics of Demosthe¬
nes, by Aldus, Ven. 1503. Perhaps the best edition is that
of Diudorf, Leipsic, 1824, 2 vols.; but a later edition has
been published by Bekker, Berlin, 1833.
HARPONULLY, a district in the south of India,
bounded on the north by the Toombuddra river, and situat¬
ed between the 14th and 16th degrees of north latitude.
It is a fertile country, and not so hilly as some of the ad¬
jacent districts ; and it possesses the strong fortress of Ouch-
imadroog. The rajah of this district was tributary to the
kings of Bejanagur and Bejapore, to the Moguls, and the
Mahrattas; in 1774 he became tributary to Hyder, and in
1786 he was completely subdued by Tippoo, and sent
prisoner to Seringapatam. On the capture of that city,
Harponully was taken possession of by the heir. It was
then assigned to the nizam as a portion of his division of
Tippoo’s territory, and by him assigned to the British in
1800. It is now included in the Bellary collectorship, and
is yearly improving in value. Harponully is the capital,
VOL. XI.
H A R 153
and is 170 miles north-by west from Seringapatam. Long. Harpoon
76. 18. E. Lat. 14. 47. N. I!
HARPOON, or Ha rping-Iron, a spear or javelin used Harring-
to strike the whales in the Greenland fishery. See Whale ,
Fishery.
H ARPISCHORD, the most harmonious of all the musi¬
cal instruments of the stringed kind. It is played on after
the manner of the organ, and is furnished with one set,
sometimes with two sets of keys. The touching or strik¬
ing of these keys moves a kind of little jacks, which also
move a double row of chords or strings of brass or iron,
stretched over four bridges on the table of the instrument.
HARPSTED, a town of the kingdom of Hanover, the
capital of a bailiwick of the same name, in the province of
Hoya. It is situated on the river Define, and contains
152 houses, with 1030 inhabitants.
HARQUEBUSS, a piece of fire-arms of the length of
a musket, and cocked by means of a wheel. It carried a
ball that weighed one ounce seven eighths. There was also
a larger sort, called the great harquebuss, used for the de¬
fence of strong places, which carried a ball of about three
ounces and a half.
HARRIER, a kind of hound, endowed with an acute
sense of smelling, and very bold in the pursuit of game.
HARRINGTON, a small sea-port of the county of
Cumberland,in Allerdale ward, above Derwent, 311 miles
from London, and three from Workington. It has a con¬
siderable trade in lime and coal with Ireland, and some
ship-building and iron works. The population amount¬
ed in 1801 to 1357, in 1811 to 1621, in 1821 to 1845, and
in 1831 to 1758.
Harrington, Sir John, an English poet, was born at
Kelston, near Bath, in 1561, instructed in classical learn¬
ing at Eton School, and thence removed to Cambridge,
where he took his degree in arts. At the age of thirty,
he published a translation of the Orlando Furioso, which,
though executed without spirit or even accuracy, enrich¬
ed our poetry with new stores of imagery or romance.
Harrington was knighted in the field by Essex, to the great
displeasure of the queen, who wished all such honours to
emanate from herself; and in the reign of King James
he was created a knight of the bath. Being a courtier, he
presented to Prince Henry a manuscript, directed chiefly
against the married bishops. This production was intend¬
ed for the private use of the prince ; but being afterwards
published, it raised a great clamour against the author,
who had otherwise incurred suspicion, if not odium, by
supporting Raleigh in his suit for the manor of Banwell,
belonging to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, on the pre¬
sumption that the right reverend incumbent had incurred
a prcemunire by marrying a second wife. Sir John died
in 1612. His epigrams, which were the most popular of
his works, though possessing little poetical merit, appeared
first in 1618, and afterwards in 1625. The Nugat Anti¬
ques, a miscellaneous collection of his works, was publish¬
ed in 1792, and again in 1804, with illustrative notes, and
a memoir of the author. (a.)
PIarrington, James, an eminent English writer, was
born in January 1611, at Upton in Northamptonshire. After
being educated at Oxford, he travelled into Holland,
France, Denmark, and Germany, and learned the lan¬
guages of these countries. Upon his return to England, he
was admitted one of the privy chamber extraordinary to
King Charles I. He served the king with great fidelity,
and made use of his interest with his friends in parliament
to procure matters to be accommodated with all parties.
The king loved his company, except when the conversa¬
tion happened to turn upon commonwealths. He found
means to see the king at St James’s; and attended him
on the scaffold, where, or a little before, he received a token
of his majesty’s affection. After the death of King Charles,
154 H A R H A R
Harriot. he wrote his Oceana, a kind of political romance, in imi- when truly estimated, are sufficiently important to entitle Ha
tation of Plato’s Commonwealth, which h,e dedicated to him to a place, in the second rank, amongst those men "ws
Cromwell. It is said, that when the latter perused it, who have contributed to the progress of the mathematical
he declared, that “ the gentleman had wrote very well, sciences. (See Dissertations Third and Fourth, prefixed
but must not think to cheat him out of his power and to this work). From some papers of Harriot, discovered
authority; for that what he had won by the sword he in 1784), it appears that he had either procured a tele-
would not suffer himself to be scribbled out of. ’ This scope from Holland, or divined the construction of that
work was attacked by several writers, against whom he instrument; and that he coincided, in point of time, with
defended it. Besides his writings to promote republican Galileo in discovering the spots on the sun’s disc, (a.)
principles, he instituted a nightly meeting of several in- HARRIS, James, an English gentleman distinguished
genious men in the New Palace-Yard, Westminster. This by his writings on the subject of grammar, was born on
club was called the Rota, and continued till the secluded the 20th of July 1709. He received his early educational
members of parliament were restored by General Monk. Salisbury, whence he was removed to Oxford at the age
In 1661, he was committed to the Tower for treasonable of sixteen ; and having passed the usual number of years
designs and practices; and Chancellor Hyde, in a confe- as a gentleman commoner of Wadham College, he was en-
rence with the Lords and Commons, charged him with tered at Lincoln’s Inn as a student of law, though not in¬
being concerned in a plot. But a committee of Lords and tended for the bar. When he had attained his twenty-
Commons could make nothing of the alleged plot. He fourth year, his father died; and this event having at once
was conveyed to St Nicholas’s Island, and thence to Ply- freed him from all control, and placed him in the possession
mouth, where his imagination became disordered. Having of an independent fortune, enabled him to exchange the
obtained his liberty through the Earl of Bath, he was car- study of law for other pursuits more congenial to his taste,
ried to London, and died in 1677. Besides the above The decided bent of his mind had always been towards
w'orks, he published several others, which were first col- the Greek and Latin classics, which he preferred to every
lected by Toland in 1700, one vol. folio ; but a more com- other kind of reading ; and to the study of these authors
plete edition was published in 1737, by the Reverend Dr he now applied himself with unremitting assiduity during
Birch. a period of fourteen or fifteen years. The first fruit of
HARRIOT, Thomas, an eminent mathematician, was this lengthened course of application was a volume which
born at Oxford in 1560. Having been instructed in gram- he published in 1744, containing three treatises; one on
mar, he entered St Mary Hall as a commoner, and took art, another on music, painting, and poetry, and a third on
his bachelor’s degree in 1579. He then distinguished him- happiness. These treatises are illustrated with a variety
self by his skill in the mathematics, and became preceptor of learned notes and observations ; and one of them, that
in that science to Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1585, he ac- upon art, has been commended by Lord Monboddo as
companied the first colony sent out to Virginia ; and having containing “ the best specimen of the dividing or dueretic
surveyed that country, ascertained its natural productions, manner, as the ancients called it, that is to be found in
and observed the manners and customs of the aboriginal any modern book.” But the w-ork by which he is best
population, he published an account of it, which was after- known is his Hermes, a philosophical inquiry concerning
wards reprinted in Hackluyt’s Voyages. On his return to universal grammar, which appeared in 1751, 8vo. “Those
England, after an absence of two years, he resumed his whowouldenter deeply into the subject” (of universal gram-
mathematical studies with such zeal and success, that Hen- mar), says Dr Lowth, “ will find it fully and accurately
ry earl of Northumberland, the liberal and enlightened handled, wdth the greatest acuteness of investigation, per-
protector of the learned, assigned him a yearly pension of spicuity of application, and elegance of method, in a trea-
L.120. The same nobleman also pensioned Robert Hues, tise entitled Hermes, by James Harris, Esq.; the most beau-
known by his Treatise on the Globes, and Walter Warner, tiful example of analysis that has been exhibited since
who is supposed to have communicated to Harvey the first the days of Aristotle.” To this eulogium, however, the
hint concerning the circulation of the blood. Both these philosophical grammarians of the present time are not by-
persons were mathematicians; and, in 1608, when the earl any means disposed to subscribe. Without questioning
was committed to the Tower for life, they, along with Har- the learning displayed in the Hermes, we may venture to
riot, were his constant companions, and usually styled his affirm, that the arrangement of the parts of speech into
magicians. They had a table at the charge of the earl, who substantives, attributives, definitives, and connectives, is
constantly conversed with them, to beguile the tedium of entirely arbitrary ; that nothing whatever is gained by this
his confinement, as did also Sir Walter Raleigh, who was departure from the ordinary classification, excepting per-
then a prisoner in the Tower. Harriot lived for some time haps to impart to the work an appearance of originality,
at Sion College, and died at London on the 2d of July 1621, which, upon examination, will be found to vanish ; that,
at the age of sixty, after having suffered much from a can- though professing to treat the subject of grammar in a
cer in the lip, occasioned by a habit he had contracted of philosophical manner, Mr Harris is in reality the slave of
holding in his mouth instruments of brass often charged authority; and that there is no quality for which his work
with verdigris. He was universally esteemed on account is less distinguished than that rigid analysis which Bishop
of his learning. A manuscript of his entitled Lowth has somewhat hastily given him credit for. This, we
Chrysometria is preserved in Sion College; and his Artis think, has been fully established in the article Grammar
Analyticce Praxis ad JEquationes Algebraicas resolvendas of the present work, to which accordingly the reader is refer-
was published at London in 1631, folio. Descartes has red for more ample information. Mr Harris’s attention seems
been charged with taking from this book many improve- to have been first directed to this subject by the Minerva
merits in algebra, which he afterwards published to the °f ^tmctius, to which he has confessed himself indebted for
wor d as his. own ;. but notwithstanding all that has been much valuable information; but it is somewhat remark-
sard by Wallis in his account of the discoveries of Harriot, able, that with the treatise of Apollonius (De Constructione
and by Zach in the Astronomical Ephemeris for 1788, Orationis) also before him, he should not have avoided
there seems to be no good ground for the charge ; and the narrow and confined views which he has adopted on
it would even appear that much that incontestibly be- particular points, or should have missed principles which
ongs to \ ieta or Descartes has been ascribed to Har- would have served to guide him through the intricacies in
riot. Montucla has reduced to their just value the ser- which he is frequently entangled. Mr Harris’s other pro-
vices of the English mathematician, and shown that these, ductions are. Philosophical Arrangements, published in
H A R H A R 155
1775 bein'* part of a larger work which he had meditated, contemplating the movement. In 1700, he removed with Harrison.
" S but did not complete, on the peripatetic logic; and Phi- his father to Barrow, in Lincolnshire, where, though his
r on. loiogical Inquiries, printed in 1780, but not published till opportunities of acquiring knowledge were but scanty, he
- 1781 containing not so much a regular system, as a sum- eagerly improved every incident from which he could col-
mary of the conclusions to which the philosophy of the lect information, frequently employing the greater part of
ancients had conducted them in their critical inquiries, his nights in writing or drawing. He always acknowledg-
After having been quite exhausted by illness, Mr Harris ed his obligations to a clergyman who came every Sunday
expired on the 22d of December 1780, in the seventy- to officiate in the neighbourhood, and who lent him a manu-
second year of his age. In 1801, his son Lord Malmes- script copy of Professor Saunderson’s Lectures, which he
bury published an edition of his works in two volumes carefully transcribed, with all the diagrams. His native
quarto ; prefixed to which is a biographical sketch of the genius enabled him to surmount every disadvantage ; and
author from the pen of the editor. * (a.) in the year 1726, he constructed two clocks, mostly of
Harris, a district of the Hebrides, forming, with the lar- wood, in which he applied the escapement and compound
o-er district of Lewis, one considerable island. In one part pendulum of his own invention. These clocks surpassed
ft is divided into nearly two parts by the approximation of every thing that had yet been made, scarcely erring a se-
West Loch Tarbet and East Loch Tarbet, which leave cond in a month. In 1728 he went to London with the
only a neck of land of about half a mile in breadth. At drawings of a machine for determining the longitude at
the head of the former is situated the solitary village of Tar- sea, in expectation of being employed to execute one by the
bet. Harris is about twenty miles in length, by eleven in board of longitude. Upon application to Dr Halley, he
breadth in the northern part, and from six to seven in the was referred to Mr George Graham, who, discovering that he
southern. It is bleak, rocky, and unproductive. On the had uncommon merit, advised him to construct his machine
shores, however, there are small patches of cultivated land; before he applied to the board of longitude. He returned
the rearing of cows and black cattle further tends to sup- home to perform this task; and in 1735 he proceeded to
port the inhabitants ; but until the duty on barilla was London with his firsA machine, and was sent to Lisbon the
lowered, their chief source of profit was the manufacture of next year to make trial of its properties. In this short
kelp. This, however, is now considerably reduced. Har- voyage he corrected the dead reckoning about a degree
ris is an independent parish in the presbytery of Wick, and and a half. About the year 1739 he completed his second
its kirk-town and capital is Rowadill or Rowdill, a small machine, which was of a construction much more simple
village at the south-east corner of the island. The popu- than the first, and answered much better ; and this, though
lation amounted in 1821 to 3909, and in 1831 to 3900. not sent to sea, recommended Mr Harrison in a still
HARRISON, William, a writer much esteemed and stronger manner to the patronage of his friends and the
patronised by the literati of his time, was fellow of New public. His third machine, which he produced in 1749,
College, Oxford. Whilst employed as tutor to the Duke was still less complicated than the second, and superior in
of Queensberry’s son, he fortunately attracted the favour accuracy, as erring only three or four seconds in a week,
of Dr Swift, at whose solicitation Mr St John, afterwards This he conceived to be the ne plus ultra of his attempts ;
Lord Bolingbroke, obtained for him the employment of but in an endeavour to improve pocket watches, he found
secretary to Lord Raby, ambassador at the Hague, and af- the principles he applied to surpass his expectations ; and
terwards Earl of Strafford. A letter written by him whilst this encouraged him to make his fourth time-keeper, which
at Utrecht, dated 16th December 1712, is printed in the is in the form of a pocket watch, about six inches diameter,
dean’s works. Mr Harrison, who did not long enjoy his rising With this time-keeper his son made tivo voyages, the one
fortune, was dispatched to London with the Barrier Treaty, to Jamaica, and the other to Baibadoes, in both of which
and died on the 14th of February 1713. Mr Tickel has men- it corrected the longitude within the nearest limits requir-
tioned him with respect in his Prospect of Peace ; and Dr ed by the act of the 12th of Queen Anne ; and the inven-
Young, in the close of an epistle to Lord Lansdowne, pa- tor therefore, at different times, though not without infinite
thetically bewails his death. Dr Birch, who has given a cu- trouble, received the proposed reward of L.20,000. These
rious note on Harrison’s letter to Swift, has confounded four machines were given up to the board of longitude,
him with Thomas Harrison of Queen’s College. In Ni- The three former were not of any use, as all the advanta-
chols’ Select Collection are some pleasing specimens of his ges gained by making them were comprehended in the
poetry, which, with Woodstock-Park, in Dodsley’s Collec- last; they were, however, worthy of being carefully pre-
tion, and an Ode to the Duke of Marlborough, in Dun- served as mechanical curiosities, in which might be traced
combe’s Horace, form all of his poetical writings that are the gradations of ingenuity executed with the most deli-
known. Harrison figured both as an humorist and a poli- cate workmanship; but they now lie totally neglected in
tician in the fifth volume of the Tatler, of which, under the royal observatory at Greenwich. The fourth ma-
the patronage of Bolingbroke, Henley, and Swift, he was chine, emphatically distinguished by the name of the time-
professedly the editor. Keeper, was copied by Kendal; and the duplicate, during a
Harrison, John, an ingenious mechanic, the inventor of three years’ circumnavigation of the globe in the south-
the time-keeper or chronometer for ascertaining the longi- ern hemisphere by Captain Cook, answered^ as well as the
tude at sea, and also of the compound, or, as it is commonly original, ihe latter part of Mr Harrison s life was em-
called, the gridiron-pendulum, was born at Foulby, in the ployed in making a fifth improved time-keeper, on the
parish of Wragby, near Pontefract in Yorkshire, in 1693. same principles with the preceding one, which, at the end
The vigour of his natural abilities amply compensated the of a ten weeks’ trial, in 17 /2, at the king s private observa-
deficiencies of his education, as appears from the asto- tory at Richmond, erred only four seconds and a half,
nishing progress he made in that branch of mechanics to Within a few years of his death, his constitution visibly
which he devoted himself. His father was a carpenter, in declined ; he had frequent fits of the gout, a disorder which
which profession the son assisted ; but occasionally, accord- had never attacked him before his seventy-seventh year ;
ing to the miscellaneous practice of country artists, he also and he died at his house in Red-Lion Square, in 1776,
surveyed land, and repaired clocks and watches. From his aged eighty-three. The recluse manner of his life, in the
earliest childhood he was attached to any machinery unremitting pursuit of his favourite object, was by no means
moving by wheels, as appeared whilst he lay sick of the calculated to qualify him to shine as a man of the world;
small-pox about the sixth year of his age, when he had a and the many discouragements he met with in soliciting
watch placed open upon his pillow to amuse himself by the legal reward of his labours, still less disposed him to
156
H A R
Harte.
Harrow accommodate himself to the humours of mankind. In con¬
versing on his profession, he was clear, distinct, and modest;
w like many other mere mechanics, he found much dif¬
ficulty in delivering his meaning in writing, and adhered
to a peculiar, uncouth phraseology. This was but too evi¬
dent in his Description concerning such Mechanism as will
afford a nice or true Mensuration of Time, 1775, 8vo ;
the defects of which may be accounted for from his small
acquaintance with letters, from his advanced age, and con¬
comitant mental infirmities, amongst which may be reckon¬
ed his obstinate refusal to accept of any assistance what¬
ever in this publication. This small work includes also an
account of his new musical scale, or mechanical division of
the octave, according to the proportion of the radius and
diameter of a circle respectively to the circumference. He
had in his youth been the leader of a distinguished band of
church-singers ; he had a very delicate ear for music; and
his experiments on sound, with a curious monochord of his
own improvement, are said to have been not less accurate
than those which he was engaged in for the mensuration
of time.
HARROW, a town in the county of Middlesex, in the
hundred of Gore, ten miles from London. It is usually dis¬
tinguished from its situation by the adjunct “ on-the-Hill.”
It commands extensive prospects on every side, over well
cultivated and undulating districts. The church and
spire at the highest point present a distinguishing object
to the whole country around it. The free school, found¬
ed here in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is one of the
most celebrated seminaries for classical learning in the
kingdom, and in it the youth of the first families receive
the first rudiments of education. The population in 1801
amounted to 2485, in 1811 to 2813, in 1821 to 3017, and
in 1831 to 3861.
HARROWGATE, a township within the parish of
Knaresborough, in the wapentake of Claro, of the west
riding of Yorkshire, 212 miles from London, and twenty-
twofrom York. It is situated in a cold exposed heath,
butis much visited in the summer season, on account of its
mineral springs, some of which are chalybeate, and others
sulphureous. There are appropriate boarding-houses and
taverns, with libraries and a theatre, and the other accom-
modations usual at a well-frequented watering place.
HARROW I Y, a district of Hindustan, in the province
of Ajmeer, situated between the 25th and 26th degrees
of north latitude, and intersected by the river Chumbul
ihe chief towns are Kotah and Boondee, each of which
is the residence of a rajah of the Chohan tribe, and deno¬
minated half-rajpoots. The cultivators are Rajpoots,
Jauts, Brahmins, Bheels, and other castes or tribes.
HARSEFELD, a town, the capital of a bailivvick of
the same name, in the province Hoya with Diepholz, in
the kingdom of Hanover, having 146 houses and 1140 in-
habitants.
See
H A R
HARI, a stag or male deer, in the sixth year,
Mammalia.
^AliT s Horns, the horns of the common male deer.
Ihe scrapings or raspings of the horn of this animal are
U.Sed decoctions> ptisans, and the like.
HARI BERG, a town of the Austrian province of
Steyermark, in the circle of Gratz. It has a large wool¬
en cloth manufactory, and an establishment for refining
296 ho!Jses’ and 1320 inhabitants.
H Alt 1E, Walter, the historian of Gustavus Adol¬
phus, was born about the beginning of the eighteenth
cen ury. e icceived his education at Marlborough
School, from which he was sent to Oxford, where he took
his masters degree on the 30th of June 1720. He early
acquired an intimacy with Pope, and, in 1727, published a
volume of poems dedicated to the Earl of Peterborough,
who, in consequence, took some notice of him. In 1730,
he published an Essay on Satire, 8vo, and, in 1735, an Essay Hart
on Reason, folio, to which Pope is understood to have been ^
a contributor. He afterwards became vice-principal of St Hai
Mary Hall, and obtained so much reputation as a tutor that P01
Lord Lyttleton recommended him as private and travel-
ling preceptor to his natural son, in which capacity he
acted from 1746 to 1750. In 1759, he published his His¬
tory of Gustavus Adolphus, in two vols. 4to; a work on
which he had bestowed much labour, and in which he has
undoubtedly accumulated a large body of valuable mate¬
rials. But this is nearly all that can be said in its favour.
Harte had learning, industry, and the spirit of research,'
with no inconsiderable share of military and even political
knowledge; he had also access to the most valuable ma¬
terials, and his work, with all its faults, may therefore
be considered as in a certain sense original. But it is
totally destitute of arrangement and method; and, from
the affectation of employing uncouth words and phrases
as well as from the adoption of a style singularly harsh*
pedantic, and involved, which, by some strange halluci¬
nation, he appears to have considered as fine writing, it
is even more deficient in perspicuity than in the other
qualities essential to historical composition. The idea
of digesting his materials into a regular narrative seems
never to have occurred to him, or, if it did, to have been
disregarded, possibly from a conscious incapacity for giv¬
ing it effect. Hr Johnson was, however, of opinion that
the defects of Harte s history proceeded more from fop¬
pery than imbecility, and that these are to be attributed
not so much to want of talent as to inordinate and over¬
weening conceit; but whatever the cause may have been,
the result is unfortunately the same. Harte left London
on the day of the publication of his book, that he might be
out of the way of the great praise he was to receive; and
he was ashamed to return when he found how very7 ill it
had succeeded. Robertson’s History of Scotland \vA\ been
published about a month before; Hume’s History of the
House of Tudor appeared the same week; and it is not
wonderful that, after perusing these masterpieces of his¬
torical composition, the public should consider Harte’s
style as intolerable. Towards the close of his life, he so¬
laced his solitary and painful hours by devotional read¬
ing, and died unmarried, though at what precise date
has not been ascertained. His only other productions
are some Sermons, and the Amaranth, a poem which, as
he informs us, was written for his private consolation
under a lingering and dangerous state of health, and
which is strongly marked with that serious cast of feeling
with which every man of a rightly-constituted mind re¬
gards his approaching end.
HARI LAND, a town of the county of Devon, in the
hundred of the same name, 146 miles from London. It
stands on a point of land projecting into the Bristol Chan¬
nel, which forms one of the boundaries of the bay of
Barnstaple. It has a market on Saturday, attended chief-
Jy by persons from the adjoining county of Cornwall.
Hie harbour is rendered secure by a pier. The papula¬
tion amounted in 1801 to 1546, in 1811 to 1734, in 1821
to 1968, and in 1831 to 2143.
LIAR .1LEBURY, a town in the hundred of Oswald-
slow, in the county of Worcester, 122 miles from London,
t is situated at the junction of the river Stour with the
Severn. It is chiefly remarkable from the palace of the
1 'shop of Worcester, altered from an ancient castle erect¬
ed by Henry III., and much beautified by successive pre¬
lates, especially by Madox and Hurd. The population
,ln 1801 t0 1534> 1811 to 1673, in 1821 to
16/6, and in 1831 to 1746.
H]A1HLE,POOL’ a market-town and sea-port in the
ward of Stockton, of the county of Durham. It is an in¬
corporated town, with a mayor and aldermen; but the
H A R
trade is inconsiderable, consisting chiefly of the export of
coals. It is frequented in the months of summer as a
spa-bathing place. The population amounted in 1801 to
993, in 1811 to 1047, in 1821 to 1249, and in 1831 to
1330. „ , , •
HARTLEY, or Hartley Pans, a sea-port town in
the ward of Castle, in the county of Northumberland, a
portion of the parish of Earsdon, 283 miles from London.
It has a good harbour near it, and some valuable coal
mines; and there are extensive establishments for making
dass, salt, and copperas. It is the property of the family
of Delaval, whose magnificent seat and elegant gardens
are about a mile from it; and the harbour, as well as the
improvements, have been the result of the operations of
that noble family. The population amounted in 1801 to
1639, in 1811 to 1872, in 1821 to 1795, and in 1831 to
185o! . . ... ...
HARTLEY, David, an ingenious physician and phi¬
losopher, was the son of a clergyman at Armley, in York¬
shire, and born on the 30th of August 1705. After spend¬
ing some time at a private school, he was admitted of Jesus
College, Cambridge, in 1720, became afterwards a fellow
of that college, and took his master’s degree in 1729. He
was originally intended for the church ; but having some
scruples about subscribing the thirty-nine articles, he di¬
rected his studies to the medical profession, and having com¬
pleted his professional education, commenced practice at
Newark, whence he removed to Bury St Edmund’s, and
afterwards settled for some time in London, but eventu¬
ally established himself at Bath. Dr Hartley was inde¬
fatigable in the pursuit of all collateralTaranches of know¬
ledge, and he lived in personal intimacy with some of the
most learned men of his age, including Law, Butler, \\ar-
burton, Jortin, Hales, Young, Hooke the Roman historian,
and others. From early youth he was devoted to the
sciences, particularly logic and mathematics; he studied
mathematics and experimental philosophy under Profes¬
sor Saunderson ; he was an ardent admirer of Newton,
even where Newton was not in his strength, we mean, on
the subjects of chronology and religion ; and from Locke
he derived the first principles of logic and metaphysics,
as appears from the work by which he is now principally
known. The doctrine of vibrations, as instrumental to
sensation and motion, he obtained from Newton ; and the
principle of association he derived originally from Locke.
This work he commenced about the age of twenty-five, and
published it in 1749, under the title of Observations on
Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations, in two
vols. 8vo. He did not expect that it would meet with
any general or immediate reception in the philosophical
world; nor did it happen otherwise than he had expect¬
ed ; but he entertained a hope that, at some future pe¬
riod, his system would be adopted by philosophers ; and
in this he appears to have been mistaken. Dr Priestley,
indeed, published, in 1775, a work on Hartleys theory;
but all that he has done in this production is to convince
us of his own materialism, and his earnest desire to prove
Hartley a materialist, although the latter dreaded nothing
so much. It must be confessed, however, that his doc¬
trines have an apparent tendency towards that principle,
and that other philosophers, who had not the same views or
object with Priestley, have arrived at the same conclusion
with him. Nor is this all. Although Hartley’s mind was
active and penetrating, his industry indefatigable, and his
philosophical observations unremitting, he has built upon a
gratuitous assumption the doctrine by which he attempts
to explain the origin and propagation of sensation; for
Haller has shown that he attributes properties to the me¬
dullary substance of the brain and nerves which are in¬
compatible with their nature ; and that, consequently, he
has assumed, as the basis of his system, what neither does
H A R
157
nor can exist. (See, on the subject of Hartley’s philoso- Harus-
phical doctrines, Sir James Mackintosh’s continuation of Plces
Dissertation Second, p. 362.) Hartley was the author of Harnvev
several medical tracts relative to the operation of Mrs
Stephens’ medicine for the stone, a disease with which
he was himself afflicted ; and he is also said to have written
a defence of inoculation for smallpox, against Dr \\ ar-
ren and others. He died at Bath, on the 28th of August
1757, in the fifty-second year of his age. The philoso¬
phical character of Plartley is delineated in his works,
which are alike remarkable for modesty and originality,
though disfigured by an affectation of mathematical forms
of reasoning in treating a subject to which they can never
be made to apply. In private life he was gay, cheerful,
and social; his hours of recreation were devoted to mu¬
sic, poetry, and history ; and the virtuous principles which
he instilled in his works formed the invariable guides of his
life and doctrine. (A-)
HARUSPICES, an order of priests amongst the Ro¬
mans. Their name is derived, according to Donatus
(Ter. Phorm. iv. 5), from haruga, a victim, though others
have referred its origin to the word ara, an altar. Diony¬
sius (ii. 22) explains it by the word Ugofoovos, inspector of
the victims, and states that Romulus appointed three, one
from each tribe. This number was gradually increased,
till it became an important body in the state, was regard¬
ed as a collegium, and its president was called Summus
Haruspex, or Magister Publicus. In the flourishing pe¬
riod of the republic, it enjoyed great influence, from the
explanation it was called on to give of omens, which were
taken at the commencement of any important undertaking ;
but in proportion as the doctrines of the Greek philosophers
spread amongst the Romans, the Haruspices gradually lost
their influence, at least amongst the higher ranks. Cato
used frequently to say that he was surprised the Ha¬
ruspices did not laugh when they met one another in the
street. (Cic. Nat. Div. i. 26.) The Emperor Claudius
made an attempt to revive their importance, and the Pon-
tifices received an order to report as to the best way of
accomplishing this object; but how far he succeeded we
have no means of discovering. (Tacit. Ann. xi. 15.)
Alexander Severus appointed fixed salaries to the mem¬
bers of this body, and teachers, who should instruct the
young in the arts of soothsaying (Lamprid. 44) ; and they
continued in this state till Constantine put an end to
their functions, by forbidding, under the penalty of death,
the continuation of their superstitious practices. (Codex
Theodos. 9, tit. 16.) The duties of the Haruspices were
to examine the entrails of victims sacrificed, and thence
to derive omens of futurity. They also attended to the
flame, the smoke, whether the victim came to the altar
willingly, stood quietly, fell by one stroke, and many other
circumstances of the same kind. Their knowledge of this
art was derived from the Etruscans; and in early times
the young nobility used to be sent to Etruria to be in¬
structed in this art. (Cic. Div. i. 2, 41.)
HARVEST, probably derived from a Saxon word sig¬
nifying herb feast, is that season of the year when the
corn is ripe, and fit to be reaped and gathered into barns.
Harvest-Home denotes the feast which is often observed
at the close of harvest, and also the song used on that
occasion.
HARVEY, Dr William, an illustrious English phy¬
sician, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was
born in Kent on the 2d of April 1569. After six years of
study in Caius College, Cambridge, he travelled through
France, Germany, and Italy, and was created a doctor
of physic in the University of Padua, where he studied
for some time. After his return to London, he was incor¬
porated doctor of physic in Cambridge, afterwards admit¬
ted into the College of Physicians in London, and, lastlys
158
H A R
Harvey’s appointed lecturer of anatomy and surgery in that col-
, lege. In these lectures he disclosed his discovery rela-
Hasling- tive to t{.ie circulation of the blood, which, after a variety
den. ° °1' experiments, he communicated to the world in his Ex-
 , ercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis. He
was physician to James L and to Charles I., and adhered
to the royal cause in the reign of the latter. His works
have immortalised his memory. In 1651 he published his
Exercitationes de Gemratione Animalium. In 1654 he was
chosen president of the College of Physicians in his ab¬
sence ; but his age and weakness were so great, that he
found himself unable to discharge the duty of the office
and therefore desired the college., to choose Dr Pringle!
As he had no children, he settled Ins paternal estate upon
the college. He had three years previously built a com¬
bination-room, a library, and a museum; and in 1656 he
brought the deeds of his estate, and presented them to
the college. He was also present at the first festival,
instituted by himself, and to be continued annually, to¬
gether with a commemoration speech in Latin, to be spo¬
ken on the 18th of October, in honour of the benefactors
to the college. He appointed a handsome stipend for the
orator, and also for the keeper of the library and museum,
which are still called by his name. This great physician,'
who died in 1657, had the happiness, in his lifetime, to
find the clamours of ignorance, envy, and prejudice, against
his doctiine, totally silenced, and to see it universally
established. Dr Harvey was not only a great, but a truly
excellent man; his modesty, candour, and piety, were
equal to his knowledge; and the farther he penetrated
into the wonders of nature, the more he felt disposed to
venerate its great author.
HARVEY’S Isle, a low island in the Pacific Ocean,
covered by the sea, and about twenty miles in circumfer¬
ence. It was discovered by Captain Cook in 1773. Lone-
158. 54. W. Lat. 19. 18. S.
HARWICH, a town in the hundred of Tendring, in
the county of Essex, seventy-three miles from London.’ It
is a seaport, situated at the junction of the river Stour and
Orwell, which enter the German Ocean. It was once forti¬
fied, but the works were demolished in the civil wars of
Charles I.; but towards the sea it is defended by a bat¬
tery. from this place the packets depart for Holland
twice every week. There are good dock-yards for build¬
ing and repairing ships; and some fisheries are carried
on m the North Sea. It is governed by a mayor, eight
aldermen, a recorder, and some burgesses; and it re¬
turns two members to the House of Commons. There
are now about 200 voters. The mayor is empowered to
hold an admiralty court. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 2761, in 1811 to 3732, in 1821 to 4010, and in
1831 to 4297.
HARZGERODE, a city, the capital of a bailiwick of
the same name, in the duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg, in Ger¬
many. It is situated in a mountainous district, 1440 feet
above the sea. It contains 350 houses, and 2430 inhabi¬
tants. It is surrounded with walls built of marble, with
which kind of stone the streets are also paved. The chief
employment is in the mines of iron, and in the quarries of
marble.
i ^SELMERE, a town of the county of Surrey, in the
hundred of Godaiming, forty-three miles from London,
t is an ancient borough, and had the right of returning two
members to the House of Commons till 1832, when it was
disfranchised. It has a small market on Friday. The
inhaffitants amounted in 1801 to 642, in 1811 to 756, in
1821 to 88/, and in 1831 to 849.
HASLAH, a town of Hindustan, in the Sikk territories,
and province of Lahore, 154 miles north-east from the city
of Lahore. Long. 75. 32. E. Lat. 33. 20. N. J
H ASLINGDEN, a market-town of the county of Lan-
H A S
caster, in the hundred of Blackburn, 200 miles from Lon-Ha
don, and fourteen from Manchester. It forms part of the 5
parish ofW halley, which is denominated a chapelry. It has Hi
water communication by a canal with Manchester, Leeds w
and Liverpool; and makes cotton and linen goods for the
merchants of these places. The population amounted in
1801 to 4404, in 1811 to 5127, in 1821 to 6595, and in
1831 to 7776.
HASPARREN, a town of the arrondissement of Bay¬
onne, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, in France
is situated on the river Hilspide, and contains 525 houses’
with 4156 inhabitants.
HASSAN Keela, a strong castle of Armenia, situated
on a high mountain. It is inhabited by 4000 Turks and
1000 Armenians, and its mineral waters are in great re¬
pute.
HASSELQUIST, Frederick, a well-known traveller
was a native of East Gothland, and born in the year 1722.
He prosecuted his medical and botanical studies at Upsak
Linnaeus having represented in his lectures the important ad¬
vantages which might be gained by travelling through Pales¬
tine, which was at that time but little known, Hasselquist
felt the file of ambition burn within him at the declaration
of his master. As the crown gave no pecuniary encourage¬
ment for undertakings of this description, extensive collec¬
tions were made by private individuals, especially from the
country of our author, and stipends were granted him by
all the faculties in the University of Upsal. Protected in
this manner, he began his journey in the summer of 1749,
and, through the influence of Lagerstrdm, obtained a pas¬
sage to Smyrna in a Swedish East Indiaman. He arrived
at Smyrna about the latter end of the year, and met with
the most friendly reception from the Swedish consuls. In
the beginning of 1750 he set out for Egypt, and remained
about nine months in the metropolis of that country,
whence he transmitted to Linnaeus some specimens of his
researches) which, after they were published, obtained the
approbation of the public. By the influence of Dr War-
gentin, a collection of ten thousand dollars of copper cur¬
rency was made for the encouragement of young Hassel¬
quist in the prosecution of his researches. In the spring
of 1751, he passed through Jaffa to Jerusalem, and re¬
turned afterwards to Smyrna by way of Rhodes and Scio,
having completely fulfilled the expectation of his coun¬
try ; but he did not live long enough to reap the fruits of
Ins labours. His lungs were affected by the burning deserts
of Arabia; and after languishing for some time in great
distress, he expired in February 1752, before he had com¬
pleted the thirtieth year of his age. An account of his
voyage was published by Linnaeus, by whom his memory
was honoured with a plant which he called Hasselquistia.
HAS8ELT, a city of the Netherlands, in the province
of Limburg, and the capital of a circle of its own name. It'
is situated on the river Demer, is tolerably well built, and
contains about 1000 houses and 6840 inhabitants. There
is some trade in linen and woollen goods, and in madder
and tobacco, which are extensively cultivated in the vi¬
cinity. Long. 5. 9. E. Lat. 50. 55. N.
HASSER, a town and fortress of Hindustan, in the
province of Khandesh, and capital of a district of the same
name, situated between the 21st and 22d degrees of
north latitude. The land is fertile, and tolerably well
watered by the Tuptee and Poornah. It is of a hilly sur¬
face, on which the native chiefs have erected fortifications.
±he town is fifteen miles north from Boorhanpoor. Long.
76.21. E. Lat. 21. 32. N. r s
or Hasta Pura, amongst medallists, signifies
a kind of spear or javelin, not shod or headed with iron;
or rather an ancient sceptre, somewhat longer than ordi¬
nary, and occasionally given to all the gods. The hasta
is supposed to be a symbol of the goodness of the gods,
H »
Ha: igs*
HAS
HAS
159
and of the conduct of providence, which is equally mild
and forcible.
Hasta, in some countries, is a measure or quantity of
ground amounting to thirty paces, and so called, accord¬
ing to Du Cange, from the hasta or rod wherewith it was
measured.
HASTEE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Aurangabad, belonging to the nizam, forty miles south¬
east from Jalnapoor. Long. 76. 53. E. Lat. 19. 32. N.
HASTINGS, Warren, a man remarkable alike for
his talents, his fortunes, and his history, was the son of a
clergyman, and born in 1733, though in what place does not
seem to have been ascertained. At a subsequent period
it was alleged to his disparagement that his origin “ was
low, obscure, and vulgar;” but such an assertion would seem
to have been as gratuitous as it was undoubtedly unworthy
of Mr Burke, from whom it proceeded. That his parents
were not in affluent circumstances, may be concluded from
the fact that the remainder of the family estate had been
sold some time previous to the birth of young Hastings;
yet, on the other hand, his maintenance and education at
a great public seminary, followed by a respectable appoint¬
ment in the service of the East India Company, do not
seem to indicate any want either of substance or of connec¬
tions; and, in fact, it appears from various authorities, that
he was collaterally descended of an ancient family of the
same name in the county of Worcester, and that the estate
of Daylesford, and the patronage of the living, were vest¬
ed in his progenitors for many generations, although the
fortune of one of them had been greatly diminished by
his attachment to the royal cause in the time of Charles I.
We notice this circumstance, not because the assertion of
Mr Burke would have been any reproach to Mr Hastings,
if it had been true to the fullest extent, but because be¬
ing altogether groundless, it seems to have been calculat¬
ed for the meridian of a place (the House of Lords) where
the imputation of a low, obscure, and vulgar origin could
scarcely fail to produce a strong and by no means advan¬
tageous impression.
Warren Hastings received his education at Westmin¬
ster School, where he appears to have made considerable
proficiency in learning. Amongst his class-fellows were the
celebrated antiquary Soame Jennings, who spent a large
fortune in the purchase of articles of vertu, and died in
obscurity, if not poverty; and Sir Elijah Impey, afterwards
chief justice of Bengal, who was repeatedly threatened
with impeachment for his co-operation in many of the
acts of his former school-fellow. The residence of young
Hastings at Westminster could not have been long, as he
appears to have left it about the age of sixteen. But the
precocity of his talents attracted the notice of his master
Dr Nichols, and he withdrew with the reputation of being
one of the best scholars of his standing. It was intended
to send him to Oxford, there to complete his studies; but
circumstances prevented this design from being carried into
effect. In 1750 he was appointed a writer in the service of
the East India Company, and had the good fortune to be
nominated to Bengal. At that period there existed no col¬
lege in England for instruction in the oriental languages,
nor could any private tutor be found capable of under¬
taking such a task. It was not, therefore, until after his
arrival in India that he was enabled to acquire any know¬
ledge of the dialects of that country. But as his natural
sagacity led him to conclude that an acquaintance with
the native tongues might serve the purposes of his ambi¬
tion, he immediately applied himself to the study of the
Persian and Hindustanee, in which his assiduity and per¬
severance were ere long rewarded with success; and to
his early proficiency in these languages, which were then
but little cultivated, he was chiefly indebted for his rise
in the Company’s service.
At this period the East India Company still retained Hastings,
much of its primitive character. It had been instituted
for the purposes of trade, and its servants abroad were
merely merchants, whose views were confined to commer¬
cial enterprise, and who had no ambition beyond that of
enhancing the profits of mercantile speculation. No vi¬
sions of conquest had yet flitted across their imagination ;
no vista of a sovereignty extending over millions of Asia¬
tics had disclosed itself even in the most distant perspec¬
tive. The great, indeed the only object then was, to open
new sources of trade, and to discover new outlets for the
commodities of Europe. With this view Mr Hastings was
chosen as a fit person to establish a factory in the interior
of Bengal. No Europlfin had as yet appeared in that part
of the country; and one acquainted with the languages in
use amongst the natives was naturally selected as the most
proper person to conduct the enterprise. The attempt,
however, proved unsuccessful; but, notwithstanding its
failure, Mr Hastings found means to conciliate the good¬
will of the principal natives ; and when afterwards taken
prisoner by Surajah Dowlah, the sworn foe of the English
name, his knowledge of Persian mainly contributed to en¬
sure the safety of his person, and even to command the re¬
spect of his captor.
But a new and memorable epoch at length occurred,
from which may be dated an entire change in the cha¬
racter and policy of the Company of Merchants trading
to the East Indies. Colonel Clive, originally a clerk or
writer, like Mr Hastings, but a man fitted by nature to
play a great part in a different sphere of action, appeared
at the head of a small but victorious army; and the for¬
tunes of India were suddenly changed. Surajah Dowlah,
doomed in his turn to experience the inconstancy of for¬
tune, was defeated, dethroned, and finally murdered by
his successor Meer Jaffier; and from this time the East
India Company appeared in the character of a military
power. It now became necessary to select as resident
minister at the durbar of the nawab Jaffier Ali Cawn, a
man of talents and address, conversant with the oriental
languages, thoroughly acquainted with the interests of the
Company, and capable of unravelling the intricacies of
eastern politics, as well as defeating the intrigues peculiar
to a court of this description. On this occasion, Colonel,
afterwards Lord Clive, showed his discernment and saga¬
city by pitching upon Mr Hastings as the person best qua¬
lified to discharge these various and difficult duties; and,
in 1758, the latter was accordingly sent as diplomatic agent
of the Company to the court of the new nawab. A more
critical or responsible situation cannot well be imagined ;
but he conducted himself with a degree of skill, prudence,
and ability, which gave entire satisfaction to his employ¬
ers ; and he was only recalled to Bengal, in 1761, in con¬
sequence of his having become, by seniority, a member of
the general administration.
After a residence of about fourteen years in India, Mr
Hastings returned to England, with acquisitions so mo¬
derate, and wishes so humble, that, whilst he panted to
enjoy ease in Europe, he renounced all hopes of realising
those golden prospects which had at first induced him to
visit the banks of the Ganges. But, in a few years, brighter
prospects dawned on him. In 1769 he unexpectedly re¬
ceived the appointment of second in the council, and soon
afterwards left England for India. In the outward voyage,
Mrs Imhoff happened to be a passenger on board the same
ship with Mr Hastings. Married to a German, then on
his way to India in the capacity of portrait painter, this
lady, at once handsome and majestic in her person, ren¬
dered herself still more agreeable by her talents for con¬
versation, and, although she had for some time been both
a wife and a mother, contrived to captivate the affections
of Mr Hastings, who, in fact, became so much enamour-
160
HASTINGS.
Hastings, ed, that, disregarding the prior rights of the unfortunate
portrait painter, he resolved to transfer her matrimonial
allegiance to himself. He landed at Madras in 1770, and
remained there until the beginning of 1772, when, hav¬
ing been appointed president of the supreme council, he
once more proceeded to Bengal. The management of
the affairs of the first settlement belonging to the Com¬
pany necessarily engrossed a large share of his attention ;
but still the helpmate of the German artist was not lost
sight of; and, after a variety of delays incidental to a di¬
vorce, Mr Hastings was enabled, in 1777, to present Mrs
Imhoff to the world in the character of his wife, having
at the same time settled on her a lac of rupees, which,
by an accumulation of interest, 'and the sale of some
jewels, was afterwards increased to L.30,000.
As early as the year 1767, the House of Commons had
instituted an inquiry, having for its object to ascertain by
what right the Company held territorial possessions and
exercised sovereignty in India. At that period, the affairs
of the Company, both in Europe and in Asia, were in great
disorder, and exhibited an appearance of general distress.
This was attributed partly to the gross mismanagement
of its servants, and partly also to the departure from
the ancient and prudential maxims on which it had been
originally constituted. No longer a mere association of
merchants, traders, and factors,, it had recently become a
military power, and affected conquest, which was deemed
incompatible with commerce; the peaceful economy and
regularity of the counting-house had been exchanged for
the waste and disorders of the field ; the hands which had
been sent to India to employ the pen now wielded the
sword; and the Company’s servants, abandoning their pro¬
per vocation, which was to extend its commerce, now
sought only to enlarge its territorial dominions. But the
system on which its affairs were managed was not yet
adapted to the change which had taken place in its cha¬
racter and objects. The different presidencies, claiming
equal powers and co-ordinate authority, had not coalesced
for common purposes either of aggression or defence ; jea¬
lousies and disunion prevailed ; and, from the want of a cen¬
tral and supreme jurisdiction, the very existence of the Com¬
pany was brought into jeopardy. To remedy this evil, it
was resolved to create a paramount jurisdiction; and Mr
Hastings was accordingly invested with supreme authority
as Governor-General of Bengal. In the mean while, the
situation of England had become critical in the extreme.
1 he fatal attempt to coerce the American colonies had pro¬
duced an alliance between them and France; Spain and
Holland afterwards joined the confederacy against Britain ;
and along, sanguinary, and expensive war ensued, the flames
of which soon extended to the eastern hemisphere, and at
length involved the Company in a contest for existence.
At that period Hyder Ali Cawn Bahauder, an able and war¬
like prince, swayed the sceptre of Mysore, and only waited
for a favourable opportunity to expel the English from India.
Having collected a formidable army, and entered into al¬
liances, particularly with the Mahrattas, he invaded the
Carnatic, spreading terror and desolation wherever he ap¬
peared. The chief in command at Madras fled at his ap¬
proach; the British under Sir Hector Munro were defeat¬
ed ; a strong detachment under Colonel Baillie was, after
a gallant resistance, cut to pieces at Conjeveram ; dismay
pervaded the British settlements, and the triumph of Hvder
seemed approaching towards its consummation.
On this critical and trying occasion, the conduct of the
govreinoi-general was distinguished for that firmness and
energy by which alone great reverses are retrieved. Un¬
dismayed by the combination which had been formed
against him, he stretched forth a helping hand to the re¬
motest British settlements in Hindustan ; on some occa¬
sions he had recourse to open force, on others he employ¬
ed the most refined policy to disunite the confederates • tr
and he even scrupled not, when other means failed, to buy
off a dangerous enemy with money. Whilst the army of
Sir Eyre Coote carried all before it in the field, and re¬
vived the respect of the natives for British prowess, the
policy of the governor-general, effectively seconding the
impression made by the troops, succeeded in dispelling the
most formidable confederacy which had ever menaced the
overthrow of the British power in India. But, even in the
midst of his victorious career, murmurs began to be raised
against him both in England and in India. He was accused
of squandering the public money in improvident contracts •
he was charged with extorting supplies from allied and de¬
pendent states, by means of injustice and oppression ; and
the peace he had concluded with the Mahrattas, the most
formidable enemies of the British power, was declared to
be dishonourable. In answer to all this, the friends of the
governor-general pleaded the necessity of some of these
measures ; excused others on the ground that the end in
some degree justified the means ; ridiculed the idea that the
storm in India could have been weathered by a European
compass; and challenged the accusers to show how that
settlement could have been saved by a policy less unscru¬
pulous and less energetic than that which had been pur¬
sued by Mr Hastings. At first no charge of peculation
was preferred. The objections were general, not personal;
they applied to the policy of the governor-general, not to
the conduct of the man.
As early as 1776, however, it became evident that the
government at home was displeased with his measures,
and steps were accordingly taken at the India House to
order his recall; but a majority of the Court of Proprietors
having declared in his favour, he was allowed to remain.
Nothing further was done for some years, during which
the opposition slumbered. But, on the 28th of May 1782,
the House of Commons resolved that it was the duty of
the Court of Directors to remove Mr Hastings. The mo¬
tion embodying this resolution was made by Mr Dundas,
afterwards Lord Melville, on the arrival of a dispatch
containing an account of “ an act of the most flagrant vio¬
lence and oppression, and of the grossest breach of faith,
committed against Cheyt Sing, the rajah of Benares.”
An order for the recall of Mr Hastings was accordingly
issued by the Directors; but this also was afterwards re¬
scinded, in consequence of a second vote of the Court of
Proprietors in his favour. On these occasions, the talents
and capacity of Mr Hastings were acknowledged by all
parties; and it was also admitted that both the territories
and revenues of the Company had been greatly increased
under his administration. Mo one doubted or questioned
his ability, none denied the success which had crowned
almost all his schemes ; but, on the other hand, these were
often of such a kind as shocked all European notions of
justice and equity, and the means too frequently employ¬
ed appeared much more objectionable than the ends pro¬
posed to be attained. Hence, as the Court of Proprietors
refused to sanction his recall, a regular plan was formed
to bridle his power and circumscribe his authority, if these
should at any time be exerted for unworthy or improper
purposes. W ith this view, three gentlemen of acknowledg¬
ed ability, Mr, afterwards Sir Philip Francis, General
Clavering, and Colonel Monson, were selected, to whom
were assigned seats at the council-board with competent
salaries, and who were to form a sort of counterpoise to
the governor-general. On the arrival of these function¬
aries in India, they were received with the customary
respect; but, as might have been easily foreseen, many
disagreements soon afterwards arose. Mr Hastings’ policy
did not meet their approbation. On the contrary, many
of his projects seemed to them pregnant with danger;
and as they constituted a majority, they carried all ques-
HASTINGS.
161
,]tions by a plurality of votes. The governor-general, ac-
15" / nistomed to exercise absolute sway, could ill brook the
_ . 1 1 • fTM  1.. „ 4-1 4-., ,r-wl
restraint thus imposed on him. The newly-constituted
board of control, on the other hand, exasperated by his
haughty and despotic demeanour, carried their opposition
beyond due bounds, protesting against and sternly refus¬
ing their consort to measures of undoubted utility. The
breach became daily wider and wider between the parties,
and at last an open rupture was signalised by a duel be¬
tween the governor-general and Mr Francis.
Before this event occurred, however, these commission¬
ers and councillors, in consequence of express orders from
the Court of Directors, proceeded to inquire into all acts
of bribery, peculation, and oppression, committed, or al¬
leged to have been committed, by any of the Company’s
servants. This proceeding soon brought on a crisis, out
of which arose some of the most remarkable events in the
history of our Indian empire. Nundcomar, a native of
high consideration, perceiving the divisions which existed
in the supreme council, laid before that body certain
charges of corruption, implicating the governor-general,
and at the same time challenged, or rather defied, the latter
to deny them. Mr Hastings peremptorily refused either
to meet or refute the charges of Nundcomar; but con¬
tented himself with vilifying his accuser, and repeatedly
dissolved the council, by which means his colleagues were
prevented from proceeding with their inquiries. Some pro¬
gress was, however, made in the investigation. The evi¬
dence of Nundcomar, and that of his son Rajah Gourdass,
were obtained, from which it appeared that large sums of
money had been conveyed by them to the governor-gene¬
ral, in the name of Munry Begum. They mentioned all
the intermediate agents employed, the species of coin in
which the bribe consisted, the colour of the bags which con¬
tained the money, and the rate of exchange paid on the
occasion ; in corroboration of their statement they produced
a letter from Munry Begum herself, and they concluded by
requesting that Mr Hastings’ banyan, Cantoo Baboo, might
be examined respecting all these points. The governor-
general, however, declined to meet his accusers ; he refused
to allow Cantoo Baboo to be produced ; and to the specific
charges preferred by Nundcomar and Gourdass he merely
opposed the integrity of his character. Whilst matters were
in this state, an event occurred, which was not only extra¬
ordinary in itself, but seemed calculated to fix suspicion
upon the governor-general. Nundcomar was arrested on a
charge of forgery, and having been committed to the com¬
mon prison, was soon afterwards tried before Sir Elijah
Impey, the chief justice of Bengal, convicted, and execut¬
ed, in pursuance of a statute which did not apply to Scot¬
land, and which could only be extended to India on a
principle of construction expressly excluded in the inter¬
pretation of all penal enactments.
In the mean while, the sudden death of General Claver¬
ing, followed by that of Colonel Monson, having restored
the preponderance of Mr Hastings in the council, Mr
Francis, finding himself unsupported, embarked for Eu¬
rope, though not until he had fought a duel with the go¬
vernor-general. From that moment the latter conducted
the affairs of the government with absolute authority. By
his casting vote he nullified the propositions of Mr Wheler ;
and Mr Barwell, who afterwards acted as his colleague,
acceded to all his measures, and contributed to promote
their success. Nor can it be disputed that he conducted
the war against Hyder with extraordinary ability. The
want of money was supplied by the resources of a mind
fertile in invention, and not over-scrupulous as to means ;
the Company’s revenues wrere increased under his adminis¬
tration ; and, notwithstanding all that had been alleged
against him, his influence, both in England and India,
seemed to be unbounded. Nevertheless, on the 9th of
VOL. XI.
February 1787, Mr Hastings deemed it prudent to embark Hastings,
for Europe ; and although fully aware that he was return-
ing to pass through the fiery ordeal of impeachment, his
mind appears to have been unmoved by the prospect of
such a trial. He had powerful friends, he had performed
important services, and he trusted that the united influ¬
ence of both would bear him triumphantly through.
After a passage of four months and a few days, Mr
Hastings arrived in England, where he was eagerly expect¬
ed both by his friends and his enemies. It was not, how¬
ever, until the 17th of February 1786 that Mr Burke
moved for papers connected with the proceedings of Mr
Hastings in India ; and on the 4th of April the former pre¬
sented to the house separate articles charging the latter with
a number of high crimes and misdemeanours. In these
the ex-governor-general was charged with gross injustice,
cruelty, and treachery, in hiring British soldiers for the
purpose of extirpating the helpless people who inhabited
Rohillacund; with bereaving the Great Mogul of consi¬
derable territory, forcibly withholding the tribute of twenty-
six lacs of rupees, and holding in his name the duannee of
the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa; with extor¬
tion, followed by expulsion, in respect to the rajah of Be¬
nares; with inflicting intolerable hardships on the royal
family of Oude ; with having reduced the province of Fer-
ruckabad to a state of utter ruin ; with impoverishing and
depopulating the whole country of Oude, and rendering it
an uninhabited desert; with a wanton, unjust, and perni¬
cious exercise of his power, in overturning the ancient es¬
tablishments of India, and extending an undue influence,
by conniving at extravagant contracts and appointing in¬
ordinate salaries ; with receiving money against the orders
of the Company, the act of parliament, and his own en¬
gagements, and applying it to improper purposes ; with hay¬
ing resigned by proxy, for the purpose of retaining his si¬
tuation, and denying the deed in person ; with having con¬
ducted himself treacherously towards Muzuffer Jung, who
had been placed under his guardianship ; and with enormous
extravagance and bribery, in the view of enriching his fa¬
vourites and dependents. But these charges were afterwards
restricted to four, viz. those respecting the rajah of Be¬
nares, the begums of Oude, the presents, and the contracts.
On the 1st of May, Mr Hastings was called to the bar
of the House of Commons, and there read his defence,
w hich occupied two w hole days. He described the grounds
of crimination as ill founded and malicious; he com¬
plained that the various publications of the times con¬
tained the most unwarrantable observations on his con¬
duct, and that the press daily teemed with the most gross
libels on every part of his administration in India; and he
urged the extreme hardship of being obliged to reply to
charges containing nothing specific, and which might be
called historical narrations with voluminous commentaries.
In respect of his public conduct, he had ever acted accord¬
ing to the emergencies of the times ; and he had been fre¬
quently reduced to such extremities as to defy the sanction
of any precedent. No man had ever been in more peri¬
lous situations; and, amidst his disasters, he was entirely
left to the resources of his own mind. He had resigned
the government of India amidst the regret of his fellow-
subjects ; he had repeatedly received the thanks of his em¬
ployers, the Directors of the East India Company ; he had
had the satisfaction of discharging the trust reposed in him
with unanimous approbation ; and he believed that no other
pow er on earth had a shadow of right to call his conduct in
question. He then replied to the different charges in suc¬
cession, and entered into details and explanations which,
from their multiplicity, defy all power of abridgment or
concentration.
On the 1st of June, the House of Commons rejected
the first charge, deciding that the conduct of Mr Hastings,
162
HASTINGS.
Hastings, in the Rohilla war, was not impeachable ; but the second,
respecting the rajah of Benares, was carried by a great ma¬
jority, upon which it was resolved that Mr Burke should
carry up the impeachment, and that Mr Hastings should
be committed to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms. The
trial commenced on the 15th of February 1788, when Mr
Burke, in an eloquent exordium, recapitulated the history
of India since its connection with England. After re¬
marking that the arts of plunder had not been exhaust¬
ed under Lord Clive, he observed that the accused had
introduced into his defence a sort of geographical mo¬
rality, a set of principles suited only to a particular cli¬
mate, and had contended that what was peculation and ty¬
ranny in Europe lost both its essence and its name in India.
He then touched upon the alleged delinquencies of Mr
Hastings, commencing with the affair of Nundcomar. That
unfortunate person, soon after he had become the accuser
of Mr Hastings, was taken off by a prosecution for felony ;
yet he was not the only accuser, one of the most illustrious
princesses of Bengal having declared on oath that the ac¬
cused had received from her or her agents a bribe of LAO,000,
whilst another bribe had been obtained for a judgment re¬
lative to the descent of land. He next charged Mr Hast¬
ings with employing two notorious criminals, Congo Bur-
want Sing and Devi Burwant Sing, for corrupt purposes ;
then entered into a detail of the cruelty, injustice, and ex¬
tortion practised by these men against the natives; and
concluded with a most powerful appeal to the justice of the
house. On the sixth day Mr Burke opened the Benares
charge. He attributed the prisoner’s hatred of the rajah
of Benares to the circumstance of the latter having sent a
vakeel or ambassador to congratulate Sir John Clavering
on his supposed accession to the dignity of governor-gene¬
ral ; a proceeding which would appear natural and inoffen¬
sive to those who considered the humiliation to which the
princes of India were reduced, but which, in the mind of
ill Hastings, was sufficient to excite a rancour that could
only be appeased by the ruin of its object. He then stated
that a subsidiary treaty had existed between the Company
e7t ^ing’ who was recommended to keep up a body
of 2000 horse for their mutual security ; that on this treaty
the governor-general founded an arbitrary claim, and turn¬
ing the recommendation into a demand, required the 2000
horse to be found, not at the expense of the Company, as
had been agreed on, but at that of the rajah ; that Cheyt
8ing declared m answer that he had only 1300 horse, 500
e off!rTed t0 furnish> and to supply the deficiency
with 500 matchlock-men, all at his own expense ; that he
likewise attempted to conciliate the friendship and protec¬
tion of Mr Hastings by a present of L.20,000, which the
latter afterwards received for the use of the Company, al¬
though such a voluntary gift could not be expected from
a man worn out with extortion, and was obviouslv meant
as a bribe to rescue him from future oppression ; and that,
notwithstanding all these concessions, Mr Hastings de¬
clared his patience exhausted, took upon himself the cha¬
racter of judge, accuser, and witness, demanded of the ra¬
jah a fine of fifty lacs, or L.500,000, for his disobedience,
and proceeded in person to Benares to enforce the requi-
ZZI', ^ ai?erwar*E»l Grey, followed, and stated, in
terms truly affecting, the arrest and deposition of the un-
fortunate rajah. The arrangement of the evidence, which
was allotted to Mr Anstruther, occupied many days.
The second charge, respecting the begums or princesses
of Oude, was opened by Mr, afterwards Lord Chief Commis¬
sioner Adam. After representing Oude as a great and
flourishing country, Mr Adam observed that the begums
were ladies of the highest birth and quality > that they were
legally in possession of great estates, both real and per¬
sonal, which had been guaranteed by the East India Com¬
pany ; that it was therefore the bounden duty of Mr Hast"
ings to maintain them in the undisturbed possession of
their property so guaranteed; that, instead of doing so
he had invaded and compelled their own nearest relative’
the reigning nawab, to despoil them of this property; that
these ladies, besides being treated with the greatest indw.
mty, were reduced to the most deplorable distress; and tha°t
m order to give a colouring to his own proceedings, the ac¬
cused had, by means of affidavits taken by Sir Elijah Im-
pey, to the great discredit of justice, slandered the begums
as the abettors of Cheyt Sing. He then stated it to be the
intention of Mr Hastings to obtain a resumption of thejag-
hires or grants bestowed on these ladies; animadverted
on the odious and cruel means employed for this purpose
by his agent, Mr Middleton ; dwelt with great force on the
reluctance with which the personage so nearly related to
them1 had been obliged to violate every thing deemed sacred
on earth; and concluded with a harrowing picture of the
want, misery, and despair to which they were in conse¬
quence reduced. Mr Sheridan occupied three days and
pai t of the fourth in summing up this charge, a duty which
he performed with transcendent ability and unsurpassed
eloquence. He described the seizure of the treasures and
the jaghires as the effect of a dark conspiracy, in which no
more than six persons were concerned. Three of these
were of a higher order; Mr Hastings,who might be con-
sidered as the principal and leader; Mr Middleton, the
English resident at Lucknow; and Sir Elijah Impey, the
chief justice of Bengal: whilst the other three were in¬
ferior or subordinate conspirators ; Hyder Beg Khan, the
nominal minister, but in reality the creature of Mr Hastings;
Colonel Hannay; and Ali Ibrahim Khan. After passing
in review, and strongly animadverting on, the character
of each of these persons in succession, he recurred to that
of Mr Hastings, whom he represented as a man who af¬
fected to ensure to the allies of the Company prosperity
and protection. And how had this been accomplished by
him ? The former he secured by sending an army to plun-
der them of their wealth, and to desolate their soil. His
protection was fraught with a similar security; like that
of the vulture to the lamb, grappling in its vitals, thirsting
foi its blood, scaring off every petty7 kite that hovered
round, and then, with an insulting perversion of language,
calling this prosperity and protection? The parliamentary
accusers then proceeded to the sale of the jaghires, which
was not followed, as had been promised, by a pecuniary
compensation. The goods and jewels taken from these
adies were sold for a low price, at a mock auction, and
their ministers imprisoned to exact the deficiency. And
yet these were but petty frauds in comparison of the enor-
^ ^>r ■^astingsJ wbo, after extorting upwards of
.600,000, forbade Mr Middleton to come to a definitive
nous
1 S Stip E “X r of Oude.
this oppression were confessedly destitute of all power to resist thoir nnnr’ n extfnt °f their consequential ruin. The victims of
claimed some compassion with respect to the mode of sufferincr N!,!! a w • debillt^ which other bosoms would have
of the nabob was subdued, nature made a Werinf feebS sLd £ the of torture. Even when every feeling
hgnity with which his doom was fixed, returned vS’th doubleTcrimonv t5 ,-tsb0,S°m ? bUt T*1 then thatcold’ unfeeling spirit of ma-
destruction, of which he was himself reserved but to be the last victim^’ l)Urpose, and compelled him to inflict on a parent that
« )
HASTINGS.
s- settlement, and afterwards found a balance of twenty-six
j lacs (L.260,000) more against the begums. “ Talk not to
us ” said the governor-general, “ of their guilt or innocence,
but as it suits the Company’s credit. We will not try them by
the code of Justinian or the Institutes of Timur. We will
not judge them by the British laws, or by their local cus¬
toms. No, we will try them by the multiplication table;
we will find them guilty by the rule of three; and we will
condemn them according to the sapient and profound in¬
stitutes of Cocker’s arithmetic.”
On the 5th of May, Mr Burke opened the charge relative
to the acceptance of presents, and the corrupt appointment
of Munry Begum, who had been a dancing girl, to the head
of the government of Bengal. But on this occasion the Lords
reiected as inadmissible much of the evidence produced;
and towards the conclusion of the session, Mr Hastings
made an appeal at the bar of the house, in the course of
which he demanded if his whole life was to be consumed
in this impeachment. On the 16th of February 1791, Mr
Anstruther resumed the charge relative to the presents,
and accused Mr Hastings of having received a bribe of
L.40,000 from Goonga Govin Sing, the most infamous
man in all Hindustan. The article relative to corrupt and
illegal contracts was opened by Mr St John, who dwelt
particularly upon one respecting opium, entered into with
Mr Stephen Sullivan, son of the chairman of the East India
Company, by whom it was afterwards sold for an enormous
premium. He also charged Mr Hastings with engaging
the Company in a smuggling trade to China, with giving
away the bullock contract without advertisement, and
with assigning to Mr Auriol the agency for supplying the
presidency of Madras with provisions during a time of
scarcity, and agreeing that he should account, not by
vouchers, but “ upon honour.”
On the seventy-third day, and fifth year of the trial, Mr
Law, afterwards Lord Ellenborough, entered on the defence
of his client. He began by calling the attention of their
lordships to the critical situation in which the governor-ge¬
neral hadfound Bengal; detailed the principal events of his
administration from 1773 to 1780; affirmed that the Car¬
natic had been saved by the spirit and decision of Mr Hast¬
ings ; pronounced the attack on Goonga Govin Sing mere
invective; and declared his opinion that the demand of
• fifty lacs of subsidy from Rajah Cheyt Sing was legitimate.
He then entered into an examination of the articles
separately, and concluded with a high-wrought eulogium
on the character of Mr Hastings. Evidence was now pro¬
duced in behalf of the accused; some of the statements
of the managers were disproved; a different colour was
given to others; and all the witnesses examined testified
to the high character of Mr Hastings. In the debates
which ensued in the House of Lords, it was maintain¬
ed that many of the bribes were sums usually given for
entertainments; that other charges of a similar nature
were not established; and that the lesser accusations were
not such as to afford grounds for impeachment. But on
this occasion the two great law authorities of the house
differed widely from each other; Lord Thurlow contend¬
ing for the complete innocence of the accused, whilst Lord
Loughborough, now Chancellor, deemed his conduct in
many respects highly culpable.
At length, on the 2d of June, Mr Hastings entered upon
his defence before the House of Lords, and in presence
of the Commons of Great Britain, his accusers. After
lamenting the protracted duration of the proceedings, and
expressing the greatest confidence in an acquittal, he pro¬
duced numerous testimonials from the natives themselves,
in answer to the charge of having oppressed them; he
referred to the statement of the expenditure of Bengal in
war and peace, in reply to the charge of having squander¬
ed the public money; and he justified his disobedience
of the orders of the Directors, by the absolute, overruling]
necessity of the case. As to the Benares charge, he denied
that Cheyt Sing was an independent prince ; that person
was merely a zemindar, our subject, and consequently
liable to the demands of his superior in time of war.
With regard to the alleged usage of the begums, he con¬
fessed that he had consented to the resumption of the jag-
hires or grants, and of the treasure, because he conceived
them disaffected to our government, which in his opinion
put an end to the guarantee. As to presents, he main¬
tained that no proof existed of his having ever accepted
any but the common zeafut or entertainment-money given
to all former governors ; and he utterly denied having
received any bribe whatsoever from the unfortunate Nund-
comar. On the subject of the contracts, he disavowed
all knowledge of the transaction respecting opium, and
stated, that if he disobeyed the Company’s orders in regard
to a public sale, it was because he was desirous to place
at the head of this department a man incapable of fraud
and falsification. He then enumerated all the services
he had performed during the long period he was at the
head of the Indian government, and concluded as follows :
“lam arraigned in the name of the Commons of England,
for desolating the provinces of their dominion in India ;—
I dare to reply that they are the most flourishing of all
the states of India; and it was I who made them so. The
valour of others acquired, but it was I who enlarged, and
gave shape and consistency, to your dominions. I main¬
tained the wars which were of your formation, not mine ;
I dispelled a confederacy of the native powers; I neutra¬
lised their efforts, I divided their members. I gave you all,
and you have rewarded me with confiscation, disgrace,
and a life of impeachment.”
This trial, after having lasted during the unexampled
period of a hundred and forty-eight days, and been pro¬
tracted for nearly eight years, was at length brought to a
termination. Sixteen distinct questions were separately
put to the Lords, who, by a large majority of those present,
pronounced the accused not guilty; and he was accord¬
ingly declared by the chancellor to be “ acquitted of the
articles of impeachment exhibited against him.” With
the result of this celebrated impeachment all parties were
discontented. The managers objected to the decisions of
the Lords, as being unaccompanied with reasons, and to the
opinions of the judges, as arising out of cases not stated
in their presence; and it was even asserted in the House
of Commons that the general acquittal on all the charges
afforded only a proof of legal innocence. On the other
hand, Mr Hastings complained that, after a trial of one
hundred and forty-eight days, followed by a complete ac¬
quittal, his law expenses, amounting to L.71,080, had
not been paid; and that a sum voted by his constituents,
the East India Company, to “ indemnify him for the legal
expenses incurred by him in making his defence, had not
been granted. On the 2d of May 1796, the chairman,
Sir Stephen Lushington, informed a General Court of Pro¬
prietors that an annuity of L.4000 a year for twenty-
eight years and a half had been passed by the Court of
Directors, and confirmed by the Board of Control, in fa¬
vour of Mr Hastings, and that the law expenses should
also be cleared, although the precise mode had not yet
been settled. Of this pension he obtained about ten
years in advance; but as he lived thirty-three years there¬
after, he survived it for a considerable period. Whether
the expenses incurred by him in making his defence were
actually cleared by the Company, agreeably to the vote
just mentioned, we have had no means of ascertaining.
From the moment of his acquittal, Mr Hastings courted
obscurity, and spent the remainder of his life in retire¬
ment at Daylesford, where he occupied himself in adorn¬
ing his grounds and improving his estate. He lived long
16-1 HAS HAT
Hastings, enough to see many of his plans realised through the
agency of others; and at length having attained his
seventy-fifth year, he died on the 22d of August 1818.
The powerful talents, intrepid character, and unbounded
success, of Mr Hastings, have been acknowledged even by
his enemies; but still it is extremely difficult to pronounce
any decided opinion, either on his general conduct or the
principles of his government. He was no doubt placed
in a situation of extreme difficulty and peril, to which the
ordinary maxims of government cannot be rigorously ap¬
plied ; but, on the other hand, he urged the plea of ne¬
cessity a great deal too far, and, in his anxiety to attain a
particular end, evinced a blameable indifference as to the
character of the means employed. His conduct to Cheyt
Sing and the begums of Oude, the extermination of the
Rohillas, and his proceedings in regard to the contracts,
may probably be excused, but can never be justified, and,
notwithstanding all the ingenuity of his defence, will ever
be viewed with an unfavourable eye in Europe, whatever
opinion may be formed of them in India. In private life
Mr Hastings was amiable, conciliating, and unaffected. In
his early days he had cultivated poetry ; and all the terrors
of an impending impeachment could not prevent him from
indulging his inclination in this respect, during his second
voyage to Europe. At a later period, when writhing un¬
der the agony of a protracted prosecution, he produced
an epigram, the bitterness of which could only be excused
by the situation he was placed in; and Mr Burke, stung
by it at the moment, complained loudly to the House of
Lords, although no one will, on due consideration, think
that it had any just application to him. This epigram is
as follows:—
Oft have I wondered that on Irish ground
No poisonous reptiles ever yet were found :
Itevealed the secret stands of Nature’s work ;
She saved her venom to create a Burke.
Mr Hastings was the author of, 1. Narrative of the In¬
surrection at Benares, 1782, in 4to; 2. Memoirs relative
to the State of India, 1786, in 8vo; 3. A Treatise on
the means of guarding Houses, by their construction,
against Fires, 1816, in 8vo ; 4. Fugitive Poetry, consisting
of Imitations of Horace, &c. (a.)
Hastings, a market-town of the county of Sussex, sixty-
four miles from London. It is situated on the sea-shore,
in the hundred of Baldstow and the rape of Bramber. It
is said to have been originally built by a Danish pirate,
whose name it bears. It is the principal of the cinque
ports, and had formerly a harbour, but is now only a road¬
stead adapted for small vessels and fishing boats. It contains
three parishes, but only two churches, both very ancient
edifices. There is a custom-house and town-hall, but no
other public buildings deserving of notice, excepting an
old castle in ruins, which overlooks the town. There is an
extensive herring fishery carried on in the autumn, and in
all seasons the taking ot fish for present use gives occupa¬
tion to many of the inhabitants. There is also a vast deal
of contraband trade pursued, with more zest than gain to
those engaged in it. But the town owes its prosperity
chiefly to the number of casual visitors, who frequent it
on account ot the peculiar mildness of the air, and the ex¬
cellent accommodations for sea-bathing. These circum¬
stances have operated of late years to promote building
of a better description ; and as a cleft interposed on
the western side of the town, the rock has been scooped
out sufficiently to erect a new and handsome square. From
the same causes, a beautiful suburb called St Leonard’s
has been covered with many sumptuous houses, adapted
for the more wealthy class of visitors. Xhis place has
been rendered famous in history by the victory obtained
near it by William the Conqueror. It is a borough, go¬
verned by a mayor and jurats, and returns two members
to parliament. Under the new law the voters are about
580. There are good markets on Wednesday and Satur¬
day. The population amounted in 1801 to 2982, in 1811
to 3848, in 1821 to 6085, and in 1831 to 10,097.
HAT is a term of Saxon derivation, from /iaet, a cover
for the head. It is sometimes called castor, from its being
made of the fur of the castor or beaver. As a piece of dress,
the period of its introduction is not certain, although it may
with great probability be referred to the early distinctions
of Roman Catholic dignitaries. Froissart chronicles, that
it was “ saide to the cardynals, Sirs, advyse you if ye de-
lyvere us a Pope Romayne, we be content, or els we woll
maike your heddes reeder than your hattes be;” from
which, and many other documents, it appears that at this
period, as well as for some centuries thereafter, hats were
generally of a scarlet or red colour, and made of “ a fine
kinde of haire matted thegither.” A “ hatte of biever,”
about the middle of the twelfth century, was worn by
some one of the “ nobels of the lande, mett at Clarendom;”
and Froissart describes hats and plumes which were worn
at Edward’s Court in 1340, when the garter order was in-
stituted. In the Diary of Henry’s secretary, there is
“ ane scarlet beever hatte” presented on new year’s day
1443. Even at this early period hats were of various
shapes, both in the crowns and the brims ; the latter
being chiefly broad, sometimes narrowing towards the
back, and a little bent up and scooped in front. In Henry’s
privy purse expenses, during his congress with Francis I.
in 1520 or 1521, there is “ peid for a hatte and plume for
the king, in Boleyn, xvs.;” and in Wolsey’s inventory, taken
on his resigning the great seal to Sir Thomas Moore, there
are no fewer than five mentioned. The fashion of this ar¬
ticle was then much more diversely capricious than even
now, as will appear from an extract from Stubbs’ Anato¬
mic of Abuses, published about 1585 ; “ Sometimes they use
them sharpe on the crowne, pearking up like the spire or
shaft of a steeple, standing a quarter of a yard above the
crowne of theire heads ; some more, some lesse, as please
the fantasies of their inconstant mindes. Othersome be flat,
and broade on the crowne, like the battlements of a house.
Another sorte have rounde crownes, sometimes with one
kind of bande, sometimes with another ; now black, now
white, now russed, now redde, now grene, now yellow; now
this, now' that; never content with one colour or fashion
two daies to an end. And as the fashions be rare and
strange, so is the stuffe whereof their hattes be made divers
also ; for some are silk, some of velvet, some of taffetie,
some of sarsnet, some of wool, and, which is more curious,
some of a certaine kinde of fine haire, these they call bever
hattes, of xx. xxx. or xl. shillings price, fetched from be-
yonde the seas, from whence a great sorte of other vani¬
ties doe come besides; and so common a thing it is, that
every servyng man, countreiman, and other, even all in¬
differently, doe weare of these hattes.” About the begin¬
ning of 1700, the crowns of hats were mostly round, much
lower than before, and had very broad brims, resembling
what are now occasionally called Quakers’ hats, the pro¬
trusive encumbrance of which soon suggested the conve¬
nience ot their being turned up in front; fashion dictat¬
ed the upbending of another side or flap, and ultimately
a third, so that by this progress, in 1704, the regular three-
cocked hat became the order of the day, when feathers
ceased to be usually worn. Near the middle of the eigh¬
teenth century, a round-edged but flat-topped and full-
brimmed hat got into very general use, and the flat and
other cocked hats now dwindled almost into a mere dis¬
tinction of real or assumed rank. Twenty-five years after
this, a very near approach to that of the present times be¬
came fashionable, and, within ten years, altogether super¬
seded the ordinary use of the cumbrous and antique cock.
Flumes, jewels, silk loops, rosettes, badges, gold and
HAT-MAKING.
165
'silver bands and loops, have at various periods ornament-
K ed this article of dress ; metal bands and loops being now
J esteemed proper only to naval and military “ men of ho¬
nour ” and the humble liveried attendants on state, rank,
and official dignity. The opera or soft folding hat is the
only relic at present in general use, of the hats worn by
our grandfathers, although it is not improbable that the
affluent and growing extravagance of this century is likely
to re-introduce the elegant Spanish hat as the precursor
perhaps of the prevalence of various other styles, as well
as the cocked hat, not yet entirely discarded from the re¬
volving wheel of luxurious fashion.
Hat-making now embraces two distinct kinds of manu¬
facture, felted and covered hats; the covering of the lat¬
ter being sometimes silk, and at other times Braganza or
cotton Angola. ,. .
Felted hats comprehend two classes, differing chiefly in
the materials used in making, the process being nearly
identical. The lower class is marked by inferior ingre¬
dients, unmixed with beaver, and embraces wool, plated,
and short nap hats.
Wool hats are made entirely of coarse native wool and
hair stiffened with glue, chiefly for negroes’ wear. Value
Is. 2d. to 2s. 2d. Plates have a nap or pile rather finer
than their body, and are sometimes waterproof stiffened.
Value 3s. to 4s. 6d. Short naps are distinguished from
plates by additional kinds of wool, viz. hare’s back, seal,
neuter, musquash (Muscovy cat), and are all waterproof
stiffened. Value 5s. to 9s.
The second class may be said to comprehend two
orders, called stuff and beaver hats. The first includes
mottled and stuff bodies. The latter term is not used
generally, as all stuffs are understood to be of this sort
when mottled is not expressed. Mottled bodies are made
chiefly of fine Spanish wool, and inferior rabbit down or
coney wool. Value Is. 8d. to 2s. 6d. Stuff bodies con¬
sist of the best hare, Saxony, and red wools, mixed with
Cashmere hair and silk. Value 3s. to 4s. Stiff hats
are napped, that is, covered with pile of mixed seal, neu¬
ter, hare-back, inferior beaver, and musquash. Value
10s. to 15s. Beaver hats are, or ought to be, napped
with beaver only; the lower priced qualities with broivn
wooms taken from the back ; the more valuable kinds with
cheek and white wooms, being the finest parts of the fur
found on the belly and cheeks of the beaver. Value 16s.
to 22s.
The apparatus and terms used in making felted hats,
which it is necessary to describe briefly, are the bowr, bow-
pin, basket, hurdle, battery, and planks.
The bow is about six feet long, usually made of ash,
thick enough not to be elastic. The handle A, B, C, is
called the stang; A is named the breech; C, the end
farthest from the workman’s hold, the cock. D, the bow-
string, is a strong catgut cord tensely fastened.
each workman. The half of each plank next the kettle is
lead, the upper half is mahogany.
Hat-
making.
The boiv-pin is used (just as the finger on the guitar)
for vibrating the bowstring.
The hurdle is a fixed bench, with three enclosing sides,
to prevent the stuff being flittered off
in bowing.
The basket is of light wicker-work,
about twenty by twenty-two inches in
size.
The battery consists of A, the kettle ;
B, C, the planks, which are inclined planes,
usually eight in number, one only being appropriated to
•ntr'
The first process in hat-making is bowing the stuff or
furs, which are weighed out to a proportionate scale, and
laid on the hurdle, immediately under the bow, which is
suspended by a pulley. The bow is held firmly with the
left hand, rather toward the breech-end, not edgewise, but
on its side, with the string in contact with the stuff, the
clotted and adherent portions of which are separated into
single fibres, and attain a loose, flocky, mixed condition by
the continued vibration of the bowstring, caused by a very
rapid succession of touches with the bowstick. It is then
divided as nearly as possible, and one half laid aside, whilst
the other is again bowed. In this second operation, partly
by the bowung, but chiefly by the gathering, or patting use
of the basket, the stuff is loosely matted into a conical
figure, about fifty by thirty-six inches, called a bat. In
this formation care is taken to work about two thirds of the
wools down towards what is intended for the brim, which
being effected, greater density is induced by gentle pres¬
sure with the basket. It is then covered with a wettish
linen cloth, upon which is laid the hardening skin, a piece
of dry half-tanned horse hide. On this the workman presses
or bakes for seven or eight minutes, until the stuff shall
have adhered closely to the damp cloth, in which it is then
doubled up, freely pressed with the hand, and laid aside.
By this process, called basoning (from a metal plate or ba¬
son, used for like purposes in making wool hats), the bat
has become compactly felted and thinned toward the sides
and point. The other half of the flocked stuff is next sub¬
jected to precisely the same proceedings, after which, a
cone-shaped slip of stiff paper is laid on its surface, and the
sides of the bat folded over its edges to its form and size.
It is then laid paper-side downward upon the first bat, which
is now replaced on the hurdle, and its edges transversely
doubled over the introverted side-lays of the second bat, thus
giving equal thickness to the whole body. In this condition
it is re-introduced between folds of damp linen cloth, and
again hardened, so as to unite both halves, the knitting to¬
gether of which is quickly effected. The paper is now
withdrawn, and the body being folded into three plies, is
removed to the plank or battery room.
In the battery the liquor is scalding heat, composed of
pure soft Avater, about halt a gill of oil of vitriol as an as¬
tringent, and a full handful of oatmeal to correct its perni¬
cious tendencies. Herein the body is imbrued, and with¬
drawn to the plank to partly cool and drain, when it is un¬
folded, rolled gently with a pin tapering towards the ends
like a liquor horse, turned, and worked with in every direc¬
tion, to toughen, shrink, and at same time prevent adhesion of
its sides. Stopping or thickening the thin spots which now
appear on looking through the body, is carefully performed,
by additional stuff daubed on by successive supplies of the
hot liquor from a brush frequently dipped into the kettle,
until the body be shrunk sufficiently (about one half), and
thoroughly equalized. When quite dried, stiffening is per¬
formed with a brush dipped into a glutinous pulpy composi-
166
HAT-MAKINO.
Hat- tion, and rubbed into the body ; the surface intended for the
making. inside having much more imposed than the outer, while the
brim is made to absorb many times the quantity applied to
any other part. This viscous matter contains proofing, or
those ingredients which render the hat waterproof.
On being again dried, the body is ready to be covered,
and is once more taken to the battery. The first cover of
beaver or napping, which has been previously bowed, is
equally strewed on the body, and patted upon with the
brush charged with the hot liquor, until incorporated ; the
cut ends only, being the points which naturally intrude.
Here the body is put into a coarse hair-cloth dipped and
rolled in the hot liquor, until the beaver is quite worked in.
This is called rolling ojf, or ruffing. A stripe for the brim,
round the edge of the inside, is treated in like manner, and
is thus prepared for the second cover, which is applied and
inworked in like manner; the rolling, &c. being continued
until the whole has become incorporated, and a clean, regu¬
lar, close, and well-felted hood is the result. The dry hood,
after having the nap beat up and freed, is clipped to the
length which may be thought best, by means of common
shears. A clipping machine, invented nearly four years ago
in Scotland, is now very generally preferred, and doubtless
will soon everywhere supersede the ordinary process ; much
greater regularity, speed, and certainty being secured by it.
When the nap is thus disposed of, the hood is soaked in the
battery kettle, and then drawn down on a block to the size
and shape wanted, firmly tied at the bottom with a cord,
around which the brim is left in a frilled condition.
Dyeing is the next step. A suit, or six dozen, are put
into the dye kettle at a time, all on the crown-blocks al¬
ready mentioned, and allowed to remain three quarters of
an hour in the liquor, which is kept as near as possible one
degree below the boiling point. These being taken out and
set in the yard to cool, another suit is introduced for a like
period, and the various suits are so treated at least twelve
times in successive order. Each of the first four introgres-
sions of every suit is accompanied by about seven pounds
of copperas, and two pounds of verdigris. The body is then
washed and brushed out in changes of hot water, until no
colouring can be recognized in it. When thus thoroughly
cleansed, it is steamed on a block shaped as the hat is wish¬
ed to be when complete; and in the finishing shop, by
heavy (21-pound) heated irons and moisture, the frilled brim
is shrunk until rendered quite level, the nap gently rais¬
ed all over with a fine wire card, and brushed and ironed
smooth in the uniform directions. The tip, a thin lath
sheet, is then fitted and stuck to the inside of the crown,
and robbined or secured all round the edges by stripes of
prepared paper. When thus got down, it is sent to the
picker, who, with tweezers, extracts the hemps, vulgarly
called “ grey hairs,” which are a few of those thick fibres
peculiar to the fur of amphibious animals, that have escaped
the search of the machine used in blowing the beaver, so
as to separate them from its fine parts. This being care¬
fully accomplished, it is transferred to the finisher, who,
with a plush cushion or velure, a brush, and hot iron, im¬
parts to it that bright sleeky lustre so characteristic of
English and Scotch hats. The shaper then rounds the
brim with a knife and knotched segment to the breadth
wanted ; and shapes it in varied styles by means of a hot
iron and damp, with about a foot length of rope, over which
the curl is laid. The trimming is next done, when the
tipper ofi corrects the twists, smooths the ruffled nap caused
by trimming, and papers it up with tissue and cartridge,
which completes it for the retailer.
Dye-stuffs for a gross of beaver hats.—About 180 gallons
of pure soft water, one and a half hundredweight of best
Campeachy logwood, eight pounds oxide of copper, and
thirty pounds of copperas. It is to be observed, however,
that some put the chips, others only the juice, of the log-
w'ood into the dye-kettle. Galls are now disused. Stiffen,
ing stuffs.—Makers differ in the proportions, but the ingre¬
dients are shell-lac, rosin, mastic, saundrice, and elm, all
churned until dissolved. A quantity of this is then melt¬
ed over steam, sieved, put in hot, and well mixed. Clean,
ing stuffs.—These are now seldom considered necessary
One half pound of borax, diluted in five gallons of water
into which the stiffened nap is dipped and well brushed. '
Silk hats are made upon bodies of wool, stuff, willow
straw, and leghorn plait, and cambric and woollen cloth
although chiefly on felted wool bodies, which are dipped in
glue size, wrung out, blocked, and dried. The tip is then
fitted and robbined, when a flour-box charged with pow¬
dered shell-lac and rosin in like quantities is used to
strew equally its grainy mixture on the external surface
of the shell, so called from being the frame-work. This
is burned in by hot irons, first on the top, which passes
through to the lath-tip within; then on the upper brim
the sides, and, finally, the under brim. When this is
hardened, it is coated with thick ordinary flour-paste,
which is dried, and the shell again blocked and smooth¬
ed ; then once more glue-sized outside, dried, and varnish¬
ed, which prepares it for covering. The shag for the sides
is cut across the web, in a ratio of obliquity increased by
inferiority. This cross part is sewn to a circular piece for
the crown, whilst the brims are singly patched together.
These preparations being completed, the top-side or upper
brim is first stuck, then the crown, next the sides, and,
finally, the under brim. Sticking is effected simply by
the heat of the iron passing through the covering and melt¬
ing the varnished surface. In the finish of this manufac¬
ture, the most particular part is the side-seam, which is
disposed of thus : The selvidge end is cut perpendicularly
from top to brim, by a sharpened pallet-knife, the nap
having been previously brushed clear off its edge. The
other selvidge end is then stuck and cut with the utmost
nicety, in close parallel with the other. It is then finish¬
ed very much in the same manner as a beaver hat.
Tip stiff for silk hats.-r-Se\en pounds of glue melted
in water, when three pounds of pitch and half a pound of
tallow are added, and the whole is boiled to the consistency
of thick jelly. Varnish stuff.—A quarter of a cwt. of tur¬
pentine, mixed with two gallons of linseed oil.
The major part of stuff hats are finished in London,
whilst body-making and ruffing is managed chiefly in Glou¬
cester and Derbyshire. Plated and short-nap hats are
made principally in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Stafford¬
shire, owing to local advantages.
150,000 dozens of silk and covered hats are annually
made in London, and about 100,000 dozens in Manchester,
Liverpool, Birmingham, and Glasgow. Throughout Edin¬
burgh and the other parts of Scotland there may be an ad¬
ditional 50,000 dozens made yearly.
Value of plated hats manufactured annually, L.1,080,000
Stuff hats   640,000
Wool felt hats and military caps 160,000
Silk hats ...570,000
L.2,450,000
Imported hats are each subject to ten shillings and six¬
pence of duty. In 1832 there were exported 62,854 dozens.
In this branch of manufacture there are employed annually
nearly 25,000 men, besides about 10,000 females in the
trimming and picking departments.
Hats, Straw. Any attempt to ascertain when straw
was first used in the manufacture of hats would be use¬
less, because it would be impossible to fix a date with any
correctness. In Italy it had arrived at a great degree of
perfection two centuries ago ; but it is not above sixty or
seventy years since it began to be followed as a trade in
England. Wheat straw is the material chiefly used by our
II A T
rr manufacturers; and the counties most favourable for its
|iC production are Bedford, Hertford, and Buckingham, which
latcl ■ have been called the straw-plait district. The making of
Wf ' straw hats is carried on in other places, but not to the same
extent as there. Leghorn bonnets had long been a con¬
siderable article of import; but the late war having put a
stop to this, a new spirit was given to the home manufac¬
ture. It now became a flourishing trade, which produced
competition and a consequent improvement in the article.
At the close of the war, however, Leghorn hats again usurp¬
ed the market to a considerable extent, and the domestic
manufacture proportionally declined. Many of the straw
plaiters having been reduced to great distress, the Society
of Arts turned its attention to the subject, and offered
premiums for improvements in plaiting, finishing, and
bleaching. The straw of Tuscany having been found very
superior to British straw, the former became an article of
import; and the Italian method of plaiting the straw has
also been introduced. So completely successful has this
scheme been, that, whilst the importation of Leghorn hats
has gradually decreased during the last few years, the intro¬
duction of the raw material has gradually increased. Upon
this straw there is a duty of only one penny per hundred¬
weight, and it is chiefly plaited in our own straw' districts.
What is called the Tuscan plait, upon which a heavy duty
is levied, has likewise been largely imported, and made
into bonnets of equal fineness and beauty to the genuine
Leghorn hat.
There are seven descriptions of plait in general use, the
difference in the kinds arising from the number of straw's
used in the plait, and from their being either whole or split.
Other varieties are also manufactured, but chiefly for ex¬
portation. In Scotland, rye straw, dwarfed by being grown
on poor land, has been employed in plaiting straw in imi¬
tation of Leghorn, and with such complete success, that
the hats manufactured in Orkney, where the rye is raised,
are considered by the best judges as quite equal, both in
colour and quality, to those of Leghorn. The following de¬
scription of the preparation of the Italian straw is extract-
H A T 167
ed from M‘Culloch’$ Dictionary of Commerce. “ The de- Hatches
scription of straw used, which is cultivated solely for the li
purposes of the manufacture, and not for the grain, is the Hatch-
triticum turgidum, a variety of bearded wheat, which seems , n^ent,' ^
to differ in no respect from the spring wheat grown in the
vale of Evesham and other parts of England. ( Trans, of
Soc. Arts.) After undergoing a certain preparatory pro¬
cess, the upper parts of the stems (being first sorted as to
colour and thickness) are formed into a plait of generally
thirteen straws, which is afterwards knitted together at
the edges into a circular shape called a ‘ flat,’ or hat. The
fineness of the flats is determined by the number of rows
of plait which compose them, counting from the bottom
of the crown to the edge of the brim, and their relative
fineness ranges from about No. 20 to 60, being the rows
contained in the breadth of the brim, which is generally
eight inches. They are afterwards assorted into first, se¬
cond, and third qualities, which are determined by the co¬
lour and texture ; the most faultless being denominated the
first, whilst the most defective is described as the third
quality. These qualities are much influenced by the sea¬
son of the year in which the straw is plaited. Spring is the
most favourable, not only for plaiting, but for bleaching
and finishing. The dust and perspiration in summer, and the
benumbed fingers of the workwomen in winter, when they
are compelled to keep within their smoky huts, plaiting
the cold and wet straw, are equally injurious to the colour
of the hats, wdiich no bleaching can improve. The flats
are afterwards made up in cases of .ten or twenty dozen,
assorted in progressive numbers or qualities, and the price
of the middle or average number governs the whole. The
Brozzi make bears the highest repute, and the Signa is
considered secondary; which names are given to the flats,
from the districts where they are plaited. Florence is the
principal market, and the demand is chiefly from England,
France, Germany, and America; but the kinds mostly re¬
quired are the lower numbers; the very finest hats, and
particularly of late, being considered as too expensive by
the buyers.”
The following Statement shows the Imports into England of Italian Straw Hats, Straw Plait, and Unmanufactured
Straw, from 1828 to 1832.
Years.
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
Hats or Bonnets of Straw.
Imported.
No.
384,072
160,195
162,660
84,086
169,433
Exported.
Consumption.
No.
8,377
27,030
34,132
24,980
35,271
No.
274,906
234,254
168,525
93,947
60,830
Plaiting of Straw.
Unmanufactured Straw.
Nett Re¬
venue.
L.
77,784
66,393
47,760
26,644
17,280
Imported.
Exported.
Lbs.
5,502
6,282
6,183
23,354
19,109
Consumption.
Lbs.
283
487
756
2,102
1,605
Lbs.
5,100
3,340
7,884
16,450
17,911
Nett Re¬
venue.
L.
4,335
2,834
6,669
13,287
15,174
Imported.
Lbs.
4,199
6,050
18,586
22,344
48,054
Nett Re¬
venue.
L.
420
605
1,859
2,232
811
For further particulars relative to straw hats, see M‘CulIoch’s Dictionary, from which our information has been derived
HATCH, or Hatchway, a square or oblong opening in
the deck of a ship. Of these there are several, forming
passages from one deck to another, and into the hold or
lower apartments.
HATCHEL, or Hitchel, in the manufactory of flax
or hemp, a tool, not unlike a card, for dressing and comb¬
ing them into fine hairs. Hitchels consist of sharp-point¬
ed iron pins, or teeth, set orderly in a board. Of these
there are several sorts, some with finer and shorter teeth,
others with coarser and longer.
hatches, in mining, a term used in Cornwall to ex¬
press openings of the earth either into mines or in search
of them. The fruitless openings are called essay-hatches;
the real mouths of the veins, tin-hatches; and the places
where they wind up the buckets of ore, wind-hatches.
Hatches also denote flood-gates set in a river, to stop
the current of the water, and in particular certain dams or
mounds made of rubbish, clay, or earth, to prevent the
water issuing from the stream-works and tin-washes in
Cornwall from running into the fresh rivers.
HATCHET, a small light sort of axe, with a basil edge
on its left side, and a short handle, being used with one
hand. Hatchets are used by various artificers, and more
particularly in hewing wood.
HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs, whether
by the incubation and warmth of the parent bird, or by ar¬
tificial heat, so as to produce young chickens alive.
HATCHMENT, in Heraldry, the coat-of-arms of a per¬
son dead, usually placed on the front of a house, by which
the rank of the deceased may be known ; the w'hole being
168 HAT
Hatfield distinguished in such a manner as to enable the beholder
II to know whether he was a bachelor, a married man, or a wi¬
ll acte- dower• There are similar distinctions for women.
HATFIELD, a market-town of the county of Hertford,
in the hundred of Broadwater, twenty miles from London.
It stands on the side of a hill. The church is remarkably
neat; but the most remarkable object is the magnificent
seat of the Marquis of Salisbury, with the beautiful park in
which it stands. It was formerly the palace of the Bishop
of Ely, but has been much adorned and improved by the
noble family that now possesses it. There is a good market
on Thursday. The population amounted in 1801 to 2442,
in 1811 to 2677, in 1821 to 3215, and in 1831 to 3593.
Hatfield, a town of the west riding of the county of
York, in the wapentake of Strafforth and Tickhill, 167
miles from London. A large chase once belonged to this
town, a part of which was drained in the reign of Charles
I. An extensive enclosure in 1811 has tended to increase
and enrich the inhabitants. The population amounted in
1801 to 1301, in 1811 to 1487, in 1821 to 1948, and in
1831 to 2148.
Hatfield-Broad-Oak, a market-town of the county
of Essex, in the hundred of Harlow, twenty-six miles
from London. It receives the addition to its name from
the great number of spreading oaks around it, in what was
formerly a royal domain. The church is a fine old Gothic
structure. The town had a market on Thursday, which
has gradually decayed. The population amounted in 1801
to 1436, in 1811 to 1321, in 1821 to 1693, and in 1831 to
1825.;
HATHERLEIGH, a market-town of the county 'of
Devon, in the hundred of Black Torrington, 200 miles
from London. It stands on the small river Towridge, at
its junction with the Ock. It is an ancient borough, go¬
verned by a port-reeve, and had till within a few years some
manufactures of woollen goods, which have gradually de¬
cayed. It has a market, which is held on Friday. The
population amounted in 1801 to 1218, in 1811 to 1380, in
1821 to 1499, and in 1831 to 1606.
HATRAS, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Agra, the chief mart for the cotton produced in the pro¬
vince of Agra. It is thirty-three miles north-by-east from
the city of Agra. Long. 78. E. Lat. 27. 40. N.
HATTEMISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, the name of
a modern Dutch sect, so called from Pontian Van Hattem,
a minister in the province of Zealand towards the close
of the seventeenth century, who being addicted to the
sentiments of Spinoza, was on that account degraded from
his pastoral office. The Verschorists and Hattemists re¬
semble each other in their religious systems, though they
never so entirely agreed as to form one communion. The
founders of these sects deduced from the doctrine of abso¬
lute decrees a system of fatal and uncontrollable necessity ;
they denied the difference between moral good and evil,
and the corruption of human nature; and they concluded,
that mankind were under no sort of obligation to correct
their manners, improve their minds, or obey the divine
laws ; that the whole of religion consisted not in acting, but
in suffering; and that all the precepts of Jesus Christ are
reducible to this one, that we bear with cheerfulness and
patience the events which happen to us through the divine
will, and make it our constant and only study to maintain
a permanent tranquillity of mind. Thus far they agreed ;
but the Hattemists further affirmed, that Christ made no
expiation for the sins of men by his death, but had only
suggested, by his mediation, that there was nothing in us
that could offend the Deity. This, according to them, was
Christ’s manner of justifying Ids servants, and presenting
them blameless before the tribunal of God. It was one of
their principal tenets, that God does not punish men for
their sins, but by their sins. These two sects, says Mos-
H A U
heim, still subsist, though they no longer bear the names of q
their founders.
HATTIA Isle, an island in the province of Bengal, si- H;
tuated at the mouth of the Ganges, between the latitudes Iei
of 22 and 23 degrees north ; and supposed to have been ^
formed by the mud washed down that river and the Brah¬
maputra. It is estimated to be fourteen miles in length
by ten in breadth ; it is low in the surface, and great part of
it is covered by the spring tides. There is here a manu¬
factory of salt by the Company, which is of a very good
quality, and brings a high price at the Company’s sales.
In 1607 the island was taken possession of by the Portu¬
guese pirates, who retained it for several years ; but it was
recovered from them by the troops of the rajah of Arracan,
and was retained for fifty years, till it was taken in 1664
by the nabob Shaista Khan. The climate is very unhealthy;
and it is surrounded by sand-banks, and consequently dif¬
ficult of approach from the sea.
HATTOCK, a shock of corn containing twelve sheaves,
or, according to others, three sheaves laid together.
HAUL, an expression peculiar to seamen, signifying to
pull a single rope, without the assistance of blocks or
other such mechanical powers. When a rope is other¬
wise pulled, as by the application of tackles, or connec¬
tion with blocks, the term is changed into bowsing.
To Haul the Wind is to direct the ship’s course nearer
to that point of the compass from which the wind blows.
HAUM, Halm, or Hawn, amongst farmers, denotes the
stem or stalk of corn, peas, beans, or other grain, from the
root to the ear.
HAUNCH, or Hanch, the Hip, or that part of the
body between the ribs and the thigh.
HAURANCA Isle, one of the Amboyna Isles, in the
Eastern Seas, about twenty-five miles in circumference.
Long. 128. 40. E. Lat. 3. 40. S.
HAURIANT, in Heraldry, a term peculiar to fishes,
and signifying their standing upright, as if they were re¬
freshing themselves by sucking in the air.
HAUSRUCK, a circle in the Austrian province of the
Upper Ens, extending over 360 square miles, containing
two cities, eight market-towns, and 930 villages, will)
12,378 houses, and 76,466 inhabitants.
HAUTBOY, a wind musical instrument, shaped much
like the lute, only that it spreads and widens towards the
bottom, and is sounded through a reed. The treble is two
feet long, and the tenor goes a fifth lower when blown
open; it has only eight holes, but the bass, which is five
feet long, has eleven. The word is French, haul hois, or
high wood; and this name is given to this instrument be¬
cause the tone of it is higher than that of the violin.
HAUTE-FEUlLLE, John, an ingenious mechanic,
was born at Orleans in 1647. Though he embraced the
condition of ecclesiastic, and Enjoyed several benefices,
he applied almost his whole life to mechanics, in which he
appears to have made great progress. He had a particu¬
lar taste for clock-work, and made several discoveries in
horology, which were of singular use. He claimed the dis¬
covery of moderating the vibration of the balance in watch¬
es by means of a small steel-spring, which has since been
employed. He laid this discovery before the members of
the Academy of Sciences in 1674; and the watches con¬
structed on his principle are, by way of eminence, called
pendulum-watches, not because they have real pendulums,
but because they approach nearly to the justness of pen¬
dulums. Huygens perfected this happy invention; but
the Abbe Haute-Feuille having declared himself the in¬
ventor, and obtained from Louis XIV. a patent for mak¬
ing watches with spiral springs, opposed the registering
of this privilege, and published a pamphlet on the subject
against Huygens. He wrote a great number of other
pieces, most of which are small pamphlets, consisting of
H A U
L ul a few pages, but very curious, as, 1. His Perpetual Pen-
* I dulum, 4to; 2. New Inventions, 4to; 3. Ihe Art of
Ha • Breathing under Water, and the Means of Preserving a
^ J Flame shut up in a small Place; 4. Reflections on Ma¬
chines for raising Water; 5. Opinion respecting the dif¬
ferent Sentiments of Mallebranche and Regis, relating to
the Appearance of the Moon when seen in the Horizon ;
6 The Magnetic Balance; 7. A Placet to the King on the
Longitude; 8. Letter on the Secret of the Longitude;
9 A New System on the Flux and Reflux of the Sea;
10 The Means of making Sensible Experiments that
prove the Motion of the Earth; and many other pieces.
He died in 1724. „ .
HAUTPOUL, a town of the arrondissement of Castries,
in the department of the Tarn, in France. It stands on a
steep rock on the river Molle, and contains 676 houses,
with 3340 inhabitants, who manufacture cassimeres, flan¬
nels, and other thin woollen goods.
HAUY, Rene' Just, a celebrated mineralogist, was
born at St Just, a small country town of France, in the
department of the Oise, on the 28th of February 1743.
He had a younger brother, who became celebrated as
the inventor of a method of instructing the blind. Their
father was a small linen manufacturer, and his means
were so slender, that but for the generosity of others, it is
doubtful if his children would ever have learned any other
profession than his own. Early in life the subject of this
memoir evinced a singularly pious disposition ; and from
this circumstance arose the improvement of his fortune.
Whilst yet a mere child, he took remarkable pleasure in
religious ceremonies, especially in church music, a taste for
which was blended with his devotional feelings. His regu¬
lar attendance at church service attracted the attention of
a prior, who placed the youthful devotee under the care of
some monks, for the purpose of instructing him ; and under
their tuition he made so rapid progress, that his mother
was induced to take him to Paris to complete his studies.
Her means were scarcely sufficient to enable her to live
a few months in the capital; but she preferred submitting
to severe privations rather than relinquish the hopes which
she had cherished respecting her son. For some time,
young Haiiy held the humble situation of a singing boy in
a church, and by this means he gained a subsistence, li¬
mited indeed., but sufficient for him whose wants were so
few and whose ardour was so great, whilst he also gratified
his propensity for music. By the influence ot his protec¬
tors at St Just, he at length procured a bursary in the
college of Navarre, where he was enabled to prosecute
his studies without interruption. His application and good
conduct procured him the esteem of his superiors; and
when the period of his probation as a scholar had termi¬
nated, he became a teacher in the establishment. He took
his degrees, and commenced teaching at twenty-one years
of age. Some time afterwards he was appointed pre¬
ceptor to a higher class, and to this humble but honour¬
able office his ambition seems to have been limited. His
leisure hours were occupied in the study of botany;
but by a fortunate accident his attention was withdrawn
from plants to examine the structure of minerals. His
mind had for some time been filled with ideas relative to
the contrast presented by the vegetable and mineral king¬
doms, inasmuch as in the complicated forms of flowers,
fruits, and other organised bodies, a never-failing unity of
form pertained to each individual plant or herb, whilst
the same stone or salt, without its composition being
changed in the slightest degree, exhibited itself in cubes,
prisms, and other shapes. Occupied with these reflections,
he accidentally dropt from his hand a beautiful specimen
of calcareous spar, crystallized in prisms, one of which was
broken in such a manner as to present a new crystal, dif¬
fering in form from the prism, but having the surfaces
VOL. XI.
H A U
not less smooth. On examination, the inclinations and
angles were found to be similar to the rhomboid crystals
of Iceland spar. He further examined pieces of spar
crystallized in other forms, and he still found the same
rhomboid which had first struck him, the fragments
which fell from it being also small rhomboids. The im¬
portance of the discovery at once flashed upon his mind,
and, like Archimedes starting from the bath, he exclaim¬
ed, “ All is found.” The important conclusion at which
he arrived was simply this, that the molecules,, or, as it
were, component parts, of calcareous spar, have invariably
the same geometrical figure; the variety of external forms
which the masses assume arising from the manner in
which the smaller crystals composing it are arranged. By
examining a number of substances, Haiiy completely es¬
tablished the fact that this was a law of nature which ob¬
tained universally. Each mineral was found to have
identical constituent molecules, a nucleus always similar
to itself, and laminae, or accessory layers, producing all
the varieties of external form.
Another condition, however, was to be fulfilled before
the theory could be admitted as certain. If the nucleus
and constituent molecule have each a certain i'nvariable
form, geometrically determinable in its angles, and in the
relations of its lines, each law of decrement ought also
to produce determinable secondary faces ; and likewise,
when the nucleus and the molecules are once given, the
angles and lines of all the secondary faces which the de¬
crements would produce, should be susceptible of calcu¬
lation beforehand. Before Haiiy could accomplish this,
however, he required to study geometry, which he had
almost forgotten. This he quickly learned, and having
invented a method of measuring and describing the forms
of crystals, he established beyond all doubt the true law
of crystallization. This subject is treated of at length in
the article Crystallization.
Haiiy first made known his discoveries to his master
M. Daubenton, by whom they were communicated to the
celebrated Laplace. The young philosopher received the
most flattering invitations to join the academy, but his
modesty for some time kept him back. His scruples, how¬
ever, having been at length overcome, he, on the 10th of
January 1781, read his first memoir, in which he treated
of the garnets and of calcareous spars. The members ot
the academy showed great eagerness to acquire him ; and,
on the 12th of February 1783, he was elected to the situ¬
ation of adjunct in the botanical class, in preference to
several learned botanists, who were candidates for the
honour. His new colleagues bore flattering testimony to
his merits, by requesting him to give oral explanations
and demonstrations of his theory ; and he also read a
course of lectures on the subject, at which were present
the most distinguished French philosophers of the day.
The modes of calculation which he had invented, and the
formulae he employed, representing all the possible com¬
binations of crystallography, will be found in the volumes
of the academy for 1788 and 1789.
Objections were started to the theory of M. Haiiy ; but
the only reply which he made to them consisted in more
extended researches, and a more ample induction of facts.
He also applied his principle in a new and remarkable
manner to the discovery of the composition of minerals.
If, reasoned he, each substance has a characteristic nu¬
cleus and constituent molecule, then the component parts
of minerals, whose composition is unknown, may be dis¬
covered by the form of their crystals; and thus a new
and powerful instrument of analysis may be employed in
mineralogical and chemical investigations. His practi¬
cal researches established the correctness of the conclu¬
sions at which he had arrived. At this time the most dis¬
tinguished mineralogists confounded under the name of
169
Haiiy.
170
H A U
H A U
Hatiy. schorl a number of minerals, which, although possessing
some characteristics in common, did not hear so remark¬
able a resemblance to one another as to warrant their be¬
ing classified together as belonging to the same species.
M. Haiiy, therefore, suspecting that distinctive differences
existed amongst them, commenced a series of experiments
conducted on his own principle. He mechanically divided
the substance called white schorl, and found in it the nu¬
cleus and molecule of felspar. By chemical analysis, it
was found to be actually one of the felspars. Encouraged
by his success, he continued his researches, and discover¬
ed amongst the schorls no less than fourteen species.
From this moment M. Haiiy ceased to be a mere experi¬
menter in physics, and stood prominently forward as the
great legislator of mineralogy. A new era in the science
dates from the period of these researches; and, by the study
of the crystalline structure of minerals, each year has pro¬
duced some unexpected discovery.
It is, or at least was, a regulation in the university with
which M. Haiiy was connected, that when a professor had
served twenty years, he was entitled to a retiring pension.
With this, joined to the produce of a small benefice, al¬
though barely sufficient for his wants, he resolved to re¬
tire from public duty, and devote himself wholly to philo¬
sophical pursuits. His designs, however, were frustrated
by the breaking out of the Revolution. After the over¬
throw of the monarchy, one of the first measures taken by
the democratical party was the imprisonment of the priests;
and M. Haiiy, being naturally identified with them on ac¬
count of his scrupulous piety, became a participator in
their sufferings. Fie was surprised in his humble retreat
by a body of armed men, who rudely demanded if he had
any fire-arms.' None but these, said he, drawing a spark
from his electrical machine. This for a moment disarmed
the intruders, but only for a moment. Fortunately, how¬
ever, he did not share the fate of Archimedes. They
spared his life, but he was ultimately thrown into prison.
His confinement, however, was of short duration. The
members of the academy, and other influential individu¬
als, so interested themselves in his behalf, that they pro¬
cured his deliverance just the day before the massacres of
September. From this period he was no more disturbed,
although, as a priest, he continued to perform his sacer¬
dotal functions daily, and had even the courage to write
in behalf of some individuals, amongst whom was the cele¬
brated Lavoisier, who had been arrested by order of the
Convention.
At the cabinet of the Conseil des Mines, and by the aid
of that administration, M. Haiiy prepared for the press his
celebrated work on mineralogy, which appeared in 1801, in
four vols. 8vo, with a quarto volume of plates. “ This book,”
says Cuvier, “ possesses in the highest degree two advan¬
tages which are very rarely found combined; the first of
which is, that it is founded upon an original discovery, en¬
tirely resulting from the genius of the author ; the second,
that this discovery is followed out in it, and applied with
incredible perseverance even to the varieties of minerals.
Every thing is grand in the plan, precise and rigorous in
the details ; it is completed like the doctrine itself of which
it contains the exposition.”
In his determinations of mineral species, M. Haiiy gave
the chief rank to crystallization, although of course it was
never intended by the author that chemical analysis should
be neglected. He only maintained that it w'as inadequate
to the determination of their species, “ because,” observes
Cuvier, “ it has no sure means of distinguishing the acci¬
dental from the essential substances; because it is not in
a condition, with respect to certain classes of stones, to af¬
firm that it knows their elements; and because it every day
discovers elements which were previously concealed from
it.” By his indefatigable industry, M. Haiiy determined
the nucleus and molecules, with the measure of their angles, Hi
and the proportion of their sides, of almost every crystal- ^ ,
lized mineral at present known. In a word, he may be said
to have placed mineralogy amongst the precise and metho¬
dical sciences, and to have done for it what Newton did
for astronomy. On the demise of the professor of mine¬
ralogy to the Museum of Natural History, Dolomieu was
promoted to the chair in preference to M. Haiiy. But im¬
prisonment, and afterwards a premature death, prevented
that individual from occupying the chair; and on the 9th
of December 1802, Haiiy was appointed to the vacant pro¬
fessorship. A new life was now infused into the mineralogi-
cal department. Large additions wrere made to the collec¬
tions, and every thing was arranged in the most perfect
order, according to his own principles of classification. To
the students he showed the utmost condescension and kind¬
ness, conversing familiarly with them, and even taking them
to his own house, and opening up his private collections
to their inspection. When the university was founded,
Haiiy’s name was placed on the list of one of its faculties.
Lectures were not expected from him ; but, unwilling to
bear a title without fulfilling its duties, he made the pupils
of the normal school come to him ; and, in conversation, he
communicated to them his discoveries. By order of the
government, he drew up a treatise on physics for the col¬
leges. He had previously established a claim to be employ¬
ed in the execution of such a work, by the ingenious man¬
ner in which he had applied physics to mineralogy, by the
publication of several interesting memoirs on the electri¬
city and double refraction of minerals, by his elegant ex¬
position of vEpinus’s theory respecting electricity and mag¬
netism, and by the success which had attended a course
of physics delivered by him at the normal school instituted
in 1795 by the Convention, and which lasted only a few
months. He was averse, however, to abandon his favourite
mineralogical researches; and it was only after much hesi¬
tation that he consented to undertake the task. The trea¬
tise added little to his scientific reputation, but it did no
injury to his literary fame. The same clearness and purity
of style for which his Mineralogy was distinguished cha¬
racterise this little work. It is calculated to inspire into
the young a taste for the natural sciences, and it has passed
through several editions.
M. Flaiiy was repeatedly urged to communicate to go¬
vernment what he wished to be done for him ; and when
he consented to petition, his humble request was, that things
might be arranged so as to bring his family near him, in
order that he might enjoy their society, as the solace of his
old age and infirmities. Napoleon instantly complied w ith
his wishes, by conferring a place upon the husband of his
niece. The emperor likewise granted him a pension, and,
on his return from Elba, decorated the crystallographer
with the cross of the legion of honour. This was alike
honourable to both parties, for Haiiy had opposed the as¬
sumption of the imperial dignity by Napoleon. When the
subsequent changes in the French government took place,
the husband of M. Haiiy’s niece lost his situation ; and he
himself, when no longer capable of active exertion, was
deprived of his well-merited pension. To add to his per¬
plexities, his brother, who had gone to Russia for the pur¬
pose of gaining information relative to the instruction of
the blind, returned without attaining his object, and with a
constitution so completely broken, that he became a charge
to his family. Thus, in his old age, M. Flaiiy was reduced
to the extreme indigence which had been his lot during
the early part of his career. A compensation, however,
was afforded him in the kind attentions of his friends, and
in the applause of Europe; whilst the enlightened of all
ranks who visited Paris paid their respects to him. But
these flatteries never corrupted the simplicity of his man¬
ners, and his benevolence continued conspicuous to the
H A V
h. close of his life. Notwithstanding his feebleness, he at-
L'" tained the age of seventy-nine, having died on the 3d of
June 1823. _ .
The intellectual powers of M. Haiiy are sufficiently at¬
tested by his works. In his moral character he was sincere¬
ly pious, and eminently benevolent. He seems to have re¬
garded wealth only as the means of gratifying those senti¬
ments of benevolence with which he was penetrated ; and
although the most beautiful gems of Europe passed under
his review, they were by him considered valuable only as
crystals which illustrated his theory. The works of M.
Haiiy are as follow :—1. Essai d’une Theorie sur la Struc¬
ture des Cristaux, 1784, in 8vo; 2. Exposition raisonnee
de la Theorie de 1’Electricite et du Magnetisme, d’apres
les Principes d’iEpinus, 1787, in 8vo; 3. De la Structure
consideree comme Caractere Distinctif des Mineraux,
1793, in 8vo; 4. Exposition abregee de la Theorie de la
Structure des Cristaux, 1793, in 8vo ; 5. Extrait d’un Traite
Elementaire de Mineralogie, 1797, in 8vo; 6. Traite de
Mineralogie, 1802, 4 vols. in 8vo, et planches in 4to; 7.
Traite Elementaire de Physique, 1803, in 12mo, deuxieme
edition, in 1806, 2 vols. 8vo ; 8. Tableau Comparatif des
Resultats de la Cristallographie, et de f Analyse Chimique
relativement a la Classification des Mineraux; 9. Traite
des Pierres Precieuses, 1817, in 8vo; 10. Traite de Cristal¬
lographie, 1822, 2 vols. with engravings. M. Haiiy also
contributed papers to various scientific journals, particu¬
larly the Journal d’Histoire Naturelle, Annales de Chimie,
the Journal de Physique, the Magasin Encyclopedique, the
Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, and the Journal
des Mines. He also communicated several memoirs to va¬
rious other scientific journals. (a. R. R.)
HAVANNAH, or Havana, the capital of the island of
Cuba, in the West Indies. It is situated on the north
coast, and is one of the most flourishing cities of the New
World, carrying on about two thirds of the commerce of
the island, which is extensive. It possesses a noble har¬
bour, which, though narrow at the entrance, is without any
bar or other obstruction, and within it expands into a ca¬
pacious bay, capable of accommodating a thousand vessels
of the largest size. The water is of sufficient depth to ad¬
mit of their coming close up to the quay. Havannah has
strong fortifications; the castles of Moro and Punto being
remarkably so. The former is situated on the east, and
the latter on the west side of the harbour, of which they
completely command the entrance. The citadel is also
a place of great strength ; and the neighbouring heights
are fortified so as to protect the city or port. Havannah
stretches along the entrance to, and on the west side of the
bay; and on the opposite side is the suburb called Regia.
The city presents a splendid appearance from the sea, its
numerous spires being intermingled with lofty and luxuriant
trees. The churches are handsome, and richly ornament¬
ed ; and several of the private mansions are built on a mag¬
nificent scale. The streets, however, are narrow, inconve¬
nient, and not kept in good repair; but those of the sub¬
urbs, now as extensive as the city, are wider and better
laid out. The arsenal and dock-yard, which are on a large
scale, lie towards the western angle of the bay, to the south
of the city. From its position, which commands both inlets
to the Gulf of Mexico, its great strength, and excellent har¬
bour, Havannah is, in a political point of view, by far the
most important maritime station in the West Indies. Of
late years the commerce of Havannah has rapidly extend¬
ed, which has been ascribed to the freedom it now enjoys,
as well as to the great increase of wealth and population in
the city. The principal exports are, sugar, coffee, tobacco,
and molasses; the imports consist of all those articles which
an opulent community, in a tropical climate, and without
manufactures, requires. In 1828, the trade of Havannah
amounted to 15,807,395 dollars of imports, and 9,202,485
H A V 171
dollars of exports. During the same year, the exportation Havant
of sugar alone amounted to 107,434,400 pounds, and in N
1832 it had risen to 111,978,800 pounds. In 1831 there *
entered the port of Havannah 990 ships of 157,146 tons
burden, and there cleared out of it 1002 ships of 150,679
tons burden. The population, exclusive of troops and
strangers, which may amount to 25,000, has been estimat¬
ed at about 115,000. Havannah possesses several patrio¬
tic and literary societies, and there are seven journals pub¬
lished, one of which is in English. The Moro Castle, ac¬
cording to Humboldt, is situated in latitude 23. 8. 15. N.
longitude 82. 22. 45. W. For further particulars regard¬
ing this city, see the article Cuba.
HAVANT, a market-town of Hampshire, in the hun¬
dred of Bosmere and division of Portsdown, sixty-six
miles from London, on the borders of Sussex, and oppo¬
site to the Isle of Hayling. Its church is a venerable re¬
main of architecture. There is a good market for all kinds
of grain on Saturday. The population amounted in 1801
to 1670, in 1811 to 1824, in 1821 to 2099, and in 1831
to 2083.
HAVELBERG, a town of Prussia, in the province of
Brandenburg. It stands at the junction of the river Ha¬
vel with the Elbe. It was once a city, and is now a place
of much traffic by both the rivers, and as a kind of entre¬
pot for Berlin and Hamburg. It contains 2140 inhabi¬
tants.
HAVERCAMP, Sigibert, one of the most celebrated
philologists of the eighteenth century, was born at Utrecht
in 1683. In the prosecution of his studies he greatly dis¬
tinguished himself, and, by the time he left the univer¬
sity, deserved to be classed amongst the learned men who
then illustrated Holland. He was soon afterwards appoint¬
ed professor of Greek in the academy of Leyden; and
when this chair was joined to those of eloquence and his¬
tory, he filled all the three with distinction. He was ex¬
cessively laborious; and the duties ot his situation did not
prevent him from applying himseli to the preparation ot
important works, which succeeded one another with incon¬
ceivable rapidity. Having availed himself of a short inter¬
val of leisure to visit Italy, Havercamp, during his sojourn
in that beautiful country, acquired a taste for medals, of
which he afterwards formed a valuable cabinet. But the
labours of this accomplished and indefatigable scholar
were terminated by death on the 28th April 1742, at the
age of fifty-eight, when much might still have been ex¬
pected from his pen. Havercamp published, 1. Editions
of the Apologetica of Tertulian, 1718, in 8vo; of Lucre¬
tius, 1725, in two vols. 4to; of the History of Josephus,
1726, in two vols. folio; of Eutropius, 1729, in 8vo; of
Orosius, 1738, in 4to ; of Sallust, 1742, in two vols. 4to;
and, lastly, of Censorious, 1743, in 8vo. 2. Dissertationes
de Alexandri Magni numismate quo quatuor summa orbis
terrarum imperia continentur, ut de nummis contorniatis,
Leyden, 1722, in 4to. 3. Thesaurus Morellianus, Amster¬
dam, in two vols. folio. 4. Universal History explained
by Medals, in Dutch, Leyden, 1736, in five vols. folio, in¬
complete. 5. Sylloge Scriptorum qui de Lingum Graecaa
vera et recta pronunciatione Commentaria reliquerunt,
Leyden, 1736-1740, in two vols. 8vo. 6. Introductio in
historiam patriae a primis Hollandiae comitibus usque ad
pacem, Ultraject. et Radstad (1714), Leyden, 1/39, in
8vo. 7. Introductio in Antiquitates Romanas, ibid. 1740,
in 8vo. 8. Museum Wildianum in duas partes divisum,
Amsterdam, 1740, in 8vo. 9. Museum Yilebrochianum,
ibid. 1741, in 8vo. 10. Bronze Medals, large and small,
in the Cabinet of Queen Christina, Hague, 1742, in folio.
All that Havercamp left on the subject of Numismatics is
now held in little estimation ; the.precipitation with which
he piled volume on volume leaving him no time to bestow
the requisite pains, or to employ the necessary criticism.
172
HAW
Haver- Lastly, he published, in conjunction with Preyger, the
fordwest Sententia of Seneca and Syrus, with a commentary of
Haw Gruter which had remained inedited, and might, without
any loss, have been left so; and he translated into Dutch
verse Sabinus, a tragedy of Richer. (a.)
HAVERFORDWEST, a town of the county of Pem¬
broke, in South Wales, 264 miles from London. It is the
capital of the county, where the assizes and elections are
held. It is situated on the side of a hill overlooking the
navigable river Dungleddy, on whose bank is a good wharf.
In the upper part of the town the English language is
spoken, and in the lower portion Welsh. Each of these
divisions has its market; that in the upper town is held
on Tuesday, frequented by English peasants; that of the
lower town, on Saturday, is attended by the Welsh far¬
mers. The English spoken here is said to be remarkably
pure. Haverfordwest is a town and county of itself, go¬
verned by a mayor and common-councilmen ; and the
mayor is admiral, coroner, and escheator. It contains
three parish churches, and several places of worship for
dissenters. There are no considerable manufactures car¬
ried on, but a few cotton goods are made. The houses in
the upper town are generally well built, but those in the
lower are otherwise. The population amounted in 1801
to 2880, in 1811 to 3093, in 1821 to 4055, and in 1831 to
3915. The town returns one member to the House of
Commons, who is chosen by about 540 voters.
HAVERHILL, a market-town of the county of Suffolk,
in the hundred of Resbridge, fifty-eight miles from Lon¬
don, situated on the borders of Essex. It was formerly a
place of greater extent than it is at present, and had ma¬
nufactures of checks and fustians, which have dwindled
away. It has a market on Wednesday, which, however, is
but thinly attended. The population amounted in 1801
to 1104, in 1811 to 1216, in 1821 to 1421, and in 1831 to
1758.
HAVRE, in Geography, a French term of the same sig¬
nification with haven or harbour.
HAVRE-DE-GRACE, a city of the north of France,
in the department of the Lower Seine, and the capital of
an arrondissement of its own name. It is strongly fortified
on both the land and sea sides, and has a citadel. It
stands on the right bank of the river Seine, which is of
the breadth of more than three miles. There is a naval
arsenal, where frigates and corvettes are built, and a ma¬
rine school. By the river on which it stands communicat¬
ing with the capital of the kingdom, it is the depot of
much foreign merchandise to supply Paris; and there
are abundant stores for all kinds of goods, especially sugar,
coffee, cotton, and other tropical commodities, as well as
for the naval stores produced in the north of Europe.
There are manufactures of sugar, soap, tobacco, pottery,
beer, and twine; and many of the inhabitants subsist by
the sea fisheries. The port is generally crowded with
vessels from the French colonies, and from the United
States of America; but from all other countries many re¬
pair to it, though it is by no means very secure as a har¬
bour. Ihe town is well built, with streets at right angles
crossing each other, and has vastly improved since the re¬
turn of peace. It contains 1640 houses, and 22,100 inha¬
bitants. Long. 0. 6. E. Lat. 49. 29. 14. N.
HAV, a sort of berry, the fruit of several species of
mespilus, thence denominated hawthorns.
Haw, amongst farriers, an excrescence resembling a
gristle, growing under the nether eyelid and eye of a
horse, which, if not timely removed, destroys it.
Haw, a small parcel of land, so called in Kent, as a
Hemphaw, or Beanhaw, lying near the house, and en¬
closed for these uses. But Sir Edward Coke, in an an¬
cient plea concerning Feversham in Kent, says hawes are
houses.
HAW
HAWARDEN, or Harden, a market-town of the Ha
county of Flint and the hundred of Mold, in North ^
Wales, 197 miles from London and seven from Chester. H ^
It has considerable manufactures of earthenware, made ^ *
from a peculiarly-adapted clay, which abounds in the
neighbourhood. This business, and that of an iron foun-
dery, give the chief employment to the inhabitants. In its
vicinity are many antiquities both of the Saxon and of ear¬
lier periods. There is a good market, which is held on Sa¬
turday. The population amounted in 1801 to 4071, in 1811
to 4436, in 1821 to 5159, and in 1831 to 5414.
HAWGH, or Howgh, signifies a green plot in a valley,
such as is seen in the north of England.
HAWICK, a town of Scotland, in the county of Rox¬
burgh, fifty-two miles from Edinburgh, on the Carlisle
road, partly in the parish of Wilton, but chiefly in the
parish of Hawick, is conveniently situated on the south
bank of the Teviot, and transversely divided into two
nearly equal portions by the confluent stream of Slitte-
rick. The antiquity of the place appears from a singular
conical mount called the Mote, supposed to be the spot
where courts of justice were formerly held. In the bor¬
der wars Hawick makes a considerable figure under its
munificent patrons, the barons of Drumlanrig, from whom
its charter, dated 1537, is derived; and in 1545, for its
hospitality towards the unfortunate Mary, it received from
her a royal confirmation of all its corporate rights. The
town is governed by its own magistrates, independently of
the superior, and has all the privileges of a royal burgh,
parliamentary representation excepted. Two bailies, cho¬
sen annually by the burgesses, are assisted by a council,
consisting of two representatives from each of the seven
incorporated but now chiefly decayed trades, and fifteen
burgesses, adopted into their number, as councillors for
life. I he municipal possessions, though mutilated by the
ungenerous and rashly admitted claims of neighbouring
proprietors, still yield a clear revenue of L.400 per an¬
num. Ihe town has greatly improved within these thirty
years. Ihe thatched roofs which disfigured it are disap¬
pearing, and more attention is paid to elegance in modern
structures. Ihe whole is well paved, and, with the shops,
manufactories, and many of the private houses, illuminated
with gas. An ample supply of excellent water is brought,
at the expense of the corporation, from the neighbouring
heights. The principal street, running east and west, is
spacious and regular. The town-house, with a spire and
clock, is small and inadequate. Beautifully situated on a
commanding eminence near the centre of the town, stands
the parish church, a clumsy edifice, and every way defi¬
cient in accommodation. There is also the parish church
of Milton, and four other public places of worship, viz. two
Secession, one Relief, and one Friends’ meeting-house.
Hawick has long been the principal seat of the manufac¬
ture of lamb’s wool hose in Scotland. The spinning-mills
are all driven by water. Of these, the number would be
greater, but for the policy of the Buccleuch family, whose
domains surround the town, and which they decline to
feu for building purposes. The trade of the town is ne¬
vertheless rapidly on the increase. The staple articles,
besides hose, are blankets, flannels, plaidings, shawls, and
woollen yarn ; of which last large quantities are sold to
Scotch and English manufacturers. Thongs and whips
are also manufactured to a considerable extent. There is
a weekly market held on Thursday, principally for grain.
Branches of the British Linen Company, Commercial, and
National Banks, assist the trade of the place. There are
two good public libraries, two reading-rooms well sup¬
ported, and a farmer s club, which meets monthly. The
banks of the liviot are well wooded, and finely studded
with gentlemen s seats, though these are considerably re¬
stricted by the large entailed estates of Buccleuch. The
HAW
wk1 approach to the town on the east and west is embellished
^11 by extensive nurseries ; and the picturesque line along
m • the Tiviot is generally admired. The population of the
1 town) including the suburb of Wilton, amounted in 1831
to 5340; and it is still on the increase.
HAWK. See Ornithology.
HAWKERS were anciently fraudulent persons, who
went from place to place buying and selling brass, pewter,
and other merchandise, which should have been exposed
in open market. In this sense the word is mentioned in
25 Henry VIII. cap. 6, and 33 of the same king, cap. 4.
The appellation of hawkers seems to have arisen from
their uncertain wandering, like those who, with hawks,
seek their game where they can find it. The term is now
used as synonymous with pedlar, a person who travels about
the country selling wares.
HAWKESBURY, a river of New Holland, which falls
into Broken Bay, on the east coast. It is a large river,
having its rise among the Blue Mountains far into the in¬
terior, and affording an outlet to the waters of an exten¬
sive tract of country. The banks of this river are thickly
planted on each side with settlements; and it is naviga¬
ble for large vessels of about 200 tons to the distance from
the sea of about forty miles, and by the turnings of the
river 120 miles. The country immediately adjoining the
banks of the river is a rich alluvial mould; but beyond
this is a stiff soil, composed of sand, earth, and clay,
which improves, however, by cultivation. The river is
subject to sudden rises after heavy rains, to the height
of seventy or eighty feet, and overflows the adjacent coun¬
try with wide inundations, carrying away flocks and herds,
and sometimes the habitations of the settlers.
HAWKESWORTH, John, a celebrated English wri¬
ter, was born about the year 1719; though, according to
his epitaph, as we find it in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
August 1781, he must have been born in 1715. He was
brought up to a mechanical profession, that of a watch¬
maker it is supposed. He was of the Presbyterian per¬
suasion, and a member of the celebrated Tom Bradbury’s
meeting, from which he was expelled for some irregulari¬
ties. He afterwards devoted himself to literature, and
became an author of considerable eminence. In the early
part of life his circumstances were rather confined. He
resided some time at Bromley in Kent, where his wife
kept a boarding-school. He afterwards became known to
a lady who had great property and interest in the East
India Company, and through her means he was chosen a
director of that body. As an author, his Adventurer is
his principal work; the merits of which, if we mistake
not, procured him the degree of doctor of laws from Her¬
ring, archbishop of Canterbury. When the design of
preparing a narrative of the discoveries in the South Seas
was set on foot, he was recommended as a proper person
to be employed on the occasion ; but, in truth, he was not
a proper person, nor did the performance answer expec¬
tation. Works of taste and elegance, where imagination
and the passions were to be affected, were his province;
not works of dry, cold, accurate narrative. However, he
executed his task, and is said to have received for it the
sum of L.6000. He died in 1773, some say of high liv¬
ing, others of chagrin at the ill reception of his Narrative ;
for he was a man of the keenest sensibility, and obnoxious
to all the evils incident to such a temperament.
HAWKING, the exercise of taking wild-fowl by means
of hawks. The method of reclaiming, manning, and bring¬
ing up a hawk to this exercise, is cd\\e& falconry.
There are only two countries in the world where we
have any evidence that the exercise of hawking was prac¬
tised in ancient times. These are Thrace and Britain.
In the former it was pursued merely as the diversion of
a particular district, if we may believe Pliny, whose ac-
H A W
173
count is rendered obscure by the indistinctness of his own Hawking,
ideas of the matter. The original Britons, with a fond-
ness for the exercise of hunting, had also a taste for that
of hawking; and every chief amongst them maintained
a considerable number of birds for that sport. To the
Romans this diversion was scarcely known in the days of
Vespasian, yet it was introduced immediately afterwards.
Most probably they adopted it from the Britons; but we
know certainly that they greatly improved it. In this state
it appears amongst the Roman Britons in the sixth cen¬
tury. Gildas, in a remarkable passage in his first epistle,
speaks of Maglocunus, on his relinquishing the sphere of
ambition, and taking refuge in a monastei’y; and prover¬
bially compares him to a dove, which hastens away at the
noisy approach of the dogs, and with various turns and
windings takes her flight from the talons of the havrk.
In after times, hawking was the principal amusement
of the English. A person of rank scarcely stirred out
without his hawk on his hand; and in old paintings this
is the criterion of nobility. Harold, afterwards king of
England, when he went on a most important embassy into
Normandy, is painted embarking with a bird on his hand,
and a dog under his arm ; and in an ancient picture of the
nuptials of Henry VI. a nobleman is represented in much
the same manner. In those days, “ it was thought suffi¬
cient for noblemen to winde their horn, and to carry
their hawk fair, and leave study and learning to the chil¬
dren of mean people.” The former were the accomplish¬
ments of the times. Spenser makes his gallant Sir Tris¬
tram boast,
Ne is there hawk which mantleth her on pearch,
Whether high tow’ring, or accoasting low,
But I the measure of her flight doe search,
And all her prey, and all her diet know.
In short, this diversion was, amongst the old English,
the pride of the rich, and the privilege of the poor. No
rank of men seems to have been excluded from the amuse¬
ment. We learn from the book of St Alban’s, that every
degree had its peculiar hawk, from the emperor down to
the holy-water clerk. Vast was the expense which some¬
times attended this sport. In the reign of James I. Sir
Thomas Monson is said to have given L.lOOOfor a cast of
hawks. We need not wonder then at the rigour of the
laws tending to preserve a pleasure which was carried to
such an extravagant pitch. In the 34th of Edward III.
it was made felony to steal a hawk; and to take its eggs,
even in a person’s own ground, was punishable with impri¬
sonment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king’s
pleasure. In Queen Elizabeth’s reign, the imprisonment
was reduced to three months, but the offender was to find
security for his good behaviour for seven years, or lie in
prison till he did so. Such then was the enviable state of
the times of old England. During the whole day the
gentry were given to the fowls of the air and the beasts
of the field; in the evening, they celebrated their ex¬
ploits with the most abandoned and brutish sottishness ;
and the inferior ranks of people, By the most unjust and
arbitrary laws, were made liable to capital punishments, to
fines, and loss of liberty, for destroying the most destruc¬
tive of the feathered tribe. The love of game-laws runs
in the blood of our territorial aristocracy; it has descended
to them from very ancient times, and forms part of their
inheritance.
According to Olearius, the diversion of hawking is more
followed by the Tartars and Persians than ever it was in
any part of Europe. “ II n’y avoit point de hutte,” says
he, “ qui n’eust son aigle ou son faucon.”
The falcons or hawks which were in use in these king¬
doms are now found to breed in Wales, and in Scotland
and its isles. The peregrine falcon inhabits the rocks of
Caernarvonshire. The same species, with the gyrfalcon,
174 HAW HAW
Hawking, the gentil, and the goshawk, are found in Scotland, and when the bird wipes its beak after feeding, it is said to Ha
the lanner in Ireland. But we may here notice, that the feak ; when it sleeps, it is said to jouk ; from the time of ^ ^
Norwegian breed were, in old times, in high esteem in exchanging the coat, till the bird turn white again, is call-
England, and were thought bribes worthy a king. Jeof- ed intermewmg ; treading is called caivhxng; when the hawk
frey Fitzpierre gave two good Norway hawks to King stretches one wing after the legs, and then the other, it
John, to obtain for his friend the liberty of exporting a is called mantling ; the dung is called muting ; when the
hundredweight of cheese ; and Nicholas the Dane stipu- hawk mutes a good way behind, it is said to slice; when
lated to give the king a hawk every time he came into it does so directly down, instead of jerking backwards, it
England, that he might have liberty to traffic throughout is said to slime, and if it be in drops, it is called dropping;
the king’s dominions. Hawks were also made the tenures when the bird as it were sneezes, it is called sniting ; when
by which some of the nobility held their estates from the it raises and shakes itself, it is said to rouze ; and when,
crown. Thus Sir John Stanley had a grant of the Isle of after mantling, it crosses its wings together over its back,
Man from Henry IV. to be held of the king, his heirs, and it is said to warble.
successors, by homage and the service of two falcons, pay- When a hawk seizes, it is said to bind ; when, after
able on the day of his or their coronation. And Philip seizing, it pulls off the feathers, it is said to ; when
de Hastang held his manor of Combertoun, in Cambridge- it raises a fowl aloft, and at length descends with it to the
shire, by the service of keeping the king’s falcons. ground, it is called trussing ; when, being aloft, it descends
Hawking, though an exercise now much disused, does to strike the prey, it is called stooping ; when it flies out
yet furnish a great variety of significant terms, which still too far from the game, it is said to rake ; when, forsaking
obtain in our language. Thus, the parts of a hawk have the proper game, it flies at pyes, crows, and the like, it is
their proper names. The legs, from the thigh to the foot, called check ; when, missing the fowl, the bird betakes it-
are called arms; the toes, the petty singles ; and the claws, self to the next check, it is said to fly on head. The fowl
the pounces. The wings are called the sails; the long or game it flies at is called the quarry ; the dead body of
feathers of the wings, the beams; the two longest, the a fowl killed by the hawk is called aWhen the bird
principal feathers ; and those next thereto, the flags. The flies away with the quarry, it is said to carry ; when, in
tail is called the train; the breast feathers, the mails; stooping, it turns two or three times on the wing, to recover
and those behind the thigh, the pendant feathers. When itself ere it seizes, it is called canceliering ; when it hits the
the feathers are not yet full grown, the falcon is said to prey, yet does not truss it, it is called ruff. The making
be unsummed; when they are complete, it is summed, a hawk tame and gentle, is called reclaiming ; the bring-
The craw, or crop, is called the gorge; the pipe next the ing one to endure company, manning; an old stanch
fundament, where the faeces are drawn down, is called the hawk, used to fly and set example to a young one, is call-
pannel; the slimy substance lying in the pannel is call- ed a make-haiok.
ed the glut; the upper and crooked part of the bill is The reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk to
called the beak; the nether part, the clap ; the yellow the sport, cannot easily be brought under any precise set
part between the beak and the eyes, the sear or sere ; the of rules. It consists in a number of little practices and
two small holes therein, the nares. observances, calculated to familiarize the falconer to his
As to the furniture, the leathers, with bells buttoned bird, and the latter to the falconer,
on the legs, are called bewits ; the leathern thong by which When the hawk comes readily to the lure, a large pair
the falconer holds the hawk, is called the lease or leash ; of luring bells are to be put on ; and the more giddy-head-
the little straps, by which the lease is fastened to the legs, ed and apt to rake out the hawk is, the larger must the
jesses ; and a line or packthread fastened to the lease, in bells be. Having done this, and the bird being sharp-set,
disciplining the bird, a creance. A cover for the head, to ride out in a fair morning, into some large field unencum-
keep the falcon in the dark, is called a hood; and a large bered with trees or wood, with the hawk on your hand;
wide hood, open behind, to be worn at first, is called a then having loosened the hood, whistle softly, to provoke
rufter hood. To draw the strings, that the hood may be her to fly; unhood, and let the bird fly with its head into
in readiness to be pulled off, is called unstriking the hood; the wind ; for by that means it will be the better able to
the blinding a hawk just taken, by running a thread get upon the wing, and will naturally climb upwards, fly-
through her eyelids, and thus drawing them over the eyes, ing a circle. After the hawk has flown three or four turns,
to prepare her for being hooded, is coWed seeling ; a figure then lure her with your voice, casting the lure about your
or resemblance of a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is head, having first tied a pullet to it; and if your falcon
called a lure ; the resting place, when off the falconer s come in and approach near you, cast out the lure into the
fist, is called the perch ; the place where the meat is laid wind, and if she stoop to it, reward her.
is called the hack ; and that in which the bird is set, whilst You will often find, that when she flies from the hand,
the feathers fall and come again, the mew. she will take stand on the ground. This is a fault which
Anything given to a hawk, to cleanse and purge the is very common with soar-falcons. To remedy it, fright
gorge, is called casting ; small feathers given to make the her up with your wand ; and when you have forced her
bird cast, are called plumage ; gravel given to help to to take a turn or two, take her down to the lure, and feed
bring clown the stomsfch, is called rangle; the throwing her. But if this does not succeed, then you must have
up of filth from the gorge after casting, is called ; in readiness a duck sealed, so that she may see no way
the purging of grease, or other matter, enseaming ; being but backwards, and that will make her mount the higher,
stuffed is called gurgiting; inserting a feather in the wing Hold this duck in your hand, by one of the wings, near
m heu of a broken one, is called imping ; giving a leg, the body; then lure with the voice to make the falcon
wing, 01 pinion of a fowl to pull at, is called tiring Die turn her head ; and when she is at a reasonable pitch, cast
neck of a biid the hawk preys on is called the inke; and your duck up just under her ; when, if she strike, stoop,
what the hawk leaves of its prey is called the pill or pelf, or truss the duck, permit her to kill it, and reward her
There are also proper terms for the several actions of the by giving her a reasonable gorge. After you have prac-
bird. \\ hen a hawk flutters, as if striving to get away, tised this two or three times, your hawk will leave the
either from the perch or hand, it is said to bate ; when, stand, and, delighted to be on the wing, will be very obe-
standing too near, they fight with each other, it is called client.
crabbing ; when the young ones quiver and shake their It is not convenient, for the first or second time, to show
wings in obedience to the elder, it is called cowring; your hawk a large fowl; for it frequently happens that
HAW
thev escape from the hawk, and the bird not recovering
hem, rakes after them. This gives the falconer trouble,
nd frequently occasions the loss of the hawk. But if s le
happens to pursue a fowl, and, being unable to recover it,
<mes it over, and comes in again directly, then cast out a
Saled duck; and if the bird stoop and truss it across
he wings, permit her to take her pleasure, rewarding her
Z with the heart, brains, tongue, and liver. But if you
have not a quick duck, take her down with a dry lure,
and let her plume a pullet and feed upon it. By this
means a hawk will learn to give over a fowl that rakes out,
and on hearing the falconer’s lure, will make back again,
and know the better how to hold in the head.
Some hawks have a disdainful coyness, proceeding hom
their being high fed. Such a hawk must not be reward¬
ed though she should kill; but you may give her leave
to plume alittle, and then taking a sheep s heart cold, or
the lec of a pullet, when the hawk is busy in pluming, let
either°of them be conveyed into the body of the fowl,
that it may savour of it; and when the hawk has eaten
the heart, brains, and tongue of the fowl, take out what
is enclosed, call her to your hand, and feed her with it.
Afterwards give her some of the feathers of the fowl s
neck, to scour her, and make her cast.
If your hawk be a stately high-flying one, it ought not
to take more than one flight in a morning ; and if the bird
he made for the river, let her not fly more than twice.
When she is at the highest, take her down with your lure ;
and when she has plumed and broken the fowl a little,
feed her, by which means you will keep her a high-flyer,
and fond of the lure. „
So much for the technicalities of hawking, which, from
change of times and manners, has now in a great measure
fallen into disuse. The reader, however, will find some
admirable descriptions of this national sport in the novels
of Scott, who appears to have understood it thoroughly,
and who, on this, as on many other subjects, has brought
the past, as it were, before us, rendering us familiar with
its habits, customs, and amusements, and deeply engaging
our sympathy in favour of the feelings, notions, and even
prejudices, with which these were associated.
HAWKINS, Sir John, an industrious writer, was born
at London in the year 1719, where his father was employ¬
ed as a builder and surveyor. He received an education
for the same profession, but afterwards became clerk to
an attorney; and as his employment consisted chiefly in
copying, he improved his mind in knowledge by rising
early, and had made considerable advances by the time
that his clerkship ended. He was soon afterwards admit¬
ted as an attorney, and his taste for music procured him
admission into the Academy of Ancient Music. Having
attained a degree of celebrity by publishing the words of
two sets of cantatas, the music of which was furnished by
Stanley, he was introduced to some acquaintances, who
assisted him in carrying forward his professional views.
In 1749 he was introduced as a member of a tavern club
which had been instituted by Dr Johnson, and the con¬
nection thus formed between that great man and him was
only dissolved by death. In 1753 he married a daughter
of Mr Peter Storer, by whom he obtained a handsome
fortune; and this being augmented by the death of his
brother, he laid aside the profession of attorney, and lived
as an independent gentleman. He afterwards became a
justice of the peace for the county of Middlesex, and was
both an active and an useful magistrate. Being extremely
fond of angling, he became the editor of Walton’s Com¬
plete Angler, which he enriched with notes of his own, and
a life of the author, a work which has since been frequent¬
ly republished.
His Observations on the Highways brought him a libe¬
ral share of public approbation, and it has served as a mo-
H A W
del for all the acts which have since been passed. In
1765 he was chosen chairman of the quarter sessions, and,
in the year 1772, he obtained the honour of knighthood.
Some of the notes to the edition of Shakspeare by John- ^
son and Steevens were furnished by Sir John, who was
for many years engaged in writing the history of music,
which he completed in 1776, in five vols. 4to. It abounds
with curious and original information, and may be consi¬
dered as a repository of many useful things not elsewhere
to be met with. His valuable library was destroyed by
fire, which interrupted his literary labours, but made^no
change in the tranquillity of his mind. In the year 1787
his Life and Works of Dr Samuel Johnson appeared in
eleven vols. 8vo. This life is a garrulous miscellany of
anecdote, in which the author frequently wanders from
his subject; yet it contains many facts respecting that
extraordinary man which his admirers could wish had
been concealed. After this he prepared for the termina¬
tion of his own life, which he perceived approaching; and
he died in the month of May 1789, being then about se¬
venty years of age.
HAWK SHE AD, a market-town of the county of Lan¬
caster, 277 miles from London, and thirteen from Lancas¬
ter. It is situated in the hundred of Lonsdale, at the
extremity of the county, and at the head of the beauti¬
ful lake of Esthwaite. A market is held on Monday. The
population amounted in 1801 to 1585, in 1811 to 1710, in
1821 to 2014, and in 1831 to 2060.
HAWSE, or Hause, is generally understood to imply
the situation of the cables before the ship s stem, wdien
she is moored with twro anchors out forward, viz. one on
the starboard, and the other on the larboard bow. Hence
it is usual to say, she has a clear hawse, or a foul hawse.
This term also denotes any small distance a-head of a
ship, or between her head and the anchors employed to
ride her, as, He has anchored in our hawse, The brig fell
athwart our hawrse, and so on.
A ship is said to ride with a clear hawrse when the ca¬
bles are directed to their anchors, without lying athwart
the stem, or crossing or being twisted round each other
by the ship’s winding about, according to the change of
the wind, tide, or current. A foul hawse, on the contrary,
implies that the cables lie across the stem, or bear upon
each other, so as to be rubbed and chafed by the motion
of the vessel. The hawse accordingly is foul, by having
either a cross, an elbow, or a round turn. If the lai board
cable, lying across the stem, points out on the stai board
side, whilst the starboard cable at the same time grows out
on the larboard side, there is a cross in the hawse. If,
after this, the ship, without returning to her former posi¬
tion, continues to wind about the same way, so as to per¬
form an entire revolution, each of the cables will be twist¬
ed round the other, and then directed out from the oppo¬
site bow, forming what is called a round turn. An elbow
is produced when the ship stops in the middle of that re¬
volution, after having had a cross ; or, in other words, if
sliG rides with her he&d northward with n, cletix hciwse? cind
afterwards turns quite round so as to direct her head north¬
ward again, she will have an elbow.
Hawse-Holes, certain cylindrical holes cut through the
bows of a ship on each side of the stem, through which the
cables pass in order to be drawn into or let out of the ves¬
sel, as occasion requires. I hey are fortified on each side
by’the hawse-pieces, a name given to the foremost timbers
of a ship, whose lower ends rest on the knuckle-timber, or
the foremost of the cant-timbers. They are generally pa¬
rallel to the stem, having their upper ends sometimes ter¬
minated by the lower part of the beak-head; and other¬
wise by the top of the bow, particularly in small ships and
merchantmen.
HAWSER, a large rope which holds a middle place be-
175
Hawks-
head
II
Hawser.
176
HAY
HAY
Hay tween the cable and tow-line, in any ship to which it be-
II longs, being a size smaller than the former, and as much
Haydn. iarger than the latter.
’ HAY, a market-town of South Wales, in the county
of Brecon, 157 miles from London. It stands on a hill
overlooking the valley in which the river Wye flows, where
are remains of an ancient castle, which have been convert¬
ed into a modern dwelling. There is a tolerable market held
on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1170,
in 1811 to 1341, in 1821 to 1649, and in 1831 to 1959.
HAYDN, Francis Joseph, a celebrated musical com¬
poser, was born#at Rohrau, a small town fifteen leagues dis¬
tant from Vienna, in the year 1732. His father was a cart-
wright, and his mother, before her marriage, had been cook
in the family of Count Harrach, the lord of the village.
Haydn’s father had a fine tenor voice, and played a little
on the harp. On holidays, after church, he used to accom¬
pany his wife whilst she sung; and, when only five years
old, Haydn was wont to stand by his parents, and join the
concert in his own way, with two pieces of wood, one of
which served for a violin, and the other for a bow. When
loaded with years and honours, the great symphonist would
often recall the music of this domestic performance; so deep
an impression had its simple strains made on his soul. A
cousin of the cart-wright, whose name was Frank, a school¬
master at Haimburg, came to Rohrau one Sunday, and as¬
sisted at the trio. He remarked that the child, then scarce¬
ly six years old, beat the time with astonishing exactness
and precision. This Frank was well acquainted with music,
and proposed to his relations to take little Joseph to his
house, and teach him. They accepted the offer with joy,
hoping to succeed more easily in getting Joseph into holy
orders, if he should understand music. Chance brought
to Frank’s house Reuter, maestro di capella of St Stephen’s,
the cathedral church of Vienna. He was in quest of
children to recruit his choir. The schoolmaster soon pro¬
posed his little relation to him; and when he came Reu¬
ter gave him a canon to sing at sight. The precision,
purity of time, and spirit with which the child executed
it, surprised him; but he was more especially charmed
with his voice, which was naturally sonorous and delicate.
He only remarked that he did not shake, and asked him
the reason with a smile. The boy smartly replied, “ How
should you expect me to shake, when my cousin does not
know how to do it himself ?” “ Come here,” said Reuter,
“ and I will teach you.” He then took him between his knees,
showed him how he should rapidly bring together two notes,
hold his breath, and agitate the palate. The child imme¬
diately made a good shake. Reuter, enchanted with the
success of his scholar, took a plate of fine cherries, which
Frank had ordered for his illustrious brother professor, and
emptied them all into the child’s pocket. The delight of
the young musician may be readily conceived. Haydn
often mentioned this anecdote, adding with a smile, that
he fancied he had these beautiful cherries in his mouth
whenever he happened to shake.
Young Haydn was now placed in the hands of Reuter,
and accompanied him to Vienna. Haydn, in afterwards
speaking of his studies under this master, said he did not
remember to have passed a single day without practising
sixteen or eighteen hours daily, and this he did of his own
accord, for the children of the choir were not compelled to
practise more than two hours. It was by this unwearied
assiduity, aided by the inspirations of his genius, that Haydn,
almost in the dawn of life, laid the foundation of his fu*
ture eminence.
Mozart at twelve years of age composed a successful
opera; but, less fortunate, Haydn, at thirteen, produced a
mass, which his worthy master ridiculed. Convinced, after
comparing his work with the compositions of others, that
Reuter was right, and that nature without art was like an
eagle unfledged, Haydn resolved to apply himself to the H-
study of counterpoint. But Reuter did not teach com-'*-■
position; and none of the masters in Vienna were so ge-
nerous as to instruct an unknown and unpatronised boy.
But to this misfortune Haydn perhaps is indebted for his
originality. Under a master he might have avoided some
of the errors he has fallen into when he subsequently wrote
for the church and for the theatre; but, upon the whole
he would certainly have been less original. He purchased
the theoretical works of Mattheson, Fux, Emanuel Bach,
and Kirberg, which he studied most assiduously, labouring
alone, and exercising every scientific intricacy; and so
great was the pleasure he experienced in his pursuits, that,
poor as he was, shivering with cold, and oppressed with
sleep, seated by the side of an old worn out harpsichord,
he declared himself never to have been happier at any
period of his life.
At eighteen Haydn’s voice broke, and he left the class
of soprani at St Stephen’s. Obliged to seek for a lodging,
chance threw him in the way of a poor peruke-maker
named Keller, who received him as a son. Haydn, in the
quiet obscurity of his new dwelling, was enabled to pursue
his studies without interruption. His residence here had,
however, a fatal influence on his future fortune. Keller
had two daughters, and his wife and he arranged that one
of them should marry Haydn, who, absorbed in his studies,
and thinking little about love, made no objection to the
proposal. He adhered to his engagement honourably in
after life, but the union was an unhappy one.
Haydn now began to compose short sonatas for the
piano-forte, which he sold at low prices to his few female
pupils. He also wrote minuets, allemands, and waltzes for
the Ridotto. By performing in concert with two of his
friends a sererada in the streets, he attracted the atten¬
tion of Curtz, the director of the theatre of Carinthia, who
employed him to write music, which was performed with
the happiest success. But Haydn’s talent was not for the
stage, and he chose his own proper ground when in his
twentieth year, and produced six trios, which, from their
striking originality, at once brought him into notice. Short¬
ly after this he published his first quartett, which every
musical amateur soon had by heart. Leaving the house
of Keller, Haydn went to lodge with Martinez, and became
acquainted with Metastasio the poet, who taught him Ita¬
lian, and instructed him in the fine arts.
Haydn struggled long against want, but at last his ge¬
nius brought him into notice, and he received employment
from PrinceAntony Esterhazy, and his successor Nicholas,
for whom Haydn composed a number of pieces for the
baryton, an instrument now scarcely ever used. Haydn
did not forget his promise to his benefactor Keller; and
being now in better circumstances, he married his daughter
Ann, from whom he afterwards separated, on account of her
bad temper and conduct.
Placed now at the head of a full and excellent orchestra,
and attached to the service of a rich patron, Haydn found
himself in that happy union of circumstances which gives
opportunity to genius to display all its powers. From this
moment his life was uniform and fully employed. He
rose early in the morning, dressed himself very neatly, and
placed himself at a small table by the side of his piano¬
forte, where the hour of dinner usually found him still seat¬
ed. In the evening he went to rehearsals, or to the opera
which was performed in the prince’s palace four times
every week. Sometimes, but not often, he devoted a
morning to hunting. The little time he had to spare on
common days was divided between his friends and Made¬
moiselle Boselli, a singer of eminence. Such was the
course of his life, for more than thirty years ; and this can
alone account for the prodigious number of his productions
in instrumental music, church music, and operas. In fifty
HAY
k. years he produced no less than five hundred and twenty-
•v ^ seven instrumental compositions, and in the whole of these
pieces he has never copied or imitated himself, but when
it was his intention to do so. _
Haydn wrote his best music with some labour, not from
any want of ideas, but from the extreme delicacy of his
taste, which he could with difficulty satisfy. A symphony
would sometimes cost him a month, and a mass perhaps two.
His manuscripts of one piece sometimes contain passages
enough for three or four pieces. But although it seemed
labour, it was not so ; for he was wont to say that he never
felt so happy as when at work. Nothing troubled him till
the death of his patron Prince Nicholas, in the year 1789,
and the subsequent demise of his favourite Boselli; circum¬
stances which induced him to come to England, upon the
solicitations of Salomon. This musician was about to give
concerts in London, and offered Haydn fifty pounds for
each performance, which terms he accepted. Haydn was
then fifty-nine years old, and he resided in England up¬
wards of a year, and brought out there some of his finest
instrumental pieces.
From England Haydn went to Germany, but he return¬
ed for a short time in 1794. He was honoured with the
diploma of doctor of music by Oxford. He afterwards
went to Austria, and did not return again to England.
He was in his sixtieth year when he commenced his
Creation, to which he devoted two years. When urged to
hasten its completion, he calmly said, he had been a long
time about it, because he intended it to last a long time.
It was finished in 1798, and performed in Vienna with en¬
thusiastic approbation. All Germany rang with its praises;
in a few weeks it was printed, and spread over Europe with
a rapidity before unheard of. Two years after, he com¬
posed his oratorio of the Four Seasons, of which Haydn
used to say, “ It is not another Creation, and the reason
is this : in that oratorio the actors are angels, in the Four
Seasons they are peasants.” This work terminated his
musical career ; the labour of it exhausted him, and he
complained that he was forced to seek ideas which used to
come to him formerly unsought. He wrote, however, sub¬
sequently a few quartetts, and arranged nearly three hun¬
dred Scotch songs, which produced him about six hundred
guineas. At last he grew so weak, that a vertigo seized him
the moment he sat down to the piano. He now seldom quit¬
ted his house and garden at Grumpendorff, and he became
feeble in mind and body. On the morning of the 31st
of May 1809 he died, aged seventy-eight years and two
months. He was privately interred at Grumpendorff; for
Vienna was at that time in the occupation of the French.
Haydn’s heir was a blacksmith, to whom he left the bulk
of his fortune. His manuscripts were purchased by Prince
Esterhazy. He left no posterity. Cherubini, Pleyel, New-
komm, and Weigl, may be considered as his disciples.
Haydn, in his symphonies, stands first in the list of the
greatest instrumental authors. In sacred music he open¬
ed a new path, by which he placed himself on a level with
the most celebrated composers for the church. In thea¬
trical music he was least successful. In that department
he was only an imitator. His instrumental music consists
of chamber symphonies for a greater or less number of in¬
struments, and of symphonies for a full orchestra. The
first of these divisions comprehends duets, trios, quartetts,
sestetts, octetts, and divertimentos; sonatas, the fantasie,
variations, and capricci. In the second are contained the
symphonies for the grand orchestra, concertos for differ¬
ent instruments, serenades, and marches.
The allegros of his symphonies are in general full of life
and spirit. They generally begin with a short, easy, and
intelligible theme. Gradually, and by a procedure full of
genius, this theme, repeated by the different instruments,
acquires a character of mingled heroism and gaiety. There
VOL. xx.
H A Z 177
is more variety in the slow movements; in these the lofty Hayes
style is majestically displayed. The phrases or musical H
ideas in his andantes and adagios are finely and nobly de-
veloped. Sometimes the composer is carried away by his
copiousness and power; but this excess of vigour does not
exclude passion and sentiment. His minuets are admirable,
being rich in harmony and accumulated beauties. The ge¬
neral character of Haydn’s instrumental music is that of
romantic imagination. “ Haydn,” says Carpani, “ e 1’Ariosto
della musica. Passeggia il suo genio per tutte le regioni
dell’ arte. La sua immaginazione apre i tesori d’ogni bel-
lezza, e ne dispone a sua voglia.” As a composer of sym¬
phonies and quartetts, he may be considered as the first
who moulded them into that form which Mozart, Beet¬
hoven, and others, have adopted. The famous seven instru¬
mental pieces, called Fie Sieben worte des Heylandes am
Kreuze, were esteemed by the composer as his best works.
The oratorio of the Creation is replete with grandeur,
sublimity, and beauty. The Seasons, with less sentiment
and learning than the Creation, is equally admirable as an
expressive and delightful composition. The ideal part of
Haydn’s masses is brilliant and dignified: the style is noble
and full of fire. His Agnus Dei is full of tenderness ; the
Amens and Hallelujahs breathe all the reality of joy ; the
fugues display all the exultation of an enraptured mind.
(Ze Haydine de Carpani.) (z. z.)
HAYES, Charles, a very singular person, whose great
erudition was so concealed by his modesty, that his name is
known to few, though his publications are familiar to many.
He was born in 1678, and became distinguished in 1704 by a
Treatise of Fluxions, in folio, the only work to which he ever
set his name. In 1710, he published a small quarto pamphlet
of nineteen pages, entitled A New and Easy Method to find
out the Longitude, from observing the Altitudes of the Ce¬
lestial Bodies; and in 1723, The Moon, a Philosophical
Dialogue, tending to show that the moon is not an opaque
body, but has original light of her own. During a long
course of years, the management of the Royal African
Company was, in a manner, wholly committed to Mr Hayes,
who was annually chosen either sub-governor or deputy-
governor, notwithstanding which, he continued his pur¬
suit of general knowledge. To considerable skill in the
Greek and Latin, as w ell as modern languages, he added a
knowledge of the Hebrew ; and published several pieces re¬
lating to the translation and chronology of the Scriptures.
The African Company being dissolved in 1752, he retired
to Dowm in Kent, where he gave himself up to study. In
1753, he began to compile in Latin his Chronographia
Asiatica et Egyptiaca, w'hich he lived to finish, but not to
publish. The work, however, was afterwards published. In
1758, he left his house in Kent, and took chambers in
Gray’s-Inn, where he died on the 18th of December 1760,
in his eighty-second year.
HAYNAU, a town of the district of Liegnitz, in the
Prussian province of Silesia, on the river Dreichsel. It
contains two Catholic churches, one Lutheran, and 360
houses, with 2870 inhabitants, chiefly employed in woollen
manufactures. Near to the town are some good veins of
fuller’s earth.
HAYWARD, the person wffio keeps the common herd
or cattle of a town. He is appointed by the lord’s court;
and his office is to take care that the cattle neither break
nor crop the hedges of enclosed grounds.
HAZAEL, an officer belonging to Benhadad, king of
Syria, who caused that prince to be put to death, and
reigned in his stead. He defeated Joram, Jehu, and Je-
hoahaz, kings of Israel ; and, after his death, was succeed¬
ed by Benhadad his son, before Christ 852.
HAZARD, a game on dice, without tables. It is play¬
ed with only two dice; and as many may play at it as can
stand round the largest round table.
z
178 H A Z H A Z
Haze- Two things are chiefly to be observed, main and chance; writers, on the formation of language, are incorporated. Ha
brouck the latter belonging to the caster, and the former, or main, This work was printed in 12mo, with another upon the ■
Hazlitt to t^ie ot^er gamesters. There can be no main throw above same subject; and an abridgment of it appeared in 1812. *
\_j-Y nine, nor under five; so that five, six, seven, eight, and In 1817 appeared “ The Round Table,” a collection of
nine, are the only mains thrown at hazard. Chances and Essays on Literature, Men, and Manners. These papers
nicks are from four to ten. Thus four is a chance to nine, had already been published in a periodical work, in a
five to eight, six to seven, seven to six, eight to five, and series of weekly essays. During the same year, his “ Cha-
nine and ten a chance to five, six, seven, and eight; in racters of Shakspeare’s Plays” appeared in one volume
short, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten, are chances 8vo ; and in 1518 he published a “ View of the English
to any main, if any of these nick it not. Now nicks are Stage,” containing a series of dramatic criticisms. Mr
either when the chance is the same with the main, as five Hazlitt was in 1818 engaged to deliver, at the Surrey
and five, or six and twelve, seven and eleven, eight and Institution, lectures upon English poetry, which he after-
twelve. Observe, however, that twelve is out to nine, wards published in one vol. 8vo. He subsequently gave
seven, and five ; eleven is out to nine, eight, six, and five; to the world, at different intervals, “ Table Talk;” the
and ames-ace, and deuce-ace, are out to all mains what- “ Spirit of the Age,” being criticisms upon the talents and
ever. character of the most conspicuous men of the day; and
HAZEBROUCK, an arrondissement of the department “ The Plain Speaker,” being a collection of articles of his
of the North, in France, extending over 275 square miles, which had previously appeared indifferent periodical works,
divided into seven cantons, and those into fifty-three com- He also published “Political Essays and Sketches of Public
munes, with 100,936 inhabitants. The capital is the city Characters;” an “ Account of British Galleries of Art;” a
of the same name. It is situated on the river Borre, and on “Letter to William Gifford, Esq.;” “Wine and Walnuts, or
a canal. It is an ill-built place, with 961 houses and 7354 after-dinner chit-chat,” two vols. 8vo ; the “ Literature of
inhabitants, who carry on manufactures of linen, twine, sail- the Elizabethan Age; ” the “ Modern Pygmalion ; ” and the
cloth, lace, and cottons, and also refineries of salt, and make “ Life of Napoleon,” in four volumes. This last is his lar-
snuff and starch. Long. 2. 27. E. Lat. 50. 44. N. gest and most elaborate production ; and although strong.
HAZLITT, William, a very distinguished writer on ly tinged wfith party feeling, and partaking more of a series
miscellaneous subjects, was a native of Shropshire, and of reflections upon events than a minute detail of them,
the son of an Unitarian clergyman. The date of his birth it is a work of much power, and evinces no ordinary de-
has not been ascertained ; but he received his education gree of philosophical penetration. His last works were,
at the College at Hackney, belonging to the religious per- “ Notes of a Journey through France and Italy,” and
suasion with which his father was connected. After finish- “ Conversations of James Northcote, Esq.,” the latter of
ing his academical studies, Mr Hazlitt commenced life as which appeared at the moment of his death, which took
a painter, and by this means gained such a knowledge of place at London, on the 18th of September 1830. He was
the principles of art as qualified him for criticising works twice married, and left an only son. Amongst the perio-
of that description, in which he greatly excelled. That he dical works to which Mr Hazlitt lent the assistance of his
would ever have become eminent as an artist is doubtful; pen, was the Edinburgh Review, to which he contributed
for his love for the fine arts was throughout his life intense; various articles, some of them possessing extraordinary
and if he had felt himself capable of producing a work which merit. The article on the “ Fine Arts” in this work was
might have raised him to fame, it seems highly probable also written by him.
that he would have persevered. However, some of his co- The writings of Mr Hazlitt display much originality
pies from pictures in the Louvre, by Titian and Raffaelle, and genius, united with great critical acuteness and bril-
have been spoken of as spirited and beautiful. Mr Hazlitt liancy of fancy. In the fine arts, the drama, and dramatic
was induced, from some cause or other, to quit the pencil literature, he was considered as one of the ablest critics
for the pen. His first acknowledged literary production of the day. But he was rather acute than profound;
was an essay on the “ Principles of Human Action ; ” a and he displayed an excessive fondness for paradox, united
work in which he displayed considerable originality and with a somewhat prejudiced adherence to his own opinions,
acuteness. In 1808 he published, in two vols. 8vo, “ The He was impatient of mental drudgery ; and in his haste to
Eloquence of the British Senate,” being a selection of the reach conclusions, he often dispensed with the labour of
best speeches of the most distinguished parliamentary ora- previous investigation. Hence the theories which he pro-
tors from the beginning of the reign of Charles I. to the poses are seldom brought out with that elaboration and
present time, with notes, biographical, critical, and expla- logical precision which carries conviction. There is also
natory. Shortly after this work appeared, Mr Hazlitt ob- a want of sequence or continuity in his style; and he
tained an introduction to Mr Perry, then editor of the rarely produces a strong or lasting impression upon the
Morning Chronicle newspaper, by whom he was engaged mind of the reader. He gives, in abrupt and striking sen-
to report parliamentary speeches, and furnish original ar- fences, the results of his thoughts ; but he does not, by
tides., io this newspaper he contributed a series of able means of proof, convincingly develope his critical doctrines,
theati ical and dramatic criticisms. As a political writer In reasoning to establish any given point, his arguments do
he is said to have showed himself somewhat intemperate, not naturally grow out of each other; and his sentences,
and his compositions required to be carefully weeded of though brilliant, and, when taken separately, pregnant with
strong expressions. In the art of reporting he is said to meaning, are only connected together by a very obscure
have displayed but little skill; indeed, a man of his pecu- chain of relation. There seems to have been a want of
liar temperament was not likely to submit to the drud- proportion, of balance, and of harmony in his powers,
gery which that occupation requires before excellence can His mind was essentially imaginative, and, aspiring after
be attained. Accordingly, a separation took place be- ideal beauty and goodness, he frequently fell into ex¬
tween him and Mr Perry; and, besides being engaged travagance and mysticism. His imagination was power-
upon another morning paper, he was employed by the ful, and he possessed a rich store of ideas, which were
booksellers in contributing to various periodical publica- profusely scattered over every page he wrote, without
tions. , much regard to either order or propriety. He is said
In 1810 appeared a work of his entitled a “ New and Im- to have read but little ; but this can only apply to him in
proved English Grammar, for the use of Schools,” in which the latter years of his life. That he had read attentively
the discoveries of Mr Horne Tooke, and other modem the standard English authors, is evident from his writings;
H E A
r „nfi that they had made a strong impression upon his mind ;
jrJ • evinced by the frequency with which he quotes them,
Je! sometimes to the detriment of his style, which, in conse-
|°r< CUence, assumes an appearance of patchwork. In politics,
ly J Mr Hazlitt warmly espoused liberal principles; and the
ardour with which he wrote in their defence exposed him
to much contumely and ridicule. His prejudices were
strong and he displayed considerable caustic bitter¬
ness of style, when personally attacked. He was, we
believe, himself rarely the aggressor ; and although way¬
ward and self-willed, his temper is represented as being
placable and mild. An able writer thus speaks of him:
a His mind resembles the ‘ rich stronde’ which Spencer
has so nobly described, and to which he has himself
likened the age of Elizabeth, where treasures of every
description lie, without order, in inexhaustible profusion.
Noble masses of exquisite marble are there, which might
be fashioned to support a glorious temple; and gems of
peerless lustre, which would adorn the holiest shrine. He
has no lack of the deepest feelings, the profoundest senti¬
ments of humanity, or the loftiest aspirations after ideal
good. But there are no great leading principles of taste
to give singleness to his aims, nor any central points m
his mind, around which his feelings may revolve, and his
imaginations cluster. There is no sufficient distinction
between his intellectual and his imaginative faculties. He
confounds the truths of imagination with those of fact,
the processes of argument with those of feeling, the im¬
munities of intellect with those of virtue. Hence the
seeming inconsistency of many of his doctrines. 4 But
with all these drawbacks and imperfections, Mr Hazlitt
was a powerful and an eloquent writer; and whether his opi¬
nions are just or profound, no one can deny that they are
strikingly expressed. His article upon the Fine Arts, in this
work, is one of the ablest and most striking that the subject
ever called forth, and would alone entitle him to high dis¬
tinction amongst the writers of his time. His lectures
on the dramatic literature of the age of Elizabeth form his
best work of literary criticism. His admiration for the
writers of that period was intense, and he descants upon
their beauties with the most eloquent and joyous enthusi¬
asm. But his Life of Napoleon, with all its manifold
imperfections, is perhaps his greatest work, and will pro¬
bably remain the most enduring record of the strength
and versatility of his genius. (R- r-)
HEAD, the uppermost or foremost part of the body of
an animal.
Head-Botow, or HEAV-Borough, signifies the person
who is the chief of the frank-pledge, and who had ancient¬
ly the principal direction of those within his own pledge.
He was also called burrow-head, burshoulder, now bors-
holder, third-borrow, tything-man, chief-pledge, and borow-
elder, according to the diversity of speech in different
places. This officer is now usually called a high-constable.
The head-borow was the chief of ten pledges ; the other
nine were called hand-borrows, or plegii manuales, and the
like.
H E A
HEAD-Pence, an exaction of a certain sum formerly col¬
lected by the sheriff of Northumberland from the inhabit¬
ants of that county, without any account to be made to the
king. This was abolished by the statute 23 Henry VI. v
caP- .
HEAB-Dress, amongst the Jewish, Grecian, and Roman
ladies, as amongst ourselves, was various, according to the
different periods of time, and the fluctuation of fashion. In
general, it consisted principally of their hair differently
tricked out. It was usually divided before with a bodkin,
into two equal parts ; sometimes it was covered with a net,
or put into a kind of purse, or tied behind in the form of
a knot, or bound back and plaited with ribands. It was
washed with great care; essence and perfumes were ap¬
plied to it, and gold dust was sometimes made use of as
powder. Pearls and jewels formed part of their orna¬
ments ; and pendants were worn in the ears.
HEALFANG, Healsfang, or Halsfang, in our an¬
cient customs, signifies collistrigium, or the punishment of
the pillory. The word is compounded of two Saxon words,
halp, neck, and pangen, to contain ; Pcena scilicet qua
alicui collum stringatur. The healfang, however, cannot
signify a pillory in the charter of Canutus, De Forestis
(cap." xiv.) ; Et pro culpa solvat regi duos solidos, quos
Dani vacant halfehang.
Healfang is also taken for a pecuniary mulct in com¬
mutation of the punishment of the pillory; and is to be
paid either to the king or the chief lord. Qui falsum
testimonium, dedit, reddat regi vel terrce domino healfang.
HEALING, in its general sense, includes the whole
process of curing or removing a disorder, and recovering
health. In this sense medicine is defined the art of heal¬
ing. In its more restricted sense, as used in surgery,
healing denotes the uniting or consolidating the lips of
a wmmd or ulcer.
HEALTH is a right disposition of the body, and of all
its parts. The Greeks and Romans deified Health, re¬
presenting it under the figure of a woman, whom they
supposed to be the daughter of ^Esculapius. We find the
name of the Goddess Salus, or Health, on many medals
of the Roman emperors, with different inscriptions; as,
Salus Publica, Salus REiPUBLiCiE, Salus Augusti,
and so on.
HEARING, the act or faculty of perceiving sounds.
Hearing is reckoned among our external senses. Its
organ is the ear, and particularly the auditory nerve dif¬
fused through the same; and its object, certain motions
or vibrations of the air. Hence hearing may be more
scientifically defined a sensation, by which, from a due
motion impressed on the fibrillae of the auditory nerve,
and communicated thence to the sensorium, the mind ob¬
tains the idea of sounds.
HEARSE, the name of a well-known carriage, used for
conveying the dead to the grave. Ihe word is also used
by Shakspeare in his Henry VI. for a monument erected
over a grave.
HEART. See Anatomy.
179
Head-
Pence
n
Hearse.
1 Edinburgh Revie-x, No. Ixviii. p. 440.
180
H E A T.
Definition The term Heat, in common language, is applied both
II to the sensation excited in us by the approximation of a
' Ijgat 0t warm body, and to the cause of that sensation. To obvi-
^ ate this ambiguity, chemists and other cultivators of physical
science have employed the word caloric to designate the
cause of heat; but as there are few disquisitions in which
this distinction is material to perspicuity, in this article we
shall use either term to signify the cause of the sensation.
SECT. I. NATURE OF HEAT.
One of the first inquiries that suggests itself is, what is
caloric ? Two opinions on this subject have divided philoso¬
phers. The most generally received opinion is, that heat, or
caloric, is a material agent of a peculiar nature, highly atte¬
nuated, and, from its affinity or attraction for all other mat¬
ter, universally distributed amongst the particles of bodies,
in quantities proportional to their mutual attractions, or,
as it has been termed, the capacities of different substances
for heat; whilst its tendency to diffuse itself amongst con¬
tiguous bodies has been explained on the supposition of
its own particles being repellent of each other. The other
opinion, which has been maintained by Bacon, Boyle,
and several other philosophers, considers heat as a mere
quality of matter, and ascribes it to a vibratory movement
among the intimate particles of bodies ; an idea which
was adopted by Rumford, to explain his curious experi¬
ments on the excitation and communication of heat by fric¬
tion. This opinion, however, seems vague and unsatisfac¬
tory. If we say that heat is motion amongst the particles
of matter, still we have no explanation of the manner in
which this motion is produced ; for we cannot conceive any
movement without an impulse, nor an impulse without a
material agent. Heat pervades all sorts of matter: it re¬
mains in some circumstances dormant, or, as it is termed,
latent, and may be again elicited from bodies by various
means. Did it consist in vibrations or motions of the par¬
ticles of other matter, it should pervade elastic bodies with
the greatest celerity; which we know not to be the fact.
It will, for instance, pervade a rod of lead, or of the softest
copper, far more readily than an equal length of glass or of
marble. If we mingle together equal quantities of water
at different temperatures, the resulting temperature will be
an exact mean between the extremes. But if heat consist¬
ed in such vibrations, there ought to have been a loss of
heat, as in all other communicated motions. If we mix
together equal quantities of different substances at differ¬
ent temperatures, the resultant temperature is not a mean :
one body has lost more heat than the other has appeared
to gain, or a part of the heat of the one has become latent
in the other, and that in a constant ratio to the power of
each substance of absorbing heat, as tried by comparing
each with a third body in the same manner. It is very dif¬
ficult to conceive this species of interchange, if heat merely
consisted in vibrations amongst the particles of matter. Still
more difficult is it to conceive how a permanent tempera¬
ture could subsist among a great system of bodies, as the
planets, if heat were nothing more than a vibration of the
particles of bodies ; for the original impulse ought to dimi¬
nish with each communication.
It is possible, however, to modify this theory, by suppos¬
ing that heat is produced not merely by the motions of the
particles of the heated substance, but by the vibrations or
undulations of a very subtile matter existing in all bodies.
This will approximate the vibratory theory to that which
has been generally considered as its antagonist, will accord Nati:
well with some recently discovered facts, and will assimi- He
late the vibratory hypothesis of heat to the undulations ^
now so generally received as explanatory of the phenomena
of light, to which heat has so intimate a relation.
Caloric, like light, has been proved to be capable of ra¬
diation, of reflection, and refraction, whilst recent investi¬
gations have distinctly proved that refracted heat is suscep¬
tible of polarisation. But it is transmitted, reflected, re¬
fracted, and polarised by different substances in a different
manner and degree from light; and hence some have in¬
ferred that light and heat are not the same agent, but are
produced by different kinds of matter. Other philosophers
have regarded them as modifications of the same matter,
depending on the greater celerity or velocity of the undu¬
lations that produce them. Such speculations, however,
are not yet susceptible of any direct proof; and, in the
present state of our knowledge, it is safer to consider light
and heat as produced by different but intimately connect¬
ed agents.
These views lead us to the conclusion that the pheno¬
mena of caloric are owing to the movements of a subtile
matter, universally diffused throughout other bodies, the
particles of which are strongly repellent of each other, and
have an affinity for those of all other bodies, differing in
force according to each kind of matter. We may further
conceive, that heat or caloric is the cause why the particles
of the most solid bodies are not in absolute contact. If we
diminish the temperature of a bar of iron, for instance, it
shrinks in all its dimensions, i. e. its particles approximate;
and the more we reduce the temperature, the nearer they
approach. Each particle of matter would seem to be sur¬
rounded with an atmosphere of heat, which remains latent
or quiescent, until disturbed by the approach of bodies of a
different temperature, when the vibrations or undulations
of the subtile matter of heat are induced, by the tendency
of this matter to produce an equilibrium of temperature;
and then we become sensible of the existence of heat.
The subtilty of the matter of heat is such, that we can¬
not ascertain its accumulation in any body by the nicest
balance; its fluidity may be considered as proved by the
ease with which it insinuates itself amongst the particles of
matter ; its affinity for other matter is shown by its being
universally contained in all bodies, in proportions differing
in each kind of substance ; its repulsion amongst its own
particles is proved by its tendency to exist in a state of
equilibrium in contiguous bodies.
Our knowledge of the laws which regulate the distribu¬
tion of caloric was very imperfect when we possessed no
other measure of heat than our sensations. The suscepti¬
bility of the sense of touch varies in different individuals,
and in the same individual at different times. We can
even make the same object feel warm and cold to the same
person, by previously cooling one hand, whilst the other is
immersed in a warm fluid. Hence sensation could never
afford any tolerable measure of varying degrees of heat; and
we are indebted for more accurate notions on the subject
to the invention of thermometers. The principle of these
instruments depends on the expansion of solids, fluids, or
gaseous bodies by heat, and their subsequent contraction
on cooling. I he construction of these usef ul instruments
will be described under the article Thermometer. It
will be here sufficient to state, that though the thermo¬
meter affords us indications of the changes in the sensible
heat of bodies, it does not give us any information respect¬
ing their latent caloric, nor the absolute quantity of heat
HEAT.
181
they may contain. This mustbe sought for by other modes,
which we shall shortly explain, after we have considered
J tjie modes in which caloric is diffused amongst bodies, and
its general effects on different kinds of matter.
SECT. II. DIFFUSION OF HEAT.
The tendency of heat to diffuse itself equally amongst
bodies is so great, that we are unable permanently to ac¬
cumulate it in any substance. All that can be effected in
this way by the most skilful contrivances, is to produce
some retardation of this dissipation. The mode in which
it is diffused through solids, liquids, and gases, is different,
and demands a separate consideration.
I. Diffusion of Heat by Communication.
\. Diffusion in Solids.—When we place a heated solid in
contact with a colder body, the superabundant caloric of
the first immediately begins to flow into the latter. The
nearest particles are first heated, and they communicate
a portion of their caloric to the second series, and these
last to a third, until both bodies acquire a common tem¬
perature ; and this equilibrium will be established amongst
all contiguous bodies. If a bar of iron twenty inches
Iona- be heated at one end, it will require four minutes
for die smallest sensible increase of temperature to be
perceived at the other. Biot has endeavoured to ascer¬
tain the rate of this transmission. He employed a bar of
iron several feet in length, and bent into a right angle, at
one end of which a steady heat of 216° Fahrenheit was
applied. Thermometers were placed in holes drilled for
the purpose, at intervals of four inches along the top of the
bar. In four hours all the thermometers became station¬
ary, the difference between the first and second — 21°'50;
between the second and third, = ll°-25; between the
third and fourth, = 7°-25; between the fourth and
fifth, = 5°; between the fifth and sixth, = 4°; between
the sixth and seventh (beyond which no sensible effect
was perceptible), zz 10,75; which, allowing for the un¬
avoidable errors in such investigations, would show, that,
taking the distances in arithmetical progression, the de¬
crease of temperature follows a geometrical ratio in pe¬
netrating solids. In such cases, the heat seems to be
communicated from particle to particle, and is said to be
conducted through the body.
All bodies do not conduct heat with equal celerity. If
we place equal thermometers on equal cubes of metal,
ivory, marble, and glass, heated by the same source, we
shall find that the thermometer placed on the metal will
rise soonest; next, that placed on the marble, then those
on the ivory and the glass. The most dense bodies con¬
duct heat, in general, more readily than rarer bodies ; but
experiment shows that their conducting power is not al¬
ways in the ratio of their density, but probably depends
also on their affinity for caloric. Spongy and light bodies
are found to be extremely bad conductors of caloric.
Silk, cotton, and wool, are especially so; and hence their
utility in preserving our animal heat in cold climates.
Count Rumford made a series of experiments on the con¬
ducting power of different substances of this nature, and
found that raw silk, fur, and eider-down, were remarkably
bad conductors of heat. They give to us the sensation of
warmth, not by communicating heat to our surface, but
because their bad conducting power prevents the waste of
our animal heat by the ambient air. Their stopping the
transmission of heat seems partly to depend on the air
they entangle; for, by twisting them, i. e. by expelling a
portion of the air contained in such bodies, their conduct¬
ing power is increased,
The facility with which bodies conduct heat is not ex- Diffusion
actly in proportion to any of their sensible qualities, but of Heat,
is more nearly in the direct ratio of their density than any
other quality. This may be ascribed to the greater inten¬
sity of the repulsive energy of the atmospheres of calo¬
ric surrounding each particle of dense bodies (by reason
of their greater proximity) conveying each fresh addition
of temperature with greater celerity through such sub¬
stances. But if we conceive “ heat to be a material agent, ’
this quickness of conducting power may also be modified
by the different degrees of affinity between caloric and
each kind of matter. However this may be, scarcely any
two substances conduct heat with equal facility. Solids
conduct much more readily than liquids. Of the former,
the best conductors are the metals ; and amongst these, the
very best are gold, silver, platinum, and copper, whilst iron
and lead are among the worst. The rapidity with which
silver conducts away heat is well illustrated by wrapping
a piece of muslin smoothly round a spoon of that metal,
when the muslin may be held in the flame of a candle or
a lamp, so as to boil water in the spoon, without burning
the muslin.
The following table of the conducting power of differ¬
ent metals and other bodies is given by Despretz (Hnw. rfe
Chim. et Phys. xxxvi.) :—
Gold 1000 Tin 303-9
Platinum 981 Lead 179-6
Silver 973 Marble    23 6
Copper 898-2 Porcelain  12-2
Iron 374-3 Clay  H*4
Zinc. 363
2. Diffusion in Liquids.—The extreme slowness with
which liquids conduct heat is shown by a beautiful expe¬
riment of Count Rumford. Freeze a little water in the
bottom of a tube, and then pour water over the ice: by
inclining the tube, the flame of a lamp may be applied to
the surface of the liquid, so as to cause it to boil; and by
slowly moving the flame towards the ice, we may raise the
water to ebullition in successive portions; yet this ebulli¬
tion will almost reach the ice before it shows any signs of
melting. The same fact is exhibited by fixing an air ther¬
mometer in a vessel filled with water to one or two tenths
of an inch above the ball of the thermometer, and pouring
a little aether on the surface of the water. On kindling the
aether, it will burn with a copious flame, without affecting
in the slightest degree the submersed thermometer. This
extreme slowness of liquids in conducting heat induced
Count Rumford to suppose that they were absolute non¬
conductors of caloric; but this inference is not warranted
by his own experiments, and was fully refuted by the in¬
vestigations of Hope, Murray, and Traill, which proved,
that though liquids conduct heat slowly downwards, they
are not absolute non-conductors of caloric.
If, however, we apply heat to the lower part of a ves¬
sel containing any liquid, it rapidly acquires a higher tem¬
perature. This, however, is in a different manner from
conduction. The liquid is heated by the transportation oi
its particles in quick succession. In this case the particles
nearest the heating cause become specifically lighter by
receiving heat; they therefore ascend through the fluid,
to which they impart part of their caloric, while their place
is supplied by another series of particles, which become
heated, and ascend in their turn; and this succession con¬
tinues until, by these rapid changes, the whole body of the
fluid attains its boiling point, it the heat be sufficient for
that purpose. These motions may be rendered visible by
throwing into the vessel a few particles of matter a little
heavier than water, such as powdered amber.
It is by this transportation of their particles that liquids
are principally heated ; and the rapidity with which a pic<-e
of ice melts when it floats in ajar containing hot water, com-
182 H E
Diffusion pared to the extreme slowness of the melting of a similar
of Heat- mass of ice fixed in the bottom of a jar, and defended from
the immediate contact of the hot water by a thin film of
ice-cold water, exhibits, in a striking manner, the differ¬
ence between the heating of fluids by transportation and
by conduction.
3. Diffusion in Gases.—The conducting power of gases
is not so easily ascertained, because it is difficult to separate
their conducting power from the effect of radiation of heat
through them. The experiments of Professor Sir John
Leslie and of Dr Dalton, however, decidedly show a diffe¬
rence in the conducting power of gases, which is also more
nearly in the direct ratio of their specific gravity than of
their other properties; hydrogen having the lowest con¬
ducting power, atmospheric air one considerably higher,
and carbonic acid the greatest of all the gases subjected to
this examination.
The difference of bodies in conducting heat is a most
important subject, as on it depends not only many of our
contrivances to concentrate artificial heat, and apply it to
numerous purposes in the useful arts, as the obtaining of
metals from their ores; but on it also depend the methods
of defending our bodies against external cold. The living
system has within itself the power of supporting a nearly
equable temperature, notwithstanding the perpetual ten¬
dency of contiguous bodies to a common temperature;
but if the naked surface be exposed to the elements in our
climate, the heat of the body would soon be reduced be¬
low what is consistent with health or comfort. To pre¬
serve the animal heat, we surround our bodies with bad
conductors of caloric, such as woollen, silk, or cotton; and
the more imperfectly these defences conduct heat, the less
will our temperature be reduced. Hence the worst con¬
ducting substances are the most suitable garments for a
cold climate ; and, in hot latitudes, the comfort of man re¬
quires that the coverings of his body should be of the kind
that would most rapidly abstract his redundant animal heat.
Nature has beautifully adapted the covering of the lower
animals to the climates they inhabit. The thick fur of the
Greenland bear, the musk ox, and the arctic hare, adapts
them to the rigours of their native climate; whilst the
short and sleek hair of the antelope, the giraffe, the leo¬
pard, and the lion, proclaims them denizens of the warmer
regions of the earth. Even in the same species inhabiting
a changeable climate, nature adapts their covering to the
season. The glossy sleekness of the horse, and of our do¬
mestic cattle, diminishes toward the close of autumn. The
bear, the fox, and the weasels of northern regions, assume
a longer and more shaggy coat on the approach of winter ;
and the sheep, which in Europe is covered with a thick
fine wool, an extremely bad conductor of heat, in the burn¬
ing plains of Africa is clothed only by a short and coarse
hair, that presents comparatively a email obstacle to the
evolution of animal heat.
In the vegetable kingdom a similar care is bestowed to
defend plants from excessive cold. Plants of cold cli¬
mates, which are perennial, are protected by a consider¬
able thickness of bark; a substance which experiment
proves to be a bad conductor of heat. In high latitudes
they are further defended against the excessive cold of the
climate by a spongy covering of snow, which, until it be¬
gin to melt, is found to be a very bad conductor of heat; and
therefore tends to preserve the juices of plants from being
frozen. Thus trees are more seldom killed by the freezing
of their sap, when a fall of snow has preceded an intense
frost; an accident not uncommon, even in the temperate
climates of the earth, in a long continuance of what is
termed a black frost. Recent voyages of discovery have
also shown that the Esquimaux find the excessive rigour
of their inhospitable climate very endurable in houses built
of frozen snow.
A T.
II. Diffusion of Heat by Radiation. Diffu
ofH
The diffusion of heat by the means already noticed is a>
comparatively slow process, and is limited to bodies in con¬
tact with each other. But heat is capable of being diffused
among bodies not in contact. A heated body suspended in
vacuo emits its excess of heat in all directions ; and in air,
though much of its caloric apparently passes off with the as¬
cending currents which it produces in the ambient air, the
emanations of heat also pass off in directions contrary to these
aerial currents. Thus a person standing before a fire per¬
ceives its warmth, though a light body like a feather will
show that there is a current of air perpetually flowing toward
the fire. This emission of heat is termed radiation, and is
analogous to the emanations of light from a luminous ob¬
ject ; each point of the heated surface emitting divergent
rays, which are subject to the same modifications as those
of light, by reflection from polished surfaces, and by re¬
fraction through transparent media.
When the rays of heat fall on a bright metallic surface,
they are reflected. As early as 1682, Mariotte showed
that “ the heat of a fire is reflected from a burning mir¬
ror, so as to be sensible in its focus ; but that it is inter¬
cepted by a plate of glass interposed between the mirror
and the fire.” The next important step was made by
Lambert, who discovered that the heat might be so in¬
creased, by employing two concave mirrors, and a char¬
coal fire placed in the focus of the one, that a combustible
might be kindled in the focus of the other. But the most
successful cultivator of this branch of science during the
last century was Scheele of Sweden, who proved that me¬
tallic surfaces are the most powerful reflectors of radiant
caloric; that glass is far inferior in this respect; that if
we cover the surface of the metallic mirror with a film of
lamp-black, it does not reflect heat, but actually absorbs
it; that radiant heat is separated from light by interposing
screens of glass; and that it passes through air, without
suffering any obstruction from the direction of the aerial
currents through which it radiates.
Saussure and Pictet repeated the experiments of Lam¬
bert. They showed the instantaneous transmission of heat
by radiation ; that it was in such experiments material to
place the heated body and the thermometer in the focus
of each mirror ; and that, a very little beyond the focus, the
effect was trifling, although the thermometer was nearer
the heated body. When the heated body was a red-hot
cannon bullet, combustibles were speedily kindled in the
focus of the other mirror at the distance of several feet.
These researches were greatly extended by Pictet, who
showed that a flask of hot water radiated heat which
could be concentrated in the focus of a metallic mirror,
and thus rendered sensible by a thermometer, showing
that the invisible rays of heat might be reflected, as well
as those emanated from a hot luminous body.
The experiments on radiant heat may be exhibited by
means of a pair of concave mirrors of well-polished tinned
iron, hammered into segments of spheres of about one foot
in diameter; but still better with mirrors of thick brass
plate, hammered, on Sir John Leslie’s plan, into a parabo¬
lic form. T he writer of this possesses a pair twenty-two
inches in diameter, hammered into a parabolic curve with
surprising accuracy, by Mr Alexander Kilpatrick of Edin-
burgh, with which he has repeatedly melted lead by col¬
lecting the sun’s rays in one of them. This form of mirror
is the best; because the rays which fall on the mirror pa¬
rallel to its axis are reflected, not divergingly, but so as to
meet in the focus of the parabola.
Pictet found the sensibility of the thermometer much
increased by painting its ball black; and he showed that
glass screens intercepted the rays of caloric from burning
bodies or a heated bullet; but it was found that the ra-
HEAT.
J83
m diant heat in the sun’s rays was not intercepted by a plate
m, of glass, or even by a sheet of tin, which completely inter-
^ cents heat derived from other luminous bodies.
Such was the state of our knowledge of radiant heat,
when our veteran astronomer, Sir William Herschel, dis¬
covered, toward the close of the last century, that rays of
heat exist, independently of those of light, in the solar
spectrum. When he received the solar rays through a
prism of flint-glass, he found that a row of delicate ther¬
mometers placed in the coloured spectrum were different¬
ly affected at its two extremities. In the violet ray it only
rose 2°, in the red ray it rose 7° ; but his most interesting
discovery was, that half an inch beyond the red ray it was
still hotter. These very important results were fully con¬
firmed by Sir Henry Englefield. In one of Englefield’s
experiments, the following results were obtained :—In the
m.L ravs. in 3' the thermometer rose 2° ; in the £
blue rays, in 3' the thermometer rose 2 ; m the green, in
3' it = 4°; in the yellow, in 3' it = 6° ; in the middle of
the red, in 2'-5 it = 16° ; in the outer edge of the red,
in 2'-5 it = 17°-5; and beyond the spectrum, in 2'-5 it
_ 18°. When the bulbs of the thermometers were pre¬
viously blacked, the full red ray raised the thermometer in
three minutes 22° ; and just beyond the spectrum it rose
33°. Even half an inch beyond the spectrum altogether,
the rise was 6° more than in the red ray.
These experiments show that the refrangibility of the
rays of heat and light are different, and that the former
are less refrangible than the latter.
The experiments of Berard and of Leslie confirmed the
fact, that the point of greatest heat in the solar spectrum
is in the red rays ; and Leslie states the result of his ex¬
periments to have made the difference between the violet
and red as one to sixteen ; but neither of these philoso¬
phers detected any heat altogether beyond the spectrum.
The conclusions of Herschel have, however, been con¬
firmed by more recent investigations ; and Seebeck has
shown that prisms of different substances produce a dif¬
ferent refraction of the rays of heat. With a hollow prism
filled with water, the greatest heat is in the full yellow
light; with sulphuric acid it is in the orange ; with crown
glass it is in the dark limit of the red.
We may here state, that not long after Herschel’s dis¬
covery, Ritter, Wollaston, and Beckmann, simultaneous¬
ly discovered the existence of other invisible rays in the
solar spectrum, which are only known by their chemical
effects in decomposing some metallic saline compounds,
as the nitrate of silver. These chemical rays are the most
refrangible of all, and exist in greatest abundance to¬
ward the violet end of the spectrum, and even entirely
beyond it. Thus the solar spectrum would seem to con¬
sist of three species of rays, the luminous, the calorific,
and the chemical; all differing in their refrangibility, and
in their apparent effects: and if we consider white light
as composed of red, yellow, and blue rays, we have five
kinds of rays in the solar beam, three of which are visible,
and two invisible. In the solar beams these are intimate¬
ly blended, but may be in some degree separated by re¬
fraction through diaphanous prisms. 4he separation of
the luminous and calorific rays may be made by black
opake bodies, through which the sun’s heat will pene¬
trate without admitting a single ray of light. Ihe sun s
rays, however, pass through all transparent media, with¬
out a separation of light and heat. Glass and ice inter¬
cept the rays of terrestrial heat, the first partially, the
latter wholly; yet the sun’s rays passing through and
collected in the focus of a lens of glass, produce the most
intense heat; and Scoresby and others have shown, that
a lens of ice will concentrate the sun’s rays, so as to ignite
inflammable substances.
The publication of Sir John Leslie’s Inquiry into the
Nature of Heat, in 1804, forms an important era in the
history of the radiation of caloric. This very original and Diffusion
able philosopher, by the simplicity and delicacy of his ap- °f Heat,
paratus, and the ingenuity of his well-devised experi-
ments, did more than has been accomplished by any other
individual to develop the laws which regulate the trans¬
mission and reception of this mysterious agent; and his
work will remain a land-mark in the history of this branch
of physical science. In his experiments, a single mirror
only was employed; and the source of heat generally
used wras a cube or square canister of tinned iron placed
before the mirror, at the distance of three or four feet,
whilst the ball of an air thermometer was placed in the fo¬
cus of the mirror. The air thermometer employed by him
was his own modification of that figured by Sturmius.
{Colleg. Curios, p. 53, 1676.)
In the instrument of Leslie, termed by him a differen¬
tial thermometer, both limbs of the instrument, as well as
both balls, are equal; and instead of being joined with ce¬
ment, the recipient ball is united by the blow pipe to the
same piece with the sentient ball. These changes give
additional delicacy and accuracy to the instrument; in
which the coloured fluid is sulphuric acid tinged with
carmine.
Leslie’s principal object was the relation of different
surfaces in emitting and receiving calorific rays. Of his
cubical canister, one side was polished, or, as it is termed
by workmen, planished; the second was covered by a
plate of glass; a third with white paper smoothly pasted
on; the fourth was painted with lamp-black mixed with
size. The cubes he used were from four to ten inches,
and were filled with boiling water. When the polished
side was turned toward the thermometer, placed at four
feet from the mirror, the increase of temperature w'as no
more than 12° ; when the glass side w'as presented, the
differential thermometer under the same circumstances
rose to 90°; when the papered side was the radiating
surface, the temperature was 98°, and the painted side
indicated 100° ; when the polish of the planished side was
destroyed, by ploughing it in one direction with a fine¬
toothed plane, its propelling or radiating power rose to
19°; and when scratched in one direction with a fine file,
its effect was as much as 26°. On covering one of the
surfaces smoothly with gold and silver leaf, the effect was
about equal to the surface of polished tin ; a plate of po¬
lished iron gave 15° ; a surface of fresh lead 19° ; but
when the same became tarnished, its effect was equal to
45° ; and painting it with red oxide of lead raised it to 80°.
An amalgam of mercury and tin, when fresh, gave no
more than 20°.
Leslie then investigated the relative receiving power of
different surfaces, by coating the sentient ball of the dif¬
ferential thermometer with different substances. When
that ball was smoothly coated with tinfoil, the effect of
the blackened side of the canister was only 2°-5, or about
one fifth of what it produced on the naked ball; and he
found, that of either side of the canister the effect was
now just one fifth of that observed with the naked ball.
On the other hand, when the ball was covered with a coat
of china ink, or formed of a black enamel, tbe effect of
either side of the canister was greatly increased.
The power of surfaces in reflecting heat was also in¬
vestigated. In fact, it was shown by the last series of ex¬
periments with the coated ball; but he proved it also by
varying the reflecting surface. When a glass concave
mirror, two feet in diameter, was substituted for the me¬
tal reflector, the effect of the blackened side of the canis¬
ter on the naked ball was but just perceptible ; and if a
film of china ink be spread over the surface of the mirror,
even this slight effect totally disappears. If, however, the
concave surface of the glass mirror be smoothly coated
with tinfoil, the effect of the black side of the canister
184
HEAT.
Diffusion will be ten times more than with the naked glass surface.
/-I Removing the silvering from the back of the mirror pro¬
duced no effect on its reflecting the calorific rays, neither
was this affected by roughening the back of the mirror.
Hence Leslie infers, that reflection of heat takes place at
the surface of the glass mirror, or principally so.
A polished tin reflector had its power diminished one
third by being coated as smoothly as possible with tin-
foil, evidently by the imperfection of the smoothness of
its surface. Scratching its surface with sand-paper di¬
minishes its effect one tenth ; and he found that the mir¬
ror seemed to have its reflecting power more impaired
when the scratches were all in one direction, than when
they crossed. A film of tallow on the surface of the mir¬
ror reduced the effect of the blackened side from 100° to
8°; but if held before the fire until all that could be thus
removed had run off, the effect of that side rose to 37°.
When the surface of the mirror was covered with a very
thin iridescent film of isinglass, the blackened surface
gave an effect of 80°; but when that film was only yi/oo^1
of an inch, the effect was reduced to 15°.
The results of his experiments with other reflecting
surfaces gave the following proportions :—A reflector of
polished brass = 100°, of the same coated with tinfoil =
85°, of steel — 70°, of fresh lead rr 60°, of glass = 10°.
The inference from these investigations is, that the re¬
flecting power of various surfaces bears some inverse pro¬
portion to their propelling and absorbing powers. The
numerical results of Leslie’s experiments would give the
ratio between metallic surfaces and glass, in reflecting
power as ten to one ; in propelling power as one to eight ;
in absorbing power as one to five. It was, however, sup¬
posed that some minute circumstances, of which it is dif¬
ficult to estimate the effect, interfered in the two last pro¬
cesses, and that the propelling and absorbing powers are
equal in all bodies: we shall find this to be incorrect.
One of the most interesting parts of Leslie’s investiga¬
tions was the effect of screens of different kinds, inter¬
posed between the sources of heat and the thermometer.
When he interposed a screen of tinfoil, the effect of the
blackened side of the canister was 0°; a thin sheet of
crown-glass was 20° ; a sheet of common writing paper,
placed about two inches from the cube, was = 23°. If the
screen of any material was placed one foot from the cube,
the effect was only one thirtieth of what it was at the
distance of two inches. From this he inferred, that the
screen prevents all transmission of radiant heat until it
becomes itself heated ; and then it radiates from its other
surface toward the thermometer. This was confirmed
by substituting a plate of ice (a substance the tempera¬
ture of which cannot rise above 32° F.) for the screen,
when the effect was 0°. This view he considered as con¬
firmed by his beautiful contrivance of the double or com¬
pound screen. He coated one side of two plates of glass
with tinfoil; when the coated sides were outermost, the
thei mometer did not rise; when the glass surfaces were
outwards, the thermometer rose to 18°. He blackened one
surface of two plates of tinned iron ; when the blackened
surfaces were outwards, the effect was 23° ; but if the
plates weie separated from each other, the thermometer
fell back to its former station. When the tinned surfaces
were outermost, the thermometer was not at all affected.
Leslie included his whole apparatus in a trough of wa¬
ter, in such a way as to be able to fill the canister with
hot water after the whole was adjusted ; but there was no
radiation of caloric.
The inference which this philosopher drew from his in¬
vestigations is, that heat is an elastic substance, extreme-
y ,U1^ a, active; and he advanced strong arguments
against the theory which ascribes all the phenomena of
heat to vibrations in the particles of matter. ( Vide Inquiry,
p. 139 to 150.) Yet he is disposed to consider the phe- D'a
nomena of radiation as depending on certain undulations of]11
produced by radiating surfaces in the ambient air. This
view has been ably combated by the late Dr Murray, with
the sagacity which distinguished that philosopher. But
the limits of the present article will not allow us to enter
into this part of the subject, for which we must refer the
reader to Leslie’s Inquiry, and Murray’s Chemistry.
The more usually-received theory' of radiation is, that
from heated bodies emanate rays of caloric in all direc¬
tions, which proceed through gaseous bodies with little or
no sensible interruption, and with amazing velocity; that
these rays are absorbed by dark and rough surfaces, and
are reflected by polished bright surfaces.
There is, however, one curious experiment, which is ra¬
ther difficult of explanation, namely, the seeming radfadon
of cold. The Florentine philosophers of the Academia del
Cimento found, that when a mass of snow was placed in
the focus of one mirror, the thermometer placed in the
focus of the other sunk, or indicated cold. This subject
has been investigated by Pictet and by Leslie. The lat¬
ter observed that his canister, filled with snow, produced
the greatest effect when its blackened side was towards
the thermometer and the mirror, and the least when its
polished side was in that direction. The effect of screens,
in retarding the influence of the cold body, he found ana¬
logous to their effect on the radiation from the hot water.
These facts were considered by Leslie as proving the
existence of what he denominated cold pulses from the snow
towards the mirror, “ on the wings of the ambient air;”
but the explanation of Pictet appears to account for it
well, without the necessity of inferring the existence of
frigorific particles, which is a highly improbable supposi¬
tion. On this view, radiation is considered as only taking
place amongst bodies unequally heated. He conceived that
bodies at the same temperature do not radiate heat to
each other, because in this state caloric exists in them
all in an equality of tension; but when a cool body is
introduced, all radiate heat towards it, and consequently
their temperature falls. Hence radiation is nothing more
than the tendency of caloric to establish an equilibrium
of temperature. The rays of heat enter into the snow
from the surrounding matter, and, amongst others, from
the thermometer, which is now a radiating body; and these
collected in the mirror pass in right lines to the snow,
with a celerity in proportion to their absorption by the
cold body. Hence the caloric of the thermometer will
more rapidly leave it when the blackened side of the cold
canister, that is, its most absorbent side, is turned to the
thermometer.
Leslie explains this phenomenon by his theory of
aerial pulsations. He considers the cold surface as ab-
sti acting part of the caloric of the contiguous stratum of
air, which induces a momentary contraction of that por¬
tion; and this contraction produces pulsations, accompanied
by a discharge of heat, in a continued chain from the
thermometer and the mirror to the snow.
. 1 he eHbct of surface op the refrigeration of bodies, an
important part of the consequences of radiation, has been
ably examined both by Sir John Leslie and Count Rumford.
i he experiments of both show, that to preserve the heat
of any liquid, a bright metallic vessel is the best; and
Rumford has pointed out many important economical pur¬
poses to which these principles may be applied. Thus,
where it is of consequence to preserve the heat of liquids,
of steam, or of hot air, they should be conveyed in vessels
and tubes of polished metal. On the other hand, if we
wish to have the greatest radiant heat from a stove or
grate, its surface next the room should be dark and rough,
as these are the most favourable for radiating heat into
the apartment. The same principles show why a silver
HEAT.
185
tea-pot makes better tea, and keeps it longer warm, than
a china one. , . . ,
One of the most beautiful applications of the principle
of the radiation of heat, is Dr Wells’explanation of the
phenomena of dew and hoar-frost. Dr Wilson of Glas¬
gow had observed, that bodies upon which dew and hoar¬
frost formed, were always colder than the surrounding air.
This cold he ascribed to these depositions ; but an atten¬
tive examination of facts led Dr Wells to draw an oppo¬
site conclusion, and to infer that the coldness of the bo¬
dies was the cause of the deposition of dew and hoar-frost.
This he successfully established, by proving that, before
any dew formed, the surface on which it condensed was
uniformly cooler than the ambient air. And it was re¬
served for this accomplished man to offer a theory of those
meteors, complete in almost all its parts, and perfectly sa-
tisfactorv. He ascribed it to the radiation of heat, with¬
out any return from the air to the surface of the earth.
He observed, that it was chiefly in serene, clear nights,
that dew was formed; that exposure to the open clear sky
favoured the formation of dew ; and that cloudy skies were
unfavourable to its formation. These phenomena he beau¬
tifully explained on the theory of radiation. The upper re¬
gions of the atmosphere are well known to be the abodes of
perpetual congelation, as is seen whenever mountains reach
a certain altitude, differing, it is true, in different climates,
but yet invariable over the earth. When we have a clear
atmosphere at night, the surface of the earth rapidly parts
with the heat it had acquired during the day, by radiation
to the superior regions, whence it can receive no heat in re¬
turn. In this case, the empyrean regions act the part of
the snow in the Florentine experiment; and the earth’s
surface may represent the thermometer. But if fleecy
clouds intervene, they act the part of screens, intercepting
the passage of radiant caloric from the earth, and conse¬
quently retarding the nocturnal cooling of its suiface. Air
at an increased temperature contains more water than cool
air, and on the reduction of its temperature deposits its
surplus water. Now, as the radiation from the eaith s sur¬
face cools it more rapidly than the air during serene nights,
its temperature rapidly falls, as the thermometer shows;
and the consequence is the cooling of the stratum of air
in immediate contact with the ground, and the deposition
of its superabundant moisture, in the form of dew or hoar¬
frost, according to the celerity and intensity of the refrige¬
ration.
This theory is experimentally proved by placing sub¬
stances absorbent of moisture, along with thermometers,
below and above screens, and then noting the temperature
and the increase of weight. If, for instance, a light table,
about three feet high, be placed in a garden on a clear
night, and a few grains of wool, previously weighed, be laid
under the table, and as much on its upper surface, with a
thermometer by each parcel of wool, it will be found that
the upper thermometer will indicate the greatest degree of
cold, and the wool on the table will have imbibed much
more moisture than that below. The table, in such expe¬
riments, acts the part of clouds in intercepting the dis¬
charge of radiant heat, and preventing the cooling of the
earth’s surface. The theory agrees with the fact, that dew
is heaviest in our climate in serene nights, after a hot day ;
and that the dews of hot climates are far heavier than with
us, so as, in clear weather, in the south of Europe, to
drench the clothes of persons exposed to the air about sun¬
set. The slight anomalies which sometimes occur in such
experiments are easily explicable by the different conduct¬
ing power of substances in regard to heat, by which the in¬
fluence of radiation may be in some degree modified ; but
undoubtedly the principal effect is due to radiation.
The influence of a clear sky in reducing the temperature
of the earth’s surface, and the effect of clouds in preventing
VOL. XI.
this change, are beautifully illustrated by Leslie’s elegant Diffusion
invention, the JEihrioscope. (See, for the description of °f Heat,
the aethrioscope, the article Climate.) This instrument
is so delicate, that it instantly indicates cold on presenting
its uncovered ball to the clear sky ; but if a passing cloud
cross the zenith, even momentarily, the movement of the
fluid in its stem immediately shows an increase of tempera¬
ture. If one walk in a clear night, with this instrument in
one hand and a parasol in the other, it may be kept in a
perpetual state of fluctuation, by alternately projecting it
beyond and drawing it under the parasol.
The radiant heat afforded by the sun’s rays is the most
important phenomenon of this class. Light and heat ai e
in these rays so united, that experiment would seem to
prove the one to be always in proportion to the other.
This is by no means the case with the light and heat of
common combustibles, or what we may term terrestrial, in
contradistinction to solar emanations of light. Phospho¬
rus gives an intense light during combustion, but a feeble
heat; whilst hydrogen, which has a very feeble light, ex¬
cites a high temperature by its combustion. Solar light
and heat, on the other hand, are uniformly proportional.
There are more marked differences between solar and ter¬
restrial radiant heat. Screens of glass greatly interrupt the
passage of the latter, but do not sensibly intercept that of
the sun. A plate of the most diaphanous ice totally intei -
cepts terrestrial radiant caloric, but does not impede the
sun’s heating rays. This has, with considerable reason,
been supposed to depend on the different velocities of the
two species of calorific emanations. Sir John Leslie consi¬
dered “ that the phenomena of solar radiation proved heat
to be only light in a state of combination. (hssay, 162.)
For thirty years after the publication of Leslie’s Experi¬
mental Inquiry, little appears to have been attempted on
this subject, until within a recent period, when the experi¬
mental researches of Melloni and of Nobili, particularly of
the former, opened a beautiful field of investigation, which
has already been cultivated with success by Professor James
Forbes of Edinburgh. Melloni has, by means of a thermo-
magnetic combination, invented a very delicate test of mi¬
nute degrees of heat, wholly inappreciable by any thermo¬
meter, and has successfully applied it to investigate the
laws of radiant heat. By uniting fifty small bars of anti¬
mony and bismuth into one bundle, about three fourths of
an inch square, and about 1T7 inch in length, and connect¬
ing this with a galvanometer, he obtained an apparatus so
sensible to heat, that the warmth radiating from the hu¬
man hand, at the distance of several inches from the end
of the bars, is indicated by the deviation of the needle of
the galvanometer.
Melloni’s instrument is represented in the adjoining figure,
where a firm sole of wood is seen, provided with a groove,
in which the different parts of the apparatus slide to adjust
2 A
186
HEAT.
their relative distances. A is the bundle of metallic bars,
enclosed in a square case of brass; B is the source of the
heat; C, D are the wires proceeding from the bars, to con¬
vey their thermo-magnetism to the nearly neutralized needle
or galvanometer, which is not here represented; G is the
stage for occasionally supporting various substances, the
effect of which on the calorific rays it is intended to as¬
certain ; FF are screens of brass, moveable on joints, for
cutting off at pleasure the radiant heat, or for obviating
the influence of extraneous sources of heat. In F is a hole
through which the heat radiates to A when the screen is
removed.
This apparatus has been employed by Melloni to inves¬
tigate the laws of radiant heat; and he has not only con¬
firmed the general results of Leslie, but extended greatly
our knowledge of this mysterious agent.
Melloni found, that the radiant and absorbent power of
surfaces were not always proportional, as the following ta¬
bles show.
1 he radiant power of surfaces of
Lamp black = 100
Carbonate of lead = 100
85
91
72
12
China ink
Isinglass -
Lac  
A metallic surface  
The absorbent power of surfaces of
Lamp black   100
Carbonate of lead — 53
China ink   96
Isinglass   52
Lac   — 52
A metallic surface   14
Melloni also found, that the absorbent powers of the
surfaces varied considerably, according to the source of the
radiation, and the temperature of that body. Thus, radia¬
tion from incandescent platinum wire, from copper at 400°
and copper at 100° centigrade, gave the following results.
Incand. Platinum. Copper 400° Copper 100°.
Lamp black.... = 100 100
Carb. of lead...= 56 89
China ink — 95 87
Isinglass — 54 64
Lac — 47 70
Metal, surface = 13*5 13
100
100
85
91
72
13
This experiment proves,
L That bodies do not always agree in their emitting and
absorbent powers, though generally nearly so.
2. That their absorbent power varies very remarkably
with the origin and intensity of the calorific rays.
3. That they approach each other more and more in
their power of emitting and absorbing rays of heat, when
the temperature approaches that of boiling water; and that,
when exactly at that temperature, the emitting and ab¬
sorbing powers coincide.
With respect to the reflection of radiant heat, he has
shown, that it is equally reflected by metallic surfaces, from
whatever source it emanates.
But Melloni’s most original experiments are those on the
media)1881011 °f radiant heat throvigh various transparent
L Lte showed that radiant heat is intercepted in a
greater or less degree by all diaphanous bodies, in propor-
tion to the lowness of the temperature of the radiating body.
2. 1 hat of two bodies unequally diaphanous, it may hap¬
pen that the thickest and least diaphanous may transmit
most radiant heat. Thus he showed that a thin plate of
very transparent alum, placed on the stage G, transmitted
four times less heat than a plate of almost opake quartz,
about 100 tunes as thick; but he found that in the same
substance the transmission of radiant heat is diminished by Difl
the thickness of the plate interposed, and this diminution ofl
is proportional to the lowness of the temperature of the ^
radiant body.
3. That there are combinations of two media, which al¬
low a notable quantity of light to pass, but totally intercept
radiant heat; whilst others transmit heat, but wholly inter¬
cept light.
4. That in traversing a transparent plate, radiant heat
undergoes certain modifications, variable with the nature of
the plate; a change which renders it more or less suscep¬
tible ultimately of being transmitted through other diapha¬
nous substances. Melloni instances this last property in
glass, in crystallized citric acid, and in alum.
Delaroche had inferred, from his experiments, that it
was a general law of radiant heat, that the permeability of
plates to this agent depended upon the intensity of the
source of the caloric ; and in this way he explained the in¬
stant permeability of glass and ice to the calorific rays of
the sun, whilst they retarded those from terrestrial sources
of heat; but Melloni has discovered one substance which
he found to be equally pervious to heat, from whatever
terrestrial source, whether proceeding from the brightest
flame, or from water far below the boiling point.
The power of penetrating glass and other media in¬
creasing in proportion as the radiating heat approaches
the state of light, had been used by Delaroche as an argu¬
ment for their identity ; but the anomaly of rock-salt de¬
stroys the universality of the supposed law on which the ar¬
gument is founded. Yet Mrs Somerville has ingenious¬
ly employed the unlooked-for analogy between light and
heat, in the equal transmission of the latter, however eli¬
minated, through rock-salt, as an argument for their being
modifications of the same principle. The condition of vi¬
sibility or invisibility, she contends, may depend on the
construction of our eyes, not on the nature of the agent
producing the sensations of vision and of heat.
I he sense of seeing, like that of hearing, may be con¬
fined within certain limits; the chemical rays beyond the
violent end of the spectrum may be too rapid, or not suf¬
ficiently excursive in their vibrations to be visible to the
human eye; and the calorific rays beyond the other end
of the spectrum may not be sufficiently rapid, or too ex¬
tensive, in their undulations, to affect our optic nerves,
though both may be visible to certain animals or insects.’’
. She has traced the analogies between light and heat
in their leflection by polished surfaces, their refraction
through transparent media, with their concentration by
concave and dispersion by convex mirrors; and since the
publication of her beautiful essay on the connection of
the physical sciences, Professor Forbes has drawn the
analogy closer, as we shall presently see.
But to return to Melloni. This able philosopher has
shown that radiant caloric is susceptible of refraction;
and when it arrives at the second surface of the refract¬
ing angle, with a certain obliquity, it is, like light, reflect¬
ed towaid the interior of the prism, and issues at the op¬
posite face.
By interposing the same plate of glass, he ascertained
the influence of transmission on the absolute power of
different radiating surfaces thus :
Before the interposition
_ ofthe plate of glass. After ditto.
Lamp-black   joq 100
Carbonate of lead   53 34
China ink   95 joo
Isinglass   52 45
     43 30
A metallic surface   14 17
Melloni, however, failed to detect the polarisation of
radiant heat: indeed, he states that the direction in
HEAT.
187
which we slice crystallized bodies does not exert any
)fH«- influence upon the quantity of radiant heat immediately
^ ' transmitted by them ; and adds, that radiant heat is not
polarised by transmission through tourmaline. In this,
however, Melloni was deceived; and it was reserved for
our countryman Professor Forbes of Edinburgh to com¬
plete the analogy between light and heat, by demonstrat¬
ing the polarisation of the latter.
Since the characteristic phenomenon which marks the
polarisation of light is its variable susceptibility as to
reflection or transmission, under circumstances in which
common light would be reflected or transmitted, it will
appear that the correlative fact in the case of heat would
be indicated by a diminished effect on the thermometer,
where the intensity of light, under similar circumstances,
would be a minimum, and vice versa. The importance of
establishing this effect with regard to heat is far greater
than the mere addition of such facts to our knowledge ;
for, as the corresponding facts in the instance of light
have been completely brought into the domain of analysis
by Fresnel, the polarisation of heat must be considered
as almost decisive of its nature.
Mr Forbes employed Melloni’s apparatus ; and by in¬
terposing two plates of tourmaline, cut parallel to the axis
of the crystal, and mounted on two slips of thin glass, he
made a series of successive observations under the two
conditions of the axes parallel and perpendicular to each
other. Two measures of intensity in the position in which
least light is transmitted were noted, and in the following
table this position is indicated by dark ; their mean is
given, which is then compared with the intervening ob¬
servation, in the position of greatest illumination, which
is marked light.
The source of heat was a small oil lamp placed on the
stage, six inches from the centre of the pile of Melloni s
apparatus; the numbers indicate the degrees of the gal¬
vanometer.
Sources of Heat.
Caloric.
Dark.
H
%
5
Mean.
4- 5
5- 0
5-2
5-4
Light.
5- 2
6*0
6- 0
6-5
Ratio.
86 : 100
83: 100
86: 100
83 : 100
He afterwards obtained the polarisation of heat from va¬
rious luminous and non-luminous sources, such as brass
heated by a spirit lamp to 390° centigrade. The quan¬
tity of heat from different sources, polarised by the tour¬
malines, was as follows :—
With Argand lamp = 16 per cent.
  Oil lamp = 11 do.
 Incandescent platinum..zr 12 do.
  Brass at 390° cent.......zz' 3 do.
The most convenient way of polarising heat is by trans¬
mitting it through a bundle of extremely thin laminae of
mica, inclined to the incident ray at the polarising angle ;
mica having the property of transmitting heat very readi¬
ly. The amount of polarisation is indicated by the rela¬
tive quantities of heat reaching the pile, or thermo-mag¬
netic combination of the instrument, through a second
bundle of thin plates of mica, placed alternately in a pa¬
rallel or perpendicular position to the first. W ith such
an apparatus Mr Forbes demonstrated, in the most deci¬
sive manner, the polarisation of heat; and obtained this
effect, even with water below 200° F. as the source of
heat. The quantity polarised, however, always bears a
proportion to the temperature of the source of the radiant
heat, as is seen by the following tabular results.
Rays out of 100 polarised General
by the mica plates. Effects of
Argand lamp with a glass chimney 29
Oil lamp with a square wick 24
Alcohol lamp 36
Incandescent platinum 40
Brass heated to about 700° F 22
Mercury in a crucible at about 500° F.... 17
Water under 200° F  6
Mr Forbes next proceeded to attempt the polarisation
by rejlection ; and in this also he succeeded by the use of
reflecting surfaces of mica, as in the corresponding case
of light.
The success of these investigations, and the analogy of
light, led him to the more delicate problem of the depo¬
larisation of heat by plates of mica. By interposing a film
of mica between the two bundles of mica plates already
mentioned, having their planes of incidence at right angles
to each other, and marking the difference of the heat
transmitted to the galvanometer, when the principal sec¬
tion of the film of mica was parallel to the plane of primi¬
tive polarisation, or inclined to it at an angle of 45°, he
succeeded in demonstrating the polarisation of the rays of
heat, even when heat without light was employed. In
these experiments, when the principal section coincided
with the plane of polarisation, the depolarising effect was
nil; but when it was inclined at the angle of 45°, he ob¬
tained the following proportions in one series of experi¬
ments.
100 : 118 :: — 100 :120 — 100 :120 — 100 : 113 —
The depolarisation is still more marked with incandescent
platinum; as the results were
100 :126 — 100 :138 — 100 :138.
One of the most striking proofs of the depolarising
power of mica is obtained, when the two bundles of mica
plates are crossed, so as to intercept most heat, and we
interpose a very thin plate or film of mica as above men¬
tioned ; then the galvanometer moves towards zero, or the
thin plate evidently stops more heat than it depolarises;
but if we substitute a much thicker plate of mica for the
film, the instrument will indicate a higher temperature
than when no mica at all is interposed, or the thick plate
depolarises more heat than it intercepts.
These experiments were varied in a great variety of
ways, so as to establish the fact of the depolarisation of
heat; and if we admit that it depends on a similar cause
to the analogous phenomena of light, it follows that the
rays of caloric are susceptible also of double refraction ;
that the two pencils are polarised in opposite planes, and
that they become capable of interference by the action of
the analysing plate. . .
These curious facts would indicate at least a great si¬
milarity between light and heat; and th® conchidiiHj o
servations of Professor-Forbes’s paper {Edm. Phil. Trans.
xiii.) tend to confirm their identity..
SECT. III. GENERAL EFFECTS OF CALORIC.
The general effects of heat applied to other matter are,
expansion, fluidity, vaporization, and incandescence. The
most general effect of heat, however, is,
1. Expansion.
When a body is heated, it expands in all its dimensions ;
but when the heat is withdrawn, the body returns to its
original size. This is well shown by having a turned rod
of metal, loosely fitted to a gage, to ascertain its length,
and provided with a hole which first allows it, when cold,
to pass through. This expansion is small in solids, but
has1 been most accurately measured by philosophers, for
188
HEAT.
Purposes of ascertaining with precision the Oil of turpentine 000700 — J
Caloric? JlU*e en§^1 ^ie pendulum vibrating seconds in any Either 0-00700 — J*
Olive oil 0-00800 =
latitude, and for obtaining a perfect standard of length.
Ihis difficult subject engaged the attention of Ellicot,
Smeaton, Roy, Troughton, Lavoisier, and Laplace. The
latest experiments were made by the two last-mentioned
philosophers, and were first published by Biot in the fol¬
lowing table, which shows the expansion which different
solids sustain, in passing from the freezing to the boiling
point of water, in fractions of their own lengths.
Steel, not tempered 0-00107915 —
Steel, tempered and annealed 0-00123956 =
Silver, cupelled  0-00190974 =
Silver of Parisian standard 0'00190868 z=
Copper 0 00171733 =
Brass 0-00187821 =
Tin of Malacca 0-00193765 —
Tin of Cornwall 0-001217298 =
Iron, forged 0-00122045 =
Iron, wire-drawn 0.00123504 —
Gold, pure 0-00146606 =
Gold, standard, annealed 0-00151361 —
Gold, standard, unannealed 0-00155155 =
Platina 0-00085655 —
Lead  0-000284836 =
Mercury, in volume 0-01847746 =
Flint-glass, English... 0-00081166 —
Glass, French, with lead 0-00087199
Glass tube, without lead 0-00089694
Plate glass 0-00089089
A very elaborate and interesting set of experiments on
the expansion of building materials by heat, with a
i 'h
_ i
927
WUT
T2T
5 8*
7^2
5 1" O’
772
8T^
_ 1
8 12
1
6iT2
7(fr
777
TT77
77T
—
— _ 1
— i24<S
= TiVr
— 1
— TTT7
— T]22¥
Nitric acid 0-1100 — -
Alcohol   0-1100 = I
The inequality of the expansion of fluids by heat has
long been known to form an obstacle to the accuracy of
thermometers. Deluc found, that of all fluids mercury
was the most equable in its expansions, which is proba¬
bly owing to the great distance between its freezing and
boiling points ; for it is found that those liquids which have
a low boiling point are the most irregular in their expan¬
sion at ordinary temperatures; and hence alcohol is not
a suitable fluid for thermometers.
The expansibility of liquids is not in proportion to their
density ; but it is more nearly in the inverse ratio of their
density than of any other known property.
The expansion of gases by heat is much more consider¬
able than that of the other two forms of matter.
The higher increasing ratio in the expansibility of li¬
quids with their augmenting temperature, than in solids,
led philosophers at first to infer, that the inequalities of
the gaseous bodies, in this respect, would be still more
considerable; but the elaborate researches of General
Roy have disproved this idea; and some experiments of
the late Dr Murray of Edinburgh, and of Dr Dalton, would
rather indicate a decrease in the ratio with the increased
temperature. This, however, may probably be owing to
the imperfection of our best thermometers, and to the
difficulty of estimating the expansions of the glass contain¬
ing the air examined.
Dr Dalton has ascertained that all gases expand equal¬
ly by equal increments of heat; a conclusion which has
been confirmed by Gay-Lussac. They have shown that,
point of water, 100 cu-
atmospheric air expand to 137-50, that with
. - „ ,  view
to determine how far the changes produced bv tempera-
ture may affect the stabihty of edifices into which these ZT c0”a They ht
different materials enter, were lately laid before the Royal !jftVTee.n the freezing and boiling point of
Society, by Alexander J. Adie, Esq. civil engineer. He "lc.inclles of atmospheric air expand to 13.   
exposed square rods of these substances, twenty-three inches result was 137-52, with oxygen gas 137-48,
in length, and either half an inch or an inch in diameter . w , nitrogen 137-49 ; differences so slight as to be
in a pyrometer of his own invention, to a heat of 2120,. cp,111 e Pr°bable limits of experimental error.
The increments in length were accurately determined by 1 • 6 ^ 0PP°fe(1 ^ expansion would appear to be co-
a microscope-micrometer, attached to the instrument • and . esion* Expansion is least in solids^where the cohesion
the following table gives the increase of the whole length 1§ str?nS®st 5 xt 13 more considerable in liquids where the
produced by 180° of heat, in decimals of an inch :  cohesion is greatly weakened; and it is greatest in gases,
in which cohesion is wholly overcome.
4 he expansion of bodies by heat, and their contraction
on the reduction of the temperature, would show that the
atoms of bodies are not in absolute contact. In fact, we
may suppose them surrounded by atmospheres of heat,
which prevent, by the repulsive energy of caloric, their
absolute contact; w-hilst the force of cohesion limits the
diffusive influence of the contained caloric. In some, the
superior force of cohesion gives rise to solidity. When
moie heat is introduced, the cohesion is weakened, and
the body becomes a liquid ; and a further addition of ca¬
lm ic destroys cohesion altogether, separates the atoms,
and the body becomes a gas.
I he expansion of bodies by heat proves the mutual re¬
pulsion of their particles; but this limits the repulsive
Decimals
of an Inch.
Sandstone of Craigleith Quarry, Edinburgh -0011743
Greenstone of Ratho, Edinburgh  -0008089
Arbroath paving flag    -0008985
Caithness paving flag  -0008947
Penrhyn slate  -0010376
Aberdeen gray granite  -00078943
Peterhead red granite  *0009583
Galw-ay black marble  -00044519
Carrara white marble  -0011928
Best stock brick  -0005502
Cast iron, half inch square  -00114676
1 he expansion of solids at different temperatures ap¬
pears to be nearly equable, as far as we can ascertain. The
energy of heat to insensible distances. In 1824, Libri
ture; but their whole expansionTrsoVnconsiderabl^that ^dea™ured to prove, from the movements of globules
the increasing rate is inapplicable, excepHn the nicest in f T °ng WireS’ that the rePulsive Power of
vestigations. G except in tne nicest in- heat was exerted also at sensible distances. But his ex-
The expansion of liquids is much more considerable. In
passing from the freezing to the boiling point of water, the
expansion of several is as follows :
Mercury   _ ^
7ater ;   0-00456 =
A saturated solution of common salt 0-00500  
Sulphuric acid 0-00600 = X
Muriatic acid 0-00600 - -1-
7(7
_ 1
2T7
IT
penments are not conclusive ; for the motions may have
arisen from^ the formation of vapour at one end of the
globule. Iresnel attempted to prove this point by bring¬
ing discs Oi foil or of mica, on the end of a delicately sus¬
pended magnet, into contact with fixed discs in vacuo,
and marking the effect of heat collected from the sun’s
rays. 1 he moveable discs sensibly receded ; but this may
have arisen from some change produced by the heat in
the form of the discs. Professor Forbes has happily ap-
Ger
Effe
Cal
HEAT.
189
lied the repulsive energy of heat acting at sensible dis- have been successfully applied to the balance-wheels of General
?ffec rf dances, to explain the curious vibrations of the metal bars pocket chronometers. Effects o
m i ^ i rvi n fo ft ♦‘ill mnr
Caleb in Trevelyan’s experiments. Still more lately Professor
^ J p0Well of Cambridge has demonstrated the repulsion of
heat at sensible distances (Phil. Trans, for 1834), by the
changes produced, on the approximation of a heated body,
of
Caloric.
2. Liquefaction, or Fluidity.
When solids are heated, they first expand, and then
m the Newtonian coloured rings of plates of glass which melt. This is a very general effect of caloric, the ex-
are pressed together. When, for instance, a flat plate is ceptions to which are disappearing, as we discover new
laid on a slightly convex surface of glass, the rings appear, sources of intense temperature. The oxyhydrogen blow-
On bringing a heated body near the upper surface of the pipe has fused almost all the most refractory substances;
nlates, the rings instantly contract, and again enlarge on and the sun’s rays collected by immense lenses, or metal-
withdrawing the heated body. On repeating the experi- lie mirrors, have melted, or even dissipated in vapour,
ment with the colours formed under the base of a prism many bodies, which were long regarded as incapable of
placed on a lens of small convexity, he found the repul- fusion. We are therefore entitled to regard solidity as
sion of heat acting at distances, which Sir J. Herschel has the natural state of all matter, and its two other modifi-
calculated at yymjth an cations as resulting from its union with caloric.
Expansion is so general an effect of heat, that there Those bodies always fused at the ordinary tempera-
are only two known exceptions, viz. in clay, and in water tures are no exception to this law, since, by artificial cold,
-at a certain limited range of temperature. It is well we have reduced most of them to a solid state. Thus mer-
known that porcelain clay contracts in baking, and ever cury, at about — 40° of Fahrenheit, becomes a solid metal
afterwards retains its contracted dimensions. It was this with the lustre of silver; and alcohol, which has not yet
quality which induced Wedgwood to employ its contrac- been frozen, may be considered as having its melting point
tions as a pyrometer. (See Thermometer and Pyrome- lower than any yet discovered artificial cold. The point at
ter.) -: This property, however, seemingly depends on which bodies become fluid differs widely in different sub¬
heat producing in the heterogeneous substance clay, a stances, but remains uniformly the same in the same fluid
more intimate union of its parts, or a partial conversion under similar circumstances. Thus ice always melts at 32°
of this mechanical mixture into a chemical compound
The exception of water between 42° and 32° Fahren¬
heit, is, however, real. When water is cooled down from
the ordinary temperature, say 60°, it regularly contracts
by the cooling, until it has attained 42° ; but whilst pass-
It was long believed, that when solids began to melt,
they were converted into liquids by a small increase of
heat; and that they might again return to the solid state
by a small diminution of their temperature. An atten¬
tive consideration of the process of liquefaction convinced
ing from that point down to its freezing point, it continues the celebrated Dr Joseph Black of the insufficiency of
to°expand graduallyj until converted into ice. ^ 1 :""'1 1 
The important purposes which this constitution of wa¬
ter serves in the economy of nature, the immense quan¬
tity of heat which is by this contrivance saved to our lakes
and other collections of water, are strikingly pointed out
the commonly-received opinion; and he promulgated in
1757 more philosophic views of this subject, which he il¬
lustrated by a beautifully simple experiment.
He introduced equal quantities of water into two thin
glass flasks of the same form and weight. One of them
by Count Rumford in his Essays; and this peculiarity in he froze, by placing it in a freezing mixture ; the other
water has been confirmed by the well-devised experiments he reduced by similar means to the temperature of 32°,
of Professor Hope and Dr Murray. or its freezing point, but without allowing it to become
Many liquids at the moment of congelation from solid. When removed from the freezing mixture, the
the crystalline arrangement of their parts. This is fami- flask of ice soon acquired the same temperature as the
liarly known in the floating of ice in water, in the burst¬
ing of water pipes by frost, and in the splitting of masses
of rock by the congelation of the water which has insi¬
nuated itself into their fissures. This force is well known
to be enormous, as was shown by the experiments of the
Florentine academicians, of Huygens, and of Major Wil-
ice-cold water, and both were suspended in a room at 47°.
In half an hour the thermometer in the ice-cold water
had risen to 40°, but it required twenty-one half-hours
to raise the temperature of the flask which had been
frozen to the same point. As both were exposed to the
same medium, equal quantities of heat must have been
hams at Quebec (see Edin. Phil. Transf. The same imparted to each in equal times; but it required twenty-
cause produces the expansion of cast iron at the moment one times as long to raise the frozen flask 8°, as sufficed
of becoming solid; and it is to this property that we are to impart 8° to the ice-cold water. Dr Black inquired
indebted for the sharpness of the casts obtained from this what had become of this quantity of caloric, which was
metal. In these instances we do not find an exception not indicated by any rise in the thermometer ? He in¬
to the law of contraction by diminished heat. It is wholly ferred that it had entered into the ice during its lique-
owing to a crystalline arrangement of the particles, by faction; and as the quantity so absorbed was not indi-
which interstices are left between them, and consequent- cated by the thermometer, he denominated it
ly the solid occupies more space than if solidification took Latent Heat.—In repeating the experiment with much
place without crystallization. Hence lead expands not in care, he found that a pound of ice required twenty times
cooling, though cast iron does. as long to rise through 7Q, as did as much ice-cold water;
Many operations in the arts depend on the contrac- and therefore inferred, that during the conversion of that
tion of metals as they cool. It is in this way that the ice into water, as much heat disappears, or is absorbed,
tyers of coach wheels are fitted tightly to the fellies. The as would have elevated a pound of ice-cold water 140 .
expansion of metals by heat seemed at one time to form This absorption of heat during liquefaction is easily shown,
an insurmountable bar to the perfection of the going of If we add a pound of boiling wrater to a pound of ice, the
a pendulum clock ; but the ingenuity of an English artist temperature of the mixture will still remain at 32 ; but
showed how, by a combination of bars of metals of un- if to a pound of water at 32°, we add a pound of boiling
equal expansibility, this property might be applied to keep water at 212°, the temperature of the mixture will be
the pendulum, at all temperatures, of precisely the same found about 122°, or a mean between the extremes o
length. This first produced the gridiron pendulum ; and temperature.
more lately the compensation pendulum, with a mercurial Similar absorptions of heat take place during the melU
cistern at the end of a metallic i'od. Similar principles ing of tallow, bees-wax, and of the metals.
190
HEAT.
General When liquid bodies congeal, or become solid, their la-
Caloric ^ent ^eat *S a^a'n S‘ven out>
v__ , It is possible, by nice management, to cool down water
considerably below its freezing point. The principal cir¬
cumstance necessary for this experiment is to leave it
at perfect rest, in an atmosphere from 10° to 15° below
32° (Dalton succeeded in this way in cooling water as low
as 5° without freezing) ; but on slightly agitating it, the
water suddenly freezes ; and if a thermometer has been
suspended in it, the instrument suddenly rises to 32°,
owing to the conversion of latent into sensible heat.
Another experiment shows this fact in a striking point
of view. Into a glass flask introduce a mixture of sul¬
phate of soda and water, in such proportions that it will
form a saturated solution about the point of ebullition.
When this is heated to that point, pour a little oil on its
surface, introduce a thermometer, and remove it from the
fire. When quite cold, drop into it a small crystal of sul¬
phate ot soda, and the solution will speedily crystallize into
a solid mass, during the formation of which the thermome¬
ter will be seen to rise, indicating the evolution of sensible
heat, during the conversion of the liquid into a solid.
The absorption of sensible caloric on the liquefaction
of bodies forms the basis of most of the processes by which
we obtain artificial cold. When to some salts, such as sul¬
phate of soda, we add nitrous acid diluted with an equal
part of water, the salt rapidly melts, and the temperature
is reduced to the beginning of Fahrenheit’s scale. Di¬
luted acid added to snow rapidly melts it, and the tempe¬
rature is greatly reduced. A mixture of common salt
and snow, which is the mixture generally employed to
procure ice-cream, will sink the temperature to the be¬
ginning of Fahrenheit’s scale. Dry muriate of lime added
to dry snow will reduce the temperature, during their li¬
quefaction, so low as to freeze mercury. In all these in¬
stances it is the absorption of heat caused by the liquefac¬
tion, or the conversion of sensible into latent caloric, that
produces the cold.
Dr Black applied his theory of latent heat to explain
many phenomena. The ductility of a body appears to be
owing to the presence of latent' caloric; for if we ham¬
mer a piece of iron smartly, it becomes intensely hot, by
parting with its latent caloric, and at the same time has
its ductility greatly impaired. This ductility is only re¬
stored by again heating the metal in the fire, by which
it le-acquues latent heat, that may again be forced out by
a repetition of the hammering.
I he absorption of heat by bodies whilst melting is an
important law in the economy of nature. Had it merely
been necessary, for the immediate conversion of ice or
snow into water, to raise the atmospheric temperature a
few degrees, the sudden formation of water would have
deluged the earth on every occurrence of a thaw. On
the other hand, had the slightest lowering of the tempe¬
rature of the air below 32° been all that was requisite to
convert vvater into ice, the sudden expansion of the con¬
gealing juices of vegetables must have burst their sap-ves¬
sels, and rent asunder the strongest ornaments of the
forest. But the law of the gradual absorption and ema¬
nation of caloric during these transitions from the solid
to the liquid, and from the liquid to the solid state, pro¬
duces those changes tranquilly and beneficially. The
melting snow gradually augments the sources which fer¬
tilize the valleys; whilst the soil, loosened by the expan¬
sion produced by the previous frost, when softened by the
succeeding thaw, is fitted for the reception of the roots
of plants.
The influence of these processes on climate is not in¬
considerable. The absorption of heat during the lique¬
faction of ice on tropical mountains, sends down into the
neated valleys copious sources of cool water, which by
its immediate contact, and still more by its evaporation Ge
assuages the fervour of a broiling climate ; and in highla- Effe,
titudes the caloric, eliminated on the freezing of water cal
tends to mitigate the rigours of an arctic winter. ’ ^ i
3. Vaporization.
When liquids are heated, the first effect is expansion •
but if the application of heat be continued, they assume
the aeriform state, or pass into vapour ; and when the ca¬
loric is abstracted, they again assume the liquid form.
When water is heated to 212° Fahrenheit, it boils, and is
converted into an invisible aeriform fluid, which remains
perfectly transparent and colourless as long as its tempera¬
ture is not below 212° ; but what in common language is
called steam, is this elastic fluid partially recondensed
into water, by the loss of a portion of its heat. The invi¬
sible elastic vapour is capable of occupying space and ex¬
pelling atmospheric air, as is shown by corking a flask
when boiling, and opening it under water ; when the flask
will be suddenly entirely filled with the water, which con¬
denses the steam.
Liquids, however, pass also into vapour by a more gra¬
dual process. If exposed to the air, water, for instance,
gradually disappears; and if the process be carried on
under a glass vessel, the included air becomes charged
with moisture, which may be again abstracted from itTby
dry quicklime, or other substance having a strong affinityfor
water. The process by which liquids are thus converted
into vapour is termed Spontaneous Evaporation; an impor¬
tant operation in nature, as on it depends the charging of
the atmosphere with water, for the formation of clouds,
mist, rain, and dew; all elastic fluids, however, are not
capable of being condensed into liquids by any decrease
of temperature we can command. Thus, no artificial cold
has hitherto been discovered capable of converting at¬
mospheric air into a liquid.
The common property of all aeriform fluids is elasticity,
or^the tendency, when forcibly compressed, to resume
their former bulk. Thus, if we throw air, by means of a
forcing pump, into an air-tight cistern, provided with a
small orifice commanded by a stop-cock; on opening the
latter, the air will issue out with great force, until the air
has regained its former volume.
But vapours, or those aeriform bodies which are not
permanently elastic, may, by strong pressure, even whilst
their temperature is above their vaporific point, be con¬
densed into liquids.
I he elasticity of all aeriform bodies is increased by aug¬
mentation of temperature. In atmospheric air this increase
has been found equal to ^th of its volume for every 1°
Fahrenheit; and the elasticity of steam, or the vapour of
water, is nearly doubled by 30° of increased temperature
above 212.
We are indebted to the celebrated Dr Dalton for accu¬
rate ideas as to the elasticity of aeriform bodies at different
temperatures. He showed that the vapour of water,
under a barometrical pressure of thirty inches at the boil¬
ing point, is just equal to the elasticity of atmospheric air
under the same pressure ; that the ratio of increase is
rather less than a geometrical series, when the tempera¬
ture is taken in an arithmetical progression ; and, what
was less obvious, that the elasticity of all vapours is pre¬
cisely the same with the elasticity of the vapour of water,
at the same number of degrees above the boiling point of
each liquid. I bus water, under a mean barometrical
pressure, boils at 212° ; and the elasticity of its steam at
220°, or 8° above its boiling point, was found by Dalton to
be = 34-99 inches : alcohol boils at 175°, and the elasticity
of its vapour at 183°, or 8° above its boiling point, is just
— 34>*99«
HEAT. 191
gen tl The bulk of a body is very much increased by its con- perature ; and as the heat was uniform during the whole General
Effe of version into vapour. Dr Black and Mr Watt made expe- time of the experiment, it must have received an equal Effects of
Calf’* riments to ascertain this increase. They boiled water in quantity of heat during the whole interval; or, during the Caloric.
a flask, and, as the last drop was converted into steam, other sixteen minutes, 810° must have flowed into it, yet
accurately closed the flask, which was then carefully during the whole time a thermometer in it rose no higher
weighed ; on opening the flask below the surface of wa- than 212°. Black naturally inferred that this large quan
ter, the quantity of water which rushed in was easily as- tity of heat, which disappeared, had entered into the vapour
certained by a second weighing of the flask. The mean in a latent form.
of several experiments showed that water, in the state of A series of experiments were undertaken by him, and
vapour, occupied 1800 times the space it filled as water, by his friend Mr Watt, from which they inferred, that
When heat is applied to solids, its first effect is expansion, when water is converted into steam, it unites with 940° of
next liquefaction, and, lastly, conversion into vapour. A heat, which the thermometer does not indicate; or, in
few solids pass at once into the state of vapour, as carbo- Black’s phraseology, that quantity becomes latent in the
nate of ammonia. steam. This determination nearly coincides with the ex-
Different liquids acquire different degrees of heat for periments of Lavoisier, who estimated the quantity which
their vaporization. Thus aether becomes vapour at 104°, thus disappears at 1000° Fahr.
alcohol at 175°, water at 212°, and mercury requires a The absorption of heat during the formation of vapour
temperature about 692°. The vaporific point, however, is easily demonstrated. A piece of muslin moistened with
remains constantly the same, in the same liquid, under any liquid, laid on the bulb of a thermometer, sinks the
the same barometric pressure. If, however, we diminish temperature; and if that liquid be very evaporable, the
the pressure, the liquid will boil at a lower temperature, temperature thus produced will be low in proportion. The
This is easily shown by the air-pump, in the exhausted evaporation of aether will freeze water under the receiver
receiver of which aether will boil at a temperature con- of the air-pump; and the evaporation of the fluid called
siderably below the freezing point of water. It is also sulphuret of carbon is so rapid, that, in a well-exhausted
strikingly exhibited by the following experiment: If a por- receiver, it will freeze the mercury in the bulb of the ther-
tion of water, say two.ounces, be boiled in a flask capable mometer.
of holding eight or ten, and if it be corked whilst briskly A liquid may even, by particular management, be frozen
boiling, a vacuum will be formed on its surface, by the con- by its own evaporation. This is the principle of Wollas-
densation of its vapour, on removing it from the lamp. As ton’s philosophic toy, called the cryophorus ; and it was in-
the steam condenses, the liquid in the flask will begin to geniously applied to an important practical purpose by the
boil more briskly as the flask cools ; and if we pour cold wa- late Sir John Leslie, viz. the production of ice at a cheap
ter on this flask, the more will the pressure of the vapour in rate in all climates. The apparatus employed by this phi-
the flask be removed-, and the more violently will the con- losopher is a powerful air-pump, which can at once exhaust
tained water boil. If now we pour boiling water on the from three to six flat receivers about twelve inches in dia-
flask, more steam will be formed, and the boiling will cease, meter. These are fitted to different plates, each connected
but will be again renewed on a second application of the with the pump, and each provided with its own stop-cock.
co/<Z water. This may be alternated for several times if A shallow glass dish, nearly the width of the receiver, intend-
the flask be well corked. cd to hold a thin stratum of sulphuiic acid, is introduced
As the boiling point of liquids varies exactly in the ra- under each receiver, and a cup of porous earthenware, sup-
tio of the barometrical pressure, it is obvious that the height ported on a glass tripod about an inch above the surface of
of mountains may be ascertained by noting the thermome- the acid, is under each receiver. W ater is to be poured
trical degree at which liquids boil on them. A portable in- into this cup, which is to be placed on its tripod, and the
strument, constructed for this purpose, was devised by the whole covered by the receiver. By working the ah-pump,
Reverend F. Wollaston. each receiver may be exhausted in succession. The with-
We cannot heat any liquid beyond its boiling point in drawing of the atmospheric pressure causes the rapid ev cl¬
an open vessel. Water placed on the fire soon rises to poration of the water, the vapour of which is immediately
212°, but a thermometer plunged in it remains at this absorbed by the sulphuric acid; and thus the vacuum is
point, however long it boils ; but if the vessel be provided sustained. The latent heat necessary for the conversion of
with a steam-tight cover, the temperature of the liquid may the water into steam or vapour is derived from the water
be much increased, according to the strength of the ves- itself; its temperature therefore falls; and the absorption
sel. The elasticity of the steam in such cases is enor- of the vapour by the acid, as quickly as it is formed, eeps
mous; and experiments with steam under high pressure up the vacuum, and speedily reduces the whole water to
are hazardous, unless the vessel be of great thickness. The the freezing point, when it soon forms a cake o ice. \
Marquis of Worcester seems to have burst a cannon by a full-sized machine of this kind, about a quarter o an
this means; and the frequent explosions of steam-engine hour’s labour will set the process in full operation, an
boilers is a familiar instance of the same. Dr Black and within the period of an hour afterwards six poun s o
Mr Watt heated water in a strong copper vessel to 400° ; solid ice may be obtained. During this piocess, tie water
and in some of Perkins’ experiments lead was melted, it loses only about one fiftieth of its oulk , and tap acu wi
is said, in wrater subjected to strong pressure; yet in an be sufficiently strong for repeated opeiations o tie same
open vessel we cannot heat water to more than 212°. kind. . c
Dr Black sagaciously and happily applied his doctrine of Leslie showed, that any substance which is power u }
latent heat to explain the conversion of liquids into vapour, absorbent of watery vapour, may be substituted for t e aci ,
He remarked, that when a kettle was placed on the fire it and he found that highly toasted oat meal, or wre - ne
goon rose to 212° ; but though the same heat continued to powder of greenstone, had very considerable power to pro¬
be applied, it rose no higher. In one of his beautifully duce ice, when employed instead of sulphuric acid. e
simple and conclusive experiments, a vessel containing even showed, that by enclosing a globule of meicury in a
some water, at temperature 50°, was placed on a red-hot small pyriform mass of ice, suspended over the acid in a
iron plate ; in four minutes it began to boil, but it required good vacuum, the mercury might easily be rozen.
twenty minutes to convert the whole into vapour. In the I he latent heat of steam may be shown by t le arge
first four minutes it had acquired an increase of 162° of tern- quantity of water which may be rapidly heated by a small
192
HEAT.
General quantity of steam. The elegant distillatory apparatus figur- of the important arts of evaporation and distillation. By Qi
Cabric° ^°‘ *n Henry’s Chemistry readily proves this. In the first we obtain salts from their solutions; by the latter, of |
v_^_ an experiment with a similar apparatus, the condensation of the spirituous or more volatile particles of compounds. ‘n Bi
one ounce of steam heated eight ounces of water from 60° See Evaporation and Distillation. w,
to 180° ; that is, the whole water gained 120° of tempera¬
ture ; consequently that ounce of steam had lost as much 4 Trtmnrlecrevre
caloric as would have elevated an ounce of any fluid, capa¬
ble of being so heated, to 960°. When the temperature of a body is raised to a certain
The same phenomena attend the condensation of all pitch, it begins to emit light as well as heat; and this is
other vapours ; and we are to regard the discovery of Black, termed incandescence, or glowing heat; a designation pre-
that during the conversion of solids into liquids, or of liquids ferable to ignition, which may be confounded with combus-
into vapours, heat is absorbed, which is again given out on tion ; a process totally different from that treated of in this
their recondensation, as a general law, and one of the high- section, inasmuch as it is accompanied by important che-
est importance, both in its practical application, and in mical changes in the body acted on; whereas incandes-
explaining the phenomena of nature. cence may be repeated innumerable times with the same
With regard to those aeriform bodies which we cannot body, merely by raising its temperature. The point at
condense, or, as they are called in chemical language, per- which this takes place would seem to be the same in all
manently elastic fluids or gases, we have every reason to bodies, and has been approximated by Newton ; but as the
consider them but as vapours, ot which the po'int of gene- determination depends on the acuteness of the eye, and
ration is so low, that we have not yet found any means of the degree of obscurity in the apartment where the experi-
exhibiting them in their unelastic state. This view is sup- ment is made, it is not easily fixed. According to his cal-
ported by analogy, and by recent discoveries. Some of the culations, a good eye can perceive a body faintly luminous
gases which a few years ago were reckoned permanently about 635° Fahrenheit; it shines with a full red in the dark
elastic, have been, by a great pressure, reduced to the state about 752°, it is luminous in twilight at 884°, and glows in
of liquids. This has been shown in the case of chlorine, broad day-light when its temperature has reached 1000°.
muriatic acid, ammonia, and carbonic acid. It can also be The experiments of Irvine, who found that mercury, which
shown that gases contain latent caloric. Thus, if we sud- boils at 660°, is not in the slightest degree luminous at that
denly compress atmospheric air in a small tube fitted writh point, prove that Newton fixed the point of incandescence
a piston, so much heat is given out as to ignite touchwood, too low. On the other hand, the determination of Wedg-
The sudden expansion of air, too, is always attended with wood appears too high. In general the point of incandes-
the absorption of heat. Thus, on discharging an air-gun, cence may be stated at about 800° Fahr. Its lowest pitch
the sudden expansion of the air produces a sensible degree is at first a dull red, which becomes a full red with an
ot coolness in the condenser. increased temperature, or the least refrangible rays first
The same facts are shown when chemical action of the meet the eye ; if the heat be increased, these rays become
gases with each other produces condensation, or when they mingled with the yellow ; and, when the temperature is
are evolved from their combinations. raised to the utmost, all the other rays of the spectrum are
I he qualities of vapour are applied to many important evolved in the proportions which constitute white light.
purposes in the useful arts ; and, on account of its econo- All solids which are not volatilized by heat may be ren-
mical fitness, the vapour of water, or steam, is that almost dered incandescent; and all liquids may be heated to red-
alvyays employed. nesSj provided we can repress their volatility. But it has
The application of steam to domestic purposes is fami- been doubted whether gases be capable of incandescence,
liar to all; and it is frequently employed to communicate Dr Fordyce had remarked that the extremity of the flame
an equable heat, when a temperature above 212° would of a blowpipe, which was itself invisible, heated a thin rod
be injurious or dangerous. Thus steam, confined in me- of glass to a white heat; and some experiments of Mr T.
tallic tubes, is used to dry some delicate articles of manu- Wedgwood prove that air, heated in a bent tube passing
facture ; and in some instances, where there is risk of ex- through a crucible filled with red-hot sand, was not lumi-
plosion horn even a moderate increase of temperature, the nous, although a gold wire suspended in the heated air
same contrivance is adopted. Steam has also been em- became red. The speculations of Sir Humphry Davy on
ployed to warm apartments. It is employed to heat the flame show that his opinion inclined to consider flame as
dye-vats in calico-printing, and other species of dyeing, luminous gases; but in all such cases there is reason to
and has likewise been used for hen ting warm baths. For consider the light as derived from the combustible. In-
these last purposes, the steam is usually allowed to escape candescence can be excited by the mere percussion of hard
into the fluid to be heated by numerous small apertures in bodies against each other. Thus, two pieces of quartz
pipes coiled in the bottom of the vessel; which may thus struck together will produce light; the same will take place
be made of less costly materials than if it were necessary with two fragments of porcelain ; and the light produced
to subject it to the fire. by the collision of flint and steel is partly incandescence,
Ihe most important application of steam, however, is as partly a species of combustion of the steel,
a. moving power in the most stupendous of human inven- It has been supposed that incandescence affords a pro-
tions the steam-engine, the perfecting of which has con- bable evidence of the identity or convertibility of heat into
ei red an enviable immortality on the name of Watt. The light. But this is not a legitimate deduction ; for we may
application of this noble discovery to the moving of ma- conceive that light and heat, though two distinct fluids,
c unery c every sort, from the ponderous hammers of the may have an intimate affinity for each other, or a tendency
gorge to the slender needles of the tambouring frame, to to unite, that both may exist united in all matter, that heat
the drawing out and twisting the gossamer filaments of is most easily separated by percussion and friction, but that,
the cotton factory, to the weaving of cloth with a cele- when the percussion is violent, both are given out.
SECT. IV. QUANTITY OF HEAT IN BODIES.
Equal weights of the same body, at the same tempera¬
ture, contain equal quantities of heat; and when their tem-
iity iiuil gives Uie process me an in cnciiaiiuneiii, me
winged velocity of the locomotive engine on the railway,
and the stately mechanism which renders navigation inde¬
pendent of the winds, belongs to different branches of prac¬
tical mechanics.
The conversion of liquids into vapour is the foundation
HEAT.
193
(toa ty peratures are unequal, their heat is in proportion to their
of I it temperature. But it is very different with dissimilar bodies,
in 1* es. wj!ich can be shown to contain unequal quantities of heat
^ ^ at the same temperature. The following is the method of
proving these positions. If we mix a pound of water at
40° with a pound of water at 112°, the resultant is 76°, the
mean between the extremes of temperature.
But if we mingle a pound of water at temperature 112°
with a pound of mercury at 40°, the resultant temperature
will not be 76°, the mean, but 109°. Here the tempera¬
ture of the water has only been diminished 3°, yet that
of the mercury has risen 69°. If we reverse the experi¬
ment, and take water at 40° and mercury at 112°, the
product will be 43°; the mercury losing 69°, whilst the
water only acquires 3° ; or the same quantity of heat
which can elevate the temperature of mercury 23° will
only augment that of w^ater 1°. If a similar experiment
be made with spermaceti oil, Dr Thomson has shown
(System of Chemistry) that the quantity of caloric which
will elevate the temperature of the oil 2° can only raise
that of water 1°.
Dr Black was undoubtedly the first who promulgated
the idea of the absorption of heat during liquefaction and
the formation of vapour; and this doctrine was publicly
taught in his lectures in Glasgow university from 1757 to
1764. His pupil, Dr Irvine, continued these experiments
at his suggestion, and ascribed the absorption to a change
in the capacity for heat. These experiments were made
between 1765 and 1770 ; and in 1779 Dr Adair Crawford
published his treatise on Animal Heat, in which the capa¬
cities of numerous substances are given, which vrere cor¬
rected in his edition of 1788, from the results of most ela¬
borate experiments. Professor Wilcke of Stockholm pub¬
lished some valuable experiments on the same subject, in
the Stockholm Transactions for 1781. This philosopher
introduced the term specific heat for what Irvine named
capacity for heat. Various experiments on the same sub¬
ject were made by Lavoisier and Laplace, with the instru¬
ment called a calorimeter, in which the specific caloric was
estimated by the quantity of snow melted by different
substances heated to the same pitch. The subject of ex¬
periment in their investigations was introduced into a
wire cage suspended within a vessel of tinned iron. This
vessel was filled with snow or ice ; and to secure that
snow from being melted by the external air, the vessel
containing it was placed within another exterior case, and
the space between them also filled with snow ; and the
whole covered by a lid, likewise covered with snow. Thus,
if water in passing from 212° to 32° melted one pound of
ice, and the same weight of oil melted a half pound; if
the specific caloric of water be termed TO, that of oil will
be 0'5.
A considerable series of experiments on this curious
subject were made by Dr Dalton (New System of Chemi¬
cal Philosophy). In these investigations Dalton pursued
a method, also employed by Leslie, namely, to observe
the comparative rates of cooling, as was proposed by
Meyer. This would be preferable to the other modes of
ascertaining the specific caloric, were we sure that the
cooling of bodies is not influenced by other circumstances
than their capacity ; but in this method it is difficult to
obviate the effects of radiation and conducting power on
refrigeration. In all these determinations there are to be
fognd discrepancies inseparable from the difficulties at¬
tending such delicate investigations; but they have suf¬
ficient accordance when we attempt to estimate the ca¬
pacities of solids and of liquids. It is a far more difficult
and delicate problem to determine the specific caloric of
gaseous bodies, from the minute quantities of matter to
he operated on in such experiments, and the difficulty of
obviating the chance of accidental error where the changes
voi.. XI.
of temperature are necessarily very minute. Crawford Quantity
found the difference in the specific heat of the gases of Heat
rarely to exceed joth of a degree of Fahrenheit. He em- in Bodies,
ployed two equal hollow spheres of brass, united by a bar
of the same metal, and furnished with stop-cocks, and an
adapting piece, to be screwed to an air-pump. One of
these was filled with the gas to be tried, and the other
was exhausted of air. Each ball had cemented into it a
very delicate thermometer ; both were heated to the same
pitch by exposure to the same source of heat, conveyed
by cylinders surrounded with warm water. They were
then simultaneously plunged into separate vessels contain¬
ing each equal quantities of cold water, and the elevation of
temperature of the water in both vessels ascertained by
delicate thermometers, indicating as small a change as j^th
of a degree of Fahrenheit. The temperature communi¬
cated by the vacuum being subtracted from that given
out by the other ball, the difference exhibited the heat
communicated by the included air alone ; and the accu¬
racy of the method was afterwards tested by again com¬
paring them when the exhausted vessel was filled with at¬
mospheric air.
The specific caloric of gases has been again investigat¬
ed by Berard and Delaroche in 1813. They passed a cur¬
rent of each gas, at a given temperature, through a spiral
tube, fixed in a cylinder of thin copper filled with water
and then closed. The temperature communicated, by the
passage of the gases from a gasometer through the spiral,
to the surrounding medium in a given time, being propor¬
tional to the excess of temperature each gas acquires from
the source of heat above that of the medium in the cylin¬
der, the comparative specific heat of each gas may be as¬
certained.
For the success of such experiments the current of gas
must be uniform, and the temperature of the gas, when en¬
tering and escaping from the cylinder, must be accurately
ascertained, as well as that of the water in the copper ves¬
sel.
The conclusions of these philosophers are directly at va¬
riance with those of Crawford, and, indeed, would tend
to overturn some of the most important points of the phi¬
losophy of heat now generally received. But these expe¬
riments, though highly ingenious, are not more satisfactory
than those of Crawford. The only objection to his con¬
clusions is derived from the smallness of the quantities
operated upon in his experiments ; but the simplicity of his
apparatus, the delicacy of his instruments, and the appa¬
rent care of his manipulations, more than fully counter¬
balance that objection ; whilst the complexity of the appa¬
ratus of Berard and Delaroche, the acknowledged diffi¬
culty of keeping up an equable current through the spiral
tube, the impossibility of obviating in such investigations
the influence of changes in the medium during the expe¬
riments, and the nicety requisite to ascertain the tempera¬
ture of the entering and escaping currents, present sources
of error of which it is almost impossible to estimate the
amount. On these grounds we may consider the conclu¬
sions of Crawford as not yet overturned.
The deductions of these gentlemen would lead to the con¬
clusion that all the gases, with the exception of hydrogen,
have an inferior specific gravity to water ; and they even
make steam inferior in capacity to water in the ratio of 847
to 1000. If this last were true, instead of an absorption of
heat when steam is generated, we should have an extrica¬
tion of caloric from it; and water in the worm-tub of a still,
or in the condensing-back of a steam-engine, ought not to
increase in temperature. It may be added, that more re¬
cently the conclusions of Berard and Delaroche have been
controverted by Delarive; and his experiments, as well as
those of Clement, support the opinions of Crawford.
Mr Haycraft (in a naper in Trans. Royal Soc. Edin. x.)
2 B
194 H E
Quantity has endeavoured to show that all gases at the same tempe-
' rature> when perfectly freed from moisture, have the same
monies. Speciftc heat; and that when they are saturated with water,
their specific caloric is a certain ascending arithmetical
ratio, in proportion to the quantity of moisture they contain.
These views are rendered not improbable by the well-as¬
certained fact, that the elasticities of all the gases are the
same at the same temperature.
The capacities of bodies are more nearly in the inverse
ratio of their density, than of any other sensible property.
Thus solids in general have less capacity for caloric than li¬
quids, and liquids less than vapours or gaseous bodies. In
the same body a change of capacity accompanies a change
of volume. Thus gases compressed have their capacity
diminished, and heat is extricated ; and when they expand,
their capacity is increased, which is the cause of the cold¬
ness felt on a sudden expansion of the air. Crawford en¬
deavoured to show that this was also the case with liquids ;
but his experiments are scarcely to be relied on as esta¬
blishing that point. The contraction of Wedgwood’s py-
rometrical pieces would seem to diminish sensibly their
capacity for heat. The capacity of bodies is not, however,
exactly in the inverse ratio of their density, which pro¬
bably arises from the effect of density on capacity for heat
being modified by a difference in the force of affinity be¬
tween caloric and various substances. There seems also to
be some relation between capacity and power for conduct¬
ing heat, as the former is nearly in the inverse ratio of the
latter. If these views be correct, we may assume that the
capacity of all bodies for caloric is directly as their volume
and their affinity for heat, and inversely as their conduct¬
ing power and their density.
When a body changes its form of existence, its capacity
for heat is also changed. When a solid is melted, its capa¬
city is increased, and the specific heat of the same sub¬
stance is still further increased when it is converted into
vapour. Thus, according to the best experiments, the ca¬
pacity of ice is 0-9000, that of water being 1-000, and that
of steam 1-500.
This important law was applied by Dr Irvine to explain
the liquefaction of solids. Dr Black regarded the lique¬
faction as owing to the absorption of heat; Dr Irvine as¬
cribed this absorption to a change in the capacity of the
body. The first ascribed the melting of the solid to the
absorption of the heat, whilst the other attributed the ab¬
sorption to the change of form. As the change of form
and the absorption or extrication of caloric are in such' cases
simultaneous, it is obvious that the question cannot be
decided by direct experiment. It has been objected to
Irvine’s theory that it assigns no cause for the change of
form, whilst Black’s ascribes the change to the ingress of
caloric. On the other hand, Black’s theory does not ex¬
plain why the heat is absorbed. When we heat a solid,
the first effect is expansion, and this expansion keeping
pace with the increasing temperature, a point will be at¬
tained when the expansion has so far overcome the cohe¬
sion of the solid that its particles move freely among each
other, that is, when the body will become liquid. Thus far
the change may be attributed to sensible heat; but the ca¬
pacity of the body for heat has all the time been increasing,
and, to satisfy this increased capacity, sensible heat has be¬
come latent. This appears the simplest view of the sub¬
ject, ascribing the change of capacity to the expansion by
the sensible heat; and the difference between the solid
and fluid states may be conceived to depend on the pre¬
valence of one of two opposing forms, the cohesive attrac¬
tion of the particles of matter for each other, and the repul¬
sive energy of caloric.
Dr Black has supposed that latent heat is retained in
bodies by an affinity superior to that between sensible
caloric and the particles of matter, and liquefaction is as-
A T.
cribed to this more intimate union. This opinion is scarce- On i
ly perhaps reconcilable with the immediate effect of mix- ofHe la'
ing ice cooled to 20° and water a little above the freez- ^ Bod
ing point, when the water parts with its latent heat to
raise the temperature of the ice; or with the effect of
mechanical pressure in causing gases to part with their
latent caloric.
Absolute Quantity of Heat in Bodies.
It will be sufficiently obvious, that neither by the ther¬
mometer nor by the capacity of bodies do we determine
the whole heat which they contain at any temperature.
The first is evidently nothing more than an indication of
changes in a scale, of which the two extremes are un¬
known ; the last mode affords us but the relative quan¬
tity of caloric required to elevate the temperature of
other bodies compared to water, but it does not point
out how many degrees any given temperature is above
that point at which a body is deprived of all its heat.
Irvine appears to have first conceived the idea of ascer¬
taining by calculation the absolute zero, or deprivation of
all heat, on the supposition that the whole heat in any
body is proportional to its capacity. If this be granted,
the whole caloric it contains at a given temperature may
be found by ascertaining the quantity of heat it absorbs
when passing from the solid to the liquid state. Thus
ice has the capacity of 9 to water as 10, and, when both
are at temperature 32°, water will contain one tenth more
heat than the same weight of ice; but this excess is
given out when water freezes, and as much is again ab¬
sorbed when it melts. According to Black’s experiment,
ice absorbs as much caloric, whilst passing into water, as
would elevate an equal quantity of ice-cold water 140°
Fahrenheit. Therefore 10 X 140 — 1400°, will give
the natural zero, or the point of the absolute deprivation
of heat. Almost the same result is obtained by compar¬
ing the capacity of steam and water, viz. 1-0 and 1-5.
Water, in passing into steam, absorbs 940° of sensible heat,
and 940 X T5 z= 1410.
The following general formula, as applicable to this in¬
vestigation, is given by Professor Robison in his notes on
Black’s Lectures. Let the capacity of water be 1. Let
the quantity of water be W, and its temperature be w.
Let the quantity of the body whose capacity is tried be
B, and its temperature be b, and the temperature after
mixture be m. Then the
W x m — w
capacity of B = -—— —. Or if the water be the
B x — b
hottest of the two bodies mixed, the formula is
p   W x w — m
B X m — b
The accuracy of this conclusion, however, depends on
three points : first, the perfect determination of the spe¬
cific heat of water, and of its two other forms of existence,
to which it is probably impossible to obtain any more
than an approximation ; secondly, on the assumption that
the whole heat of bodies is retained in them by their ca¬
pacity ; and, lastly, on the supposition that while the
body retains its form of existence, its capacity remains
unchanged. Until these points be established, the theory
is but an amusing speculation, in which the estimates of
other philosophers do not materially differ from those of
Irvine. Rumford, from experiments on the heat extricat¬
ed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, placed
the natural zero at 1552° Fahrenheit below the freezing
point; Gadolin, from the cold produced by dissolving mu¬
riate of soda in water, inferred it to be at — 1432°.
HEAT.
. . a SECT. V.—VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.
anatij
1. Artificial Means of Increasing Temperature.
J Caloric may be excited by the sun’s rays collected by
a lens or by a concave mirror, by friction and percussion,
and by chemical action.
1. When we collect the sun’s rays by a lens, it is well
known that combustibles may thus be fired; and if the
lens be large, it produces the most intense temperature
we can command. In the focus of the powerful lens
made in London for Mr Parker (which measured three
feet in diameter, three inches thick at the centre, and
weighed 212 lbs.), the most infusible metals were instant¬
ly melted and dissipated in vapour, and most stony sub¬
stances were vitrified. Another, constructed at Paris, is
described in the Memoires of the French academy. Lenses
■ of great power have been also made of two curved plates
of glass joined together, and filled with spirit of wine. A
remarkable lens of this sort, formed by bending two plates
of glass on a parabolic mold, and filling the cavity between
them with ninety quarts of spirit, was constructed by
Rossini of Gratz, in Styria. The diameter of the plates
was 3 feet 3 inches, and they were united by a strong ring
of metal. The whole was mounted on a heliostat, which,
with the lens complete, weighed 550 lbs. This fine in¬
strument cost about L.lOOOj but became, a few years
ago, the property of the French government for L.338.
In its focus a diamond was instantly kindled and dissi¬
pated ; and a piece of platinum, twenty-nine grains in
weight, was melted and thrown into violent ebullition.
Concave metallic mirrors are capable also of concen¬
trating the sun’s rays, so as to produce a powerful heat.
Mirrors of hammered brass, or tinned iron, are used for
experiments on the radiation of heat. It was by some
combination of mirrors that Archimedes is said to have
fired the Roman fleet at the siege of Syracuse ; and Kir-
cher, having found a description in Tzetzes, of the device
of Archimedes, from which it would seem that the mir¬
rors were placed on hinges, in order to adjust them to a
focus, constructed a compound burning mirror of this
kind possessing considerable power; but Buffon, by com¬
bining as many as 168 plane glass mirrors, six inches
broad, showed that silver might be fused at the distance
of sixty feet by such an instrument.
2. The capability of friction between two solids to ex¬
cite heat is well known. In Rumford’s experiments w*a-
ter was made to boil by the friction in boring a cannon ;
and the simple experiment of rubbing a smooth metallic
button on a board, by which much heat is produced, is
familiar to every school-boy. The firing of carriage-
wheels, and of different kinds of machinery, whose parts,
moving against each other, are not well oiled, is well
known. This extrication of heat takes place in vacuo as
well as in the air, and appears to be owing to the com¬
pression employed forcing the particles of the solid more
closely together, and extricating their latent caloric. Ber-
thollet showed that this extrication of caloric is not unli¬
mited, as Rumford erroneously supposed; but that, if we
repeatedly compress any body, the quantity of heat extri¬
cated rapidly diminishes by each application of the com¬
pressing force.
Percussion acts in precisely the same manner. A piece
of iron, by smart hammering on an anvil, may become so
hot as to fire combustibles. This process evidently dimi¬
nishes the capacity of the iron for heat, its specific gravi¬
ty becomes greater, and the loss of its latent heat renders
it stiff and brittle. A similar change takes place in wire¬
drawing metals ; so that, to restore pliability and ductility,
we must subject them to the fire, which restores their la¬
tent heat, and renders them again ductile.
3. Chemical action is a fruitful source of increase of
195
temperature. If we mingle together equal parts of sul- Variations
phuric acid and water, or of alcohol and of water, theofT6111?6-
bulk of the mixture diminishes, and heat is given out. The rature>
temperature produced by chemical action will often ignite
inflammables. Thus a drop of sulphuric acid on a mix¬
ture of chlorate of potassa and sugar will set the mixture
on fire. Indeed, the process of combustion, the great
source of artificial heat, is nothing more than the chemi¬
cal union of the oxygen of the air with the combusti¬
ble body. The source of the temperature is the liberation
of the latent heat of the oxygen, on its entering into
union with the carbonaceous matter of the fuel; and the
increase of the temperature is in proportion to the air con¬
sumed in a given time. If we wish a higher temperature,
we increase the quantity of air that passes through the
fuel; hence the utility of bellows, and of the blowpipe,
in exciting a higher temperature than the spontaneous
combustion of the burning body would afford.
The construction of furnaces for the melting of metals
depends on this principle ; namely, that of causing a large
quantity of air to pass through the fire in a short period.
The heating of apartments by an open fire-place partly
depends on somewhat different principles. We must not
only secure a proper draught of air up the chimney to
consume the fuel, but we must secure the radiation of
heat into the room. Dark and rough surfaces radiate
much of their communicated heat; and therefore, when
any part of the grate is intended to afford the heat it re¬
ceives from the fire to the air of the room, it should be of
cast iron with some pattern on its surface, not of bright
polished metal. This also forms the best material for a
stove; but in open fire-places the heating of the apart¬
ment not only depends on what is radiated into the room,
but also on what is reflected. As bright surfaces reflect
best, the covings of the grate should be of bright and po¬
lished metal, and placed at about an angle of 45° to the
back of the grate. By this disposition the heat of the
fire, falling on the covings, is reflected at the same angle
into the room; and we thus obtain a more considerable
effect from the same expenditure of fuel.
For large apartments, and for public buildings, heat
has been more effectually conveyed by the hot-air stoves
of Dr Murray, and of Mr Strutt as improved by Sylves¬
ter. The principle of these inventions is to heat a cur¬
rent of air, by passing it between an interior cockle or fur¬
nace containing the fuel, and an exterior case, at the dis¬
tance of a few inches from the cockle. The air so heat¬
ed is admitted into the space to be warmed, and diffuses
an equable warmth through the building. I he only ob¬
jection to hot air so introduced is the empyreumatic
odour which the heat of the cockle, when not well ma¬
naged, is apt to communicate to the air. But this objec¬
tion is obviated by the contrivance of Mr Perkins, in
which hot water is made to circulate through wrought iron
tubes; and when more heat is required, these tubes are
coiled up in several convolutions in the place where tlm
most heat is wanted. In this city, the large premises of
Messrs Cadell and Company, booksellers, are so heated ;
and the General Register House will in a short period be
warmed by a similar apparatus.
2. Artificial Means of Diminishing Temperature.
There are three methods by which we can cool bodies;
by placing them in contact with colder substances, by the
evaporation of liquids, and by the liquefaction of solids.
1. The first method is very familiar, and depends on
the tendency of caloric to an equilibrium in contiguous
bodies.
2. The conversion of a body into vapour causes, by the
increase of its capacity for heat, an absorption of caloric*
19()
HEAT.
Variations Thus the evaporation of water from the ball of a thermo-
0 ratureT' n,eter causes the mercury to fall. If we apply a still
more evaporable fluid, mther, the fall of the thermometer
will be still lower; and, if we accelerate this process by an
air*pump, the cold produced will be intense ; the degree of
the absorption of heat, or, in other words, the production
of cold, being in proportion to the quickness of the evapo¬
ration.
3. The most powerful means of reducing temperature
is by what are termed freezing mixtures. All these de¬
pend on the rapid melting of solids by the addition of va¬
rious substances. Many experiments have been made on
this subject by Lowitz of Petersburg, and by Mr Walker
of Cambridge. Salts are the solids most commonly used,
and they are in general either mixed with snow or with
acids. Thus, if we mix common salt and snow together, the
temperature falls to 0° of Fahrenheit. If we pour two
ounces of nitric acid diluted with an equal quantity of wa¬
ter on three ounces of sulphate of soda, the temperature
sinks below the beginning of Fahrenheit’s scale. Equal
parts of strong muriatic acid and of snow will produce a
cold of — 30° Fahrenheit; and the same proportions of
diluted sulphuric acid and snow, if previously cooled down
to 20°, will cause the freezing of mercury, reducing the
temperature to — 60°. Dry muriate of lime and dry
powdery snow, in the proportions of two of the former to
one of the latter, if previously cooled by immersion in
salt and snow, will sink the temperature to — 66° ; and
three parts of muriate of lime and two of snow, similarly
treated, will reduce the temperature to — 73°.
In all these experiments, it is the sudden conversion of
sensible into latent heat that lowers the temperature of
the mixtures; the substances assume the liquid form,
their capacity for heat is increased, and the disappear¬
ance of the sensible heat is manifested by the sinking of
the thermometer.
3. Natural Variations of Temperature.
The temperature of the earth is affected by the absorp¬
tion of the solar rays. The revolution of the earth on its
axis brings successive portions of its surface under the
immediate influence of the sun, and this portion is great¬
ly extended on either side of the equator by the beauti¬
fully simple yet stupendous contrivance of the inclination
of that axis to the plane of its orbit. These causes pro¬
duce variations in natural temperature; and as they are
uniform and constant in their operation, the temperature
of any place is liable to little change, if compared for a
series of years, however subject to inequalities in short in¬
tervals of time.
The mean temperature of any climate cannot be ascer¬
tained by a few observations on the heat of the air; but
experience has shown that the mean temperature of the
month of April, in our latitudes, will afford a near approxi¬
mation to that of the whole year. The surface of the ground
absorbs the heat of the sun, and becomes thereby warmed ;
but much of the heat so acquired is lost by radiation dur¬
ing the night, as we have already explained. The surplus
heat is slowly transmitted downwards. The experiments
made by Mr Ferguson, at Raith, in Fifeshire, by burying
■very laige thermometers at different depths in his gar¬
den, showed that during summer the increasing heat pe¬
netrated through the ground about five feet each month,
or about two inches daily; so that the whole heat of the
summer six months wmuld penetrate to about thirty feet,
which agrees remarkably with the experiments made by
Saussure on the banks of the Arve, near Geneva. There
toe heat of summer took six months to penetrate thirty-
one feet; and beyond that depth the temperature of the
earth underwent no change from the summer’s heat or
the winter’s cold. Hence deep caves, or springs whose Varia
sources are from a considerable depth, may be considered of Te
as affording a tolerable approximation to the mean annual rat'
temperature of the places where they occur. This, how- ^
ever, is not always true. The writer of this article, dur¬
ing several years, occasionally took the temperature of
the largest spring in Great Britain, St Winifred’s, at Holy¬
well, in Flintshire; and the temperature of its water was
always considerably higher than 50°, the mean tempe¬
rature of that part of the island. In three successive
years it was about 57°, and never but once, after heavy
rain, observed so low as 55°, whilst another very copious
contiguous spring, the sacred well of Finnon Asa, was no
more than 50°.
Latitude must exert a great influence on the tempera¬
ture of the earth, as is sufficiently obvious ; but the ex¬
tremes of temperature, at different times, in the same
place, are less within the tropics than toward the polar
limits of the temperate and in the frigid zones; for the
difference of heat at different seasons must be less, in
those regions where the sun is twice vertical annually, than
in higher latitudes.
There are two other causes which exert no small in¬
fluence on the heat of a climate, the vicinity of the ocean,
and elevation above its level.
From the enormous mass of the ocean, its waters, ex¬
cept in the vicinity of land or polar ices, have a remark¬
able uniformity of temperature in almost every climate;
and hence the ocean may be considered as the great equa¬
lizer of heat over the globe, tending to mitigate the fer¬
vour of tropical climates, and the rigour of the polar re¬
gions.
When cold air sweeps over the surface of the ocean, it
tends to cool the particles of water at the surface ; but by
this process their specific gravity is increased, and they
sink, whilst their place is supplied by fresh particles from
below, which, becoming cooled in their turn, give rise to
internal motions in the water. From its immense mass, it
is evident that no partial application of cold air can reduce
the mean temperature of its whole waters ; and hence
we find that the temperature of islands in our latitudes
is not so low in winter as that of continents under the
same parallel. Thus, the severity of winter in Britain
bears no proportion to that of France or Germany in
the same parallels of latitude. The most northern of the
Orkney Islands is nearly in the latitude of Petersburg,
yet in the former a continued frost for three or four days
is a rare occurrence, whilst in the latter the rapid and spa¬
cious Neva is completely frozen over for several months
every season.
On the other hand, the ocean exerts a great influence
in mitigating the heat of tropical regions. It is true that
when the upper- particles of water become heated, the in¬
ternal motions from unequal temperature cease; but the
rarefaction produced sets a current in motion, which, aid¬
ed by the trade winds, becomes very manifest amongst the
West Indian islands in the Gulf Stream ; the place of
which is supplied by currents of cooler water perpetually
setting in from the polar regions. But this is not all. The
temperature of the atmosphere is mightily diminished by
the increased evaporation from the water in warm lati¬
tudes ; and we have seen, that during this conversion of
water into vapour, as much heat becomes latent as would
raise the temperature of an equal quantity of other mat¬
ter by at least 900° Fahrenheit. Hence tropical islands
are less warm than continents under the same parallel; and
the intersection of continents by gulfs and seas tends to
mitigate the extremes of temperature. The extended
form of the old continent towards the eastern regions of
Asia renders the inequalities of temperature much great¬
er than under the same parallels in Europe. Thus, at
'
HEAT.
197
^Uths Pekin, the thermometer in winter often descends far be-
Tei e-]ow the freezing point, and averages, during the night,
rati; for several months, 20° Fahrenheit; yet this place is under
the same parallel of latitude as the finest provinces of
Southern Italy and the centre of Spain.
But of all the causes influencing the temperature of a
country, there is none more important than that of eleva¬
tion above the level of the sea. In every climate, as is
well known, the temperature diminishes as we rise in the
atmosphere ; and if mountains be very lofty, their summits
are the abode of perpetual winter. This is best explained
by the fact, that as we rarefy air, its capacity for caloric is
increased ; the consequence of w hich is, that its tempera¬
ture falls as its sensible is converted into latent heat. In
passing through air, the sun’s rays do not sensibly heat it;
but when they impinge on the opake surface of the earth,
they are retained, raise its temperature, and a part of this
increased heat is communicated to the contiguous stratum
of air, which expands, ascends, and has its place supplied
by a cooler stratum, which ascends in its turn. Thus the
earth warms the air near the surface ; but as the pressure
of the column of air diminishes by its ascent, its redundant
heat becomes latent as the volume of the air augments;
so that, at moderate elevations, the atmosphere receives
no genial influence from the warmth imparted to the
earth; and very lofty mountains, in all climates, are co¬
vered with perennial snow, and where the temperature is
steadily below the freezing point, there is perpetual con¬
gelation. The point at which this takes place is different
in different latitudes. The limit is highest under the equa¬
tor, and descends as we approach the poles. It is obvious
too that the influence of the seasons, especially in those
countries where there is a great difference between the
temperature of summer and winter, will alter the limit of
perpetual congelation. In such climates it will fluctuate
with the seasons between two points, which form what are
termed the higher and lower limits of congelation. The
difference between these limits is least in tropical regions,
but increases toward the poles. This circumstance is of
great importance, inasmuch as it influences the formation
of the stupendous glaciers, which excite the curiosity and
admiration of the traveller, in the elevated regions of the
temperate, and on the acclivities of the arctic circle.
The ascent of heated air from the heated surface of
the earth might be supposed to warm the superior regions
of the atmosphere, were not this counteracted by the in¬
creased capacity of rarefied air for heat, by which much
more is absorbed than the ascending air can carry with it;
but, on the other hand, the too great loss of heat in the
lower strata of air is provided against, by the change of ca¬
pacity which takes place as cool air descends to supply
the place of that which has ascended. Its density is in¬
creased by increasing pressure, consequently its capacity
for heat is diminished ; and the heat thus extricated is im¬
parted to the contiguous strata of air. That these two
processes counterbalance each other is very obvious, from
the uniformity of mean temperature in any spot.
The influence of elevation above the level of the sea is
capable of countervailing the effect of low latitudes on the
vegetable productions of such regions. Tournefort had
remarked the succession of plants on the ascent of Mount
Ararat, which gave him, in Armenia, the vegetable forms
of different parts of Europe. In Wahlenberg’s Flora Lap-
ponica, this distribution of vegetable forms into zones is
well characterized. The same is remarked in Ramond’s
examination of the botany of the Pyrenees ; and the. illus¬
trious traveller Humboldt has given a striking illustration
of the same distribution, in his examination of the equinoc¬
tial Andes. After rising through various parallel belts or
zones of vegetation, each marked by some characteristic Variations
plants, if the mountains be sufficiently high, in all latitudes °f 'i'empe-
we arrive at the region of stunted shrubs, and of Alpine v^'at-ure-
plants and grasses, amongst which the genera gentiana, ra-
nunculns, and saxifraga, are conspicuous; and, finally, we
trace hyssi, hepaticee, and Hellenes, the last outskirts of ve¬
getable life, to the very verge of perennial winter.
These various causes affecting natural temperature ren¬
der it impossible to estimate the mean heat of any coun¬
try by its latitude ; and as every formula hitherto devised
for calculating the mean temperature of any region is now
found to be erroneous, it is only by multiplied observations
that we can arrive at any accurate conclusion. In the
mean time Humboldt has conferred a great favour on me¬
teorological science by his admirable paper On Isothermal
Lines, and the Distribution of Heat over the Globe. Set¬
ting aside all hypothetical views, he has traced on a chart,
from the best meteorological observations, lines of equal
temperatures; so that at a glance we can trace the places
which are found to have the same mean temperature.
From this map we immediately perceive how widely these
isothermal lines differ from the parallels of latitude ; and
we remark, that the isothermal lines of Western Europe
sink to a far lower latitude as they recede on either hand.
Thus, the isothermal line of temperature 540,4 in France,
in longitude 0. 37. east, passes through latitude 45. 46.
north; but in China, in longitude 116. 27. east, passes
near Pekin, in latitude 39. 54. north; and in longitude
104. west, near the mouth of Columbia River, in Ame¬
rica, it passes through 44. 40. north. The isothermal lines,
however, on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, de¬
scend still lower, compared to their position in Europe, as
the following table shows :—
Lat.
30
40
50
60
Mean Tempe¬
rature, Old
Continent.
70°-52 Fah.
63°T4
50°-89
40°-64
Mean Tempe¬
rature, New
Continent.
66°-92
54°-50
37°-94
23°-74
Difference.
3o*60
8°-64
12°-95
16°-90
In both continents the most rapid decrease of mean tem¬
perature is between the parallels of latitude 40° and 45° ;
a circumstance which, Humboldt justly remarks, has un¬
doubtedly had a happy influence on the civilization and
industry of the people inhabiting that zone, because these
slight variations of latitude produce considerable changes
in the vegetable productions that become objects of rural
economy ; and when contiguous countries differ much in
their products, it stimulates the industry of each, and gives
vigour to commercial intercourse; circumstances highly
conducive to civilization.
For various important facts and observations on heat,
see Black’s Lectures on Chemistry, vol. i.; Murray’s Sys¬
tem of Chemistry, vol. i.; Dalton’s Chemistry ; Leslie on
Heat; Pictet sur le Feu; Rumford’s Essays ; Deluc sur
les Modf de VAtmosph.; Saussure sur VHygrometrie;
Young’s Lectures on Philosophy; Biot, Trade de Phy¬
sique, i.; Martine on Heat; Crawford on Heat; Irvine’s
Essays ; J. and G. Murray’s Popular View of Chemistry ;
Mrs Somerville on the Connection of the Physical Scien¬
ces ; Phil. Trans. 1754, 1777, 1783, 1788, 1792, 1795,
.1799, 1800, and 1801; Edin. Phil. Trans, vi. ix. x. xii.
xiii.; Ann. de Chim. 3, 14, 22, 29, 71, and 75 ; Nicholson’s
Journal, 4, 9, 11, and 12, 8vo series; Journ. de Physique,
61; Ann. of Phil. 2, &c.; Manchester Memoirs; Mi-
moires de VAcademic de Geneve, &c. (<• i- i-)
H E B H E B
HEAT, Animal. See Physiology. of the sacred writings; but Huet, bishop of Avranches, in Hel
HEATH, James, an English historian, was born in 1629, his Evangelical Demonstration, has attempted toprove^v
atLondon, where his father, who was the king’s cutler, then that the Hebrews took their name from the word heber Y
lived. He was educated at Westminster school, and be- which signifies beyond, because they came from beyond
came a student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1616. In the Euphrates. Heber is supposed to have been born 2281
1648 he was ejected by the parliamentary visitors, for his b. c. and to have lived 464 years.
adherence to the royal cause ; lived upon his patrimony till Heber, Reginald, a poet, and dignitary of the church
it was almost spent; then married, and was obliged to write of England, was born at Malpas, in the county of Chester,
books and correct the press in order to maintain his family, on the 21st of April 1783. His youth was distinguished
He died of a consumption and dropsy at London in August by a precocity of talent, docility of temper, a love of read-
1664, and left several children to the parish. His prin-ci- ing, and a veneration for religion. After acquiring the
pal publications were, 1. A brief Chronicle of the late In- elementary parts of education at Neasdon, in the neighbour-
testine War in the Three Kingdoms of England, Scotland, hood of London, he was entered of Brazen-nose Colle°-e,
and Ireland, 1661, 8vo, afterwards enlarged by the author, Oxford, in the year 1800. In his first year he gained the
and completed from 1637 to 1663, in four parts, 1663, in university prize for Latin verse by his Carmen Seculare,
8vo; 2. or The Life and Death, Birth and Burial, a poem on the commencement of the new century; and
of Oliver CromweU, the late Usurper, 1663; 3. A new in 1803 he wrote his poem of which was crown-
Book of Loyal English Martyrs and Confessors, who have ed with the same success, and received with remark-
endured the Pains and Terrors of Death, Arraignment, &c. able applause. His academical career was brilliant from
for the Maintenance of the just and legal Government of its commencement to its close. After taking his degree,
these Kingdoms both in Church and State, 1663, 12mo. and gaining the university’s bachelors’ prize for the best
HEAVEN literally signifies the expanse of the firma- English prose essay, he in 1805 set out on a continen-
ment surrounding our earth, and extending every way to tal tour, of which he kept a regular journal, which was
an immense distance. afterwards published. Mr Heber returned to England in
Heaven, amongst Christian divines and philosophers, is the following year, and in 1807 took orders, and was in-
considered as a place in which the omnipresent Deity con- stituted by his brother to the family living of Hodnet in
descends to afford a nearer and more immediate view of Shropshire, soon after which he returned to Oxford to
himself, and a more sensible manifestation of his glory, than take his degree as master of arts. In 1809 he married
in the other parts of the universe. This is often called the and settled in his rectory, and there discharged the duties
empyrean, from that splendour with which it is supposed which a large parish devolved upon him with exemplary
to be invested ; and of this place the inspired writers give assiduity. Soon after his marriage he published a series
us the most noble and magnificent descriptions. The an- of hymns “ appropriate to the Sundays and principal holi-
cients considered heaven as the residence only of the ce- days of the year,” the greater number of which were com-
lestial gods, into which no mortals were admitted after posed for music already used in the church. In 1812, he
death, unless they were deified. As for the souls of good commenced a Dictionary of the Bible, and published a vo-
men, they were consigned to the Elysian fields. lume of poems, which contained, besides those previously
Heaven, amongst astronomers, called also the ethereal published, translations from Pindar, and a few other pieces,
and starry heaven, is that immense region in which the In the same year he commenced a poem entitled Mart
stars, planets, and comets are disposed. d'Arthur, which was never completed. The fragment was
Heaven is more particularly used in astronomy for an published after his death by his widow, in the volumes
orb, or circular region, of the ethereal heaven. which contain his biography. In 1817 he was appointed
HEBDOMAD ARY, Hebdomadarius, or Hebdoma- to the prebendary of St Asaph, and in 1822 he obtained the
dius, a member of a chapter or convent, whose week it is preachership of Lincoln’s Inn. During the same year the
to officiate in the choir, to rehearse the anthems and pray- bishopric of Calcutta became vacant by the death of Dr
ers, and to perform the usual functions which the superiors Middleton, and the offer of it having been made to Mr He-
perform at solemn feasts, and other extraordinary occasions, her, he accepted of it after much hesitation. About this pe-
I he word is formed from the Greek iZbogag, which signi- riod he published a life of Jeremy Taylor, with a review of
fies a week, from errcc, seven. his writings. In 1823 he took his degree of doctor of divi-
The hebdomadary generally collated to the benefices nity, and embarked for India, where he arrived in safety,
which became vacant during his week, though this was Bishop Heber was peculiarly well qualified to fill the high
usually looked upon as an abuse. In cathedrals, the heb- and responsible situation which he had attained, with honour
flomadary was a canon or prebendary, who had the pecu- to himself and advantage to the church, as well by his
liar care of the choir, and the inspection of the offices for amiable and conciliatory temper, as by his talents, and zeal
his week. In monasteries, the hebdomadary is he who in the cause of Christianity. Soon after his arrival in
waits at table for a week or other stated period, and di- India, he was appointed one of the vice-presidents of the
rects and assists the cook. ^ _ Asiatic Society in Calcutta. He also assumed the office
HLBDOME, a solemnity of the ancient Greeks, in of president of the Diocesan Committee of the Christian
honour of Apollo, in which the Athenians sung hymns !o Knowledge Society, established in Calcutta. The native
Cis praise, and carried in their hands branches of laurel, schools and the various branches of the society’s labours
1 he word signifies the seventh day, this solemnity being ob- in that city, in common with other institutions of the same
served on the seventh day of every lunar month. description, engrossed much of his time and attention. On
• ox, the daufhter of Jupiter and Juno (Apollodor. Ascension-day in the year 1824, Bishop Heber held his
i. 3), the goddess of youth, and cup-bearer of the gods, was first visitation in the cathedral of Calcutta; and subse-
succeeded in her office by Ganymede, considered by some quently, he made progresses through his diocese, which
only as another name of Hebe (Paus. ii. 13). She was was very extensive, consecrating churches, and facilitat-
also called Dia (Strab. vhl 382), and was married to Her- ing the adoption of measures for the extension of Chris-
cules, when he was raised to the rank of a god; and had tian knowledge amongst the Hindus. In one of his jour-
Tjr^uuX'ureS andAnif,tUS (APollodor' ii* 7> 7)- neys to the southern provinces, he was cut off by an apo-
HRBLK, the son ot Salah, and father of Peleg, from plectic fit, with which he was seized whilst bathing, at
whom the Hebrews derived their name, according to Jose- Trichinopoly, on the 3d of April 1826. After the death
phus, Eusebius, Jerome, Bede, and most of the interpreters of this eminent prelate, there was published a Narrative
H E B
fob, en. of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, from
Calcutta to Bombay, in 2 vols. 4to, and afterwards in 3 vols.
8vo. A biography of this good prelate, with numerous
letters, and a History of the Cossacks, has been published
by his widow, in 2 vols. 4to. Besides the works of Bishop
Heber already mentioned, he was the author of several dra¬
matic poems, and a considerable contributor to the Quar¬
terly Review. As a poet he is elegant and pleasing, without
being either very vigorous or original. His poem of Pales¬
tine is perhaps the best which has ever been written upon
the subject; and many of his hymns, whilst they possess
all the simplicity and true Christian feeling which should
characterise such compositions, have more elevation and
poetic fervour than is usually met with in writings of this
kind. His prose works are written in an easy, flowing style,
and are characterised by acuteness and sound judgment.
His Indian Narrative is graphic and pleasing in the highest
degree. As a minister of the gospel, Bishop Heber com¬
bined rational piety with zealous industry in the discharge
of his duties, and he was beloved and venerated in the high¬
est degree by those over whom he presided as a spiritual
guide and instructor.
HEBERDEN, William, a practical physician of great
celebrity, was born in London in the year 1710. He was
sent at a very early age, near the end of 1724, to St John’s
College, Cambridge. He took his first degree in 1728,
and obtained a fellowship about 1730; he became mas¬
ter of arts in 1732, and took his degree in physic in 1739.
He remained at Cambridge about ten years longer as a
practitioner of physic, and gave an annual course of lec¬
tures on the Materia Medica. In 1746 he became a fel¬
low of the Royal College of Physicians in London, and
two years afterwards he left Cambridge, having presented
to St John’s College the specimens which had been sub¬
servient to his lectures. He also added to this donation,
a few years afterwards, a collection of astronomical in¬
struments of some value. Having determined to esta¬
blish himself in London, he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1769; and he was employed in a very
extensive medical practice for more than thirty years.
When he became sensible that his age required some in¬
dulgence, he resolved to pass his summers at a house which
he had taken at Windsor; but he continued his practice
in the winter for some years longer. In January 1760 he
married Mary, daughter of W. Wollaston, Esq. by whom he
had five sons and three daughters; but he survived them
all, except Dr W. Heberden, and Mary, married to the
Rev. G. Jenyns. In 1778 he was made an honorary mem¬
ber of the Royal Society of Medicine at Paris.
Dr Heberden’s first publication seems to have been a
short essay on the incongruous composition of the mithri-
date and theriac, entitled Antitheriaca, 8vo, 1745. 2. He
sent to the Royal Society an Account of a very large Hu¬
man Calculus, weighing more than 2^ pounds avoirdupois
(Phil. Trans, xlvi. 1750, p. 596; Ahr.'S.x. p. 1005). 3. Ac¬
count of the Effect of Lightning at South Weald in Essex
(Phil. Trans, liv. 1764, p. 198). Both these essays are
erroneously attributed, in Dr Maty’s index, to his brother,
Dr Thomas Heberden of Madeira, who sent several other
papers to the society. Dr Heberden was one of the prin¬
cipal contributors to the first three volumes of the Medi¬
cal Transactions, published in a great measure at his sug¬
gestion, by the College of Physicians, in which we find
about sixteen of his original communications. 4. Remarks
on the Pump Water of London, 1768. 5. Observations
on Ascarides. 6. On Night Blindness, or Nyctalopia. 7.
On the Chicken-Pox. 8. On the Epidemical Cold of 1767.
9. Queries, relating to bark, camphor, cold, the gout, and
apoplexy. 10. On Hectic Fever. 11. On the Pulse. 12.
On a Disorder of the Breast, the angina <pectons. 13. On
Diseases of the Liver. 14. On the Nettle Rash. 15. On
H E B 199
Noxious Fungi. 16. Queries; on sizy blood, on hernia, on Hebrew,
damp clothes, on venesection in hemorrhages. 17. On an
Angina Pectoris. 18. On the Ginseng. 19. On the Measles.
20. Table of the Mean Heat of the different Months in
London (Phil. Trans. Ixxviii. 1778, p. 86.) 21. Commen-
tarii de Morborum Historia et Curatione, London, 1802, in
8vo ; also in English. He had long been in the habit of
making notes in a pocket-book, at the bed-sides of his pa¬
tients ; and every month he used to select and copy out, un¬
der the proper titles of the diseases, whatever he thought
particularly worthy to be recorded. In the year 1782 he
employed himself in digesting this register into the form of
a volume of Commentaries on the history and cure of dis¬
eases, religiously observing never to depend on his me¬
mory for any material circumstance that he did not find
expressly written down in his notes. These commentaries
were intrusted to the care of his son, Dr W. Heberden,
to be published after his death. We find in them a great¬
er mass of valuable matter, accurately observed and can¬
didly related, than in almost any other volume which has
ever appeared upon a medical subject; yet they are but
too likely to chill the ingenuous ardour of many a youth¬
ful mind, and even to lead to a total apathy with respect
to the diligent study of a profession in which so respect¬
able a veteran was so often disposed to exclaim, that “ all
is vanity.” There are indeed many instances in which he
does not seem to have been perfectly master of all the in¬
struments of his art: thus, he appears to have been but par¬
tially acquainted with the virtues and various uses of anti¬
mony and ipecacuan, and to have reasoned very inaccu¬
rately on the operation for a strangulated hernia. But it
has been remarked, that the more experience a physician
acquires in his profession, the more he is in general in¬
clined to approach the opinions of Dr Heberden, and to
esteem his writings.
Notwithstanding that he has been accused of having
occasionally been liable to personal and professional pre¬
judices, it may safely be asserted, that he possessed a sin¬
gular combination of modesty and dignity of character.
He was not only a well-informed and accomplished scho¬
lar, but a man of the purest integrity of conduct, of mild
and courteous manners, distinguished by genuine piety, and
by unaffected benevolence of heart. It is related by one
of his biographers, that he bought a sceptical work, left
in manuscript by Dr Conyers Middleton, of his widow,
for L.50, in order to burn it. He was at the expense of
publishing another work of the same author, on the ser¬
vile condition of physicians amongst the ancients, as well
as an edition of some of the plays of Euripides, by Mark-
land. He had an opportunity of rendering an essential
service to Dr Letheri-and, a man of the deepest and most
extensive learning and science that adorned the last cen¬
tury, but of retired habits, and very little known even in
his own profession, though he contributed by his literary
information to the popularity of more than one of his col¬
leagues. Dr Heberden’s extensive practice made it incon¬
venient for him to accept the appointment of physician
to the queen; and the king, who had always shown him
the greatest esteem and regard, readily adopted his dis¬
interested recommendation of Dr Letherfand as his sub¬
stitute in the situation. He died on the 17th of May 1801,
at the age of above ninety years, having exhibited at the
close of his life the same serenity of mind which- he had
enjoyed throughout its course. (Life prefixed to his Com¬
mentaries ; Chalmers’ Biographical Dictionary, xvii.)
HEBREW, something relating to the Hebrew.
Hebrew Character. There are two kinds of Hebrew
characters; the ancient, called also the square; and the
modern, or rabbinical character.
The Square Hebrew takes its denomination from the
figure of its characters, which stand more square, and
200 H E B
Hebrew, have their angles more exact and precise, than the other,
'-y-w This character is used in the text of Scripture, and in other
principal and important writings. When both this and the
rabbinical character are employed in the same work, the
former is used for the text, and the latter for the acces¬
sory part, as the gloss, notes, commentaries, and so forth.
The best and most beautiful characters of this kind are
those copied from the characters used in the Spanish ma¬
nuscripts ; next, those from the Italian manuscripts ; then
those from the French; and, lastly, those of the Germans,
whose characters are much the same, with respect to the
other genuine square Hebrew characters, as the Gothic or
Dutch characters are with respect to the Roman.
Several authors contend, that the square character is
not the real ancient Hebrew character, written from the be¬
ginning of the language till the time of the Babylonish cap¬
tivity ; but that it is the Assyrian or Chaldaic character,
which the Jews having become accustomed to during the
captivity, afterwards retained. They allege, that the Jews,
during their captivity, had quite disused their ancient cha¬
racter; so that Ezra found it necessary to have the sacred
books transcribed into the Chaldaic square character. These
authors also contend, that what we call the Samaritan cha¬
racter is in reality the genuine ancient Hebrew. Of this
opinion are Scaliger, Bochart, Casaubon, Vossius, Grotius,
Walton, Capellus, and, amongst the ancients, Jerome and
Eusebius. It is urged, that the present characters are call¬
ed Assyrian by the ancient Jewish writers of the Talmud,
and therefore must have been brought from Assyria. But to
this argument it is replied, that there were two sorts of cha¬
racters anciently in use, viz. the sacred or present square
character, and the profane or civil, which we call Samaritan;
and that the sacred is called Assyrian, because it first began
in Assyria to come into common use. It is further alleged,
that the Chaldaic letters, which the Jews now use, were un¬
known to the ancient Jews before the captivity (Dan. i. 4).
Moreover, it is inferred from a passage in Second Kings
(xvii. 28), where we learn that a Jewish priest was sent to
teach the Samaritans the worship of Jehovah, that on this
occasion he must have taught them the law; and yet no
mention occurs of his teaching them the language or cha¬
racter in which the law was then written, namely, the cha¬
racter which the Samaritans used. But the chief argument
is derived from some ancient Jewish shekels, having a le¬
gend on one side, “ The shekel of Israel,” and on the other,
“Jerusalem the holy,” both in Samaritan characters. These
shekels, it is said, must have been coined before the divi¬
sion of the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel, or at least
before the Assyrian captivity, because the Samaritans never
afterwards reckoned Jerusalem holy. On the other side,
namely, in favour of the primitive antiquity of the square
character, are the two Buxtorfs,Leusden, Calovius, Hottin-
ger, Spanheim, Lightfoot, and others, who urge (from Mat¬
thew, v. 18) that jod is really the least of the consonants
in the present Hebrew, whereas it is one of the largest cha¬
racters in the Samaritan alphabet; but Walton replies, that
if our Saviour here speaks of the least letter of the alpha¬
bet, we can only infer that the Chaldaic character was used,
in our Saviour’s time, which is not denied by those who
maintain the Samaritan to be the original. They also allege
that the Jews were too obstinate and superstitious to allow
their sacred character to be altered; but if this was effected
under the direction and authority of Ezra, the argument
will be much invalidated. Further, they maintain that Ezra
could not alter the ancient character, because it was im¬
possible to make the alterations in all their copies. This
argument, however, is contradicted by fact, since the old
English black letter is actually changed for the Roman,
i hey likewise allege that Ezra was not disposed to profane
the sacred writings with a heathen character; but this
supposes that Ezra was so superstitious as to imagine that
H E B
there was some peculiar sanctity in the shape of the letters. Hebre*
Moreover, the advocates of this opinion appeal to ancient
coins found in Judaea, with a legend in the Chaldaic orAs-
syrian character. But the genuineness of these coins is
much disputed. The learned Souciet maintains that the
ancient Hebrew character is that found on the medals of
Simon, and others, commonly called Samaritan medals, but
which, he affirms, were really Hebrew medals, struck by the
Jews, and not by the Samaritans.
Buxtorf endeavours to reconcile these two opinions by
producing a variety of passages from the Rabbin to prove
that both these characters were anciently used ; the pre¬
sent square character being that in which the tables of the
law, and the copy deposited in the ark, were written, and
the other character being used in the copies of the law
which were written for private and common use, and in
civil affairs in general; and that after the captivity, Ezra
ordered the former to be used by the Jews on all occa¬
sions, leaving the latter to the Samaritans and apostates.
But it can scarcely be allowed by any who consider the dif¬
ference between the Chaldaic and Samaritan characters,
with respect to convenience and beauty, that they were
ever used at the same time. After all, it is of no great
moment which of these, or whether either of them, formed
the original characters; since it appears that no change
of the words has arisen from the manner of writing them,
because the Samaritan and Jewish Pentateuch almost in¬
variably agree. It is most probable that the form of these
characters has varied at different periods. This appears
from the testimony of Montfaucon {Hexapla Origenis,
vol. i. p. 22), and is implied in Dr Kennicot’s making the
characters in which manuscripts are written one test of
their age.
The Modern, or Rabbinical, is a good, neat character,
formed of the square Hebrew, by rounding it, and re¬
trenching most of the angles or corners of the letters, to
render it more easy and flowing. The letters used by the
Germans are very different from the rabbinical character
employed everywhere else, though all formed alike from
the square character, but in a more slovenly manner than
the rest. The Rabbin frequently make use either of their
own, or the square Hebrew character, to write the modern
languages in. There are even books in the vulgar tongues
printed in Hebrew characters, instances of which are seen
in the king’s library at Paris.
Hebrew Language, that spoken by the Hebrews, and
in which the books of the Old Testament are written.
Ihe books of the Old Testament are the only composi¬
tions to be found, in all antiquity, written in pure Hebrew;
and the language of many of them is extremely sublime.
It appears perfectly regular, particularly in its conjuga¬
tions ; indeed, properly speaking, it has but one conjuga¬
tion, but this is varied in each seven or eight different
ways, which has the effect of so many different conjuga¬
tions, and affords a great variety of expressions to repre¬
sent by a single word the different modifications of a verb,
and many ideas which in the modern and in many of the
ancient and learned languages cannot be expressed with¬
out a periphrasis.
Ihe primitive words, which are called roots, have seldom
more than three letters or two syllables.
In this language there are twenty-two letters, only five
of which are usually reckoned vowels ; but then each vowel
is divided into two, a long and a short; the sound of the
former being somewhat grave and long, and that of the
latter short and acute. It must however be remarked,
that the two last vowels have sounds which differ in other
respects besides quantity and a greater or less elevation.
To these ten or twelve vowels may be added others, called
semi-vowels, which serve to connect the consonants, and to
render easier the transitions from one to another. The
H E B
H E B
201
;nr. number of accents in this language is prodigious. Of these
there are nearly forty, the use of some of which, notwith¬
standing all the inquiries of the learned, is not yet per¬
fectly known. We know, in general, that they serve to
distinguish the sentences, like the points called commas,
semicolons, and colons in our language ; to determine the
quantity of the syllables ; and to mark the tone with which
they are to be spoken or sung. It is no wonder, then, that
there are more accents in the Hebrew than in other lan¬
guages, since they perform three offices, which in other
languages are called by different names.
As we have no Hebrew but that which is contained in
the Scripture, the language wants a great many words ; not
only because in those primitive times languages were not
so copious as at present, but also on this account, that the
inspired writers had no occasion to mention many of the
terms which might be in use in the language.
The Chaldaic, Syriac, and Ethiopic languages, are by
some held to be dialects of the Hebrew ; as the French,
Italian, and Spanish, are dialects of the Latin. It has
been supposed by many learned men, that the Hebrew
characters or letters were often used hieroglyphically, and
that each had its several distinct sense understood as a hiero¬
glyphic. Neumann, who seems to have taken infinite pains
to find out the secret meaning of these letters, gives the
following explication ; a, aleph, he says, is a character de¬
noting motion, readiness, and activity; 2, beth, signifies
matter, body, substance, thing, also place, space, or capa¬
city, and lastly, in, within, or contained; 3, ghimel, stands for
flexion, bending, or obliquity of any kind ; 1, dhaleth, sig¬
nifies any protrusion made from without, or any promotion
of any kind ; rr, he, stands for the presence or demonstra¬
tive essence of any thing ; \ vau, stands for copulation, or
the growing together of things; t, tsain, expresses vehe¬
ment protrusion and violent compression, such as is occa¬
sioned by at once violently discharging and constringing
a thing, and sometimes the straitening of any figure into
a narrow point at the end; n, vheth, expresses associa¬
tion, society, or any kind of composition or combination
of things; a, teth, stands for the withdrawing, drawing
back, or recession of any thing; ',jod, signifies extension
and length, whether in matter or in time ; 3, caph, ex¬
presses a turning, incurvation, or concavity , S lamech,
stands for an addition, accession, impulse, or adversation,
and sometimes for pressure ; a, mem, expresses amplitude,
or the amplifying any thing in whatever sense, and in regard
to contiguous qualities it also signifies the adding length,
breadth, and circumference, lastly, multitude; 3, nun,
signifies the propagation of one thing from another, or of
the same thing from one person to another; d, samech,
expresses cincture and coarctation; V, ain, stands for obser¬
vation, objection, or obviation ; s, pe or phe, stands for a
crookedness or an angle of any figure ; x, tsadde, expresses
contiguity and close succession; P, koph, expresses a cir¬
cuit or ambit; i, resh, expresses the egress of any thing,
as also the exterior part of a thing, and the extremity or
end of any thing; schin or sin, signifies the number
three, or the third degree, or the utmost perfection of
any thing; and n, tan, expresses a sequel, continuation,
or succession of any thing.
As, according to this explication, the several letters of
■ the Hebrew alphabet separately convey ideas of motion,
matter, space, and several modifications of matter, space,
and motion ; it follows that a language, the words of which
are composed of such expressive characters, must neces¬
sarily be of all languages the most perfect and expressive ;
as the words formed of such letters, according to their de¬
terminate separate significations, must convey the idea of
all the matters contained in the sense of the several cha¬
racters, and be at once a name and a definition, or suc¬
cinct description, of the subject; and all things material as
vol. xr.
well as spiritual, all objects in the natural and moral world, Hebrides,
must be known as soon as their names are known, and
their separate letters considered.
The words urim and thummim are thus easily explain¬
ed, and found to be perhaps the most apposite and ex¬
pressive words that ever were formed.
Rabbinical or Modern Hebrew, is the language used by
the Rabbin in the writings they have composed. Its
basis or body is the Hebrew and Chaldaic, with various al¬
terations in the words of these two languages, the mean¬
ings of which they have considerably enlarged and ex¬
tended. They have borrowed freely from the Arabic;
and the rest is composed of words and expressions, chiefly
from the Greek, some from the Latin, and others from
the modern tongues, particularly that spoken in the place
where each Rabbi lived or wrote.
HEBRIDES, the general name of some islands lying
to the north-west of Scotland, of which kingdom they con¬
stitute a part. They are situated between the 55th and
59th degrees of latitude. The names of the largest are
Lewis, Skye, Mull, Hay, and Arran. Of these islands,
generally, Mr Pennant gives the following history.
“All the accounts left us by the Greek and Roman
writers are enveloped with obscurity ; at all times brief
even in their descriptions of places they had easiest access
to, and might have described with the most satisfactory
precision ; but in remote places, their relations furnish little
more than hints, the food for conjecture to the visionary
antiquary.
“That Pytheas, a traveller mentioned by Strabo, had
visited Great Britain, I would wish to make only apocry¬
phal. He asserts that he visited the remoter parts ; and
that he had also seen Thule, the land of romance amongst
the ancients ; which all might pretend to have seen ; but
every voyager, to swell his fame, made the island he saw
last the Ultima Thule of his travels. If Pytheas had reach¬
ed these parts, he might have observed, floating in the
seas, multitudes of gelatinous animals, the medusce of Lin¬
naeus, and out of these have formed his fable. He made
his Thule a composition of neither earth, sea, nor air ; but
like a composition of them all; then, catching his simile
from what floated before him, compares it to the lungs of
the sea, the Aristotelian idea of these bodies, and from
him adopted by naturalists, successors to that great philo¬
sopher. Strabo very justly explodes these absurd tales;
yet allows him merit in describing the climate of the places
he had seen. As a farther proof of his having visited the
Hebrides, he mentions their unfriendly sky, that prohi¬
bits the growth of the finer fruits ; and that the natives are
obliged to carry their corn under shelter to beat the grain
out, lest it should be spoiled by the effect of sun and vio¬
lence of the rains. This is the probable part of his nar¬
rative ; but when the time that the great geographer wrote
is considered, at a period that these islands had been ne¬
glected for a very long space by the Romans, and when
the difficulties of getting among a fierce and unfriendly
nation must be almost insuperable, doubts innumerable re¬
specting the veracity of this relater must arise. All that
can be admitted in favour of him is, that he was a great
traveller; and that he might have either visited Britain
from some of the nations commercing with our isle, or
received from them accounts, which he afterwards dressed
out, mixed with the ornaments of fable. A traffic must
have been carried on with the very northern inhabitants
of our islands in the time of Pytheas ; for one of the articles
of commerce mentioned by Strabo, the ivory bits, were
made either of the teeth of the walrus, or of a species of
whale, native of the northern seas.
“ The geographer Mela, who flourished in the reign of
Claudius, is the next who takes notice of our lesser islands.
He mentions the Orcades as consisting of 30, the iEmodae
2 c
202
HEBRIDES.
Hein ides, of seven. The Romans had then made a conquest of
the former, and might have seen the latter: but, from the
words of the historian, it is probable that the Shetland
Islands were those intended; for he informs us that the
1 iEmodse were carried out over against Germany.’ The
site of the Hebrides will not admit this description, which
agrees very well with the others; for the ancients extend¬
ed their Germany, and its imaginary islands, to the ex¬
treme north.
“ Pliny the Elder is the next that mentions these re¬
mote places. He lived later than the preceding writers,
and of course his information is fuller. By means of inter¬
vening discoveries, he has added ten more to the number
of the Orcades ; is the first writer that mentions the Hce-
budes, the islands in question; and joins in the same line
.iThnodte, or, as it is in the best editions more properly
written, the Acmodce, or extreme point of the Roman ex¬
peditions to the north, as the Shetland Isles in the high¬
est probability were. Pliny and Mela agree in the num¬
ber of the JEmodae or Acmodas; the former makes that
of the Hcebudes 30 ; an account extremely near the truth,
deducting the little isles, or rather rocks, that surround
most of the greater, and many of them so indistinct as
scarcely to be remarked, except on an actual survey.
“ Solinus succeeds Pliny. If he, as is supposed, was con¬
temporary vvith Agricola, he has made very ill use of the
light he might have received from the expeditions of that
great general; his officers might have furnished the his¬
torian with better materials than those he has communi¬
cated. He has reduced the number of the Hcebudes to
five. . He tells us that ‘ the inhabitants were unacquaint¬
ed with corn ; that they lived only on fish and milk ; that
they had one king, as the islands were only separated from
each other by narrow straits ; that their prince was bound
by certain rules of government to do justice, and was pre¬
vented by poverty from deviating from the true course,
being supported by the public, and allowed nothing "that
he could call his own, not even a wife; but then he was
allowed free choice, by turns one out of every district, of
any female that caught his affection ; which deprived him
of all ambition about a successor.’
“ By the number of these islands, and by the minute at¬
tention given by the historian to the circumstance of their
being separated from each other by very narrow straits,
I should imagine that which is now called the Long Island,
and includes Lewis, North List, Benbecula, South List,
and Barra, to have been the five Hcebudes of Solinus ; for
the other great islands, such as Sky, &c. are too remote
from each other to form the preceding very characteristic
description of that chain of islands. These might natu¬
rally fall under the rule of one petty prince, almost the
only probable part of Solinus’s narrative.
“ After a long interval appears Ptolemy, the Egyptian
geographer. He also enumerates five Ebudce, and has
given each a name ; the western Ebuda, the Eastern Ri-
cino, Maleos,' Epidium. Camden conjectures them to be
the modern Sky, Lewis, Rathry or Racline, Mull, and Bay;
and I will not controvert his opinion.
“ I he Roman historians give very little light into the
geography of these parts. Tacitus, from whom most might
have been expected, is quite silent about the names of
places; notwithstanding he informs us, that a fleet by
the command of Agricola performed the circumnavigation
of Britain. All that he takes notice of is the discovery
and the conquest of the Orkneys: it should seem, that
with the biographers of an ambitious nation, nothing seem¬
ed worthy of notice but what they could dignify with the
glory of victory. ■
“js very difficult to assign a reason for the change of
name from hbudce to Hebrides: the last is modern, and
seems, as the annotator on Dr Macpherson supposes, to
have arisen from the error of a transcriber, who chaneed u i
the u into ri. ' 6 e'
“ From all that has been collected from the ancients, it
appears that they were acquainted with little more of the
Hebrides than the bare names: it is probable that the
Romans, either from contempt of such barren spots, from
the dangers of the seas, the violence of the tides, and
horrors of the narrow sounds, in the inexperienced ages
of navigation, never attempted their conquest, or saw
more of them than what they had in sight during the few
circumnavigations of Great Britain, which were expedi¬
tions more of ostentation than of utility.
“ The inhabitants had probably for some ages their own
governois, one little king to each island, or to each group,
as necessity required. It is reasonable to suppose that
their government was as much divided as that of Great
Britain, which, it is well known, was under the direction
of numbers of petty princes before it was reduced under
the power of the Romans.
“No account is given in history of the time these
islands were annexed to the government of Scotland. If
we may credit our Saxon historians, they appear to have
been early under the dominion of the Piets ; for Bede and
Adamnanus inform us, that soon after the arrival of St
Columba in their country, Brude, a Pictish monarch, made
the saint a present of the celebrated island of Iona. But
neither the holy men of this island, nor the natives of the
rest of the Hebrides, enjoyed a permanent repose after
this event. The first invasion of the Danes does not seem
to be easily ascertained. It appears that they ravaged
Ireland, and the Isle of Rathry, as early as the year 735.
In the following century their expeditions became more
frequent; Harold Harfager, or the light-haired, pursued,
in 875, several petty princes, whom he had expelled out
of Norway ; who had taken refuge in the Hebrides, and
molested his dominions by perpetual descents from those
islands. He seems to have made a rapid conquest; he
gained as many victories as he fought battles; he put to
death the chief of the pirates, and made an indiscriminate
slaughter of their followers. Soon after his return, the
islanders repossessed their ancient seats ; and, in order to
repress their insults, he sent Ketil the fiat-nosed with a
fleet and some forces for that purpose. He soon reduced
them to terms, but made his victories subservient to his
own ambition; he made alliances with the reguli he had
subdued; he formed intermarriages, and confirmed to
them their old dominions. This effected, he sent back
the fleet to Harold ; openly declared himself independent;
made himself prince of the Hebrides; and caused them
to acknowledge him as such, by the payment of tribute
and the badges of vassalage. Ketil remained, during life,
master of the islands; and bis subjects appear to have
been a warlike set of freebooters, ready to join with any
adventurers. Thus when Eric, son of Harold Harfager,
after being driven out of his own country, made an inva¬
sion of England, he put with his fleet into the Hebrides,
received a large reinforcement of people fired with the
hopes of prey, and then proceeded on his plan of rapine.
After the death of Ketil, a kingdom was in after times
composed out of them, which, from the residence of the
little monarch in the Isle of Man, was styled that of Man.
I he islands became tributary to that of Norway for a con¬
siderable time, and princes were sent from thence to go¬
vern ; but at length they again shook off the yoke. Whether
the little potentates ruled independent, or whether they
put themselves under the protection of the Scottish mo*
narchs, does not clearly appear; but it is reasonable to
suppose the last, as Donald-bane is accused of making the
Hebrides the price of the assistance given him bv the
Norwegians against his own subjects. Notwithstanding
they might occasionally seek the protection of Scotland,
HEBRIDES.
203
leb es. yet they never were without princes of their own : policy
W- —' alone directed them to the former. From the chronicles
of the kings of Man we learn that they had a succession
of princes.
“ In 1089 is an evident proof of the independency of the
islanders on Norway; for, on the death of Lagnan, one
of their monarchs, they sent a deputation to O’Brian, king
of Ireland, to request a regent of royal blood to govern
them during the minority of their young prince. They pro¬
bably might in turn compliment in some other respects
their Scottish neighbours ; the islanders must have given
them some pretence to sovereignty; for,
“ In 1093, Donald-bane, king of Scotland, calls in the
assistance of Magnus the Barefooted, king of Norway, and
bribes him with the promise of all the islands. Magnus
accepts the terms; but at the same time boasts, that he
does not come to invade the territories of others, but only
to resume the ancient rights of Norway. His conquests
are rapid and complete ; for, besides the islands, by an in¬
genious fraud he adds Cantyre to his dominions.
“The Hebrides continued governed by a prince depen¬
dent on Norway, a species of viceroy appointed by that
court; and who paid, on assuming the dignity, ten marks
of gold, and never made any other pecuniary acknowledg¬
ment during life : but if another viceroy was appointed,
the same sum was exacted from him. These viceroys
were sometimes Norwegians, sometimes natives of the isles.
In 1097 we find that Magnus deputes a nobleman of the
name of Ingemund: in after times we learn that natives
were appointed to that high office. Thus were the He¬
brides governed, from the conquest by Magnus, till the
year 1263, when Acho, or Haquin, king of Norway, by an
unfortunate invasion of Scotland, terminating in his defeat
at Largs, so weakened the powers of his kingdom, that his
successor Magnus IV. was content to make a cession of the
islands to Alexander III.: but not without stipulating for
the payment of a large sum, and a tribute of 100 merks
for ever, which bore the name of the annual of Norway.
Ample provision was also made by Magnus in the same
treaty, for the security of the rights and properties of his
Norwegian subjects who chose to continue in the isles,
where many of their posterity remain to this day.
“Notwithstanding this revolution, Scotland seems to
have received no real acquisition of strength. The islands
still remained governed by powerful chieftains, the de¬
scendants of Somerled, thane of Heregaidel, or Argyle,
who, marrying the daughter of Olave, king of Man, left a
divided dominion to his sons Dugal and Reginald ; from
the first were descended the Macdougals of Lorn, from
the last the powerful clan of the Macdonalds. The lord-
ship of Argyle, with Mull, and the islands north ot it, fell
to the share of the first; Hay, Cantyre, and the southern
isles, were the portion of the last; a division that formed
the distinction of the Sudereys and Nordereys (as further
noticed in the article Iona).
“ These chieftains were the scourges of the kingdom;
they are known in history but as the devastations of a
tempest; for their paths were marked with the most bar¬
barous desolation. Encouraged by their distance from
the seat of royalty, and the turbulence of the times, which
gave their monarchs full employ, they exercised a regal
power, and often assumed the title ; but are more generally
known in history by the style of the Lords of the Isles, or
the Earls of Ross ; and sometimes by that of the Great
Macdonald.
“ Historians are silent about their proceedings, from
the retreat of the Danes, in 1263, till that of 1335, when
John, lord of the isles, withdrew his allegiance. In the
beginning of the next century his successors were so in¬
dependent,* that Henry IV. entered into a formal alli¬
ance with the brothers Donald and John. This encou¬
raged them to commit fresh hostilities against their natural Hebrides,
prince. Donald, under pretence of a claim to the earldom
of Ross, invaded and made a conquest of that county;
but, penetrating as far as the shire of Aberdeen, after a
fierce but undecisive battle with the royal party, thought
proper to retire, and in a little time to swear allegiance to
his monarch James I. But he was permitted to retain
the county of Ross, and assume the title of earl. His
successor Alexander, at the head of 10,000 men, attacked
and burnt Inverness ; at length, terrified with the prepara¬
tions made against him, he fell at the royal feet, and ob¬
tained pardon as to life, but was committed to strict con¬
finement.
“ His kinsman and deputy, Donald Balloch, resenting
the imprisonment of his chieftain, excited another re¬
bellion, and destroyed the country with fire and sword;
but on his flight was taken and put to death by an Irish
chieftain, with whom he sought protection. ”
“ These barbarous inroads were very frequent with a
set of banditti, who had no other motive in war but the
infamous inducement of plunder.
“ In the reign of James II. in the year 1461, Donald,
another petty tyrant, an Earl of Ross, and Lord of the Isles,
renewed the pretence of independency; surprised the
castle of Inverness ; forced his way as far as Athol; and
obliged the earl and countess, with the principal inhabi¬
tants, to seek refuge in the church of St Bridget, in hopes
of finding security from his cruelty by the sanctity of the
place: but the barbarian and his followers set fire to the
church, put the ecclesiastics to the sword, and, with a
great booty, carried the earl and countess prisoners to his
castle of Claig, in the island of Hay. In a second expe¬
dition, immediately following the first, he suffered the
penalty of his impiety : a tempest overtook him, and over¬
whelmed most of his associates; and he, escaping to In¬
verness, perished by the hands of an Irish harper; his
surviving followers returned to Hay, conveyed the Earl and
Countess of Athol to the sanctuary they had violated, and
expiated their crime by restoring the plunder, and mak¬
ing large donations to the shrine of the offended saint.
“ John, successor to the late Earl of Ross, entered into
alliance with Edward IV. and sent ambassadors to the
court of England, where Edward empowered the Bishop
of Durham and Earl of Winchester to conclude a treaty
with him, another Donald Balloch, and his son and heir
John. They agreed to serve the king with all their
power, and to become his subjects : the earl was to have
100 marks sterling for life in time of peace, and L.200 in
time of war; and these island allies, in case of the conquest
of Scotland, were to have confirmed to them all the posses¬
sions benorth of the Scottish sea; and in case ot a truce
with the Scottish monarch, they were to be included in it.
But about the year 1476, Edward, from a change of po¬
litics, courted the alliance of James III. and dropt his new
allies. James, determined to subdue this rebellious race,
sent against them a powerful army under the Earl of Athol;
and took leave of him with this good wish, Furth, fortune,
and fill the fetters; as much as to say, “ Go forth, be for¬
tunate, and bring home many captives; ” which the family
of Athol has used ever since for its motto. Ross was ter¬
rified into submission ; obtained his pardon ; but was de¬
prived of his earldom, which by act of parliament was then
declared unalienably annexed to the crown; at the same time
the king restored to him Knapdale and Cantyre, which
the earl had resigned; and invested him anew with the
lordship of the isles, to hold them of the king by service
and relief.
“Thus the great power of the isles was broken: yet
for a considerable time after, the petty chieftains were
continually breaking out into small rebellions, or harassed
each other in private wars; and tyranny seems but to
204
H E C
Hebron have been multiplied. James V. found it necessary to
Hecate ma^e V0yaoe ^e isles in person in 1536, seized and
‘_i<a, brought away with him several of the most considerable
leaders, and obliged them to find security for their own
good behaviour and that of their vassals. The names of
these chieftains were (according to Lindesay), Mydyart,
Mac-connel, Mac-loyd of the Lewis, Mac-niel, Mac-lane,
Mac-intosh, John Mudyart, Mac-hay, Mac-kenzie, and
many others; but, by the names of some of the above,
there seem to have been continental as well as insular
malecontents. He examined the titles of their holdings ;
and finding several to have been usurped, reunited their
lands to the crown. In the same voyage he had the glory
of causing a survey to be taken of the coasts of Scotland,
and of the islands, by his pilot Alexander Lindesay;
which was published in 1583, at Paris, by Nicholas de
Nicholay, geographer to the French monarch.
“ The troubles that succeeded the death of James occa¬
sioned a neglect of these insulated parts of the Scottish
dominions, and left them in a state of anarchy. In 1614,
the Mac-donalds made a formidable insurrection, oppugn¬
ing the royal grant of Cantyre to the Earl of Argyle and
his relations. The petty chieftains continued in a sort of
rebellion; and the sword of the greater, as usual in weak
governments, was employed against tlmm ; the encourage¬
ment and protection given by them to pirates employed
the power of the Campbells during the reign of James
VI. and the beginning of that of Charles I.
“ But the turbulent spirit of the old times continued
down till a comparatively late period. The heads of clans
were, by the divisions, and a false policy that predominated
in Scotland during the reign of William III. flattered with
an ideal importance: instead of being treated as bad sub¬
jects, they were courted as desirable allies ; instead of
feeling the hand of power, money was allowed to bribe
them into the loyalty of the times. They would have
accepted the subsidies, notwithstanding they detested the
prince that offered them. They were taught to believe
themselves of such consequence, that in these days turn¬
ed to their destruction. Two rebellions gave the legisla¬
ture a late experience of the folly of permitting the feu¬
dal system to exist in any part of its dominions. The
act of 1748, for abolishing heritable jurisdictions, at once
deprived the chieftains of all power of injuring the public
by their commotions.’’
New Hebrides, a cluster of islands lying in the Great
South Sea, or Pacific Ocean. See Australasia.
HEBRON, a town of Palestine, so named from a very
remote antiquity. It is a place of great resort for pilgrims,
both Mahommedan and Christian. Its situation is on a
hill, near the plain of Mamre, which is fertile, and plant¬
ed with excellent vineyards. Here Constantine built a
church, of which the walls still remain. It is twenty-seven
miles south-west of Jerusalem,
HEBRUS, now Maritza, a river of Thrace, rising in
Mount Scomius (Thucyd. ii. 96), or Rhodope (Plin. iv.
II), and falling into the JSgean Sea near iEnos, forming
at its mouth the Palus Stentoris (Herodot. vii. 58). It is
joined on the left bank by the Artiscus (Bujuk-dere), by
the Agrianes (Ergene), which receives the Contadesdus
(Saradjala), and this last the Tearus (Tekedere). It was at
the source of this river that Darius erected a pillar with
an inscription to the effect that its waters were the purest
and best, as he was the fairest of men. (Herodot. iv. 89-
92.)
HECATiEUS, an ancient historian of Miletus, in Asia
Minor. The exact period of his birth and death is unknown,
but the active part he took in the affairs of his country
proves that he flourished about 500 b. c., at a time when the
lonians were attempting to throw off the yoke of the Per¬
sians, who were then governed by Darius. He was the son
H E C
of Hegesandrus (Suid.), and descended of a noble family. Heca
Like Herodotus, whom he preceded only by a few years, ;
he visited many countries, and, making himself acquaint-Hecat
ed with the peculiarities of their customs, and the history ^
of different nations, he wrote numerous works on these
subjects. (Herodot. ii. 143.) We find Hecatmus pre¬
sent at the deliberations of the lonians, 501 b. c., before
they revolted against Darius, when he pointed out to his
countrymen the folly of their intended proceedings. War,
however, was resolved on at all hazards, and Hecateus'
then recommended that they should devote their atten¬
tion to secure maritime supremacy. This advice was also
neglected ; and, 497 b.c., Aristagoras, who headed the war
faction, was obliged to fly, being a short time afterwards
slain in 1 brace (v. 36, 125). Hecataeus was one of the
earliest writers in prose, and is said by Porphyry to have
furnished materials for the history of Herodotus. His
works were divided into three classes; histories, genea¬
logies, and geographical pieces. The fragments, which
are numerous, have been collected by Creuzer, Histori-
corum Antiquissimorum Fragmenta, p. 38-86. (See Me-
moires de VAcademic des Inscript, tom. vi. p. 475; Vossius
de Hist. GrcE-c. p. 440; and Ulrici, Charakteristik der anti¬
hen Historiographic, Berlin, 1833.)
Hecatjeus, a native of Abdera, in Thrace, who was a
contemporary of Alexander the Great, and lived at the
court of Ptolemy, son of Lagus king of Egypt (b. c. 323-
283). 4Ie had there an opportunity of becoming acquaint¬
ed with the Jewish nation; for, after the battle of Gaza,
where Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, the whole
of Palestine came into the possession of the king of Egypt;
and a large body of Jews, charmed by the humanity and
moderation of Ptolemy, went along with him into Egypt,
and, amongst others, the high-priest Hezekiah. From’ him
it would appear that Hecataeus received such minute in¬
formation respecting the customs and habits of his coun¬
trymen, that he was induced to write a detailed history
of the Jews. Both Josephus (Ap. i. 22, ii. 4) and Euse¬
bius have preserved passages which are of great value, as
confirming the accounts which we have elsewrhere receiv¬
ed of that people. In this work he described the nature
and position of the country of Palestine, and gave an ac¬
count of their fastnesses, Jerusalem, the temple, with the
remarkable customs of the people and priests. In later
times it has become a matter of dispute whether we ought
to consider this work as the genuine production of Heca¬
taeus. Scaliger regarded it as spurious, following the opi¬
nion of Herennius Philo, as quoted by Origen (Contr.
Cels. lib. i.) ; but we think that Sainte Croix {Exam. Grit.
deS' Hist, d Alexandre, p. 558) has completely proved that
it is the work of the author whose name it bears. (See
Hecatad Abderitce Philosoph. et Histor. Eclogce. Gr. et Lat.
by Scaliger, Alton, 1730.)
HECATE, daughter of Perses and Asterie, or of Night,
an ancient symbol of the moon, appearing in the Orphic
hymns as the first and oldest divinity. She is there call¬
ed the Almighty Queen of Heaven, the bearer of the keys
of the world. As the goddess of fortune, she was the
protectress of merchants and highways (Trivia). Hers
was the name applied to the new moon, and therefore one
of the names of Diana. (See Diana.) She was com¬
monly represented with three bodies, and was worshipped
by the Greeks on the 30th day of every month, when the
mullet and anchovy were offered to her.
HECATESIA, a yearly festival observed by the Stra-
tonicensians in honour of Hecate. The Athenians also
paid particular worship to this goddess, who was deemed
the patroness of families and of children. From this cir¬
cumstance the statues of the goddess were erected before
the doors of the houses; and at every new moon a public
supper was provided at the expense of the richest people,
H E C H E D 205
band set in the streets, where the poorest of the citizens with this, declared that the body should be given as a prey to Hecuba
*11 were permitted to retire and feast upon it, whilst they re- birds and dogs. The following night, however, the tears I! .
led orted that Hecate had devoured it. There were also ex- of the aged Priam induced him to change his resolution, and
^ J niatory offerings, to supplicate the goddess to remove what- the body of Hector was committed to the flames within the
ever evils might impend on the heads of the public. walls of his native city. Such is the scene which termi-
HECATOMB, in Antiquity, a sacrifice of a hundred nates rather abruptly the poem of the Iliad. Hector had
beasts of the same kind, at a hundred altars, and byahun- a monument at Thebes, to which the Thebans maintain-
jred priests or sacrificers. The word is formed from the ed that his bones had been removed from Iroy. (Homer,
Greek ixocro/iCj], which properly signifies a sumptuous or Iliad; Pausanias, ix. 18.)
magnificent sacrifice. Some, however, derive it from the HECUBA, the daughter of Dymas (Horn. II. ii. 718),
Greek ixarcv, an hundred, and /Sous, bos, bullock, or of Cisseus (Eurip.), or of the river Sangarius and Metope
from which the hecatomb should be a sacrifice of a bun- (Apollodor. iii. 12, 5), married Priam, and had by him
dred bullocks ; whilst others derive it from sxarov and oroug, nineteen sons and a great number of daughters. Of the
•pes foot, and on that principle maintain that the heca- sons, the most celebrated were Hector, Paris, Deiphobus,
tomb mi^ht consist of only twenty-five four-footed beasts. Helenus, Polydorus, froilus ; and of the daughters, Po-
Theyadd, that it did not matter what kind of beasts were lyxena, Cassandra, Creiisa, and Laodice. When Hecuba
chosen as victims, provided the contingent of feet was was pregnant of Paris, she dreamed that she had brought
omplete. ^nt0 t^le wor^ a burning torch, which reduced her hus-
Respecting. the origin of hecatombs, Strabo relates, band’s palace and all Iroy to ashes. 1 his dream was in-
tbat there were a hundred cities in Laconia, and that terpreted to mean that the son she should bring into the
each city used to sacrifice a bullock every year for the world would prove the destruction of his country. To
common safety of the country ; whence the institution of avoid this, she exposed Paris as soon as he was born; but
the celebrated sacrifice of a hundred victims, called heca- he was saved by shepherds, and afterwards acknowledged
tombs. Others refer the origin of hecatombs to a plague, by his parents. During the Trojan war she witnessed the
with which the hundred cities of Peloponnesus were af- death of nearly all her children, and at last saw her hus-
flicted, and for the removal of which they jointly contri- band murdered before her eyes. (Virg. Mn. ii.) WThen
buted to so splendid a sacrifice. Iroy was taken, Hecuba fell to the lot of Ulysses, whouas
Julius Capitolinus relates, that for a hecatomb they not particularly satisfied with his share of the booty. I hey
erected a hundred altars of turf, and on these sacrificed set sail and landed in the Thracian Cheisonnesus, where
a hundred sheep and a hundred hogs ; and he adds, that Hecuba learned that her son Polydorus had been mmdei-
when the emperors offered sacrifices of this kind, they sa- ed by Polymnestor, the ancient fiiend of the Irojans, to
crificed a hundred lions, a hundred eagles, and a hundred whom Priam had sent him. She proceeded with some
other beasts or animals. Trojan women to the house of Polymnestor, and having
HECATOMBiEON was the first month of the A the- torn out his eyes, put to death two of his sons. Having
nian year, consisting of thirty days ; beginning on the first been deprived of her senses, Hecuba traversed the whole
new moon after the summer solstice, and consequently of Thrace, and made it resound with hei tiny and despair,
answering to the latter part of our June and the beginning In pity for her misfortunes, the gods changed her into a
of July. It had its name from the great number of heca- bitch. (Hygin. iii.; Ovid. Met.) Some, however, say that
tombs sacrificed in it. she was carried to Lycia by Apollo. (Pans. x. 27.)
HECATOMPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a surname HEDINGHAM Castle, a town of toe county of Es-
of the island of Crete, from its containing an hundred sex, in the hundred of Hinchford, forty-seven miles from
cities. The territory of Laconia also had anciently this London, whose inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 106o, in
name for the same reason; and the custom of these hun- 1811 to 1052, in 1821 to 1163, and in lo31 to ' 0-
dred cities was to sacrifice a hecatomb annually. Within halt a mile of it is another town, oible Heding lam,
HECHINGEN, a city, the capital of the principality of whose population amounted in 1801 to ISbo, in 1811 to
Hohenzollern-Hechingen, in Germany. It is the residence 1702, in 1821 to ,^060, and in 1831 to 21jT.^
of the prince, and, besides his palace, contains 550 houses, HEDON, or Heydon, a borough tovyn of Holderness,
and 2310 inhabitants, who depend chiefly on the court, in the east riding of Yorkshire, situated on a creek con-
but make a few woollen cloths. It has three churches and nected with the river Humber. It is governed by a mayoi
some monasteries. Long. 8. 52. 58. E. Lat. 48. 21. 15. N. and aldermen ; and returned two members to parliament til
HECLA, a volcano of Iceland, situated in the southern the disfranchisement of 1832. Ihe inhabitants amounted
part of the island. See Iceland or Island. in 1801 to 592, in 1811 to 180, in 18~1 to j0 -, and in
HECTOR, the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, and 1831 to 1080. _
heir to the throne, was the most valiant defender of Troy. HEDWTG, John, a botanist of eminence, was born at
He was married to Andromache, daughter of Eetion, to Cronstadt, in 1 ransylvania, in Octooer 1(30, being ce-
whom he was tenderly attached, and had by her Astyanax scended of a family originally Saxon. In his ear icr veai^
and Laodamas or Amphineus. He had the chief command he discovered a strong attachment to the study of botany,
of the troops during the Trojan wrar, and the valour which in which he after\yards excelled. On the death o is a-
he displayed showed how well qualified he was to discharge ther, he was left with very little to support him. 1 le ame
that important office. He fought in single combat with of Gerlach led him to Zittau in Lausatia, where he piose-
Ajax, and obliged Diomede to fly; but Achilles was his cuted his studies for three years, assisted by the generosity
natural enemy, though it was not till the tenth year of the of different benefactors. He. studied philosophy, mathe-
siege that they met in battle. Hector took advantage of matics, and medicine, at Leipsic, where he wTas distinguis -
the absence of Achilles, who was indignant with Agamem- ed for his diligence and regularity of deportment. e
non for having taken Briseis from him, and, approaching afterwards assisted Ludwig in the arrangement o ns i i a-
the camp of the Greeks, began to set fire to the ships, ry, anatomical museum, and botanical garden; an in
Patroclus appeared in the armour of Achilles, and fell by he entered into the family of Bose, professor of botany, oi
the hands of Hector. This drew forth Achilles, who pro- whom he prepared plants for demonstration, and attended
ceeded to the field of battle, and, pursuing Hector through patients in the public infirmary. In 17o9 he took the de-
the plain, put him to death. He then dragged his dead gree of doctor of physic, and practised at Chemnitz in sax-
body thrice round the walls of the city, and, not satisfied ony, where he entered into the married state.
206
H E G
H E I
Hegira.
It was customary with him to walk into the fields at five
^ in the morning to contemplate the beauties of nature, to
visit his patients after breakfast, and to spend the afternoon
and evening in examining such plants as he had collected
during his early excursions. He particularly applied him¬
self to the investigation of the grasses, and also of the
whole cryptogamic class of plants, which botanists at that
period had greatly neglected. At the age of forty he taught
himself to draw and paint the objects which he had dis¬
covered, and the compound microscope which he received
from Koehler of Dresden greatly assisted him in those re¬
searches. By the persuasion of his second wife, whom he
married about a year after the death of his first, he was
prevailed on, in 1781, to settle at Leipsic, where he pub¬
lished his great work, entitled Fundamentum Historic Na-
turalis Muscorum Frondosorum, in which he gave an ac¬
curate history of mosses from his own observations, illus¬
trated the whole with appropriate plates, and discovered
such sagacity, industry, and profound research, as astonish¬
ed all the botanists of his time, and induced them to pay
more attention to this curious subject. He gained the prize
given by the Petersburg Academy for his curious and ex¬
cellent treatise, entitled Theoria Generationis et Fructiji-
cationis Plantarum Cryptogamicarum, Linncei more, pro-
priis Observationibus et Experimentis superstructa, pub¬
lished in 1784.
His literary reputation increased his medical practice ;
he was chosen physician to the town-guards in 1784, and
two years afterwards he became professor of medicine in
the university. In 1789 he was chosen ordinary professor
of botany, and superintendent of the physic garden. He
corrected the false notions which then prevailed respect¬
ing the efficacy of the medulla or pith, the perforation of
the flowers, the excrements of plants, the increase of the
vessels of vegetables, and the genuine use of the leaves.
By the death of a favourite daughter, who sunk under a
consumption at the age of sixteen, he received a severe
shock ; and a catarrhal affection, followed by a nervous fe¬
ver, deprived the world of his services on the 7th of Feb¬
ruary 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of his age
It is agreed on all hands that Dr Hedwig was a man of
great modesty, which is the usual concomitant of extraor¬
dinary talents; that he was friendly and benevolent, up¬
right in his dealings, not solicitous about wealth, and free
from parade both in teaching and in writing. In the fo¬
rests of Hispaniola there is an evergreen tree, the name of
which, hedwigia balsamifera, was intended to perpetuate his
memory. He left behind him two sons, one a painter of
eminence at Magdeburg, and the other Dr Romanus Adol¬
phus Hedwig, who is known to the botanical world by se¬
veral publications.
HEGIRA, in Chronology, a celebrated epoch among
the Mahommedans. The word is Arabic, formed from man,
hagirah, flight, from aan, to fly, to quit one’s country, fami¬
ly, and friends. The event which gave occasion to this
epoch was Mahommed’s flight from "Mecca. The magis¬
trates of that city, fearing that his impostures would raise
a sedition, resolved to expel him ; and this, accordingly,
they effected, in the year of our Lord 633, on the evening
of the 15th or 16th of July. To render this epoch more
creditable, the Mahommedans affect to use the word hegira
in a peculiar sense for an act of religion, by which a man
forsakes his country, and gives way to the violence of per¬
secutors and enemies of the faith ; and they add, that the
Corashites, being then the strongest party in the city, ob¬
liged their Prophet to fly, because they were not able to
endure his abolishing idolatry. This flight was not the first
of Mahommed s, but it was the most famous. It happened
in the fourteenth year after he had assumed the character of
Prophet, and promulgated his new religion. The orientals
do not agree with us as to the time of the hegira. Among
the Mahommedans, Amasi fixes it to the year of Christ
630, and from the death of Moses 2347; and Ben Cassem
to the year of the world 5800. According to the Greek
computation, among the Christians, Said Ebn Batrik refers
the hegira to the year of Christ 614, and of the creation
6114. Khondemir relates that it was Omar, the second
caliph, who first established the hegira as an epoch, and
appointed the years to be numbered from it. At the time
he passed this decree, seven years had already elapsed.
This establishment was made in imitation of the Christians
who, in those times, reckoned their years from the perse¬
cution of Diocletian. But there is another hegira, and that
earlier too, though of less eminence. Mahommed, in the
fourteenth year of his mission, was obliged to relinquish
Medina. The Corashites had all along opposed him very
vigorously, as an innovator and disturber of the public
peace; and many of his disciples, not enduring to be re¬
puted followers of an impostor, desired leave of him to
abandon the city, from an apprehension of being obliged to
renounce their religion. This retreat forms the first hegira.
These two hegiras the Mahommedans, in their language,
call hegiratan. The years of the hegira consist only of 354
days. To reduce these to the Julian calendar, or to find
what Julian year a given year of the hegira answers to, re¬
duce the year of the hegira given into days, by multiplying
by 354, divide the product by 365, and from the quotient
subtract the intercalations, that is, as many days as there
are four years in the quotient; and lastly, to the remainder
add 622.
HEIDELBURG, a city of the duchy of Baden, in Ger¬
many, in the circle of the Neckar, and capital of the baili¬
wick which takes its name from the city. It is situated on
the river Neckar, over which is a bridge 700 feet in length.
It is in a most romantic situation, the interest of which is
heightened by a number of antique buildings and ruins in
its vicinity, the most striking of which are the Geisberg
with its lofty cupola, the Kaiserstahle on the right bank of
the Neckar, the Heiligenburg, with the ruins of the castle
and of the monastery, and Schloss in which is the cele¬
brated wine cask, now in a dilapidated state. The city is
walled, has a good high street, and four open places or
markets; contains two Lutheran, one Reformed, and one
Catholic church, a synagogue, four hospitals, and, includ¬
ing the suburbs, 1192 houses, with 10,500 inhabitants. It
is the seat of a most respectable university, with forty-five
teachers of different branches, and 600 pupils, to which
belongs a library of 30,000 volumes; and several institu¬
tions for professional branches of education. It is not a
place of much commerce; but some linen and woollen
goods are made, and various kinds of leather are prepared.
It has several breweries, and some builders of barges and
boats, and a considerable fishing, especially of white fish,
whose scales are valued as being formed here into artificial
pearls. Long. 8. 36. 18. E. Eat. 49. 24. 43. N.
HEIDENHEIM, a town of the kingdom of Wurtem-
berg, in the circle of Jaxt, the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, which extends over 208 square miles, and con¬
tains 26,500 inhabitants. The town is situated on the river
Brentz, and has 300 houses, with 2320 inhabitants, occu¬
pied in cotton manufactures, ironmongery, and cutlery.
HEILBRON, a city of the kingdom of Wurtemberg, in
the circle of the Neckar, the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, situated on the river Neckar, over which is a
covered wooden bridge. It is surrounded with high walls
and ditches, contains three Lutheran and two Catholic
churches, a council-house, an hospital, an orphan-house,
934 dwelling-houses, and 7350 inhabitants. There is a
considerable gymnasium, with a library of 12,000 volumes.
Around the city are nearly 1600 acres of land occupied as
vineyards, which produce very good wine. It is a place
of manufacturing industry, preparing snuff, white lead,
1 ranch oil vinegar, paper, cloth, and articles of gold and in 1724, to accept a chair which had been offered him, Heinsius.
t I er "and jewellery. Long. 9. 3. 25. E. Lat. 48. 7. 48. N. with suitable appointments, in the university of Franeker.
fj! K^r’the city is a hunting seat of the king, formerly a Three years afterwards, on the invitation of the king of
y . £ Prussia, he repaired to Francfort-on-the-Oder, whence this
fcil 0HEILIGENSTADT, a town of the province of Lower prince obliged him, in 1733, to return to Halle. Every-
P ^ Ens in Austria, a few miles distant from Vienna. It con- where his prelections were attended by an extremely nu-
tiins some manufactories of paper, silks, cotton twist, and merous concourse of pupils, attracted by the solid instruc-
■j refining. There is an hospital or school for the daugh- tion, the luminous method, and the clear and elegant die*
of the officers of the army. The inhabitants are 2650. tion, for which this illustrious professor was distinguished.
Heiligenstadt, a city, the capital of the circle of the Llis life, barren ol incidents, was passed in the prosecu-
me name, in the province of Saxony, in Prussia. It tion of useful labours; yet notwithstanding his continual
stands at the junction of the rivers Geislade and Leine. occupation, he discharged in an exemplary manner all the
It is surrounded with walls, contains four churches, 560 duties of society. But sedentary habits and unremitting
houses and 4530 inhabitants, who are employed in the application at length ruined his health, and he died gene-
woollen trade, and in distilleries. rally regretted, on the 31st of August F741, at the age of
HEILSBERG, a city, the capital of a circle of the same sixty. A list of his numerous works will be found in the
name in the province of East Prussia, situated on the Bibliotheque Germanique, tom. ii. part 1st. The principal
river Alle. It is the residence of the Catholic bishop of are, 1. Fundamenta styli cultioris una cum Sylloge exem-
Ermeland, contains two Catholic and one Lutheran church, plorum, Halle, 1719, in 8vo ; 2. Elementa Philosophise
with 348 houses, and 2850 inhabitants. Long. 20. 37. 50. Rationalis et Moralis, quibus praemissa Historia Philosophi-
E Lat. 54. 3. 50. N. ca> Francfort, 1728, in 8vo ; 3. Antiquitatum Romanarum
HEINECCIUS, John Gottlieb (Theophilus), one of Jurisprudentiam illustrantium Syntagma juxta seriem In-
the most celebrated jurisconsults Germany has produced, stitutionum Justiniani, Halle, 1718, in 8vo; 4. Elementa
was born at Eisenberg, in the principality of Altenburg, Juris Naturae et Gentium, Halle, 1738, in 8vo; 5. I^rae-
on the 21st of September 1681. His father, who was re- lectiones Academicae in H. Grotii de Jure Belli ac Pacts
o-ent of the school of that place, and a man of talents libros, Berlin, 1744, in 8yo; 6. Praelectiones Academicm
superior to his situation, made him early acquainted with in Sam. Puffendorfofe Officio Hominis et Civis, ibid. 1742,
the masterpieces of antiquity, and thus inspired him with in 8vo ; 7. Historia Juris Civilis Romani ac Geimamci,
a decided taste for study. Heineccius (or more properly Halle, 1735, in 8vo; 8. Elementa Juris Civilis secundum
Heinecke) was still very young when he had the misfor- ordinem Institutionum, Franeker, 1725, in 8vo; 9. Ele-
tune to lose his father; but in his elder brother, who was menta Juris Civilis secundum ordinem Pandectarum,
pastor at Goslar, he found a monitor and guide, who, by Francfort, 1756, in two vols. 8yo; 10. Elementa Juris
his care and instructions, in some measure supplied the Cambialis, Amsterdam, 1743, in 8yo. I he works of Ilei-
place of his deceased parent. From Goslar he proceed- neccius were collected and published by Uhl, piofessor
ed to Leipsic, where he attended the prelections of the at Francfort-on-the-Oder, under the title of Opera tul Uni-
illustrious professor who then adorned the university of versarn Jurisprudentiam, Philosophiam, et Litteras liuma-
that place. In 1702 he published there a thesis De insig- niores pertinentia, Geneva, 1744-1748, in eight vols. 4to,
nibus sacerdotalibus Apo&tolorum ; a subject which might reprinted in the same city, with additions, 1//l, in nine
have afforded scope for a great display of erudition, but vols. 4to ; and to these two editions a supplementaly yo-
which, as treated by Heineccius, did not indicate the real lume was at the same time added. After the woiks of Cu-
talent of the author. In this thesis he attempted to com- jas, this collection is perhaps the most valuable and neces-
bat some assertions of Baronius. Heineccius, the follow- sary to a student oi jurisprudence. . ihe commentary Oi
ing year, took his degree in arts, and then returned to his Heineccius on the Julian and Papian laws wou a one
brother, who wished him to enter the ecclesiastical pro- suffice to place him in the rank of the greatest juriscon-
fession. But having satisfied his brother as to the rea- suits; and it his authority has decreased somewhat m
sons which induced him to decline taking orders, he soon Germany, which we believe to be the case, it is because
afterwards accompanied the latter to Halle, where he be- his successors, profiting by his researches, have been en-
came tutor to the sons of Count Golofkin. In 1708 he abled to surpass him. We are also indebted to emec-
was admitted into the philosophical faculty of that city, cius for editions of the Jurisprudentia Romana et Attica,
and there published an academical dissertation De Ge- Leyden, 1738, in three vols. folio, with a learned pre ace
nuina Christi Mra e Nummis et Inscriptionibus illustrata, prefixed to the first volume. n i ,
in 4to, republished in 1735, with notes by Liebknecht. HEINSIUS, Antony, grand pensionary of Holland by
Two years afterwards he obtained a chair, which he filled successive quinquennial re-elections, from the year
with ability, but without any material increase of reputa- until his death on the 3d of August 1720, at the age o se-
tion. All his studies, howrever, he regarded as merel}'' venty-nine, was one of the statesmen who, during this me-
preparatory to that of jurisprudence ; but it was not until movable period, exercised the greatest influence on tie a.-
1716, when he was admitted into the faculty of law, be- fairs of Europe. Marlborough, Prince Eugene, and Hein-
ing then in the thirty-sixth year of his age, that he dis- sius, formed the famous triumvirate so resolute y
closed his designs. His inaugural thesis De Origine et mined to humiliate France, and which steeped in bitter-
Indole Jurisdictionis Patrimonialis, which was considered ness the declining years ox Louis XIV He saw is donn¬
as a masterpiece, procured him the esteem of his judges; try avenged for the misfortunes which that monaici ia
and his Abridgment of the Antiquities of the Roman law inflicted on it in 16 72 ; and he also saw himself avenge ,
confirmed the high idea which had been formed of his for, after the peace of Nimeguen, having been sent to tie
merit, whilst it extended his reputation throughout all court of France on affairs connected with the principality
Germany. In 1721 he was appointed to the chair of law, of Orange, he had experienced the ill nature of t e aug tv
a situation which he filled with an ability and success that and insolent Louvois, who did. all but threaten to have um
reflected credit on the university; and new works, which shut up in the Bastille. Heinsius commenced ns pu ic
succeeded one another with inconceivable rapidity, added career as councillor-pensionary of the town of Oe an >
daily to his reputation. But although he enjoyed the faithful to his commission, he sometimes, in this capacity,
highest consideration, yet finding his allowances insufii- pursued a line of conduct not calculated to “ira e
cient to enable him to bring up his family, he was obliged, considered as a person devoted to the interests Ox the sta t-
208 H E I
Heinsius. holder. But at a subsequent period the Prince of Orange
honoured him with the most unlimited confidence; and
Heinsius, in return, rendered him the most important ser¬
vices. He continued to enjoy the same favour when that
prince became king of England, and even after he had
' been succeeded by Queen Anne. After the death of King
William, however, his political conduct in regard to France
appears to have experienced some modification, though not
to such an extent as to enable the French court to flatter
themselves with any decided change in his views. Vol¬
taire, in his Si&cle de Louis XIV., represents Heinsius as
a Spartan, proud of having humbled the king of Persia,
when, in 1709, Louis sent his minister De Torcy to the
Hague to sue for peace. De Torcy himself, in his Me¬
moir es (tom. ii. p*3), describes the grand pensionary “ as
a man of consummate ability in the management of af¬
fairs, cold in his manners, polished in his conversation,
having nothing repulsive in his demeanour, and rarely
warmed, far less excited, by debate. His exterior,” adds
the same authority, “ wus simple, and his house plain ; an
establishment composed of a secretary, a coachman, a la-
quais, and a female servant, by no means indicated the cre¬
dit of a prime minister.” De Torcy further informs us that
“ he was never accused, either of seeking to prolong the war
on account of the consideration which its continuance ne¬
cessarily gave him, or from any views of private interest or
personal ambition.” This is the testimony of an enemy,
and cannot, therefore, be suspected of partiality. M. de
Haren, in a note to his poem of the Gueux, renders the
same justice to the calmness and sobriety of Heinsius ; but
supposes that his seclusion from society prevented him
acquiring that knowledge of the human heart which a
statesman ought to possess, and thus led him to disregard
intelligence, of which one better acquainted with mankind
would at once have discerned the importance. “ Hence,
when the refugee pastor Basnage, in 1707, apprised him of
a certain secret convention entered into between the courts
of Vienna and Versailles to defeat the projected enterprise
against Toulon, Heinsius neglected this information, not
imagining it possible that a minister of the gospel could be
better initiated in the secrets of cabinets than a grand pen¬
sionary.” But Fagel did not share this security, nor was it
justified by the event. M.de Haren also mentions a singular
anecdote of Heinsius. Soon after the peace of Utrecht he
was attacked by the pestilence in the midst of the Hague,
and cured without the appalling fact being suffered to trans¬
pire. On this occasion he displayed admirable prudence
and self-possession. The secret was confined to himself,
his physician, and Count de Wassenaer-Starrenburg, and
was kept with inviolable fidelity until after his death.
Heinsius was the last of the magistrates and ministers of
the states of Holland who wore the costume of the gown
and band. (a.)
Heinsius, Daniel, a Dutch philologist, was descend¬
ed of a distinguished family, and born at Ghent in 1580.
In the troubles of the Low Countries, his father, a man
without ambition, but of an elevated character, took a
part, which proved fatal to his own repose and that of
his family. Daniel was sent to Veere, in Zealand, whence,
with his parents, he passed over into England ; and soon
afterwards he accompanied them on their return to Hol¬
land. They established themselves first at Delft, then at
the village of Ryswick, and lastly at the Hague. The fa¬
ther of Heinsius consoled himself under his misfortunes
by devoting his attention to the education of his son; but
circumstances obliged the latter to return to Zealand,
where he was placed under good masters, though at first
he showed no great disposition to profit by their instruc¬
tions, and preferred play to study. Having, however,
evinced a predilection for verse, he composed, at the age
of ten, a Latin elegy, which gave a favourable presage of
H E I
future eminence. As his father intended him for the Heir
bar, he was, at the age of fourteen, sent to Franeker to ^
study law; but this intention was defeated by the passion
which he had conceived for Greek. Having remained
about six months at Franeker, he passed thence to Ley¬
den, whose rising university already shone with great
lustre. Here he attracted the notice of Scaliger, whilst
Marnix de Sainte-Aldegonde, and the elder Douza, ho¬
noured him with particular attention. Between Heinsius
and Scaliger there was established an intimacy, founded
on affection on the one hand and veneration on the other.
A noble emulation now fired the soul of Heinsius, who,
though ambitious to rival, despaired of ever approaching
so great a model, and spent many sleepless nights in the
most anxious and unremitting labour. Douza, however,
judiciously attempted to moderate the ardour of his young
friend without repressing his ambition, and procured him
agreeable relaxation by occasionally carrying him to his
country residence at biordwick, two leagues distant from
Leyden. Heinsius was only eighteen when he was attach¬
ed to the university of Leyden, first to explain the Latin
classics, and not long afterwards the Greek; and at the
age of twenty-five he was appointed to the chair of history
and politics. Scaliger, who died in 1609, had wished to
leave him the whole of his library; but Heinsius only
accepted part of it. On the death of Paul Merula, the
office of librarian to the academy of Leyden devolved on
him, and he also discharged the duties of secretary. His
increasing reputation now attracted to Leyden a great
number of pupils ; and as other countries envied Holland
the possession of a man of such distinguished merit, pro¬
positions were made to him on the part of France, Ger¬
many, and Italy. In 1616 Heinsius writes that the Ita¬
lians had paid him flattering compliments, and that he
was strongly solicited to repair to Rome. “ Valde Itali
nos amant, et jam clanculum s/’g rrjv kraAoper, ingenti prae-
mio, videndee urbis causa, invitamur.” If we may credit
Balzac, Heinsius, in his relations with Rome, acted with
more adroitness than sincerity (“ menageait un peu la
chevre et le chou”). In the apology for his Herodes In-
fanticida against the strictures of Balzac, a work which
he sent to Rome, a passage of the text in which the pope
is mentioned as ipsum Ecclesice caput, is rectified in the
errata into ipsum. Ecclesice Romance caput. “ The text,”
says Balzac, “ was for Rome, the errata for Leyden; on
the one hand Heinsius wished to please the pope, who
w ould probably not read his errata, and on the other to
have the means of justifying himself to the ministers, if
he should be accused of being a bad Huguenot, and of
keeping up an understanding with the enemy.” But, in
the first place, this duplicity is irreconcilable with the
known character of Heinsius; secondly, it was not Hein¬
sius himself who edited his Epistola qua Dissertationi D.
Balzacii ad Herodem Infanticidam respondetur, but Box-
horn ; thirdly, the erratum in question is not placed, as
usual, at the end of the volume, but is interposed between
the dedication and the Epistle; and, lastly, it appears from
the statement of Thysius, in his funeral oration on Hein¬
sius, that, in the propositions made to him by Pope Urban
VIII. and Cardinal Barberini, in order to draw him to
Rome, nothing had been stipulated in reference to re¬
ligion. Various honours were, however, conferred upon
Heinsius. The republic of Venice created him knight
of the order of St Mark; the king of Sweden, Gustavus
Adolphus, named him his historiographer, to which he
added the title of privy councillor; and the states of
Holland rewarded him for his attachment to his country,
and the refusal of various foreign propositions, by choos¬
ing him their historiographer, and attaching to the title a
liberal salary. Heinsius alienated many friends by ac¬
cepting, in 1618, the office of secretary to the famous sy-
H E I
m nod of Dordrecht. At the age of thirty-five he married
-/ Ermengarde, sister of Janus Rutgersius, by whom he had
a son, Nicolas, and a daughter, Elizabeth, and whom he
survived many years. Being endowed with a strong con¬
stitution, Heinsius, notwithstanding his unremitting la¬
bours, was rarely indisposed ; but a particular symptom ac¬
companied the decline of his days, namely, an almost total
extinction of memory. He died at Leyden on the 23d of
February 1665, when he had nearly completed the eighty-
fourth year of his age. Heinsius was not less remarkable
for the excellence of his character than for his vast eru¬
dition. Modesty, sensibility, benevolence, and candour,
formed its distinctive features; and, though he was natu¬
rally grave, he loved to joke with his friends, and to in¬
dulge in innocent pleasantries. He had some disputes,
more or less serious, with Salmasius, Balzac, and a minis¬
ter of the gospel called John de Croy, wdio had sought
his acquaintance by means of adulation and sycophancy;
but being naturally of a mild and peaceable disposition, he
avoided controversy as much as possible, and had proba¬
bly fewer enemies than almost any eminent man of his
time. Notwithstanding his great knowledge, or rather
because he knew so much, he adopted as his motto,
Quantum est quod nescimus. The works of Heinsius are,
1. Editions of the Greek and Latin classics, or works of
criticism connected with them, amounting to eighteen in
number; 2. Latin poetry, particularly Iambic Auriacus
a tragedy, Herodes Infanticida also a tragedy, De Con-
temptu Mortis a poem in four books, fugitive pieces un¬
der the titles of Extemporanea and Juvenilia, and some
Greek poems ; 3. Latin harangues, which have been col¬
lected under the title of Orationes Varii Argumenti, Ley¬
den, 1615, 1620, in 12mo; 4. Rerum ad Sylvam Ducis
atque alibi in Belgio aut a Belgis anno 1629 gestarum His-
toria, Leyden, 1631, in folio. (a.)
Heinsius, Nicolas, son of the preceding, was born at
Leyden on the 29th of July 1620, and there received, un¬
der the auspices of his father, the most careful educa¬
tion. The same studies in which his parent had distin¬
guished himself became in some measure the passion of
his life. He visited England in 1642 ; but not finding the
English very communicative of their literary treasures, he
made only a short stay in their country, where, however,
he collated some manuscripts of Ovid, a poet whose works
he had already undertaken to illustrate. In 1644 he re¬
paired to Spa for the benefit of the waters, from which
he derived great advantage, and on his return traversed
Belgium, where he formed useful connections, and acquir¬
ed new riches for his Ovid. The following year he re¬
visited Spa, and towards autumn proceeded to Paris,
where his merit and his name procured him the friend¬
ship of the most eminent men, and opened all the libra¬
ries to his researches, and where also he published a col¬
lection of Latin poems, which met with the most flatter¬
ing success. Next year he visited Rome, where, through
the good offices of Holstenius, he obtained access to the
inedited Greek work of John Lydus on the Roman ma¬
gistracies, and wus otherwise well received. From Rome
he proceeded to Naples, but the troubles which broke
out in that city in the summer of 1647 obliged him to
return to Leghorn, whence he proceeded first to Venice
and next to Padua, where, under the title of Italica, he
published two books of elegies in 1648. After an absence
of three years he returned to Leyden; but his stay
there was short, for, having yielded to the solicitations
ot Queen Christina of Sweden, who had invited him to
join her literary court, he set out for Stockholm, where
he established himself in 1650. The queen undertook to
purchase books and manuscripts for his library ; but Hein¬
sius, unwilling to take immediate advantage of the ge¬
nerosity of Christina, made advances of which he after-
VOL. XI.
H E I 209
wards found great difficulty in obtaining the reimburse- Heinsius.
ment. At Stockholm he met the ardent enemy of his
father, Salmasius, who, in concert with Michon Bourde-
lot, endeavoured to overwhelm him with every species of
annoyance, and to drive him from the court in disgust.
But the muse of Heinsius avenged him on his implacable
adversary ; and nothing but the obstinate malevolence of
Salmasius can excuse a piece so virulent as the Scazon
in Alastorem, which we find in his poems. During the
following years Heinsius traversed Italy in all directions,
to make interesting acquisitions for Christina, whether
in books and manuscripts, or in medals and antiquities.
Salmasius had not ceased to intrigue against him during
his absence ; but the credit of Bochart counterbalanced this
hateful influence, and Salmasius died in 1653, whilst pro¬
ceeding to take the benefit of the waters of Spa. Next
year Heinsius returned to Stockholm, but it was only to
demand of Christina, whose tastes began to take another
direction, permission to retire, and the reimbursement of
the sums which he had expended. Her letter, which is in
the form of a placet, and exceedingly remarkable, may be
found in the Sylloge Epistolarum of Peter Burmann (tom.
v. p. 766, et seqq.). The Queen of Sweden attempted to
dissuade Heinsius from carrying his resolution into effect;
and, on the 7th of October 1654, the states of Holland ap¬
pointed him their resident at Stockholm, which induced
him to remain some time longer in the Swedish capital.
But in the month of February 1655, having lost his father,
he resolved to return to his native country. Like Grotius,
he was at the point of death on the road ; but, more fortu¬
nate than that illustrious man, he escaped from a malady
which detained him thirty-six days at Dantzig. On his
arrival at the Hague, the states, in order to testify their
satisfaction with his conduct in Sweden, offered him his
choice of the Prussian or Danish legations; but the state
of his health prevented his accepting either of those ap¬
pointments ; and, in 1656, he established himself at Am¬
sterdam, where he wras appointed secretary. The repose
of his latter days was disturbed by a process brought
against him by a courtesan, called Margaret Wullen, whom
he had known at Stockholm, and who pretended to have
rights over him which he refused to recognise. In 1658
he resigned his secretaryship, and then went to establish
himself at the Hague, where Virgil, Valerius Flaccus,
the Latin muse, and literary correspondence, occupied
all the leisure which the process in question left at his
disposal. It appears that he also meditated continuing
the Annals of Grotius after 1609, but the design was not
carried into execution. Being again appointed resident at
the court of Sweden, he set out for that country, and on
the road met his debtor Christina, who was on her way to
Denmark; she received him kindly, and lavished on him
the most flattering distinctions, but forgot to pay her debt,
which would have been much more acceptable to Heinsius.
About this time, also, Louis XIV. included him in the
number of the foreign men of letters to whom he granted
pensions ; but the post which he occupied at the court of
Sweden prevented his enjoying this favour. He never
neglected his favourite studies ; and it was therefore with
regret that, in the year 1667, he found himself charged with
a mission to the czar of Muscovy. In 1671 he once more
returned to the Hague, but with his health much impair¬
ed ; and next year the public calamities forced him to
withdraw to East Friseland, then to Bremen, Minden, Pa-
derborn, Mayence, Worms, Spire, and Heidelberg. Upon
his return to the Hague he occupied himself principally
with Valerius Flaccus and Petronius ; but being entangled
in new processes, he withdrew to Maarssen, in the province
of Utrecht, where he established himself about the month
of December 1674. This retreat, however, did not shel¬
ter him from the annoyances to winch he wms exposed, and
210 H E I
H E L
Heir at length he sought repose in the small town of Viane,
II where his friend Graevius took pleasure in visiting him.
eiter- pamj]y affairs having recalled him to the Hague, he died
there, on the 7th of October 1681, at the age of sixty-one,
having expired in the arms of Graevius, whom he charged
with his last instructions. Nicolas Heinsius published or
wrote, 1. Claudian, with notes, Leyden, 1650, in 12mo,
and Amsterdam, 1665, in 8vo ; 2. Ovid, with notes, ibid.
1652, 1661, 1668, in three vols. 12mo; 3. Virgil, without
notes, Amsterdam, 1676, and Utrecht, 1704, in 12mo ; 4.
Valerius Flaccus, without notes, Amsterdam, 1680, in
12mo; 5. Remarks on Silius Italicus, Petronius, and Phae-
drus; 6. A great number of Letters, which may be found
in the Sylloge Epistolarum of Burmann, in 5 vols. 4to;
7. Poemata, the best edition of which is that of Elzevir,
Amsterdam, 1666, in 8vo, dedicated by the author to the
Duke of Montausier. Peter Burmann the younger also
published Nic. Heinsii Adversariorum libri v. followed by
the notes of Heinsius on Catullus and Propertius ; and the
same author also cites inedited notes of Heinsius on Taci¬
tus, on the dialogue De Claris Oratoribus, and on the
Catalecta veterum Poetarum. (a.)
HEIR, in Law, signifies the person who succeeds an¬
other by descent.
Heir-Apparent is a person so called in the lifetime of
his ancestor, at whose death he is heir-at-law.
IlEiR-Presumptive, is one who, if the ancestor should
die immediately, would, in the present circumstances of
things, be his heir; but whose right of inheritance may be
defeated by the contingency of some nearer heir being
born.
HEIRSHIP Moveables, in Scotch Law, the best of
certain kinds of moveables, which the heir of line is enti¬
tled to take, besides the heritable estate.
HEISTER, Laurence, an eminent physician, surgeon,
and anatomist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, in the
year 1683. After being educated in the universities of
Germany, he prosecuted the study of anatomy and surgery
at Amsterdam in 1706 ; next year acted as surgeon in the
Dutch camp in Brabant; and afterwards studied medicine
at Leyden under the celebrated Boerhaave, at the expira¬
tion of which he took his degrees. In 1709 he was ap¬
pointed physician-general to the Dutch military hospitals,
by which means he acquired vast experience, both in me¬
dicine and surgery. In 1710 he was appointed professor
of anatomy and surgery at Altdorf, where he acquired great
celebrity by his lectures and writings. In 1720 he remov¬
ed to the university of Helmstadt, where he continued dur¬
ing the remainder of his life. The Czar Peter invited him
to Russia ; but the esteem in which he was held by diffe¬
rent sovereigns induced him to remain in Germany. His
death happened in the year 1758, in the seventy-fifth year
of his age. Dr Heister was uncommonly industrious, and
wrote a prodigious number of books ; but his reputation was
principally derived from his singular skill and success in sur¬
gery. He is particularly known by his Compendium Ana-
tomicum, which has been frequently reprinted, and trans¬
lated into different languages. His chief surgical publica¬
tion is his Institutions of Surgery, which was long consider¬
ed as a standard book of the kind, till it was superseded by
more modern systems. As a physician his principal works
are, 1. Observationes Medico-miscellaneae, Theoreticae et
Practicae ; 2. De Medicinae Mechanicae Praestantia; 3. Com¬
pendium Institutionum et Fundamentorum Medicinae. A
collection of Medical, Chirurgical, and Anatomical Obser¬
vations was published after his death, in two volumes quarto.
HEITERSHEIM, a town of the duchy of Baden, Ger¬
many, and in the circle of Treisam. It is the capital of a
bailiwick, in which are a town, nineteen villages, and 8940
inhabitants. The town is situated at the foot of the Black
Forest, on a brook running to the Rhine. It has a fine castle,
which was once the residence of the order of St John. The Hel'
houses are 340, the inhabitants 1630. Lat. 47. 52. 34. N. Il8'
HELAI, a village of Hindustan, in the province of Helena
Sinde, situated on the road from Tatta to Hyderabad, near
the Indus, where this river is three fourths of a mile wide,
and from four to five fathoms deep. Lat. 24. 52. N. ’
HELENA, St, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, off the
coast of Southern Africa. It belongs to no group of islands,
but stands entirely alone in the ocean, about twelve hun¬
dred miles from land. To the sea it presents, throughout
its whole circumference, which is twenty-eight miles, only
an immense wall of perpendicular rock, from 600 to 1200
feet in height. Its general aspect is bleak and dreary, but
on passing through the wall of rock by one of the few open¬
ings which nature has left, the scene is agreeably changed.
\ erdant and even beautiful patches of ground are inter¬
spersed amongst the rocks; and on the summit is a fertile
plain, consisting of about 1500 acres, covered with grass,
and capable of every species of cultivation. The loftiest
eminence is called Diana’s Peak. It is situated nearly in
the centre of the island, and rises to the height of 2700
feet above the level of the sea. In this, as in most of
the African islands, the rocks consist chiefly of basalt.
Limestone of the best quality is also abundant, and various
kinds of volcanic rocks are scattered about the island in
considerable quantities. There are only four small open¬
ings in the rock, which, like a natural bulwark, surrounds
St Helena; and on the largest of these, where alone a little
beach appears, James lown has been built. It is entered
by an arched gateway, w ithin which is a handsome parade,
about one hundred feet square. Here are the government-
house and the main guard-room. Within the former is the
residence of the governor and the public officers. The
principal street in James Town contains about thirty houses,
most of which are neat and well built. The number of
English families upon the island amounts to between two
and three hundred. St Helena is chiefly of importance as
a place of refreshment for vessels returning from the East
Indies. There is abundance of excellent writer, and fresh
provisions can be obtained here, though they are neither so
plentiful nor so cheap as those of the Cape of Good Hope.
St Helena was first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, on St Helena’s day; whence its name. They stock¬
ed it with different kinds of useful animals; but whether
they ever settled a colony on it or not is uncertain. The
Portuguese having either abandoned or never taken posses¬
sion of it, the Dutch became its masters, and kept pos¬
session of it till the year 1600, when they were driven out
by the English. In 1678 the Dutch retook it by surprise;
but a short time afterwards it was recovered by the brave
Captain Munden, who also took three Dutch East India-
men then lying in the harbour. On this occasion the
Hollanders had fortified the landing place, of which there
is only one on the island, and erected batteries of great
guns to prevent a descent; but the English having know¬
ledge of a small creek, where only two men abreast could
creep up, climbed to the top of the rock in the night, and
appearing the next morning behind the batteries, the Dutch
were so terrified that they threw down their arms, and
surrendered at discretion. This creek has since been for¬
tified, and a battery of large cannon placed at the entrance;
so that now the island is rendered perfectly secure against
all regular approaches or sudden attacks.
St Helena has acquired no small celebrity as the place
of confinement of Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-emperor of
France. The illustrious exile arrived there on the 17th of
October 1815, and remained in the island till his death, on
the 5th of May 1821. Fie was buried in a retired spot not
far from Longwood, the place of his residence. Long. 5.
43. W. Lat. 15. 55. S.
Helena, the daughter of Leda (wife of Tyndareus,
r m
H E L
mus. king of Sparta), and of Jupiter, who, being changed into a
swan, had obtained the favours of the queen. In conse¬
quence of this amour she produced two eggs, from one of
which sprang Castor and Clytemnestra (both mortal, as
being children of Tyndareus), and from the other Pollux
and Helena, who were considered immortal, as the off¬
spring of Jupiter. (Clement. Alex. Cohort, p. 26 ; Find.
Nem. x. 150.)
From her infancy she possessed that dazzling beauty
which became in the course of time so fatal to her admir¬
ers. About the age of ten she was carried off by Theseus,
who concealed her at Aphidnae, in Attica, under the pro¬
tection of his mother iEthra. (Plut. Thes. 31 ; Hygin. 79.)
She was rescued by her brothers, Castor and Pollux, who
discovered her place of concealment by means of Acade-
mus. They carried off at the same time Aithra, who
henceforth remained the captive slave of Helen. (Paus.
x. 25.) This adventure did not prevent her from being
sought in marriage by all the young princes of Greece.
The most celebrated of her suitors were Menelaus, Dio¬
mede, Philoctetes, Idomeneus, Merione, Amphilochus, Pa-
troclus, the two Ajaxes, Teucer, Antilochus, Ulysses, with
others to the number of thirty. Her father, Tyndareus,
was alarmed at the number of her suitors, believing that
the preference he showed to one would bring on him the
displeasure of all the rest. He was relieved from this di¬
lemma by Ulysses, on condition he should receive the
hand of his niece Penelope in marriage. His advice was
to bind all the princes by an oath that they wrould yield
implicitly to the will of the princess, and that they would
unite to defend her if any attempt should be made to carry
her off from the arms of her husband. The rivals consent¬
ed, and Helen decided in favour of Menelaus, who thus
became the heir apparent, and soon afterwards possessor, of
the throne of Sparta. By her he had a daughter Hermione,
and two sons, Morrhaphius and Diethus. (JSchol. II. r. 175 ;
Od. A. 12; Apollodor. iii. 10, 7.)
Venus had promised to Paris the possession of the most
beautiful of women. At her instigation, he proceeded to
Sparta during the absence of Menelaus, and succeeded in
gaining the affections of Helen, and in inducing her to
quit her husband and her country. It was in vain that
Menelaus sent to Troy to demand back his wife, in vain
that the sons of Atreus threatened that all Greece would
march against Troy. During the celebrated Trojan war
she remained faithful to Paris, and had by him Bunichus,
Agane, Idseus, and Corythus. On the death of Paris she
married Deiphobus, the bravest of the sons of Priam after
Hector ; and on the taking of Troy, she is said to have be¬
trayed him in order that she might ingratiate herself with
Menelaus. It appears that Menelaus forgave her, and that
they proceeded on their way to Sparta, where, according to
some, they did not arrive till the space of eight years had
elapsed. Here they received the visit of Telemachus, who
had been sent by his mother in search of his father Ulys¬
ses. And here the legend of Homer ends. According to
Euripides, she was killed by Orestes, her son-in-law, or
she was banished by her step-sons, Megapenthes and Ni-
costratus, w hen she retired to the island of Rhodes, where
she was suffocated in a bath. (Paus. iii. 19.)
According to one tradition, Helen never visited Troy,
but was detained in Egypt by King Proteus during the
whole period of the siege. Here Menelaus being driven
on shore by a storm, found her. (Herodot. ii. 112, et seqq.)
She had a temple at Therapne (vi. 61).
HELENUS, one of the sons of Priam, possessing the
power of prophecy (Virg. JEn. iii. 295, 712), who distin¬
guished himself by his valour during the Trojan wrar; but
when Helen was given in marriage to Deiphobus, he de¬
termined to leave Troy, and retired to Chrysa, or Mount
Ida. He was here discovered and taken prisoner by Ulys-
H E L 211
ses. After the taking of Troy we find him the friend or slave Helepolis
of Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, whose favour he had gained II
by preventing him from embarking in a vessel which sunk Heliastae.
with all its passengers. Being tired of Andromache, he
gave her as wife to Helenus. On the death of Neoptole¬
mus he became the natural guardian of his son Molossus,
and when he came of age, restored to him a part of Epi¬
rus, reserving that which he had conquered during his re¬
gency. He had by Andromache a son called Cestrinus.
(Paus. i. 11, ii. 23.) Here Helenus received iEneas on his
way to Italy, and foretold some of the calamities which
threatened him. (Virg. IE71. iii. 295.)
HELEPOLIS, in the ancient art of w7ar, a machine for
battering down the walls of a place besieged, the inven¬
tion of which is ascribed to Demetrius Poliorcetes. Dio¬
dorus Siculus says, that each side of the Helepolis wms 405
cubits in breadth and ninety in height; that it had nine
stages, and w7as carried on four strong solid wheels eight
cubits in diameter ; tEat it was armed with large battering
rams, and had two roofs capable of supporting them ; that
in the lower stages there were several sorts of engines for
casting stones, and in the middle they had large catapul-
tas for discharging arrows, and smaller ones in those above,
with a number of expert men for working all these ma¬
chines.
HELIADES, the daughters of the Sun and Clymene,
called also Phaethontides, from their brother Phaethon,
whose fate they lamented so much that they were chan¬
ged into poplar trees, and their tears into amber, upon the
banks of the Po. (Ovid. Met. ii. 340; Amor. iii. 12, 38;
Diodor. v. 23 ; Lucan, ii. 410.) According to Hiodorus
(v. 56), they were seven sons of a king of Rhodes, who
were celebrated for their knowledge of astrology and na¬
vigation. Having put to death one of their number, call¬
ed Tenages, they were obliged to fly ; and Actis proceed¬
ed to Egypt, where he introduced the knowledge of as¬
trology.
HELDEA, in Grecian antiquity, was the greatest and
most frequented court in Athens for the trial of civil af¬
fairs. \
HELIASTiE, in Antiquity, the judges of the court of
Helicea. They were so called, according to some authors,
from a Greek word which signifies to assemble in a great
number; but, according to others, from another word
which signifies smw, because they held their assemblies
sub dio. They composed not only the most numerous,
but likewise the most important of the Athenian tribu¬
nals ; for their province was either to explain obscure
laws, or to give new vigour and authority to those which
had been violated. The Thesmothetae convoked the as¬
sembly of the Heliastse, which sometimes amounted to a
thousand, sometimes to fifteen hundred, judges. Mr
Blanchard is of opinion, that, to make up this number,
the Thesmothet® sometimes summoned those of each
tribe who had last quitted the public offices they had ex¬
ercised in another court. But, however this may be, it
appears that the assemblies of the Heliastae were not fre¬
quent, as they would have interrupted the jurisdiction of
the stated tribunals and the common course of affairs.
The Thesmothetae paid to each member of this assem¬
bly, for his attendance, three oboli, which are equal to
two Roman sesterces, or to half a drachma. Hence Aris¬
tophanes terms them “ the brothers of the triobolus.”
They were likewise condemned to pay a fine if they came
too late; and if they did not present themselves till after
the orators had begun to speak, they were not admitted.
Their attendance was requited out of the public treasury,
and their pay was called misthos heliasticos.
The assembly met, at first, according to Aristophanes,
at the rising of the sun. If the judges were obliged to
meet under cover on account of frost and snow, they had
212
H E L
H E L
Heliasta?. a fire ; but there is not a passage in any ancient author
which informs us of the place where these assemblies were
held either in the rigorous or in the mild season. We
only learn that there was a double enclosure around the as¬
sembly, that it might not be disturbed. The first was a kind
of arbour-work, from space to space, separated by doors,
over which were painted in red the ten or twelve first
letters of the.Greek alphabet, which directed the entrance
of the officers who composed the tribunal, each of them
entering under the letter which distinguished his tribe.
The beadles of the court, to whom they showed the wand
which had been sent them by the Thesmothetae as a sum¬
mons to meet, examined its mark to see if it was authen¬
tic, and then introduced them. The second enclosure,
which was at the distance of twenty feet from the former,
was a rope or cord, that the people who stood round the
first enclosure, and were desirous to see what passed within
the second, might not be prevented from gratifying their
curiosity at a proper distance. Thus the attention of the
judges was not interrupted by the concourse of the multi¬
tude, many of whom were heated by views of interest or of
party.
To each of the members of the assembly were distribut¬
ed two pieces of copper; one of which was perforated,
not certainly that it might be distinguished from the other
by feeling, for these assemblies met at the rising and were
dissolved at the setting of the sun. Those pieces of copper
had been substituted for little sea-shells, which were at
first in use. The Thesmothetae read the names of those
who were to compose the assembly, and each man took
his place as he was called. The Thesmothetae were then
sent for, whose function it was to observe prodigies and to
superintend the sacrifices ; and if they gave their sanction,
the deliberations were begun. It is well known that the
officers called Exegetce were often corrupted by those who
were interested in the debates of the assembly, and that
they excited tumults such as were raised by the Roman
tribunes in the popular assemblies convoked by the con¬
suls.
Of all the monuments which remain relating to the He-
liastae, the most curious is the oath which those judges took
before the Thesmothetae. Demosthenes has preserved it
in his oration against Timocrates, who having been bribed
by those who had been intrusted with the effects taken on
board a vessel of Naucratis, and refused to give an account
of them, got a law passed, by which an enlargement was
granted to prisoners for public debts on giving bail. De¬
mosthenes, on making his oration against that law, ordered
the oath of the Heliastae to be read aloud, as a perpetual
auxiliary to his arguments, and happily calculated to in¬
terest the multitude and inflame their passions. This oath
was in these terms : “ I will judge according to the laws
an'd decrees of the people of Athens, and of the senate of
five hundred. I will never give my vote for the establish¬
ment of a tyrant, or of an oligarchy; nor will I ever give
my approbation to an opinion prejudicial to the liberty or
to the union of the people of Athens. I will not second
those persons who may propose a reduction of private debts,
or a distribution of the lands or houses of the Athenians.
I will not recall exiles, or endeavour to procure a pardon
for those who shall be condemned to die. Nor will I force
those to retire whom the laws and the suffrages of the
people shall permit to remain in their country. I will not
give my vote to any candidate for a public function, who
gives not an account of his conduct in the office which he
has previously filled; nor will I presume to solicit any
trust from the commonwealth without subjecting myself to
this condition, which I mean as obligatory to the nine ar-
chons, to the chief of religious matters, to those who are
balloted on the same day with the nine archons, to the
herald, the ambassador, and the other officers of their
court. I will not suffer the same man to hold the same Helicon
office twice, or to hold two offices in the same year. I Parabola
will not accept any present, either myself or by another,
either directly or indirectly, as a member of the Heliastic
assembly. I solemnly declare that I am thirty years old.
I will be equally attentive and impartial to the accuser
and the accused; I will give my sentence rigorously, ac¬
cording to evidence. Thus I swear, by Jupiter, by Nep¬
tune, and by Ceres, to act. And if I violate any of my
engagements, I imprecate from these deities ruin on my¬
self and my family ; and I request them to grant me every
kind of prosperity if I am faithful to my oath.”
Here we have one of the motives of the meeting of this
assembly stated. Aristotle informs us of another, which
was by the public authority deputed to them, namely, to
elect a magistrate in the room of one deceased. It is sur¬
prising that Pausanias, who enters so often into details,
gives us no particular account of this assembly. All that
he says of it is, that tne most numerous of the Athenian
assemblies was called Helice.
We are informed by Diogenes Laertius, in his life of
Solon, that it was before one of these Heliastic assemblies
that Pisistratus presented himself, covered with wounds
and contusions self-inflicted, to excite the indignation of
the people against his pretended enemies, who, jealous, as
he alleged, of the popularity he had acquired by asserting
the rights of his poorer fellow-citizens, in opposition to the
men in power, had attacked him whilst he was hunting,
and had wounded him in that barbarous manner. His
design succeeded, and a guard was appointed him, by the
assistance of which he acquired the sovereignty or tyranny
of Athens, and kept it during thirty-three years. The
power of the assembly appeared remarkably on that occa¬
sion ; for Solon, who was present, opposed it with all his
efforts, but did not succeed.
As to the manner in which the judges gave their suf¬
frages, there was a sort of vessel covered with an osier
mat, in which there were placed two urns, the one of
copper, the other of wood. In the lid of these urns there
was an oblong hole, which was large at the top, and be¬
came narrower downwards, as we see in some old boxes of
our churches. The suffrages which condemned the ac¬
cused person were thrown into the wooden urn, which
was termed kyrios, whilst that of copper, named akyros,
received those which absolved him.
Aristotle observes, that Solon, whose aim was to make
his people happy, and who found an aristocracy establish¬
ed by the election of the nine archons, annual officers,
whose power was almost absolute, tempered their sove¬
reignty, by instituting the privilege of appealing from them
to the people, who were to be assembled by lot to give
their suffrage, after having taken the oath of the Heliasta:,
in a place near the Panathenaeum, where Hissus had in
former days calmed a sedition of the people, and bound
them to unanimity by an oath. It has likewise been re¬
marked, that Apollo was not invoked in the oath of the
Heliastae, as in the oaths of the other judges. We have
observed, that he who took the oath of the Heliastae en¬
gaged that he would not be corrupted by solicitation or
money. Those who violated this part of their oath were
condemned to pay a severe fine. The decemvirs at Rome
made such corruption a capital crime. But Asconius re¬
marks, that the punishment denounced against them was
mitigated in later times; and that they were expelled the
senate, or banished for a certain time, according to the de¬
gree of their guilt.
HELICOID Parabola, or the Parabolic Spiral, is a
curve arising from the supposition that the common or
Apollonian parabola is bent or twisted till the axis comes
into the circumference of a circle, the ordinates still re¬
taining their places and perpendicular positions with re-
H E L
ge] n spect to the circle, and all these lines still remaining in
the same plane.
Hei HELICON, in Ancient Geography, the name of a moun-
la v tain in the neighbourhood of Parnassus and Cythseron, sacred
-r' to Apollo and the muses, who are thence called Heliconi-
des. It is situated in Livadia, and is now called Zagura or
Zaguya. Helicon was one of the most fertile and woody
mountains in Greece. On it the fruit of the adrachnus, a
species of the arbutus, or of the strawberry-tree, was un¬
commonly sweet; and the inhabitants affirmed that the
plants and roots were all friendly to man, and that even
the serpents had their poison weakened by the innoxious
qualities of their food. It approached Parnassus on the
north, where it touched on Phocis; and resembled that
mountain in loftiness, extent, and magnitude. Here was
the shady grove of the muses and their images ; with
statues of Apollo and Bacchus, of Linus and Orpheus,
and the illustrious poets who had recited their verses to
the harp. Amongst the tripods, in the second century,
was that consecrated by Hesiod. On the left hand going
to the grove was the fountain Aganippe ; and about twenty
stadia, or two miles and a half, higher up, the violet-
coloured Hippocrene. Round the grove were houses. A
festival was celebrated there by the Thespieans, with games
called Musea. The valleys of Helicon are described by
Wheler as green and flowery in the spring; enlivened
by pleasing cascades and streams, and by fountains and
wells of clear water. The Boeotian cities in general, two
or three excepted, were reduced to inconsiderable villa¬
ges in the time of Strabo. The grove of the muses was
plundered under the auspices of Constantine the Great.
The Heliconian goddesses were afterwards consumed in
a fire at Constantinople, to which city they had been re¬
moved.
HELIGOLAND, or Helgoland, a group of small
islands in the North Sea, formerly belonging to Denmark,
now to Great Britain, and situated about twenty-eight
miles from the mouths of the Weser, the Elbe, and the
Eyder. It consists of the principal island, subdivided in¬
to the Cliff and the Low Land; the smaller island called
the Down; and several sand-banks and rocks, of which
that called the Monk is the most conspicuous. The Cliff
is a continued rock of sandstone (red breccia), almost per¬
pendicular, varying from ninety to a hundred and sixty-
six feet in height; the ascent to it is by a long flight of
steps; its circumference is above 4000 paces. Whilst the
Cliff is said to suffer progressive diminution from the ac¬
tion of the waves, the Low Land is asserted to be on the
increase. It is joined to the former by a bottom of rock,
about 500 paces long. Its circumference is much smaller
than that of the high ground ; and the circuit of the whole
island does not exceed two miles and a half. The Down,
or Downs, is not quite half this size; but its extent is con¬
tinually varying. On the High Land is a light-house,
whose geographical position is 7° 53' 13" east longitude,
and 54° 11' 34" north latitude. It is of great use to guide
ships, not only amidst the surrounding rocks and shoals,
but being visible at a distance of more than twenty-seven
miles, it serves as a mark for directing vessels to the
mouths of the nearest rivers on the continent.
Heligoland has two good harbours; and to the east of
the Down is a road where vessels may anchor in forty-
eighty feet of water. The inhabitants, in number about
2000, subsist chiefly by fishing and acting as pilots; the
women cultivate the little grain (barley and oats) that is
raised here, and attend to a few hundred sheep, for which
there is pasture on the upper ground. It is on this part
of the island that the public and other buildings are placed ;
on the low grounds there are only fishermen’s huts. There
are two wells of fresh water, but scarcely a tree or shrub
of any kind on the island. Turf, wood, fuel, and garden
H E L 213
vegetables, are brought from Cuxhaven and Hamburg in Heliocen-
exchange for fish. tlic Lati-
Heligoland was, in former ages, of much greater extent; tu^e
having been, it is said, the residence of a chief of the Si- jje^0_
cambri, or North Frieslanders, and the seat of worship of meter,
the Saxon deity Phoseta. The latter is confirmed by the
name, which signifies in German “ sacred land.” The
diminution of the island has taken place at different
times ; in the years 800 and 1300, if tradition may be be¬
lieved, but with certainty in 1649, and even in 1720. The
ravage of 1649 seems to have been very considerable. Du¬
ring the war with the Danes, it was taken by a small squa¬
dron in September 1807, and rendered a depot for mer¬
chandise which was afterwards smuggled into the ports
of the Continent, from which our commerce was excluded
by Bonaparte. At that time Heligoland was much crowd¬
ed with mercantile adventurers. At the peace of 1814,
though exclusion was no longer to be dreaded, our govern¬
ment judged it fit to retain the island, doubtless in conside¬
ration of the value of its double harbour, and of the ease
with which the high ground may be defended.
HELIOCENTRIC Latitude of a Planet, the inclina¬
tion of a line drawn between the centre of the sun and
the centre of a planet to the plane of the ecliptic.
Heliocentric Place of a Planet, the place of the eclip¬
tic in which the planet would appear to a spectator placed
at the centre of the sun.
HELIOCOMETES, a phenomenon sometimes observ¬
ed about sunset, being a large luminous tail or column of
light proceeding from the body of the sun, and dragging
after it, not unlike the tail of a comet; and hence the name.
HELIODORUS of Phcenicia, bishop of Trica in Thes¬
saly, better known by the romance he composed in his
youth, entitled ZEthiopica, in which are related the amours
of Theagenes and Chariclea. Some say he was deposed
by a synod because he would not consent to suppress this
romance. The fable has a moral tendency, and particular¬
ly inculcates the virtue of chastity. As this was the first
composition of the kind, he is commonly styled the Father
of Romance. He was also a good Latin poet. Heliodo-
rus lived in the fourth century. For an analysis of the
ZEthiopica, with some judicious remarks thereon, see Dun¬
lop’s History of Fiction.
HELIOMETER, formed of iikiog, sun, and /isrgw, I mea¬
sure, the name of an instrument, called also astrometer, in¬
vented by M. Bouguer in 1747, for measuring with parti¬
cular exactness the diameters of the stars, and especially
those of the sun and moon.
Tliis instrument is a kind of telescope, consisting of two
object-glasses of equal focal distance, placed one by the
side of the other, so that the same eye-glass serves for both.
The tube of this instrument is of a conical form, larger at
the upper end, which receives the two object-glasses, than
at the lower, which is furnished with an eye-glass and a
micrometer. By the construction of this instrument two
distinct images of an object are formed in the focus of
the eye-glass, whose distance, depending upon that of the
two object-glasses from one another, may be measured
wdth great accuracy. Nor is it necessary that the whole
disc of the sun or moon should come within the field of
view, since, if the images of only a small part of the disc
be formed by each object-glass, the whole “diameter may
be easily computed by their position with respect to one
another. For, if the object be large, the images will ap¬
proach, or perhaps even lie over each other, and the ob¬
ject-glasses being moveable, the two images may always
be brought exactly to touch one another, and the diameter
may be computed from the known distance of the centres
of the two glasses. Besides, as this instrument has a com¬
mon micrometer in the focus of the eye-glass, when the two
images of the sun or moon are made in part to cover one
214
Heliopo
lis
H E L
H E L
another, that part which is common to both the images
may be measured with great exactness, as being viewed
Helix- uPon a gr9und that is only one half less luminous than itself;
whereas, in general, the heavenly bodies are viewed upon a
dark ground, and on that account are imagined to be larger
than they really are. By a small addition to this instru¬
ment, provided it be of a moderate length, M. Bouguer
thought it possible to measure angles of three or four de¬
grees, which is of particular consequence in taking the
distance of stars from the moon. By means of this instru¬
ment M. Bouguer found, by repeated observation, that the
sun’s vertical diameter, though somewhat diminished by
the astronomical refraction, is longer than the horizon¬
tal diameter; and, in ascertaining this phenomenon, he
also found, that the upper and lower edges of the sun’s
disc are not so equally defined as the other parts, on which
account his image appears somewhat extended in the
vertical direction. This is owing to the decomposition of
light, which is known to consist of rays differently refran¬
gible in their passage through our atmosphere. Thus the
blue and violet rays, which proceed from the upper part
of the disc at the same time with those of other colours,
are somewhat more refracted than the others, and there¬
fore seem to us to have proceeded from a higher point;
whereas, on the contrary, the red rays proceeding from
the lower edge of the disc, being less refracted than the
others, seem to proceed from a lower point; so that the
vertical diameter is extended, or appears longer, than the
horizontal diameter.
HELIOPOLIS, ruins at Matarieh, giving name to the
district Heliopolites, which stretched into Arabia, a city of
EgyP1’ near the apex of the Delta, and near the eastern
bank of the Nile, twelve miles from Babylon of Egypt
(Anton. Itin.), sacred to the worship of the Sun (Macrob.
SatA. 21; Herodot. ii. 59), whose priests were considered
as the most learned of the land (ii. 3), particularly in astro¬
logy, which they acquired from Actis, son of Helios, who
was founder of the city (Diodor. v. 57). It is situated on
a considerable eminence to the south of some lakes, pro¬
bably now Birket-el-Hadgy, which were furnished with
water from the canal which ran towards the Red Sea.
The city was in ruins in the time of Strabo, and the temple
in which the ox Mnevis used to be kept exhibited marks
of the destructive visit of Cambyses. He saw the remains of
the magnificent edifices in which the college of priests used
to reside ; but that learned body had dwindled away, and
was then represented only by a few individuals, who ex¬
plained to strangers the antiquities of the temples. The
reputation of this college had at one time been so high that
it attracted the presence of Plato and Eudoxus, who are
said to have resided many years under the tuition of the
priests (Strab. xvii. 805, 806; Plin. v. 9). It is supposed
to be the On of the Scriptures.
HELIOSCOPE, in Optics, a sort of telescope, peculi¬
arly fitted for viewing the sun without affecting the eyes.
As the sun may be viewed through coloured glasses with¬
out detriment to the eyes, if the object and eye-glasses of
a telescope be made of coloured glass, as red or green,
such a telescope will become an helioscope.
HELIOS 1 ATE, in Optics, an instrument invented bv
the learned sGravesande, who gave it this name from its
fixing as it were the rays of the sun in an horizontal direc¬
tion across a dark chamber all the time it is in use.
HELIOTROPE (heliotropium'), amongst the ancients,
an instrument or machine for showing when the sun arrived
at the tiopics and the equinoctial line. This name was
also used generally for a sun-dial.
, Geometry, a spiral line. The word is Greek,
*X/g, and htei ally signifies a wreath or winding, from iki66w,
involvo. In architecture, some authors make a difference
between the helix and the spiral. A staircase, according
to Daviler, is in a helix, or is helical, when the stairs or n
steps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas the spiral i,
winds round a cone, and is continually approaching nearer Helia
and nearer its axis. cu8
Helix is also applied, in Architecture, to the caulicules
or little volutes under the flowers of the Corinthian capi¬
tal, which are called urillce.
HELL, the place of punishment after death. As all re¬
ligions have supposed a future state of existence, so all have
their hell or place of torment, in which the wicked are
supposed to be punished. The hell of the ancient heathens
was divided into two mansions, the one called Elysium, on
the right hand, pleasant and delightful, appointed for the
souls of good men; the other called Tartarus, on the left,
a region of misery and torment, appointed for the wicked!
The latter only was hell in the present limited sense of the
word.
Amongst Christians, there are two controverted ques¬
tions in regard to hell; the one concerning the locality, and
the other the duration of its torments.
The locality of hell, and the reality of its fire, began first
to be controverted by Origen. That father, interpreting
the Scripture account metaphorically, made hell to con¬
sist, not in external punishments, but in a consciousness
or sense of guilt, and a remembrance of past pleasures.
Amongst the moderns, Mr Whiston advanced a new hypo¬
thesis. According to him, the comets are so many hells
appointed in their orbits alternately to carry the damned
into the confines of the sun, there to be scorched by its
violent heat, and then to return with them beyond the orb
of Saturn, there to freeze in the dismal regions of eternal
cold. Another modern author, not satisfied with any hy¬
pothesis hitherto advanced, assigns the sun as the locality
of hell.
As to the second question, the duration of hell torments,
we find Origen again at the head of those who deny that
they are eternal. It was his opinion, that not only* men,
but devils, would, after a due course of punishment suit¬
able to their respective crimes, be pardoned and restored to
heaven. The principle upon which Origen mainly built his
opinion, was the nature of punishment, which he took to
be emendatory, and applied only as physic for the recovery
of the patient’s health. The chief objection to the eterni¬
ty of hell torments amongst modern writers, is the dispro¬
portion between temporary crimes and eternal punishments.
Those who maintain the affirmative, ground their opinions
on Scripture accounts, which represent the pains of hell
under the figure of a worm which never dies, and a fire
which is not quenched.
HELLANICUS, an ancient historian of Mitylene, in
Lesbos, was son of Andromenes or Aristomenes, born b. c.
496, if we credit the statement of Aulus Gellius (xv. 23),
that he was sixty-five years old b. c. 431, at the beginning
of the Peloponnesian war. Herodotus was then fifty-three,
and Thucydides forty years of age. According to Lucian
(Macrob. c. 22), he lived to the age of eighty-five (which
extends the life of Hellanicus to b. c. 411), and died at
Perperena, a village of iEolis, opposite the island Lesbos
(Suid.). It is impossible to say in what dialect of the
GieeL language he wrote, as those authors who have quot¬
ed him may have changed his words to suit their own
style. He is accused by Diodorus (i. 37) of overlaying
his history with fable, so that the entire loss of his works
is a matter of little regret. He seems to have been a vo¬
luminous writer, having been employed on the historv
partly of foreign nations, and partly of Greek races and
states. His style is said to have been simple and unadorn¬
ed, without eloquence or ornament. The following are
a few of his works: Antiquities of Egypt, of Phoenicia,
of Persia, of Scythia, of Troy, and of Barbarian Nations;
Journey to the Temple of Ammon; Foundation of Chios.
H E L
, j]lc fragments of Hellanicus have been collected by Sturz,
Lips. 1826.
its. HELLAS, in Ancient Geography, an appellation com-
J prehending, according to the more ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, Achaia and Peloponnesus, but afterwards restricted
to Achaia. It was bounded on the west by the river Ache-
lous, on the north by Mounts Othrys and CEta, on the
east by the dSgean Sea, and on the south by the Saronic
and Corinthian Bays, and by the isthmus which joins it to
Peloponnesus. It was called Hellas, from Hellen, the son
of Deucalion, or from Hellas, a district of Thessaly ; and
hence Hellenes, the gentilitious name, denoting Greeks.
HELLE, in fabulous history, a daughter of Athamas,
king of Thebes, by Nephele. Helle fled from her father’s
house with her brother Phryxus, to avoid the cruel op¬
pression of her mother-in-law Ino. According to some
accounts, she was carried through the air on a golden ram,
which her mother had received from Neptune, and haying
in her passage become giddy, she fell from her seat into^
that part of the sea which from her received the name of
Hellespont. Others say that she was carried on a cloud,
or rather upon a ship, from which she fell into the sea and
was drowned. Phryxus, after he had given his sister a bu¬
rial on the neighbouring coast, pursued his journey, and
arrived in Colchis.
HELLENISM, in matters of language, a phrase in the
idiom, genius, or construction of the Greek tongue. This
word is only used when speaking of the authors who, writ¬
ing in a different language, express themselves in a phrase¬
ology peculiar to the Greek.
HELLENISTIC Language, that used by the Grecian
Jews who lived in Egypt and other parts where the Greek
tongue prevailed. In this language the Septuagint was
written, and also the books of the New Testament; and
it was thus denominated, to show that it was Greek filled
with Hebraisms and Syriacisms.
HELLENISTS {Hellenistee), a term occurring in the
Greek text of the New Testament, and which in the Eng¬
lish version is rendered Grecians. But the critics are di¬
vided as to the signification of the word. CEcumenius
{Scholia ad Act. vi. 1) observes, that it is not to be under¬
stood as signifying those of the religion of the Greeks,
but those who spoke Greek (tous 'EXswtfr/ <pky%a[imvg).
The authors of the Vulgate indeed render it, as in our
version, Greed; but Messieurs du Port-Royal more ac¬
curately, Juifs Grecs, Greek or Grecian Jews ; that is,
Jews who spoke Greek, and who are thus distinguished
from the Jews called Hebrews, who spoke the Hebrew
tongue of that time. The Hellenists, or Grecian Jews,
were those who lived in Egypt and other parts where
the Greek tongue prevailed. It is to them we owe the
Greek version of the Old Testament, commonly called
the Septuagint. But Salmasius and Vossius are of a dif¬
ferent opinion with regard to the Hellenists. The latter
conceives that they were those who adhered to the Gre¬
cian interests. Scaliger is represented, in the Scaligerana,
as asserting that the Hellenists were the Jews who lived in
Greece and other places, and who read the Greek Bible in
H E L 215
their synagogue, and used the Greek language in sacris, Helleno-
and who were thus opposed to the Hebrew Jews, who per- dicae
formed their public worship in the Hebrew tongue; and j|e^liet
in this sense St Paul speaks of himself as a Hebrew of the v_,- “If'>
Hebrews (Phil. iii. 5), meaning a Hebrew both by nation
and language. The Hellenists are thus properly distin¬
guished from the Hellenes or Greeks (mentioned in John,
xii. 20), who were Greeks by birth and nation, and yet pro¬
selytes to the Jewish religion.
HELLENODICiE, 'EXX^o&xa/, in Antiquity, the direc¬
tors of the Olympian games. At first there was only one,
but afterwards the number was increased to two, to three,
and at length to nine. They assembled in a place called
' 'EXkri'ibhyjj.m, in the Elean forum, where they were obliged
to reside ten months before the celebration of the games,
to take care that such as offered themselves to contend
performed their iroay^ijjvcic/xar«, or preparatory exercises,
and were instructed in all the laws of games by certain
men called voyotpukaxig, or keepers of the laws. And the
better to prevent all unjust practices, they wrere further
obliged to take an oath that they would act impartially,
take no bribes, nor discover the reason for which they dis¬
liked or approved of any of the competitors. At the so¬
lemnity they sat naked, having before them the victor’s
crown till the exercises were finished, and then it was pre¬
sented to whomsoever they adjudged it. Nevertheless,
there lay an appeal from the Hellenodicae to the Olympian
senate.
HELLESPONT, a narrow strait between Asia and Eu¬
rope, connecting the Mediterranean with the Propontis.
It received its name from Helle, who wras drowned there
in her voyage to Colchis. It is celebrated for the love and
death of Leander, and for the bridge of boats which Xerxes
built over it when he invaded Greece. It is now called the
Dardanelles. This strait is about thirty-three miles in
length, and, in the broadest parts, the Asiatic coast is about
one mile and a half distant from the European, and only
half a mile in the narrowest.
HELLSTEDT, a town of Prussia, in the circle of Mans¬
field and province of Saxony, with 540 houses and 3604 in-^
habitants; near to which are some mines of copper and of
silver, which employ a part of the population in extracting
these metals and converting them to use.
HELM, a long and flat piece of timber, or an assem¬
blage of several pieces, suspended along the hind-part of a
ship’s stern-post, where it turns upon hinges to the right
or left, serving to direct the course of the vessel, as the
tail of a fish guides the body. See Ship-Building.
There are several terms in nautical language relating to
the helm; as, Bear up the helm, that is, let the ship go
more large before the wind ; Helm a midship, or right the
helm, that is, keep it even with the middle of the ship;
Port the helm, put it over the left side of the ship; Star¬
board the helm, put it on the right side of the ship.
HELMET, a piece of defensive armour worn by horse¬
men both in war and in tournaments. It anciently cover¬
ed both the head and face, only leaving an aperture in the
front secured by bars, which was called the visor.
216
HELMINTHOLOGY.1
Helmin¬
thology.
I he title of this article was formerly bestowed on a
much larger group of animated beings than that to which
we here restrict it. The Linnman group of Vermes con¬
tained, in fact, the whole of the intestinal and other worms,
the molluscous and testaceous tribes, the Zoophytes and
Infusoria,—which now form the natural materials of many
classes. We here apply it exclusively to the Annelides,
or red-blooded vermes, of which the medicinal leech and
earth-worm afford familiar examples. Bruguieres and
others have no doubt conjoined them, in comparatively
recent times, with the intestinal tribes; and it was at one
time our intention (see Animal Kingdom, vol. iii. p.
180 of this work) to have adopted that arrangement. But
we now conceive it to be more advisable to follow the
example of Cuvier, and, referring the latter to the radiated
or zoophytical division, to include in the article Helmin¬
thology the Annelides alone. In truth, the intestinal
tribes exhibit no organs of respiration, either tracheal or
bi anchial, no traces of a true circulation,—and their ner¬
vous system is extremely obscure. It will therefore be¬
come apparent, from the following definition, how greatly
the Annelides differ from the creatures just named.
The Annelides or red-blooded worms form the first class
of the articulated division of the animal kingdom.2 Their
blood, of a red colour, resembling that of the vertebrated
animals, circulates in a double system of closed vessels,
that is, in arteries and veins. This system, though desti¬
tute of a heart properly so called, is sometimes provided
with one or more distinct fleshy ventricles. Respiration
is carried on through the medium of organs, which are
sometimes external, occasionally developed beneath the
surface of the skin, or sunk more deeply into the inte¬
rior. They may all be presumed to breathe by means of
branchiae, although the respiratory system, of the so-called
Abranchial Order, is still unknown. The branchiae or
respiratory organs of the greater number are external,
and vary considerably in their size, form, number, and
position. Their body, of a softish texture, is more or
less elongated, and always divided into numerous rin^s
or segments, of which the anterior, known under the
name of head, scarcely differs from the others, except by
the possession of a mouth, and of the principal organs of
the senses. None of the Annelides possess articulated
membeis properly so called, but in room of these many
are furnished with setiferous mammillae, or fleshy projec* n
tions, bearing bundles of hairs or bristles, and forming tht ^
what may be called pedes spurii, of which the number *
is extremely various. These peculiar organs are some¬
times composed of two parts, the one superior and dorsal,
the other inferior and ventral. The muscular power re¬
sides in the interior, and is capable of producing only an
undulatory or creeping movement,—the locomotive parts
being incompetent to sustain the body. The organs of
the mouth consist sometimes of parts resembling jaws,
more or less developed,—sometimes of a simple tube!
The organs of the external senses are composed of fleshy
tentacula, sometimes articulated,—and of certain blackish
points, not existing in all the species, regarded as eyes.
The nervous system consists of a double ganglionic cord,
analogous to that of insects, as already described in our
article Entomology. In regard to their natural habits,
most of these creatures are aquatic (the Lumbrici or earth¬
worms excepted). Some dwell in holes beneath the wa¬
ters, other form tubes or tunnels of mud or other matters,
or even transude from their own bodies a calcareous se¬
cretion, which forms around them a protecting covering.3 * *
Considered sexually, they are for the most part herma¬
phrodite, and some require reciprocal communication.
It will be perceived, even from the preceding brief expo¬
sition, that the Annelides are animals of a very peculiar
nature. Although their nervous system coincides with that
of the other articulated classes, and although their bodies
are likewise divided by transverse sections, yet their loco¬
motive organs are entirely dissimilar to those of the Crus¬
tacea, Arachnides, and Insects. Their setiferous mam¬
millae are merely retractile sheaths, and the hairs or bris¬
tles which they enclose are in no way comparable to the
feet of the last-named classes, but are organs of a very
different nature.
The Annelides are few in number compared with in¬
sects and other articulated classes, and the greater pro¬
portion are marine. Their possession of red blood is a
singular character in animals so low in the scale, and one
not possessed by the molluscous tribes, which are yet re¬
garded as their superiors in other points of organisation.
In regard to their external parts, we shall here indicate a
few of the most important,—premising that the charac¬
ters mentioned are not universal to the class, but rather
1 From sx^i/s, a worm, and Xaym, a discourse.
I 0fAheuSe prli!,Varyudi^si0nS of the animal ki"gdom, see vol. iii. p. 179 of this work.
Annelides) often ^Wt ailhouthll if+Vp I'r!" h te™ M’ df denominates the setigerous genera of the class
shell of the Mollusca not even where tlierp1!6'1)! 'V SU ^ reSViar ?nd solid, it cannot however in any manner be compared to the
poda are always simple excretions^rom their hod v^vh- h aPP™ximatlon’ as 111 Dentalium and Siliquaria. These tubes of the Cheto-
without dyin/immediateN We h 7 > b d' ’ hl nl°.mfan® a“ached to it, and from which the animal may issue forth
hollowed hi the^nH et17^ ^ u l to observe something of this kind in the mucosity with which certain species line the hole
of the tube of the Amnhitrit/amWh^S uf ^blt’ hY” Y? ^re.nicol8e’ and some Lumbrici. This is analogous to the mucous pellicle
or less thick, composTd^nereY Y’^rrma « bUt m th%latte,r’ surrounding this mucosity, is attached externally a stratum, more
of sand. These tubes are rmfstinfl ' £ramS sandi or, in fine, of debris, more or less thick, of shells and larger grains
calcareous TtY d Yki ta tlJ °Pen at 1,oth extremities ; there are also some of them more regular, which are completely
trt“^ t,Y atrabter rhereby theJ ^ dif fr°m tubular Shells’ thefummitof which, oTXecoi
strata extremely thin nkced insirW^n h,°'Tever’ aPPear constantly to grow, after the manner of tubular shells, by laminae or
rent outside-- hut W(J , . out-edging one another. Trom this result striae marking the growth, more or less appa-
a mouth, as in the Mollusca^'rhis Uf Stl"’ae ?n, ^hcir surface, nor anything indicating the delicate working of the edges of
may add, that the constant nerforation^PH ^ alone suffice to distinguish them from the true tubular shel/s,• but to this we
in its tube, to form partitions theY „rl, Y .su™mi|' °* the tube of the Chetopoda never allows the animal, in growing and advancing
guishes the tubes of the Chetonnda tfYn m 16 tuY ar shells the reverse is invariably the case. A final character which distin-
bodies, which never takes nlace with 'h^tthey are adherent, and fixed flatly, through a greater portion of their extent, on foreign
add, that the 3roiu^of the stTefl-^arineYlollusca °vCuvier s Animal Kingdom, vol. xiii. p. 58.) We may
but there is no doubt that the ^ aYaIs1born Wlth 6hel,ls’ because that Part forms, in fact, a portion of their skin;
to form their protecting habitations? ^ ^ ^ produced m an exP0Sed condition, and afterwards proceed, by a voluntary effort,
HELMINTHOLOGY.
1 COnflned to certain races. The head, in such as possess
le0J one) is a small anterior swelling, which bears the antennas
V*- ^ commonly so called, and the eyes, and is distinct from
the first segment of the body. The Nereids of Linnaeus
are regarded by Latreille as the only Annelides of which
the anterior segment merits the name of head, or possesses
organs fit to be compared to eyes, more especially to those
of the larvae of insects. These eyes are simple, extreme¬
ly small, and appear like blackish points,—their number
from two to four. Savigny indeed attributes eight to the
leech tribe, but Latreille suspects that their structure is
different from that of the Nereids. The organisation of
the mouth varies greatly in the different orders. The parts
called maxillae by Savigny are hard circumscribed parts,
of a corneous or calcareous nature, to which Latreille does
not accord the name of jaws. The latter author indeed
seems to regard the Annelides as a suctorial rather than
a masticating class. Most of them are of carnivorous ha¬
bits, and live on the blood of other creatures. The trunk
or sucker is a contractile fleshy portion, constituting the
mouth, and containing the so-called jaws. The latter por¬
tions, however, being adherent to the inner coats of the
sucker, and the latter being nothing more than a prolon¬
gation of the oesophagus, can scarcely be regarded as ge¬
nuine jaws.
Several tribes have their branchiae uniformly spread
over the extent of the body, or over its central portion,
while others (and these usually dwell in tubes) bear those
organs at their anterior extremity. In the erratic species,
or such as are naked, and without fixed dwellings, they
are usually disposed longitudinally along the sides of the
body, there being one for each foot. Blood-vessels some¬
times appear to spread into the setiform processes, and
to convert them into respiratory organs.
We have already stated that Linnaeus placed the Anne¬
lides in his almost unlimited class of Vermes,—a vast and
by no means well-combined group, which the later la¬
bours of Otho Frederick Muller, Pallas, and other natu¬
ralists, failed to cast into a more natural mould. The
great Swedish naturalist separated the true Annelides from
each other, placing one portion of the group in the order
Intestina, and the other in that of Mollusca. In Cuvier’s
earliest work {Tableau Elementaire, &c. 1789), he re¬
stricted the class of worms to the Annelides and intesti¬
nal species, a mode of grouping previously practised by
Bruguieres in the Encyclopedic Methodique. Subsequent
investigations induced the French anatomist to raise the
former to the rank of a separate class, which he named
Vers a sans rouge, in a memoir read to the French Insti¬
tute in 1802. On this same group Lamarck {Extrait du
Cours, &c. 1812) bestowed the name of Annelides,
which has since been very generally adopted. A slight
disparity, however, still exists in the constitution of the
Annelides, in the works of Cuvier and Lamarck, the former
including in the class so named the genus Gordius, which
the latter associates with the other Vermes.
But notwithstanding the valuable labours of these and
other writers, the external structure of the Annelides
cannot be said to have been at all rigorously determined,
or viewed in relation to that of conterminous groups, till
we received the fruits of Savigny’s laborious and most
delicate observations, originally presented to the Academy
of Sciences.1 At that period Blainville was also occupied
in the study of the same group, which, with the exception
of the leeches, forms his class of Setipodes. He pub¬
lished an extract from his labours in the course of the
217
ensuing year.2 Oken, Leach, Latreille, Duges, Au- Helmin-
douin, Mylne Edwards, and others, have likewise contri- thology.
buted to our knowledge of this curious and important
class, in publications, to the majority of which we shall
more particularly allude in the course of the present trea¬
tise.
In regard to the geographical distribution of the An¬
nelides, our data are not yet sufficiently precise and nu¬
merous to admit of any satisfactory generalization. We
have already said, that with the exception of the earth¬
worms (and even these require a moist abode), all the
known species are aquatic. We may add, that the great
majority inhabit the saline waters of the ocean. Most
of the Naids, however, occur in fresh water, and some
true Nereids are found in the lakes of North America.
Annelides of some kind or other are met with in all
quarters of the globe, and the species of many genera are
very widely distributed ; but others, such as the Amphi-
iiomce, for example, are characteristic of, if not peculiar
to, the warmer seas. Undoubtedly the most magnificent
are native to the Indian shores. “ It is in general on the
coasts of the sea, in the midst of Thalassiophytes, in the
anfractuosities of Madrepores, in the sand, and particu¬
larly in mud, that the Chetopoda are to be found; and
if some species are more commonly to be met with in
the open sea, as, for instance, the Amphinomae, named
by M. Savigny Pleione vagans, it appears that they may
have been drawn along with marine plants by the cur¬
rents, as is the case with many other animals.’’3 Their na¬
tural movements are extremely slow, and may be compar¬
ed to those of slugs, although their appendages for loco¬
motion are much more numerous. The Nereids, however,
not only creep in a kind of serpentine manner over the
surface of solid bodies at the water’s edge, but frequent¬
ly swim very respectably, either by successive undulations
of the body, after the manner of eels and serpents, or by
agitating their appendages, and thus making these organs
serve as oars.4
The utility, in an economical point of view, of the An¬
nelides in general to the human race, is by no means
great. According to Pallas, the inhabitants of some parts
of Belgium eat those portions of Aphrodita aculeata which
compose the mouth ; the Nereids and Arenicolae, as well
as the earth-worms, are extensively employed as baits for
fish, and the medicinal uses of the leech are notorious;
but, with these, and, it may be, a few other exceptions,
little can be said regarding the direct benefits derivable
from this peculiar class. Its subjects, however, are by
no means on that account the less important in the eyes
of the philosophical naturalist.
Several of the Annelides possess a phosphoric pro¬
perty, from which Linnaeus named a certain species Ne¬
reis noctiluca. Others, characterized by the same attri¬
bute, have been more recently described by Sig. Viviani.5
The presence or absence of the organs of motion, and
the position of the branchiae, furnish natural characters of
easy application, which modern zoologists have employed
to signalize the primary groups. Lamarck divides the
Annelides into three orders, les Apodes, les Antennes,
and les Sedentaires,—and in the system of Cuvier they
likewise form an equal number of orders, les Tubicoles,
les Dorsibranches, and les Abranches. In both systems
the Serpulae occupy the highest position in the scale. Sa¬
vigny’s arrangement of these animals consists of five or¬
ders, of which the author has as yet treated only of four,
viz. les Nereidees, les Serpulees, les Lombricines, and les Hi-
1 Systeme des Annelides, forming a portion of the great French work on Egypt. 3 Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. xiii. p. 73.
2 Bulletin de la Soc. Phil. Mai et Juin 1818. ■* The lateral parts are hence named rames by M. Savigny.
* Phosphorentia maris quatuordecim lucescentium animalculorum novis specicbus illustrata. Gen use, 1805.
VOL. XI. 2 E
218 HELMINTHOLOGY.
Tubicola?. rudinees. He places the Aphrodites and Nereids at the culum; they are sometimes even wanting. Their tube is? v
head of the class. Latreille is also of opinion that these rarely calcareous, and seems often formed of grains 0f '
Annelides, especially the Nereids, so far as regards their very fine clay or mud. Most of the ascertained species *
external organisation, are entitled to precedence, and are of considerable size, and are remarkable for the ex¬
make the nearest approach to the articulated animals pro- treme delicacy and lustre of their plumy branchice.
vided with feet, such as Insects and Crustacea. One of the most splendid of the genus is figured by Dr
We shall here, in as far as general arrangement is con- Shaw under the title of Tubularia magnified.1 It is found
cerned, follow the system of Cuvier. on various parts of the coast of Jamaica,' adhering to the
rocks. It is extremely wary, and when approached in¬
stantly recedes within its tube, which on a further alarm
Order I.—TUBICOLiE, Cuv. also retires into the rock, so that specimens can be ob¬
tained only by breaking off portions of the mass. These,
Some form a calcareous homogeneous tube, supposed when put into tubs of sea water, may be preserved for
to result from transudation, like the covering of testaceous months, and the habits of the animals attentively studied.
Mollusca, but which does not adhere by any muscular at- The species in question is characterized by a simple un-
tachment; others construct a covering by agglutinating dulated tube of a whitish hue, the tentacula being varied
grains of sand, broken shells, and other debris, by means by beautiful alternate bands of red and white. Amph. ve-
of a membrane, likewise the result of transudation ; while siculosa is a British species described by Montagu.2 The
a third group are surrounded by a tube of an entirely internal texture of its tube is coriaceous, but the outer
membranous or corneous nature. coat is invariably covered by coarse sand, intermixed with
Genus Serpula, Linn. The body is composed of nu- fragments of shells. (See Plate CCLXXV. fig. 5.) Con-
merous segments ; its anterior portion is enlarged in the siderable variety exists in the form and aspect of the ge-
form of a disk, armed on either side by several bundles of nus Sabella.
stiff bristles; and on each side of the mouth is a fan- Genus Terebella, Cuv. These, like the preceding,
shaped plume of branchiae, usually adorned by lively co- inhabit a tube of their own formation, but composed of
coarser materials than that of the generality of Sabellaj,
Their body presents much fewer segments, and the head
is otherwise adorned. Numerous filiform tentacula, ca¬
pable of great extension, surround the mouth ; and on the
neck are placed the branchiae, which are not fan-shaped,
but in the form of little branches.
The animals of this genus, according to Montagu,
either prepare a sheath from the tenacious secretion of
their own bodies, mixed with adventitious matters, or
reside in prepared perforations at the bottom of the sea.
Their tubes are in general so extremely fragile as to be
easily destroyed, and the animals are then found lurking
beneath stones, or forming a new dwelling. Some fabri¬
cate their tube in old shells or stones, to which they ad¬
here by their entire length, while others fix a tube per¬
pendicularly in the sand. These tubes are indeed fre¬
quently observed to obtrude several inches above the sur¬
face of the soil, and when the waters flow, the gills and
other appendages are stretched forth, and seem agitated
to and fro. The gills or branchial appendages are ex¬
tremely sensible, of a fine blood colour, and when touched
they contract so suddenly as to expel the fluid which they
contain, and then they lose their sanguine hue. Many
are gregarious, and so numerous, that the sea-shore is
sometimes seen covered by their fragments after a storm.
When their tubes are entire, but a small portion of the
body is protruded, with the exception of the filiform ten¬
tacula, which they thrust about in all directions as if in
search of food. The branchial appendages, just mention¬
ed as so finely coloured during life, lose their brightness
from day to day as the animals become sickly in confine¬
ment,
1 • gigantea, Mont, the largest of the genus, measures
sixteen inches in length, and occurs, though rarely, on
the Devonshire coast. We here figure as an example
another species, which has likewise been taken on that
coast by deep dredging, viz. T. nebulosa of Montagu. See
Plate CCLXXV. fig. 8.
Genus Amphitrite, Cuv. Pectinaria, Recog¬
nizable by the golden coloured bristles ranged in a coro¬
nal or pectinated manner, in one or more rows, on the
anterior portion of the head, where they probably serve
.fit uie
ucise oi eacn piume is a nesny niament,
one or other of which is always prolonged and dilated at
the extremity into a disk of various form, which serves as
an operculum, and closes the overture of the tube when¬
ever the contained creature chooses to retire. (Plate
CCLXXV. fig. 3.) Of this genus the calcareous tubes
cover, by their tortuous windings, the surface of stones,
shells, and other submarine bodies. The species are wide¬
ly distributed throughout the seas of Europe, India, and
America. The largest are indigenous to the warmer cli¬
mates of the globe. Little is known of their instinctive
habits or natural economy. They are said to feed on
aquatic animalcules, which they seize by means of their
branchial tentacula.
Linnaeus, and most of the naturalists of his time, placed
the Serpulae among the testaceous Mollusca. They now
constitute a numerous genus, of which several species oc¬
cur in the European seas. They are very contractile,
and are supposed to feed on animalcules. A well-known
species, S. contortuplicata (Plate CCLXXV. fig. 1), has
rounded tortuous tubes, of about three lines in diameter.
Its operculum is tunnel-shaped, and its branchiae are of¬
ten of a beautiful red, or varied with yellow and violet.
Any object thrown into the sea is apt to be speedily
covered by this species.
Genus Spirorbis, Lam. Branchiae much less nume¬
rous than in the preceding genus (from three to four on
each side), placed anteriorly in a somewhat radiated form.
A pediculated operculum, with a flat summit placed be¬
tween the branchiae. Tube testaceous, and rolled after
the manner of a Cornu ammonis.
This genus is composed of very small species, which
are found attached to fuci, shells, and other marine
bodies. They frequently occur in great numbers, though
always separate from each other. The animals are of a
blood-red colour. We have figured the Sp. nautiloides
of Lam. synonymous with the Serpula spirorbis of Linn.
See Plate CCLXXV. figs. 2 and 4.
Genus Sabella, Cuv. Amphitrite, Lamarck. Body
and fan-shaped branchiae resembling those of the preced¬
ing genus, but both the fleshy filaments adhering to the
branchiae terminate in a point, and do not form an oper-
1 Linn. Trans, v. p. 228, tab. 9.
* Ibid. xi. p. 19, tab. 5.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
219
Dor ran- either as a means of defence, for the purposes of locomo-
■ c . tion>i or for collecting the materials of their dwelling.
^ Numerous tentacula surround the mouth, and at the com¬
mencement of the back, on either side, there are comb¬
shaped branchiae.
The gills or branchial appendages of this genus are at¬
tached to the anterior part only of the body; and this is the
case in fact with all the tribes that inhabit tubes, because
gills attached to the other parts of the body, which are
covered, would be useless for the purposes of respiration.1 2
Certain species construct very light and delicate tubes,
in the form of a lengthened cone, which they carry along
in the course of their travels. Their golden bristles form
two combs, the teeth of which are directed downwards.
Their intestine is very ample, folded several times, and is
usually filled with sand. A well-known European species
is the Amph. auricoma Belgica of Gmelin, of which we have
given two representations. (See Plate CCLXXV. figs. 6
and 7.) Its tube measures about two inches in length,
and is formed of little rounded grains of various colours.
Other species attach their tubes to different substances,
and their golden setae form upon the head several con¬
centric crowns, from which an operculum is produced,
which closes the tube when the animal is in a state of
contraction. Each foot is furnished with a cirrhus, and the
body, terminating posteriorly in a tube curved towards the
head, is provided with a kind of muscular gizzard.3 To
these belong Amph. alveolata, Ellis, Cbra//. 37, of which the
tubes, combined in a compact mass, present regularly dis¬
posed orifices, resembling the cells of a piece of honey¬
comb. Another species, Amph. ostrearia of Cuvier, forms
its tubes on the shells of oysters, and is said to be ex¬
tremely injurious to the increase of that valuable mollusc.
Cuvier has placed in this order of Annelides the singu¬
lar genus Syphostoma, first made known by Dr Otto, in
a dissertation published at Breslau in 1820. (See Plate
CCLXXV. figs. 12 and 18.) It appears to have two an¬
terior openings or mouths.4 Here also, but with a more
doubtful claim, the genus Dentalium is allowed to stand.
Its covering is a solid calcareous shell, in the form of an
arched elongated cone, open at both ends, and compared
by some to a small tusk of an elephant. (See Plate
CCLXXV. fig. 9.) The animal itself does not appear to
be in any way articulated, nor to possess lateral setae. Its
body is of a conical form like that of the shell, and is very
smooth and compact.5
Okder II.—DORSIBRANCHIA.
The genera of this order bear their branchiae through¬
out the length of their body, or are at least along its middle
portion, and in the various forms of branches, tufts, plates,
or tubercles, in which the sanguineous vessels ramify.
The majority of the species live in the mud, or swim
freely in the sea. A few dwell in tubes.
Those in which the branchiae are most highly developed
are placed at the head of the order.
Genus Arenicola, Lam. Branchiae numerous, com¬
plicated, bush-shaped, and disposed over the intermediate
segments of the body. Mouth terminal, in the form of a
dilatable fleshy trunk, without either teeth or tentacula. Lorsibran-
No apparent eyes. The posterior extremity wants both the
branchiae and the bundles of setae with which the other
segments are furnished. There are no cirrhi to any part
of the body.
This genus was established by Lamarck, at the ex¬
pense of the old genus Lumbricus of Linnaeus. The best-
known species, A.piscatorum (Lum. marinus, Linn.), Plate
CCLXXV. fig. 10, measures about a foot in length, and bears
thirteen pair of branchiae. It is of a reddish colour, and
when handled it stains the fingers of a fine yellow. It in¬
habits moist sand by the sea-shore, and is much used as a
bait by fishermen.
Genus Amphinome, Brug. A pair of branchiae on each
segment of the body, and two bundles of setae, and a pair
of cirrhi to each foot. The sucker is destitute of maxillae.
This genus was formed by_Bruguieres from Aphrodita of
Pallas and Terebella of Gmelin. Savigny divides it into
three, viz.
Isif, Gen. Chlceia, containing such as have five tenta¬
cula to the head, and branchiae in the form of tri-pinnate
leaves. We have figured as an example (Plate CCLXXV.
fig. 13) a large and beautiful species, C. capillata, remark¬
able for its long and thick-set bundles of setae of a brilliant
yellow, and its purple branchiae. It inhabits the Indian
Seas. 2d, Gen. Pleione, containing those species which,
with the same number of tentacula, have tufted branchiae.
2d, Gen. Euphrosine, containing species characterized by
bushy branchiae, of a complicated structure, and strongly
developed (Plate CCLXXV. fig. 11). The head is furnish¬
ed with only a single tentaculum. The known species in¬
habit the Red Sea.
Genus Eunice, Cuv. Leodice, Sav. Branchiae in the
form of plumes, but the mouth or trunk is armed with
three pair of corneous maxillae of different forms. Each
foot has two cirrhi and a tuft of setae. The head bears five
tentacula placed above the mouth, and two on the nape of
the neck. (Plate CCLXXV. fig. 16.) Some of the species
are furnished with a pair of eyes.
This genus contains a monstrous worm, Eun. gigantea,
Cuv. the largest of all known Annelides. It measures from
four to six feet in length, and its body consists of 448 seg¬
ments. Its colour is ashy grey, with an opalescent reflec¬
tion. It inhabits the Indian seas. Montagu (in Linn.
Trans, vol. xi. pi. 3) has figured and described a species,
under the title of Nereis sanguinea, but which, from the
author’s description of the jaws, is no doubt referrible to the
present genus, or rather to that subdivision of it called
Marphysa by Savigny, and distinguished by the absence
of nuchal tentacula. The body is long, slightly depressed
beneath, and its segments exceed 270, about forty of which,
at the posterior extremity, were of a much paler colour than
the others, and appeared to Montagu as if they had been late¬
ly reproduced. The rest of the body was of a fine bronze
colour, resplendent with changeable prismatic tints. It is
a large species, measuring fourteen or fifteen inches in
length. Eun. tubicola inhabits the North Sea, and is re¬
markable for dwelling constantly in a solid corneous trans¬
parent tube. See Plate CCLXXV. figs. 14 and 17.
After the preceding genera of the dorsibranchial order,
of which the branchiae are complicated, Cuvier places those
1 Montagu observed Terebella venustula fixing its tentacula, and then, by contracting them, draw its body forward.
> rSidSform of Lamarck, and Hcrmelia of Savigny. No department of natural history ia more dark-
Med byaconfused cloud svnonyms than that which treats of the Annelides. “ Ces perpdtuels otanpmejtades noms say Cu¬
vier, .. finiront par rendre fe’tude de la nomenclature beaucoup plus difficile que celle des fails. («=»'" '• >"• P- u-‘->
; 'j16 article Spin*, in the Did. lhic d„ Genre Zlclafc, in Mlm. * la See. d’llut. Nat. if Pa...
t. ii. p. 321. We may here note, that the genus Dentalium seems to have been equally abundant m ancient as m modern tim^
ciiiuy of the calcareous tubes being found in a fossil state.
220 HELMINTHOLOGY.
Dombran-of which the respiratory organs are reduced to simple la- resembling those of the preceding genus, but the feet orDorsib
m^n8e’ or even t0 slight tubercles. In some species indeed organs of movement present, in addition to the tubercles cilia
the branchiae are represented by cirrhi alone. which bear the setae and foliaceous cirrhi (branchbe), two
Some exhibit an alliance to the genus Eunice, in the branchial tubercles, which occupy the upper and under
strength of their jaws, and the unequal number of their an- margins.
tennae. Such are the genera Lysidice and Aglaura of Genus Spio, Fab. Body slender, with two very long
Savigny. tentacula resembling antennae ; head furnished with eyes;
Genus Nereis, Cuv. Lycoris, Sav. .Tentacula of even branchiae on each segment of the body, in the form of a
numbers, attached to the sides of the base of the head, and simple filament.
a little further onwards two others biarticulate, with a pair The species of this genus occur chiefly in the North
of simple tentacula between them. A single pair of max- Sea. They are of small size, and dwell in membranous
illae in the proboscis. Branchiae composed of small plates, in tubes. They continually agitate their long tentacula. We
which a net-work of sanguineous vessels is disposed. Each have figured as an example the S. crenaticornis of Mon¬
foot is moreover provided with two tubercles, two bundles tagu,3 the characters of which will be better understood
of setae, and an upper and under cirrhus. by an inspection of Plate CCLXXVI. figs. 1 and la, than by
“ The Nereides,” it is observed in Mr Griffith’s Supple- the most laboured description. The tube of this species is
ment, “ most usually live in the excavations of littoral rocks, extremely tender, being composed of minute adventitious
in the hollows of sponges, in certain alcyones, in univalve matter slightly agglutinated. It is usually attached to
or bivalve shells, in Madrepores, in the interstices of the Sertularice. In general the feelers or tentacula are alone
radicles of Thalassiophytes, under stones, and in general in displayed ; these are kept in constant motion, and are turn-
all bodies which present fissures more or less profound, ed about in all directions, although they are at the same
There are some which bury themselves in mud or sand, time capable of instantaneous contraction,
where they excavate a lodge proportional to the dimen- Genus Syllis, Sav. Tentacula of uneven number, and
sions of their body, and sometimes they line this dwelling moniliform, in common with the superior cirrhi of the feet,
with a mucous matter issuing from their body, in sufficient The latter very simple, with a single tuft of setae,
abundance to construct a tube or sheath. From this they Some diversity seems to exist in this genus in regard to
put forth a greater or less portion of their body, but rarely the presence or absence of jaws, a character, however, of
the posterior extremity, so that they may be able to re- too great importance, it may be supposed, to admit of such
enter on the slightest indication of danger. They all ap- extreme variation in a natural group. The segments of
pear to feed upon animal substances, whether in the living the body are very numerous.
state, or in a state of putrefaction more or less advanced. S. monilaris, Sav. (Plate CCLXXVI. fig. 2), inhabits
M. Bose, who has observed the manners of some species the Red Sea. Its body is long (consisting of 341 segments),
on the coasts of the United States, tells us positively that slightly depressed, insensibly narrowed towards the tail,
these animals feed upon polypi and small worms, on which which terminates in two slender moniliform threads,
they throw themselves, by darting the anterior part of their Genus Glycera, Sav. Recognizable by the form of
body, which they have first contracted. Otho Fabricius the head, which bears the shape of a fleshy conical point,
tells us of some species of Spio, or Nereides with tubes, that resembling a little horn, and of which the summit is divid-
they seize the planariae on which they feed, by means of ed into four scarcely perceptible tentacula. The maxillae
their long tentacula.” are alleged to vary as in the preceding genus.
The species of this genus have a linear shaped body, Few of the species have been observed in a recent state,
more or less convex above, and composed of numerous G. unicornis is supposed by some to be identical with the
segments. The term Sea scolopendrce, sometimes applied Nereis alba of Muller and Gmelin. Its native country is
to them, expresses not inaptly their usual form. (See Plate unknown. G. Meckelii of Audouin and Edwards occurs
CCLXXV. fig. 15.) N. margaritacea of Leach is distin- on the shores of France.4
guished by its pearly body, terminated by two long setae. Genus Nephthys, Cuv. The species of this genus are
Its head is tri-lobate, with eight tentacula. This species distinguished by a trunk resembling that of Phyllodoce,
is common near the Bell Rock, and is subject to great va- but they want the tentacula, and have on each foot two
nation of colour. bundles of setae, widely separated, with an intermediate
Near the preceding Nereids may be classed several ge- cirrhus.
nera of the same slender form, and with branchiae reduced The only species admitted by Savigny is N. Hombergii,
to simple plates, or even to threads or tubercles. In some discovered by the gentleman whose name it bears, near
the maxillae and tentacula are absent. Havre de Grace.
Genus Phyllodoce, Sav. Tentacula on the side of Genus Lombrinera, Blainv. Tentacula wanting. The
the head, in equal numbers, with four or five smaller ones body, which is extremely elongated, bears on each segment
in advance. Eyes apparent. Flunk large, and provided merely a little forked tubercle, from which issues a small
with a circle of very short fleshy tubercles. No apparent bundle of setae.
jaws. Branchiae broad, and in the form of leaves, thin, Fo this genus are referrible, among other species, the
flat, and veined. Body linear, with many segments. Nereis ebranchiata of Pallas,5 and the Lumbricus fragilis
Ph. laminosa, Sav., is almost cylindrical, and consists of of Muller.6 The latter forms the doubtful genus Scoletoma
from 325 to 338 segments. It is of a brown colour, with of Blainville.
reflections of purple and violet. Though nearly a foot long, Genus Aricia, Sav. Teeth and tentacula wanting,
it measures only a hne and a half in breadth. It inhabits Body elongated, with two rows of lamellar cirrhi on the
the shores of Nice. The Nereis lamelligera Atlantica of back. Anterior feet furnished with dentated crests, which
Pallas is probably a Phyllodoce. are absent from the other organs of movement.
Genus Alciopa, Aud. and Edw. Mouth and tentacula Genus Hesione, Sav. Body short, thickish, composed
tcriof to lLbpuXfaStf S^iyfwoT0 Mn,ed (ln ^ dec- I’rima> P1'1 %• ^ a P»>-
1 Nov. Act. Petrop. t. ii. p. 233, tab. 5.
Linn. Trans, xi. tab. 14, fig. G (not 3, as in the author’s references to his own figures).
Litton, de la France, Annelides, pi. vi. fig. 1. 5 Nov. Act Petrop. t. li. pi. vi. fig. 2.
Zool. Dan. pi. xxii.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
221
jl •, n. of few segments, and these not very distinguishable. A
iSKj very long cirrhus, probably performing the functions of
v '' branchiae, occupies the upper part of each foot, which has
also another beneath, and a tuft of setae. The sucker is
large, but unprovided with either teeth or tentacula.
the species, though few in number, seem pretty widely
distributed. H. splendida, Sav.1 (Plate CCLXXVI. fig.
3), occurs on the coasts of the Red Sea, and was found by
Mathieu at the Isle of France. H. festiva greatly resem¬
bles the preceding, though of smaller size. It was disco¬
vered in the neighbourhood of Nice, by M. Risso.2
Genus Ophelia, Sav. Body thick and short, with the
segments not very apparent, and the setae scarcely visible.
For two thirds of its extent long cirrhi serve as branchiae.
The palate contains a toothed crest, and the lips are sur¬
rounded by tentacula, of which the two upper are larger
than the others.
0. bicornis, Sav. discovered by Orbigny, seems the only
species yet distinctly known.
Genus Cirrhatulus, Lam. A very long branchial fila¬
ment, and two small tufts of setae on each segment of the
body. These segments are very numerous and closely set,
and there is an additional range of filaments on the poste¬
rior part of what may be called the neck. The head, but
slightly apparent, has neither jaws nor tentacula.
To this genus Lamarck (under the name of C. borealis)
refers the Lumbricus cirratus of Otho Fabricius.3 Cuvier
considers the Terebella tentaculata of Montagu4 as like¬
wise being a species of Cirrhatulus. See Plate CCLXXVI.
fig. 4.
The body of this marine Vermis is long and slender,
and composed of more than 200 annulations, each of
which is furnished with two fasciculi of very minute bristles.
There are no eyes, and the branchiae are obscure. From
the sides of the segments issue very long, red, capillary
appendages, most numerous near the anterior end, the ex¬
treme point of which, however, is destitute of them, and
becomes acuminated. The mouth is placed on the infe¬
rior face. The posterior end is likewise obtusely pointed.
The length of this animal is eight or nine inches. The
colour of the upper portion is olive green, of the under
dull orange. While in a state of nature, the filiform ap¬
pendages of the sides are in continual motion, appearing
like slender red worms, twisting themselves around the
body in all directions. This curious species was taken from
a piece of timber that had been perforated by Pholades,
and was destitute of any natural covering.5 Although Mon¬
tagu placed it in the genus Terebella, he expressed his
doubts as to the genus to which it really belonged.
Genus Palmyra, Sav. Setae of the upper tufts large,
flattened, fan-shaped, and shining with the brilliancy of
polished gold; under tufts small. Cirrhi and branchiae
not much developed. Body elongated, with two rather
long and three very short tentacula.
The only known species is P. aurifera, a native of the
Isle of France, from whence it was sent to Paris by M.
Mathieu.
Genus Aphrodita, Linn. Distinguished by its two
longitudinal ranges of broad membranous scales, which
cover the back, and beneath which the branchiae, in the
form of little fleshy crests, are concealed.6
The form of these Annelides is usually flattish, and is
shorter and broader than in most of the genera. The in- Abranchia.
terior contains a very thick and muscular oesophagus, sus- '
ceptible of being in part protruded outwards, like a trunk
or sucker ; there is likewise an unequal intestine, furnished
on each side with a great number of branched caeca, of
which the extremities are attached between the bases of
the tufts of setae, which serve as locomotive organs. It is
alleged that the sexes are separate in the Aphroditae, and
that the females are oviparous. At certain periods the
female is certainly found filled with egg-like substances,
which swim in a circumambient liquid, and the male is said
to abound with milt.
Savigny has raised this genus to the rank of a family, con¬
taining three genera, viz. Palmyra, already noticed, Hali-
thea, and Polynoe.
To the genus Halithea belongs a well-known British
species, Aph. aculeata, Linn. It is of an oval form, six or
seven inches in length, and nearly two inches broad. The
scales of the back are covered, and in part concealed, by a
substance resembling tow, which takes its growth from the
sides. From these sides also spring groups of strong spines,
which partially pierce through the tow-like substance, and
bundles of softer and more flexuous bristles, which shine
with the brilliancy of gold, or exhibit the various tints of
the rainbowy scarcely yielding in beauty, as Cuvier has ob¬
served, either to the lustrous plumage of the humming-bird,
or the sparkling of precious gems. Lower down is a tu¬
bercle, from which spines issue in three groups, and of
three different sizes, and lastly, a fleshy cone. There are
forty of these tubercles on each side ; and between the first
two there are a pair of small fleshy tentacula. There are
fifteen pair of broad scales, sometimes pursed, upon the
back, and fifteen small branchial crests on each side. This
curious creature is known along our native shores by the
name of sea-mouse. Two other species, Aph. sericea and
hystrix, are referrible to the same genus.
Another subdivision of the Linneean Aphrodita: has
none of the flax-like substance on the back—the tentacula
are five in number—and the trunk encloses strong corneous
mandibles. (Plate CCLXXVI. fig. 5.) It is named Polynoe
by Savigny, and contains most of the old species described
by Linnaeus, Pallas, Muller, and Otho Fabricius. The
Aph. clava of Montagu7 is a Polynoe. Several other ge¬
neric groups have been recently formed by Audouin, Milne
Edwards, and others, from the genus Aphrodita.8
Genus Chjetopterus, Cuv. Mouth with neither trunk
nor sucker, provided above with a lip, to w hich are attach¬
ed two or three small tentacula. Then follows a disk, fur¬
nished with nine pair of fe’et, followed by a couple of long-
silky bundles like wings. The lamelliform branchiae are
attached rather to the under than the upper portion, and
prevail along the middle of the body.
There is only one species of this singular genus, Ch. per-
gamentaceus, Cuv. which measures from eight to ten inches
in length, and inhabits a tube formed of a substance re¬
sembling parchment. It occurs in the West Indian seas.J
Order III.—ABRANCHIA.
In this the third principal division of the Annelides there
is no apparent external organ of respiration. Certain spe-
4 Linn. Trans, ix. pi. vi. fig. 2.
5 Ibid. p. 110.
1 Ouvrage d'Egypte, pi. iii. fig. 3.
2 Etir. Merid. t. iv. p. 418.
* Fauna Groenlandica, p. 281, fig. 5. . , j
6 In the opinion of some observers, the Aphrodite* offer an exception to the characters of their class in not being possessed oi icd
blood; but Cuvier has stated his belief (Regne Animal, t. iii. p. 180, note) that that feature is distinguisia e in pi. squama a.
7 Linn. Trans ix pi vii. fig 3 8 See Re^ne Ammal‘> U m- P‘ 20?-
3 For descriptive notices (with figures) of several rare and otherwise interesting British Annelides, consult a series of papers pub¬
lished in the Magazine of Natural History (chiefly volumes Gth and 7th), by an ingenious observer, Dr Johnston of Berwick.
222 . HELMINTHOLOGY.
Abranchia. cies, like the earth-worm, seem to respire over the entire
surface ; others, like the leech, by interior cavities. We
perceive a circulating system of closed vessels, generally
filled with red blood, and a nervous knotted cord, as
among the preceding groups.1 Some are furnished with
setae, which aid the locomotion, while others are destitute
of these parts; from whence arises a subdivision into two
principal families.
FAMILY I ABRANCHIA SETIGERA.
These are furnished with setae, and correspond to the
two genera Lumbricus and Nais of Linn.
Genus Lumbricus, Cuv. Body long, contractile, cylin¬
drical, divided by wrinkles into a great number of appa¬
rent rings. Mouth without teeth, subterminal, bilabiate,
the upper lip larger than the other, advanced. No eyes.
This genus corresponds to Enterion of Savigny, and
contains the earth-worm and other species. The setae are
rough and short, as if unguiculated. Each segment is
provided with eight of these setae, that is, four on each
side, united in pairs, and forming, by their distribution on
the body, eight longitudinal rows, of which four are lateral
and four inferior. From six to nine of the segments, com¬
prised between the 26th and the 37th, are swollen, and
form towards the anterior and superior portion of the body
a kind of cincture, especially perceptible during the breed¬
ing season. In the interior of these creatures wre perceive
a straight wrinkled intestine, unprovided with a caecum,
but receiving in its course several muscular fibres (proper
to the rings of the body), which form an equal amount of
small diaphragms. Some internal whitish glands towards
the anterior of the body are regarded as connected with
the generative system. The nervous cord consists of a
series or infinity of very small ganglia, closely set together.
The circulation of the blood among the Lumbrici is by no
means difficult to detect. We may perceive arising from
the intestinal canal, and from the inner surface of the out¬
er envelope, an infinite number of small veinous vessels,
which interlace with a great assemblage of arterial ones.
These veins unite in one common trunk, placed longitudi¬
nally beneath the belly, and from that trunk proceed five
small canals, which finite in a single dorsal vessel, which
may be regarded as the heart. From the last-mentioned
organ small arteries take their origin, and proceed to form
a net-work with the veins of the superficies of the body,—
thus completing the circulation. Respiration appears to
be carried on at the surface of the skin, most likely by
means of extremely small internal branchiae.
The appearance of the common earth-worm {Lumbricus
terrestris) is too familiar to need description in this place.
We shall merely mention, that beneath the sixteenth seg¬
ment there are two pores, the uses of which are still un¬
known. The mode of production is likewise still disputed.
M. Montegre2 maintains that the eggs descend between
the intestine and the outer envelope, around the rectum,
where they hatch, and are speedily protruded in the living
state. M. Dufour, on the contrary,3 asserts that they lay
eggs resembling those of leeches.4 See Plate CCLXXVI.
figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. The ordinary habits of the earth-worm
are well known. They inhabit moist earth, which they
pierce in all directions, and a quantity of which they swallow.
They also, however, feed on animal and vegetable remains,
and always prefer soil imbued with those substances. TheyAbrand
seek each other’s society chiefly during the night, and in ^
the month of June. Under the specific name of terrestris, /
naturalists have no doubt confounded many different kinds.
Savigny, to whom we owe so much in relation to the An-
nelides in general, has, since the publication of his great
work on that class, devoted his attention more particularly
to the genus Lumbricus, and has ascertained the existence
of about twenty-two species in the environs of Paris
alone.5
In the genus Hypogceon of Savigny, each segment is
furnished with an additional seta on its dorsal surface, and
the setae are long, spiny, and sharp-pointed. The body in
form and colour greatly resembles that of the common earth¬
worm, but the segments are less numerous, not exceed¬
ing 106, whereas those of the latter amount to 120 and
upwards. The only species with which we are acquainted
is Hyp. hirturn, first observed in the neighbourhood of Phi-
ladelphia.
Genus Nais, Linn. Body elongated, linear, flattened,
transparent or semi-transparent, and in general provided
with lateral ciliae, simple or in tufts. Segments less dis¬
tinctly marked than in the earth-worm.
The synonymy of this genus is very confused, its nature
and attributes obscure, and its position in the system con¬
sequently various, according to the views of different ob¬
servers. The name, borrowed from the heathen mytho¬
logy, was first applied by Muller, and was generally adopt¬
ed by contemporaneous, as it has been by succeeding, na¬
turalists. It was written Naias by Bruguieres (in Encyc.
Method.), an erroneous alteration, in so far as the latter
term had been previously consecrated by Linnaeus to a ge¬
nus in botany. Lamouroux increased the confusion by
bestowing the name of Navsa on a polypus genus of the
family of Tubularia, already known by the title of Plumas-
tella ; and the resemblance of the two names has induced
some compilers to refer to them as synonymous, although
they in fact signify objects belonging to separate classes of
the animal kingdom.
Lamarck and Cuvier, in preserving the name of Nais to
the subjects of our present notice, do not agree regarding
their relations to other groups. The former author places
them in the third or concluding order of his class Yermes
( Vers hispides), thus disposing them between the genus
Gordius and the Epizoarice. His reason for so doing is,
that the structure of the Naides is by no means sufficient¬
ly composite to entitle them to a place among the true An-
nelides; and the fact of their being capable of multipli¬
cation by incision, shows that their nature is somewhat
anomalous in relation to the last-named class. We may
bear in mind, howrever, that notwithstanding the observa¬
tions of Trembley and Roesel, their tomiparous generation
is doubted by Bose; and, all things considered, we regard
them as more nearly related to the genera Nereis and
Lumbricus than to any other. We therefore follow Cuvier
in placing them among the Annelides.
The Naides in general are small vermiform creatures, ot
a few lines in length, of a reddish colour, though diapha¬
nous, extremely active in their movements, and of a vora¬
cious disposition. They abound in fresh waters, where
some dwell upon aquatic plants,—others beneath stones,
or in ’perforations in mud. They prey on minute
Crustacea, such as the genus Daphnia, and on the still mi¬
nuter animalcular tribes, and are themselves greedily de-
1 See M. Ant. Duges Sur VAnat. et Phys. des Annel. Abranch. in Ann. des Sciences Nat. for Sept. 1828.
55 Mem. du Mus. t. i. p. 242. * A.nn. des Sciences Nat. t. v. p. 17, and xiv. p. 216.
4 This seeming contrariety is easily reconciled by bearing in mind that these creatures are in fact ovo-viviparous, and are sometime*
born in the completed state, sometimes still surrounded by an envelope or egg-like covering.
6 See also M. Morren’s Treatise De Lumbrici terrestris Ilistoria Naturali nec non anatomica. Unix. 1823.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
223
a. voured by the fresh-water polypi, which swallow them up, tices of their history and habits, although it was so late as Abranchia.
j notwithstanding the pointed ciliae with which their sides the time of Linnaeus before we attained to any knowledge
are armed. These ciliae, however, and other apparently of their specific distinctions. The Swedish naturalist (in
indigestible portions, are afterwards disgorged by the po- his Fauna Suecica) described eight species, and nume-
lypi,bin the same manner as owls and other birds of prey rous additions have been made in more recent times. For
reject from their stomachs little rounded pellets of hair a long period the genus Hirudo, as founded by Ray and
and feathers. adopted by Linnaeus, experienced no subdivision ; but the
The productive powers of the Naides, by whatever pro- labours of Leach, Oken, Savigny, Lamarck, and others,
cess accomplished, are truly astonishing. They appear in have shown the propriety of re-arranging a group, consist¬
ing no doubt of natural constituent parts, but composed
of beings exhibiting a varied range of structure, and too
much extended for the formation of a genus, properly so
called.
The structure of these creatures is soft and contractile,
composed of a great number of articulations, and generally
invested by an abundant supply of mucous moisture. The
countless thousands in the waters of marshes after the lapse
of a few hours, prior to which only some solitary individu¬
als were perceptible. The mouth in these animals is some¬
times a simple cleft, sometimes an opening, accompanied
by two lips. The N. proboscidia of Gmelin, being provid¬
ed with a trunk, forms the genus Stylaria of Lamarck;
while certain anomalous species; such as Lumbricus tubi
fex and marinas of Muller, constitute the conterminous anterior cavity, which contains the- mouth, is named capu-
"genus Tubifex of the former author. They dwell in per
forations in the mud of streams and marshes, and in the
sand of the sea-shore. We may conclude by observing,
that the nervous system of the Naides is unknown, and that
the ocular points on the heads of certain species, though
vaguely named eyes, cannot with any certainty be regard¬
ed as organs of vision.
Genus Climena, Lam. Head without tentacula or
other appendages. Body cylindrical, composed of few seg¬
ments, somewhat swollen about the middle, and attenuat¬
ed at either end. The posterior extremity is truncated
and radiated.
These creatures inhabit fixed tubes of a cylindrical
form and membranous texture, open at both ends. Our
illustration, Plate CCLXXVI. fig. 6, represents Cl. am-
phistoma, a species taken in the Gulf of Suez, and indi¬
genous to the shores of the Red Sea. Its tube is composed
exteriorly of grains of sand and fragments of shells, and is
usually attached to the interstices of rocks, or to Madre¬
pores and other productions of the sea.
FAMILY II.—ABRANCHIA ASETIGERA.
This family comprehends such of the abranchial order as
are unprovided with setae, and is constituted by the old ge¬
nera Gordius and Hirudo of Linn., of which all the dis¬
tinctly-known species are aquatic.1
The leeches in general (Hirudines) are characterized
by an oblong body, sometimes depressed, transversely
wrinkled, and furnished with a dilatable cavity at either
extremity—that is, the mouth is surrounded by a lip, and
the posterior end is provided with a flattened disk. These
latter parts are useful as organs of prehension and locomo¬
tion, and also act as suckers. The mouth, placed in the
anterior cavity, is furnished with three jaws.
These useful vermes were probably known in very an- x .
cient times. The Halucah or Gnaluka of the Hebrews it is perfectly transparent at the points which adhered to
appears to have been one of this tribe, at least the term the coloured layer, and slightly opake, or even ot a whitish
has been so translated in our versions of the Proverbs, ch. colour, where it became unattached in passing from one
xxx. v. 15. “ The horse-leech hath two daughters, cry- segment to another. Under the microscope it is seen to
ing, Give, give.” The Greek writers make mention of be pierced by an infinity of small holes, through which a
them under the name of Bdella, and the Latin authors un- mucous liquid flows, which lubricates the surface. The
der those of Hirudo and Sanguisuga ; but the ascertain- coloured layer, or pigmentum, adheres strongly to the der-
ment of the precise species indicated is by no means easy, mis on which it lies. I he hues which it exhibits are very
After the revival of learning we have various general no- different according to the species,—sometimes they are
la by Savigny, while the posterior disk bears the name of
cotyla in the nomenclature of that author. On the ante¬
rior segments certain small black points are observable,
which some designate as eyes, but which have scarcely
been proved to fulfil the functions of those organs. They
vary in number in the different genera, from two to ten.
Various experiments have been made with a view to the
ascertainment of this sense. If we place leeches in a ves¬
sel surrounded by black paper, and permit the light to
enter only by means of a single small orifice, they are by
no means slow in directing themselves to that point;—but
this observation we deem to be in no way conclusive, in as
far as light produces an efficient action and a directing in¬
fluence, not only upon many of the lowest tribes, which
we know to be destitute of eyes, but even upon the sub¬
jects of the vegetable kingdom. M. Moquin-Tandon how¬
ever asserts, that having placed a small piece of red-colour¬
ed wood in front of Nephelis vulgaris, it evidently turned
round on purpose to avoid it.2 Their perception of the
sense of touch is delicate, although they possess no spe¬
cial or circumscribed organs for its reception. The sense
of taste is obvious,—that of hearing and of smell imper¬
ceptible. No odour affects them,—no sound seems to pro¬
duce any influence; nor can we detect any organs which
may reasonably be deemed the seat of these last-named
functions.
The tegumentary system of leeches has been examined
in detail in very few species. In the medicinal leech
three parts are, however, distinguishable—the epidermis,
an intermediate layer which is the seat of colour,—and
the dermis. The epidermis is extremely fine and delicate,
perfectly colourless, and remarkably deciduous, that is to
say, it is frequently renewed, even as often as once in every
four or five days in warm weather. It adheres intimately
to the lower layer, but not by its entire extent—being fre¬
quently free between the rings of which the body of the
creature is composed. When detached we perceive that
1 We do not exactly know what species of the lower tribes is alluded to by Sir T. S. Raffles in one of his letters descriptive of an
excursion from Bencoolen. “ I must not omit to tell you, that in passing through the forest, we were, much to our inconvenience,
greatly annoyed bv leeches; they got into our boots and shoes, which became filled with blood. At night, too, they fell off the leaves
that sheltered us from the weather, and on awaking in the morning we found ourselves bleeding profusely. These were a species of
intruders we were not prepared for.” Another species of land leech is said to inhabit Madagascar, where it occurs on plants. ■ It
seizes greedily on the legs of the passers by, and sucks their blood.
8 Monographic de lafamille des Hirudinees. Montpellier, 11526, in 4to.
224
HELMINTHOLOGY.
Abranchia. dark and uniform, but usually lighter on the under than ed in some detail by several authors, especially that of (Saw-Mv
the upper surface; sometimes the ground colour is varied guisuga officinalis, Hcemopis vorax, Nephelis gigas, and
by spots or streaks of different intensities, while the pig- Albione muricata. It is composed of a series of ganglions
ment, if we may so express it, is occasionally almost colour- extending from the mouth to the extremity of the&bodv,
less, and we may then perceive distinctly through the skin and placed, as among the other articulated classes, beneath
all the interior organs of the body. The dermis, or deep- the alimentary canal. From each ganglion proceed ner-
est layer, exhibits a curious organisation ; it consists of a vous threads, which ramify ad infinitum to the other parts,
thickish tunic, presenting an appearance of distinct cir- The circulating system of leeches has been the subject
cular articulations, which produce the ringed or wrinkled of still more numerous researches. MM. Thomas,2 CU-
aspect of the external surface. The spaces which exist vier, Carena,3 Moquin-Tandon, Duges,4and Audouin,5 have
between these rings are covered by the epidermis, and greatly signalised themselves in that laborious field. All
seem intended to facilitate the varied movements of the the species hitherto examined have presented four longi-
animal. tudinal vascular trunks,—one dorsal, another ventral (these
Beneath the skin, of course, are placed the muscles. We two being separated by the alimentary canal), and two
find first a layer of transverse fibres, which adheres inti- lateral. These principal organs communicate with each
mately to the dermis. This layer covers other muscles, of other, not only by the capillary vessels which meet and
which the direction is longitudinal; and beneath these intermingle in the different parts to which they are distri-
we find some more, of which the direction is again trans- buted, but also by special branches of considerable diame-
versal« ter, which proceed directly from one vascular trunk to ano-
The capula or oral sucker is formed by two extensile ther. The ventral vessel furnishes large branches, which,
lips; the one superior, usually large, sometimes almost mounting vertically on either side, embrace the intestinal
lanceolate—the other inferior, and less advanced. Within canal, and open on the dorsal vessel. Duges names these
it are placed the jaws, rarely wanting, and usually three the abdomino-dorsal branches. The lateral branches com-
in number, disposed triangularly, and fixed upon a corre- municate with each other by means of transverse branch-
sponding number of little tubercles. Their consistence es, which pass beneath the medullary cord. These branch-
is slightly cartilaginous, their form almost lenticular, and es have been lately figured and described by Jean Muller
their margin, free and cutting, is sometimes smooth, some- (in Archiv. fur Anat. und Phys. Jan. Marz. 1828), and
times furnished with a double row of dentations, more or Duges names them latero-abdominal branches. Lastly,
less numerous according to the different kinds. A sort of these lateral trunks also send large branches to the dor-
cartilaginous ring, which frequently surrounds the base of sal vessel, which bear the designation of latero-dorsal
the tubercles, indicates the opening of the intestinal canal, branches. In addition to these canals, which thus esta-
which commences by a species of oesophagus more or less blish a direct connection between the principal trunks,
narrow, presenting occasionally some longitudinal folds, each of the latter gives rise to an infinite number of small
but never any lateral pouch-like swellings. The ensuing vessels, which carry the blood to the various parts, and es-
portion or stomach, on the contrary, usually exhibits pecially to the skin, which may be regarded as the princi-
throughout its entire extent expansions more or less per- pal, though not the sole, organ of respiration. That other
ceptible, according to the state of repletion. In certain organ, to which we now allude, consists of certain pouches,
species (such as Clepsina complanata) these lateral appen- amply provided with blood-vessels, which form a net-work
dages are never effaced, but constitute permanent caeca, on their coats, and proceed from the subdivision of a ves-
The rectum is generally separated from the stomach by a sel furnished by the latero-abdominal branches, as well
valvular contraction. The anal opening is on the back, as of a large vascular pouch or bag called pulmonary by
at the origin of the posterior sucker, called cotyla by Sa- Duges, and which is derived from the lateral trunk. In
vigny. The digestive canal is throughout composed of a species of Albione dissected by M. Audouin, the lateral
two pellucid tunics, and towards its extremity some mus- vessels were perceived to be in direct communication with
cular fibres are perceptible. Although the existence of a the respiratory pouches, by means of two branches, one of
liver in the leech tribe is not so ascertained as to be at all which is anterior, the other posterior. He also observed
generally admitted (indeed it is denied by some, and doubt- that numerous branches sprang from the anterior portion
ed by many), yet M. Blainville describes an apparatus for of the dorsal vessel, and proceeded partly to the pouches,
the secretion of bile, consisting of a cellulo-membranous and partly to the lateral trunks. Thus the pouches com-
tissue, surrounding a portion of the stomach and intestine.1 municate at the same time, both with the dorsal and lateral
All leeches are blood-thirsty and voracious, and support vessels. In accordance with these views, the process of
themselves by sucking the life-blood of other animals, circulation is supposed to be as follows. The lateral trunks
Their powers of digestion and assimilation are, however, are regarded as great veins, which receive the blood from
extremely slow. After the lapse of days, weeks, and even all parts of the body, and transmit it to the respiratory
months, portions of the liquid or solid matters which they pouches, in which it becomes re-oxygenated ; a small por-
may have swallowed are found to remain in the intestinal tion then flows back to the lateral vessels, while the great-
canal. The kinds used in medicine, moreover, offer this er portion enters the dorsal vessel, and then the ventral
peculiarity, that the blood which they have sucked does one, both of which assist in propelling it to all the other
not seem to experience any sensible alteration in their sto- parts of the body, from whence it returns to the lateral
mach, but maintains its natural colour and fluidity. If, branches, and thence flows to the respiratory pouches as
however, the leech dies, or the blood is exposed to the aforesaid. We must add, however, that M. de Blainville
air’^ sPeedily coagulates, and becomes of a blackish brown, and others deny that the pouches or vesicular sacks just
he neivous system of the leech tribe has been describ- mentioned are of a pulmonary nature.6 They regard them
Essai d une Monographic dc la famille dcs Hirudineei. Paris, 1827, in 8vo.
Mem. pour servir a VHistoire Nat. dcs Sangsucs. Paris, 1806.
Monographic du Genre Hirudo, in Mem. de I'Acad. de Turin, tom. xxv.
Recherches sur la Circulation, <^c. des Annelides Ahranches, 1828.
Articles Sangsuc and Sangsues, in the Dictionaire Classiquc d'Hist. Nat.
envn* a Vier ®e.em®. t0 express no very decided opinion on the subject above referred to. “ On voit dans plusieurs en dessous du
corps deux senes de pores, orifices d autant de petites poches interieures que quelques naturalistes regardent comme des organes du
plupart du temps remplis d’un fluide muqueux.” (Regne Animal, t. iii. p. 213.)
respiration bien qu’ils soient la
HELMINTHOLOGY.
225
a. rather as secreting glands, and it is certain that respiration
j is carried on in great part through the medium of the skin.
Various kinds of leeches may be often seen fixed by their
posterior sucker, and swinging themselves to and fro for
hours and even days together, their bodies being at that
time more than usually flattened, in order to render the
motion more effective. They are then respiring after the
manner of the Naids, by bringing their cutaneous system
into constant contact with a fresh supply of water. Dur¬
ing this singular process the pulmonary pouches are al¬
most quite inert, and their sanguineous vessels scarcely
perceptible, while the cutaneous net-work, on the contrary,
is in full and remarkable activity.
Leeches are hermaphrodites, like others of their class;
but sexual union of separate individuals is indispensable
to the process of fecundation. Although in many of their
more obvious characters they so nearly resemble the Plana-
ri£e,.they stand too high in the scale to be capable of repro¬
duction by excision, or the cutting of parts. A variety of
opinion exists among naturalists regarding the mode of pro¬
duction, whether by eggs or living young. It is probable
that such as do not appear to lay eggs are merely ovo-
viviparous, and bring forth their young alive, after they
have been hatched in the body of the parent. The ma¬
jority of species in truth lay oviferous capsules, each con¬
taining several germs. Certain kinds of Clepsina are
distinguished by this peculiarity; a small pouch exists
in the*3 * *abdomen, in which the young seek protection du¬
ring infancy. They attain to full size rather slowly, and
the&duration of life is considerable, though not distinctly
known. Medicinal leeches have been kept in life for a
period of eight years; and it has been inferred, that if,
with the disadvantages of confinement, and irregular sup¬
plies of food, they survive so long, their natural term of
life must be much greater. This, however, we regard as
an inconclusive, if not erroneous mode of reasoning; for
we know that among insects and other classes of the
more lowly organized departments of animal life, absti¬
nence, and the non-fulfilment of their natural instincts, are
uniformly found to prolong their period of existence.
The leech tribe in general is widely distributed over
the earth’s surface, although, as usual, each species has
its own range of localities.1 * Our medicinal kinds seem
proper to Europe, although they extend from Russia to
the southern point of Spain. All the species are ex¬
tremely sensible of atmospheric changes. They seem
agitated during high winds, and often bury themselves in
the mud during cloudy weather. Some fanciful observers
have even kept them in confinement, that they might
serve to indicate the weather; but we incline to think
that it is fully as useful, and not more troublesome, to
look out of a window than into a phial. On the approach
of cold weather they sink into the mud, and pass the
winter in a state of lethargy.
We shall now proceed to a brief consideration of the
principal genera into which the tribe has been partitioned
by modern naturalists.
Genus Sanguisuga, Sav. Oral sucker consisting of
several segments ; upper lip almost lanceolate ; aperture
transversal, jaws three in number, compressed, and each Abranchia.
armed on their cutting edges with two ranges of fine
teeth. Ten black points (which some regard as eyes)
disposed in a curved line ; the posterior four more isolate.
Anal sucker obliquely terminal.
This genus contains the leeches properly so called,
that is, the medicinal kinds ; and, according to Savigny,
consists of three species. Some recent additions, however,
have been made to these by MM. Moquin-Tandon and
Carena.
II. medicinalis of naturalists (Plate CCLXXVI.fig. 14) is
the most common kind, and that most frequently used for
blood-letting purposes. It occurs throughout the fresh¬
water marshes of Europe, and measures from four to five
inches in what may be called its medium state, although
capable of both contraction and extension within and be¬
yond those limits. Its body, including the anterior sucker,
is composed of ninety-eight rings, and is of a deep-green
colour on the back, witli six reddish bands, three on each
side. The two inner bands are almost spotless ; the two
central ones are marked by a chain of small spots and
points of velvet-black ; the exterior bands are marginal,
and each subdivided by a black fillet. The abdomen is
of an olive colour, broadly bordered and spotted with
black. Savigny distinguishes, under the name of S. offi¬
cinalis (it is the H. provincialis of Carena), another spe¬
cies, likewise used in medicine (see Plate CCLXXVI. figs.
11 and 12), and frequently confounded with the preceding.
It is vulgarly known as the green leech, and resembles the
common kind in size, and the number of its segments ; but
the colour of the back is not so sombre, and the abdomen
is of a more yellow green, and, though bordered with
black, is without spots. The six anterior eyes are very
projecting, and have more truly the appearance of organs of
vision. The third species mentioned by Savigny is the
S. granulosa. It was brought by M. Leschenhault from
Pondicherry, where it is used in blood-letting after the
manner of our European kinds. S. obscura and interrup-
ta are both described by M. Moquin-Tandon as indige¬
nous to the vicinity of Montpellier; and S. verbena of
Carena occurs in the Lago Maggiore.
With the exception of the last-named species, and that
from Pondicherry, M. Blainville refers all the others to
the H. medicinalis of Linn., of which, according to his
peculiar views, he establishes five varieties; the grey,
the green, the spotted, the black, and the flesh-coloured.
With that love of change for which too many modern na¬
turalists are remarkable, he names the genus Jatrobdella.
We have already mentioned that leeches are abundant
in all the countries of Europe. France furnishes an im¬
mense supply, and their collection in some of her pro¬
vinces affords the materials of an important branch of
commerce. Some curious details on the subject were
read several years ago to the agricultural society of the
department of Seine-et-Oise. Towards the month of April
or May, according to the nature of the season, the coun¬
try people collect the cocoons or capsules formerly men¬
tioned as containing the eggs. These they find in abun¬
dance in the mud of shallow marshes, and convey them
1 We observe it stated in several continental works of authority, that leeches are unknown in, or at least not indigenous to, the
western world. We were inclined a priori to doubt the accuracy of this statement, and lateiy
in which we were aided by an excellent physiological naturalist of this city, Lr Allen Thomson. /I f ,
the Unite7sTates!by Drs Wood and Bache (published at Philadelphia in 1833), there is a description of a true American medicinal
leech. ThesShors state; that at New York, Boston, and elsewhere, European leeches, that is the gray and green var^
Hirudo medicinalis of Linmeus, are chiefly employed, and are imported in great quantities; .but tha\in 1 n fvol
bourhood the indigenous Hirudo decora is used. It is this species which is described m MaJ01-
268). The back is of a deep pistachio-green colour, with three longitudina rows of square spots, twenty-two
on every fifth ring. The abdomen is spotted with black. This kind usually measures two or three inches in leil|tb’°™"a ^ ^
taining to the extent of four or five inches. It is carried to Philadelphia by the country people i Xn corre-
is said to draw less blood than the European leech, and does not cut so deeply. About three American do not more than corre
spond to a single European leech in their suctorial powers. 2 ^
VOL. XI.
226 HELMINTHOLOGY.
Abranchia. to various reservoirs in other quarters, so as to spread
<**-v**s and propagate the breed. They do not use them com¬
mercially till they are about eighteen months old. Leeches
are very numerous in the lakes and marshes in the neigh¬
bourhood of Nantes; and their collection is carried on
throughout the whole year, but chiefly during summer.
They are transported to Paris in linen bags, each contain¬
ing about 500, placed in panniers, and surrounded by wet
moss. During a favourable season the dealers of Nantes
will sometimes receive at the rate of fifty thousand every
day; and a Parisian druggist informed M. Audouin, that
in the summer of 1820 he received from Moulins 130,000
for his own share.1 Many leeches refuse to bite. This
generally arises either from their appetite for food having
been recently satisfied, or from their being about to
change their skins. It is believed, however, that capri¬
cious individuals sometimes occur, which will not suck at
all; and of this it is impossible to ascertain the cause.
Inflammation occasionally follows the infliction of the
bite, and in this case a vulgar prejudice exists that a horse¬
leech has been applied. This is in every way an error,
for the horse-leech refuses to fasten upon the human
body. The means used for the preservation of leeches in
confinement are various. The most common mode con¬
sists in placing them in a bottle of water frequently re¬
newed. Some apothecaries find advantage from placing
moss or aquatic plants at the bottom of the vessel, which
aid in freeing them from slime. The chief dispenser of
the marine hospital of Rochefort keeps his leeches simply
in moistened clay, in which the creatures form holes and
galleries, where they live happily for years.
Genus H^mopis, Sav. Differs from the preceding
chiefly in the jaws being not compressed, and furnished
with less numerous dentations. (Plate CCLXXVI. fig.
15.)
AT. sanguisorba, Sav. {Hirudo sanguisuga, Linn.), com¬
monly called the horse-leech, is a well-known species,
somewhat larger than the medicinal kinds, and of a uni¬
form greenish-black colour. A great diversity of opinion
seems to exist regarding the blood-drawing propensities
of this species. Many allege that it causes wounds ex¬
tremely dangerous both to man and beast. Linnaeus
asserts that nine will kill a horse. MM. Huzard and
Pelletier, on the other hand, maintain that the horse¬
leech, improperly so called, never attacks any vertebrated
animal whatever;2 while M. de Blainville again is of opi¬
nion that these writers have mistaken their subject of
observation, and have described the black leech (his
Pseudobdella nigra), which is truly characterized by the
jaws being nothing more than folds of toothless skin, and
may therefore be inferred to confine its attacks to the
lower orders of creation. We agree with Cuvier in think¬
ing that the subject deserves a fresh examination. In ad¬
dition to the common species, Savigny describes three
other kinds, H. nigra, luctuosa, and lacertina.
Genus Bdella,3 Sav. Dentations of the jaws entirely
wanting. (Plate CCLXXVI. fig. 17.) Eyes only eight
in number.
As far as we know, this genus consists of only a single
species, the Bd. Nilotica, found in Egypt, and familiar to
the Arabs under the name of Alah. It appears to have been
known to the ancients ; and Herodotus {Hist, lib. ii. cap.
68) describes it as a parasite of the crocodile. It is ofaAbui
chestnut-brown colour above, of a lively red below. (Plate ^
CCLXXVI. fig. 16.)
Genus Nephelis, Sav. In this genus the eyes are also
only eight in number, tbe four anterior being disposed in
a crescent form, the four posterior ranged on each side on
a transverse line. The jaws are reduced to three simple
folds.
Savigny describes three species, N. rutila, testacea, and
cinerea. The two former occur near Paris; the last
named is frequent in the marshes of the forest of Fon¬
tainebleau.
The genus Trochetia of Dutrochet4 5 does not seem to
differ from the preceding, except by an enlargement near
the position of the generative system. One species ( Gcob-
della trochetii of Blainville) comes on shore in pursuit of
earth-worms. Another minor genus has been establish¬
ed by M. Moquin-Tandon, under the name of Aulasto-
ma. The jaws are represented by numerous projecting
folds. The eyes are ten in number. We may here also
mention M. Odier’s genus Branchiobdella, of which the
jaws are two in number, and the eyes wanting.6 It inha¬
bits the gills of cray-fish.6
In all the preceding groups or genera of leeches, the
anterior sucker is but slightly distinguishable from the
adjoining portion of the body; but in the two following
genera it is rendered more perceptible by a restriction,
and is composed of only a single segment. In the genus
H-Emocharis of Savigny, the eyes are eight in number,
the body slender, and indistinctly ringed. The species
do not swim, but march after the manner of the surveyors
or geometric caterpillars. They attach themselves par¬
ticularly to fishes. The genus Albione of the same au¬
thor differs from the preceding in its body being beset
by tubercles, and in possessing only six eyes. The spe¬
cies inhabit the sea. We may mention as an example
the Hirudo muricata of Linn.
The genus Branchellion of Sav. is distinguished by
what some regard as projecting branchiae. The epidermis
is loose and ample, and seems to enclose the animal as in
a sack. The species are parasitical, and attach them¬
selves chiefly to fish of the torpedo kind. With the leech¬
es, Cuvier also places the genus Clepsina, Sav., which is
characterized by a broadened body, possessing only a pos¬
terior sucker. The anterior portion is a simple orifice,
without any appearance of the usual disk. (See Plate
CCLXXVI. figs. 13 and 13a.) The species make a near
approach to the Planarice, and the one represented by the
figure just referred, to was described and figured by Mr
Kirby, under the name of Hirudo crenataJ Other genera,
allied to the preceding in their enlarged form and absence
of the oral disk, have been established by Oken and Blain¬
ville. Of these, however, we cannot give account within
our prescribed limits, and we shall therefore conclude the
present treatise by a short notice of the more distantly
related.
Genus Gordius, Linn. Body filiform, smooth, or with
very slight transverse markings. Neither branchiae nor
tentacula of any kind.
A well-known species of this genus ( G. aquaticus, Linn.)
is distinguished in this country by the name of the hair-
eel. It occurs in springs and marshes, and among moist
3 ®?Ct' CySS'd Hlst‘ NaU t‘ xv' P* 108- 2 Journal de Pharmacie, Mars 1825.
1 hough we adopt the above name, we beg to protest against its propriety of application, in as far as it had been previously used
to designate a genus of the class Arachnides.
4 Ihe title ot this genus, it we mistake not, is liable to an objection similar to that stated in the preceding note, Decandolle hav¬
ing previously established Trochetia as a genus in Botany. (See Mtm. du Museum, t. x. p. 106.)
5 We have already explained under what reservation of doubtful function we use the word eyes, in reference to the tribe of
leeches.
« Mtm. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. t. i. pi. iv.
Linn, Trans, ii. tab. 29, p. 318.
H E L
(t,-. a sand. It also dwells in mud, which it perforates in all di¬
ll rections. The position of the genus is variously regard-
lelni ed by different naturalists, and the extreme tenuity of
1 form in these creatures has probably opposed obstacles in
the way of a precise knowledge of their structure. The
nervous system being composed of a ganglionic cord,
H E L 227
seems, however, a strong reason for placing them among Abranckia
the Annelides. We follow the Baron Cuvier in so doing, H
although we are aware that Rudolphi and Blainville com- Helmont*
bine them with the genus Filaria, which contains the
noted Guinea worm (F. Medinensis), and is usually regard¬
ed as belonging to the intestinal class.1 (x.)
Page.
ABRANCHIA 221
Abranchia Setigera 222
Abranchia Asetige-
  223
Aglaura 220
Albione 226
Alciopa 220
Amphinome 219
Amphitrite 218
ANNELIDES 216
Aphrodita 221
Arenicola 219
Aricia 220
Aulastoma 226
Bdella  226
Branchellion 226
Branchiobdella 226
Clepsina 226
INDEX.
Page.
Page.
Page.
Chloeia 2l9 Halithea 22l Ophelia 221
Cirrhatulus 221 Hesione 220
Chaetopterus 221 Hirudo 223 Palmyra 221
Climena 223 Horse-leech 226 Pleione 219
Hypogaeon 
Dentalium 219
222 Polynoe 221
Phyllodoce 220
DORSIBRANCHIA....219 Jatrobdella. 225 Pseudobdella.
.226
Earth-worm 222 Leeches 223-225
Enterion 222
Eunice 219
Euphrosine 219
Glycera 220
Gordius 226
Haemocharis 226
Haemopis 226
Hair-worm 226
Lombrinera 220
Lumbricus 222
Lysidice 220
Marphysa 219
Nais,
.222
Sabella 218
Sanguisuga 225
Serpula 218
Spirorbis ...218
Spio  .,..220
Syllis 220
Syphostoma 219
Nephelis 226 Terebella 218
Nephthys 220 Trochetia 226
Nereis 220 TUBICOLiE 218
HELMOND, a town of the Netherlands, in the province
of North Brabant, on the river Aa, which flows through it
in three branches. It is defended by a strong castle, and
contains 500 houses, with 2492 inhabitants, wrho carry on
considerable trade in linen yarn, linen cloth, and especially
damask table-cloths and napkins. Long. 5. 37.17. E. Lat.
51. 29. 4. N.
HELMONT, John Baptist Van, a famous Braban^on
physician, and leader of distinction in the chemical school
of medicine, was born at Brussels in the year 1577, and
descended of a noble family. At Louvain and other places
he studied medicine with so much avidity, that he had
perused Hippocrates, Galen, and the Greek and Arabian
physicians at a very early period of life. When not more
than seventeen years of age, he read public lectures at Lou¬
vain, and was created doctor of physic in the year 1599,
when only twenty-two. Having, in 1609, married a wife
who was both rich and noble, he retired with her to Vil-
forde, where he practised as a physician, without taking
any fees. He was accustomed to boast of the thousands
whom he cured every year; but his success in his own fa¬
mily was by no means great, for his eldest daughter died
of a leprosy, and he lost two sons by the plague. He pub¬
lished a variety of works, by which he acquired great re¬
putation. He was invited to the court of Vienna by the
Emperor Rodolph, but he declined accepting the invitation.
He died in the year 1644, in the sixty-eighth year of his
age. Van Helmont was a man of acute genius, clear-sight¬
ed in detecting the mistakes of others, and extremely fond
of forming hypotheses of his own, which were not always
supported by conclusive arguments. He affirmed with great
boldness, evinced extreme credulity, and showed excessive
fondness for narrations, however extravagant, which seem¬
ed to favour his own preconceived opinions. Perhaps his
greatest foible was the liberal manner in which he praised
himself, in reference to his own pretended nostrums and
specifics. His ideas were far from being perspicuous,
chiefly owing to his habit of employing terms and phrases
which he had not properly defined. He added much, how¬
ever, to the stock of chemical facts at that time known, and
paved the way to more interesting discoveries ; and he con¬
tributed more than any of his predecessors to subvert the
Galenical theory of humours and qualities, which he cer¬
tainly combated with many forcible arguments. His theory
of ferments was in a great measure espoused by Sylvius.
His son Francis Mercury published a collected edition of his
works, Amsterdam, 1648, in 4to, which has often been re¬
printed since, under the title of Opera Omnia, and has been
* A common belief prevails in this country among the young and ignorant, that Gordn or hair-eels derive their origin from hmse-
hairs, or at least, that if a hair plucked from the tail of a horse (or probably a mare) is placed in water, it will ere long assume the
form and fulfil the functions of a Gordius,-in other words, will become animated. We once heard this subject very gravely discussed
in a company of poets and philosophers. The writer of the preceding sketch maintained, perhaps more seriously than so absurd a
subject deserved, that such a transformation could not be. His arguments, which proceeded on certain general pnncip es no nec
to be here narrated, were met by an equally serious assertion on the Parl ^ W that
native of the vale of Ettrick, in the so ~ ' " ' ’ ’ ' "  *
having on one occasion, while engaged
some weeks after in the form of a congeries,
Blessed be the day I ’scaped the Stygian crew,
From Pyrrho’s maze, and Epicurus’ sty.
And held high converse with the godlike few,
Who to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye.
Teach virtue, beauty, love, and truth, and melody.
228
H E L
H E L
Helsing¬
fors.
Helmsley translated into Dutch, French, and English. Of all his
productions, the most curious are, 1. Febrium Doctrina in-
audita, Antwerp, 1614, in 8vo ; and, 2. De Magnetica Vul-
^ nerum naturali et legitima Curatione, contra Joh. Roberti,
Soc. Jesu, Paris, 1621, in 8vo.
HELMSLEY, a town of the wapentake of Rydall, in
the north riding of the county of York, and 218 miles from
London. It is on the river Rye, in a beautiful valley. It
is well built, and had formerly a strong castle, which was
demolished by Cromwell. There is a good market, which
is held on Saturday. Near it are the ruins of Itevaulx
Abbey, converted into a splendid modern mansion. The
population amounted in 1801 to 1449, in 1811 to 1415,
in 1821 to 1520, and in 1831 to 1485.
HELMSTEDT, a city of the duchy of Brunswick, in
Germany, the capital of the circle of the same name. It
stands near the river Elze, and is fortified. It contains
two churches, an orphan-house, three hospitals, 659 houses,
and 5420 inhabitants. It was formerly the seat of a uni¬
versity of great celebrity. There are manufactures car¬
ried on of flannels and other woollen goods, and bleacheries,
tanneries, and some distilleries. Long. 10. 56. 55. E. Lat.
51. 13. 45. N.
HELMUND, Hekrmund, or Hirmund, a river of Kho-
rassan, and the largest of any in that country, has its rise
to the west of Cabul, in the hill called Kohi Baba. It runs
south-west through the Hazara country, and passing south¬
ward, it crosses the great roads from Candahar to Herat at
Greeshk, a distance of 260 miles, and its course is through
very high and steep hills. It falls into the lake of Seestan,
after a course of 360 miles. It is a very large river in sum¬
mer, from the melting of the snows; and it is a common
practice with the inhabitants to try to shoot arrows across,
or to sling stones, which they are not able to accomplish.
In the cold weather it is only breast deep. There are
two boats at the Greeshk Pass, but for the greater part
of the year the river is fordable. Its stream is swelled by
several considerable tributaries.
liELOISE, celebrated on account of her unfortunate af¬
fection for her tutor Abelard, and for her Latin letters to him
after they had retired from the world. She died abbess of
Paraclete in 1163. See Abelard.
HELOS, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of La¬
conia, situated between Trinasus and Acriae. In Pausa-
nias’s time it was in ruins. This district was called Helo-
tea, and the people Helotes, Helotce, Helei, and Heleatce, by
Stephanus, and Ilotce by Livy. Being subdued by the
Lacedaemonians, they were all reduced to a state of public
slavery, or made the slaves of the public, on the condition
that they could neither recover their liberty nor be sold
out of the territory of Sparta. Hence the term siXurmiv,
in Haipocration, for being in a state of slavery ; and hence
also the Lacedaemonians called the slaves of all nations
whatsoever helotes. The epithet is Heloticus.
HELOTS, in Grecian antiquity, the slaves of the Spar¬
tans. The freemen of Sparta were forbidden the exercise
of any mean or mechanical employment, and therefore the
whole care of supplying the city with necessaries devolved
upon the Helots.
HELSINGBORG, a city of Sweden, in the province
of Malmoe. It stands at the entrance, and the narrowest
part, of the Sound. It is a lively place of trade, being the
principal entrance to Sweden from the Danish dominions.
I here is no harbour ; but the vessels are moored to the mole,
oi bridge of boats. It contains 350 well-built houses, and
2150 inhabitants. It is in long. 12. 38. 27. E. and lat. 56.
2. 55. N.
a circle of the Russian government
of Finland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, extending over 6808
square miles, and comprehending three cities or towns, 6692
villages or farms, 21,952 families, and a population of
175,000 persons. The northern part is mountainous ; but H I
the southern is low and level, and produces sufficient corn ||
for the demand of the inhabitants. It yields for exporta-Helve
tion some hemp and flax, and a little iron for home use.
The capital, of the same name, is situated on the sea-shore
and, since it has come under the Russian dominion, has been
regularly fortified. The harbour is deep, safe, and spacious
and is frequented by foreign ships, as well as by those be¬
longing to the city. The chief trade consists in the export
of planks, masts, spars, corn, and salted fish. It contains
three churches, 1100 houses, and 9105 inhabitants. Lons'
26. 55. E. Lat. 60. 5. N.
HELSTONE, a town in the county of Cornwall, in the
hundred of Kerriar, 276 miles from London. It stands
on the river Loe, which forms a harbour near the town.
It is one of the chief markets for tin, and has a stannery
for affixing a stamp to prove its purity. The tower of the
church, ninety feet in height, is a conspicuous sea-mark. It
consists of four streets crossing each other at right angles,
with a stream of water running through them. It is a
borough governed by a mayor and aldermen, and returns
one member to the House of Commons, chosen by about
300 voters. It has a good market, which is held on Satur¬
day. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2248, in 1811
to 2297, in 1821 to 2671, and in 1831 to 3293,
HELVETIC, something which has a relation to the
inhabitants of the Swiss cantons, who were anciently called
Helvetii.
HELVETII, a people of Belgica, in the neighbourhood
of the Allobroges and the Provincia Romana. They were
famed for bravery and a predilection for war. The Civi-
tas Helvetia was divided into four pagi or cantons, situated
to the south and w est of the Rhine, by which they were
divided from the Germans ; and extending towards Gaul,
from which they were separated by Mount Jura on the
west, and by the Rhone and the Leman Lake on the south,
and therefore called a Gallic nation. (Tacitus, Caesar,
Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny.)
HELVETIUS, Claude Adrian, a man of letters, and
celebrated French philosopher, was born at Paris about tlie
beginning of 1715. After receiving the rudiments of his
education in his father’s house, he was sent to the College
ol Louis-le-Grand, where he discovered greater indica¬
tions of genius than any of his fellow-students, and thus
gained the esteem of the professor of rhetoric, by whom
particular attention was paid to his education. By his ele¬
gant and graceful exterior he endeavoured to ingratiate
himself with the fair sex ; but he was soon convinced, that
although external advantages may dazzle for the moment,
nothing but intellectual accomplishments can command
esteem and respect. The circumstance which led him to
perceive the absolute necessity of mental improvement, in
order to be truly esteemed and admired, is worthy of notice.
When walking alone in one of the public gardens, he dis¬
covered a most extravagant figure amidst a circle of young
and amiable ladies. This was the geometer Maupertuis,
who engrossed all the care and attention of this charming
group, notwithstanding the ridiculous and grotesque singu¬
larity ol his dress, appearance, and manners. This convin¬
ced Helvetius, that if he wished to be sincerely admired or
esteemed, dancing, tennis, and all other bodily exercises
must give place to the cultivation of the mind. Imme¬
diately, therefore, he became a solitary, recluse student;
the mathematics in particular attracted his attention ; and
in a short time he was admitted as the companion of some
of the most distinguished literary characters of the period
in which he lived. Voltaire and Montesquieu were amongst
his early acquaintance ; and with the latter he contracted
a cordial and lasting friendship. The first literary produc¬
tion of Helvetius was of the poetical kind, consisting of
epistles on happiness; but these were not communicated to
HEM
HEM
229
*, • i sthe public until after his decease. When read in private,
I! however, they were much admired, and Voltaire considered
[cffli them as a strong proof ot the didactic and philosophical
upti- powers of their author. When the Esprit des Loix or Mon-
rY" ’ tesquieu appeared, the work was studied by Helvetius with
the utmost care and attention; and his only objection to it
was that it did not contain the first ideas respecting the
things of which it professed to treat. Instead of examin¬
ing systems of legislation, and comparing them with each
other, Helvetius was of opinion, that the nature of man
should first be studied, and that the laws for governing him
should be founded on the principles of his own constitu¬
tion. This seemed to him true philosophy, and with such
ideas he determined to undertake a work which might
supply what he conceived to be defects in the publication
of Montesquieu. Accordingly, in 1 <58 appeared his fa¬
mous book De l'Esprit, which was published without the
author’s name, but which was condemned by the parliament
of Paris, as tending to degrade the nature of man; a pro¬
ceeding which had the .effect of making the book be sought
for with avidity all over France, as well as other European
countries, and gave to the speculations of the author much
more importance than perhaps they would have otherwise
acquired. To avoid the malice of his enemies, he visited
England in the year 1762; and in the following year went
to Prussia, where he was received with every mark of re¬
spect by the king, who gave him lodgings in the palace,
and admitted him into his familiar parties. He was un¬
commonly liberal to the indigent, some of whom but ill re¬
quited him ; on which occasions he was wont to say to his
friends, “ If I were a king I would correct them ; but as I
am only rich, and they are poor, I do my duty in relieving
them.” Although his constitution was excellent, and his
friends thence concluded that they would long enjoy the
happiness of his society, he fell a victim to the gout in his
head and stomach in the month of December 1771, being
then in the fifty-sixth year of his age.
Besides his work De VEsprit, Helvetius was the author
of, 1. De 1’Homme, de ses Facultes intellectuelles, et de
son Education, in two vols. 8vo ; 2. Le vrai sens du Sys-
teme de la Nature, London, 1774, in 8vo ; 3. Le Bonheur,
a poem in six cantos, London, 1772, in 8vo ; all published
after his death. Helvetius possessed considerable taste
and ingenuity, some knowledge of human nature, and a
turn for ridiculing the follies of mankind ; but as a philo¬
sopher he was plausible rather than profound, fond of para¬
doxes, and so prone to scoff at what he considered as false re¬
ligion, that his belief in the true faith came to be questioned.
At the same time his works abound in just observations,
often very happily expressed ; and he displays a knowledge
of the world, of which we but rarely meet with indications
in the works of speculative men.
HELVIDIANS, a sect of ancient heretics, denominat¬
ed from their leader Helvidius, a disciple of Auxentius the
Arian, whose distinguishing principle was, that Mary, the
mother of Jesus, did not continue a virgin, but had other
children by Joseph.
HELVOETSLUYS, a town in the circle of Brill, in the
province of Holland. It is a fortified naval station, with
a good but small harbour, with docks and storehouses for
equipping ships of war. It is the place of direct commu¬
nication with England by the packets, which sail to and
from Harwich twice in each week. The population, in
1831, was 1641 persons. Long. 4. 7. 52. E. Lat. 51. 49.
29. N.
HEMEL-Hempsted, a town of the hundred of Daco-
rum, in the county of Herts, twenty-three miles from Lon¬
don, on the river Gade, with a market on Thursday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2722, in 1811 to 3240,
in 1821 to 3962, and in 1831 to 4759.
HEMEROBAPT1STS, a sect amongst the ancient
Jews, so called from their washing and bathing every day, Hemero-
in all seasons, and observing this custom with the greatest dromi
solemnity, as a religious rite necessary to salvation. Epi-
phanius, who mentions this as the fourth heresy amongst CyCqun".
the Jews, observes, that in other points these heretics
entertained much the same opinions as the Scribes and
Pharisees, only that they denied the resurrection of the
dead, in common with the Sadducees.
The sect who pass in the East under the denomination
of Sabians, calling themselves Mendai liaki, or “ the dis¬
ciples of John,” and whom the Europeans entitle “ the
Christians of St John,” because they yet retain some
knowledge of the gospel, are probably of Jewish origin,
and seem to have been derived from the ancient Hemero-
baptists ; at least it is certain that the John whom they
consider as the founder of their sect bears no similitude
to John the Baptist, but rather resembles the person of
that name whom the ancient writers represent as the chief
of the Jewish Hemerobaptists. These ambiguous Chris¬
tians dwell in Persia and Arabia, but principally at Bas-
sora ; and their religion consists in bodily washings, per¬
formed frequently and with great solemnity, and attend¬
ed with certain ceremonies, which the priests mingle with
this superstitious service.
HEMERODROMI, compounded of day, and
cisojttoj, course, amongst the ancients, were sentinels or
guards appointed for the security and preservation of
cities and other places. They went out of the city every
morning as soon as the gates were opened, and kept all
day patrolling round the place; sometimes also making
excursions into the country, to see that there were no
enemies lying in wait to surprise them.
Hemerodromi were also a sort of couriers amongst
the ancients, who only travelled one day, and then deli¬
vered their packets or dispatches to a fresh man, who run
his day, and so on to the end of the journey. The Greeks
had couriers of this kind, whom they derived from the
Persians, as appears from Herodotus. Augustus also
established couriers, who, if they did not relieve each
other from day to day, yet did it from space to space, and
that space was not very great.
HEMEROTROPHIS, in Antiquity, a measure of capa¬
city, the same with the chcenix. It was so called from its
containing only one day’s food. The word is compounded
of jj/Afga, a day, and rgo<pri, food.
HEMI, a wrord employed in the composition of differ¬
ent terms. It signifies the same with semi or demi, viz.
half; being an abbreviate of riftitvs, which signifies the
same thing. The Greeks retrenched the last syllable of
the word in the composition of words; and, after
their example, we have done so too in most ot the com¬
pounds borrowed from them.
HEMIBOLON, a weight often mentioned by the an¬
cient writers in medicine, and expressing the half of their
obolus, or the twelfth part of a drachm, that is, five grains.
HEMICYCLE, Hemicyclium, compounded of vpitug,
half, and xuaXog, circle ; a semicircle.
Hemicycle is particularly applied, in Architecture, to
vaults in the cradle form, and arches or sweeps of vaults
constituting a perfect semicircle. To construct an arch
of hewn stone, they divide the hemicycle into so many
voussoirs, taking care to make them an uneven number,
that there may be no joint in the middle, where the key¬
stone should be.
Hemicyclium was also a part of the orchestra in the
ancient theatre. Scaliger, however, observes that it was
no standing part of the orchestra, being only used in dra¬
matic pieces, where some persons are supposed to have
arrived from sea, as in Plautus’s Rudens.
The ancients had also a sort of sun-dial called Hemicy¬
clium. It was a concave semicircle, the upper end or cusp of
230
HEM
Hemp.
flemina which looked to the north. There was a style or gnomon
issuing from the middle of the hemicycle, of which that point
^ corresponding to the centre of the hemicycle represented
the centre of the earth ; and its shadow was projected on the
concavity ot the hemicycle, which represented the space
between one tropic and another, the sun’s declination, the
day of the month, hour of the day, and so forth.
HEMINA, in Roman antiquity, a liquid measure, which,
according to Arbuthnot, wras equal to half a wine pint Eng¬
lish measure, its contents being 2-818 solid inches.
HEMISPHERE (Hemisphcerium, compounded of rifiievg,
half, and ffpcaga, sphere), in Geometry, is one half of a globe
or sphere, when divided by a plane passing through its
centre.
Hemisphere, m. Astronomy, is particularly used for one
half of the mundane sphere. The equator divides the
sphere into two equal parts, called the northern and south¬
ern hemispheres. Ihe horizon also divides the sphere into
two parts, called the upper and the loiver hemispheres.
Hemisphere is also used for a map or projection of half
the terrestrial globe, or half the celestial sphere, on a plane.
Hemispheres are frequently called planispheres.
HEMISTICH, in Poetry, denotes half a verse, or at
least a verse not completed. Of this there are frequent
examples in \ irgil’s JEneid; but whether they were left
unfinished by design or not is disputed amongst the learned.
HEMITONE, in the ancient music, w-as what we now
call a half note or semitone.
HEMP, the cannabis sativa of Linnaeus, is a very valu¬
able plant, from which cloths and cordage of various kinds
are manufactured. It does not appear that the ancients
were acquainted with the use of hemp, in respect of the
thread it affords. Pliny, who speaks of the plant in his
natural history (lib. xx. c. 23), says not a word of this, con¬
tenting himself with extolling the virtues of its stem, leaves,
and root. In fact, what some writers on Roman antiqui¬
ties remark, that the hemp necessary for the use of war
was all stored up into two cities of the western empire,
Ravenna and Vienne, under the direction of two procura¬
tors, called procuratores linificii, must be understood of
linum or flax.
Hemp is supposed to be a native of India, but it is
now cultivated in various other countries, where it forms
an article of very considerable commercial importance. Its
uses, culture, and management are nearly the same as those
of flax, but it is stronger and coarser in the fibre than that
article. When pulled green, hemp is considered as a clean¬
er of the ground, but when grown for seed it is a very
exhausting crop. Little of it is grown in this country, its
cultivation not being deemed profitable; and the quantity
raised in Ireland is also inconsiderable. But in Russia and
Poland it is very extensively cultivated ; and Italy yields
not an inconsiderable quantity. Very good huckaback
for towels and table-cloths, and different kinds of wearing
apparel, are made from hemp; but its great consumption
is in the manufacture of sail-cloth and cordage, to which
purposes it is exceedingly well adapted by the strength of
its fibre. Amongst the Hindus a favourite intoxicating
liquor called banga is extracted from hemp ; and in Egypt
it is applied to the same purpose.
Great quantities of hemp are exported from Russia.
It is assorted, according to its quality, into clean hemp, or
rsts; out-shot hemp, or seconds; half-clean hemp, or thirds;
and hemp codilla. Of the first three sorts there are an¬
nually exported from St Petersburg 2,000,000 poods;
sixty-three of which make an English ton. English and
American vessels are chiefly employed in this trade ; and
particular care is taken to ship the hemp in dry weather
as it is totally spoiled if it gets wet. Riga hemp brings
a higher price than that of St Petersburg. It is divided
into three sorts, viz. rein, rhine, or clean, out-shot, and pass-
H E N
hemp. Of 530,820 cwt. of undressed hemp imported into w i
this country in 1831, 506,803 were brought from Russia ^
9,4,7 T«fr0m the East Indies> 74t°5 from Italy, 2262 from Hdi
the Philippine Islands, 2218 from the United States, and ~
some small quantities from a few other places. In 1832
the duty on hemp was reduced from 4s. 8d. to Id. per cwt.
a reduction which cannot fail to be beneficial to the trade.
Manilla, commonly called‘Manilla white rope.
Mr Crawfurd gives the following account of this article
“ Of the wild banana, one kind {Musa textilis) grows in vast
abundance in some of the most northerly of the Spice Islands
In the great island of Mindanao, in the Philippines, it fills’
extensive forests. From the fibrous barker epidermis is
manufactured a kind of cloth, in frequent use among the
natives.. It also affords the material of the most valuable
cordage which the indigenous products of the Archipe-
lago yield. I his is known to our traders and navigators
under the name of Manilla rope, and is equally applicable
to cables, and to standing or running rigging.” (Hist, of
Archipelago, vol. i. p. 412.) V
Hemp (Indian), or Sunn. This consists of the fibre of
the crotolaria juncea, a totally different plant from the
cannabis sativa, which, as already stated, is never used by
t le Hindus for cloth or cordage. Sunn is grown in vari¬
ous places of Hindustan. The strongest, whitest, and
most durable species is produced at Comercolly. Durincr
t lose periods of the late war when the intercourse with
the Baltic was interrupted, and hemp bore an enormous
price, large quantities of sunn were imported; but the
bbre being comparatively weak, the article was not found
to answer, and the importation has since been discontinu¬
ed. (Milburn’s Orient. Commerce.)
HEMS, an ancient city of Syria, on the borders of the
desert. The present town stands on a fine plain, watered
by a rivulet, and does not occupy above one fourth of the
space within the walls. It was the ancient Emesa in the
t!™e,of.tihe Roman empire, and appears to have been for-
tinea with walls about three miles in circumference. It
SlrC-CiSS^Ve^ changed masters in the various revolutions
which took place in this part of Asia, and fell into decay.
It contains many ruins and relics of antiquity. It is 120
of Aleppo, and eight north of Damascus. Long.
37. 20. E. Lat. 34. 25. N. *
HEMSKEREK;, Egbert, called the Old, a celebrated
blemish painter of humorous conversations. We have
no information as to the time in which he flourished, or
the school in which he was taught. Though the taste of
his compositions is but low, yet it ought to be considered
that he took his subjects from nature; from persons in the
meanest occupations, whose dress, actions, and manners
could not furnish the imagination with any ideas of ele¬
gance; and to express their passions and humours undis¬
guised seems to have been the utmost of his ambition.
By frequenting fairs, merry-meetings, gaming-houses, and
inns, he acquired a surprising power of connecting humo¬
rous circumstances. He designed and drew correctly,
and Ins pictures have a strong effect, from his accurate
management of the chiaroscuro. Some of his pictures
lave suffered from unskilful cleaners, and many things are
so d as his which dishonour him ; but his genuine works,
m ell pieserved, have a clearness and force equal to any of
the blemish artists.
HEN. See Ornithology.
Hen and Chickens, a group of small islands near the
?uoSti°f^?eW Zeaiand’in the South Pacific Ocean. Long.
80. 1. W. Lat. 35. 53. S. This is also the name of a group
of islands in the Eastern Seas. Long. 118. 3. E. Lat. 5.
30* S*
HENAULT, Charles John Francis, president of the
parliament of Paris, was born at Paris in 1685. He early
discovered a sprightly, benevolent disposition ; and his pe-
HEN
H
jL .. netration and aptness were soon distinguished by the suc-
IX, > cess of his studies. On quitting college, Henault entered
the Oratory, where he soon attached himself to the study
of eloquence; and on the death of the Abbe Rene, re¬
former of La Trappe, he undertook to pronounce his pane¬
gyric; but as this did not meet the approbation of Mas¬
sillon, he quitted the Oratory after two years; and his fa¬
ther bought for him, of Mareschal Villeroi, the office of lieu¬
tenant des chasses, and the government of Corbeli. In 1707,
he gained the prize of eloquence at the French academy;
and next year he carried off another at the Academic des
Jeux Floraux. In 1713 he brought out a tragedy on the
stage, under the disguised name of Fuselier. As he was
known to the public only by some lighter pieces, Cornelia
the Vestal met with little success ; and he therefore locked
it up without printing. But in his old age his passion for
these subjects revived ; and Horace Walpole happening to
be at Paris in 1768, where he formed a friendship with
Henault, obtained this piece, and had it printed at his own
press. In 1751 M. Henault, under a borrowed name,
brought out a second tragedy, entitled Marius, which was
well received and printed. He had been admitted as coun¬
sellor in parliament in 1706, with a dispensation on ac¬
count of his age ; and in 1710 he was appointed president
of the first chamber of inquests. These important places,
which he determined to fill in a becoming manner, engag¬
ed him in the most solid studies. He spent several years
in making himself master of the Roman law, and the or-
donnances of the French kings, with their customs and
public law. On the death of the Cardinal Dubois, in 1732,
he succeeded in his place at the French academy. Cardi¬
nal Fleury recommended him to succeed himself as direc¬
tor ; and he pronounced the eloge of M. de Malezieux.
M. Henault’s favourite study was history, not a bare col¬
lection of dates, but a knowledge of the laws and manners
of nations; and to obtain this he drew instruction from
private conversations, a method he so strongly recommends
in his preface. After having thus discussed the most im¬
portant points of public law, he undertook to collect and
publish the result of his inquiries ; and he is deservedly ac¬
counted the first framer of chronological abridgments, in
which, without stopping at detached facts, he attends only
to those forming a chain of events which perfect or alter
the government and character of a nation, and traces only
the springs which exalt or humble a nation, extending or
contracting the space it occupies in the world. The first
edition of his work, the result of forty years’ reading, ap¬
peared in the year 1744, under the auspices of the Chan¬
cellor d’Aguesseau, and with the modest title of Essay. The
success it met wdth surprised him. He made continual
improvements in it, and it has gone through many editions,
and been translated into Italian, English, and German.
In 1755, he was chosen an honorary member of the
Academy of Belles Lettres, being then a member of the
academies of Nanci, Berlin, and Stockholm. He compos¬
ed three comedies, namely, La Petite Maison, Le Jaloux
deLui-meme, and La Iteveil d’Epirmnide. The subject of
the last was the Cretan philosopher, who is pretended to
have slept twenty-seven years. He is introduced fancying
that he had slept but one night, and astonished at the
change in all around him ; he mistakes his mistress for his
mother ; but discovering his mistake, offers to marry her,
which she refuses, though he still continues to love her.
The queen was particularly pleased with this piece, and
ordered the president to restore the philosopher’s mistress
to her former youth ; he accordingly introduced Hebe, and
this episode produced an agreeable entertainment.
A delicate constitution made him liable to much illness,
wliich, however, did not interrupt the serenity of his mind.
One morning, after a quiet night, he felt an oppression,
which the faculty pronounced a suffocating cough. He then
E N 231
received the sacraments. It wms believed the next night Hendeca-
would be his last; but by noon the following day he was out gon
of danger. “ Now I know what death is,” said he ; “ it will II
not be new to me any more.” He never forgot it during -^enley*
the remaining seven years of his life, which, like all the Thames
rest, were gentle and calm. He died on the 24th of Novem-
ber 1770, in his eighty-fifth year. The principal works of
President Henault are, 1. Nouvelle Abrege Chronologique
de 1’Histoire de la France, 1768, in 4to ; 2. Histoire Cri¬
tique de 1’etablissement des Francais, dans les Gaules, ou-
vrage inedit du President Henault, imprime sur le Manu-
scrit original ecrit de sa Main, Paris, 1801, in two vols.
8vo; 3. Lettre du President Henault sur la Regale, ad¬
dressee a 1’Abbe Velly, originally published in the J/ercwre
de France ; 4. Lettres du President Henault a Marmontel,
au sujet d’un Extrait de 1’Abrege de 1’Histoire de De Thou,
in the collection of Fontanieu ; 5. Memoire sur les Abreges
Chronologiques, Mem. de VAcad, des Inscrip.; 6. Discours
qui remportent le prix d’eloquence de 1’Academic Fran-
^aise, 1707, par Henault, Conseiller au Parlement, Paris,
1707, in 4to ; 7 Pieces de Theatre, en Vers et en Prose,
a collection which contains Cornelie Vestale, Francois IL,
the Petite Maison, the Jaloux de Lui-meme, the Reveil
dHEpimenide, and the Temple des Chimeres.
LIENDECAGON, in Geometry, a figure having eleven
sides and as many angles.
HENDON, a village of the hundred of Gore, in the
county of Middlesex, on the river Brent, seven miles from
London. Within the parish are many elegant villas, and a
public classical school for the education of independent
dissenters. The population amounted in 1801 to 1955, in
1811 to 2589, in 1821 to 3100, and in 1831 to 3110.
HENED-Penny, in our old writers, a customary pay¬
ment of money, instead of hens, at Christmas. Du Cange
is of opinion that it may be hen-penny, gallinagium, or a
composition for eggs; but Cowel thinks it is misprinted
hened-penny for heved-penny or head-penny.
HENERY Isle, a small island lying due south from
Bombay. It is about 600 yards in circumference, and near¬
ly of a circular form. It is fortified and well inhabited. In
1790 it belonged to Ragojee Angria, and was a principal
rendezvous of private vessels, though within sight of Bom¬
bay. Near it is another small island named Kenery, which
is also fortified, and of considerable strength. It wTas taken
possession of and fortified by Sevajee in 1679. In 1790 it
belonged to the Peshwa, and was also the haunt of pirates.
Henery is situated in long. 72. 50. E. and lat. 18. 42. N.
HENGTCHEOU, a city of China of the first rank, in the
province of Houquang, situated on the river Heng. It
has a manufactory of paper, and there are also silver mines
in the neighbourhood. Long. 112. E. Lat. 26. 36. N.
HENIOCHAS, or Heniochus, a northern constellation,
the same as Auriga.
HENLEY-in-Arden, a town of the county of Warwick,
in the parish of Wooton-Wawen and hundred of Borlich-
way, 105 miles from London. It stands in what was for¬
merly the forest of Arden, and has a chapel of ease and a
good market. The population amounted in 1801 to 1098,
in 1811 to 1055, in 1821 to 1249, and in 1831 to 1214.
Henley-on-Thames, a town of the hundred of Ben-
field, in the county of Oxford, divided from Buckingham¬
shire by the river Thames, over which there is an elegant
bridge. It is thirty-five miles from London, and, though
an ancient, is a well-built town, with a good market, which
is held on Thursday. It is surrounded with the seats of
nobility and gentry. The church is large and the tower
lofty, and both are said to have been erected by Cardinal
Wolsey. It is a borough, governed by a mayor and aider-
men, and in ancient times returned two members to parlia¬
ment. The population amounted in 1801 to 2948, in 1811
to 3117, in 1821 to 3509, and in 1831 to 3618.
232
HEN
Henley Henley, John, better known by the appellation of Ora-
II tor Henley, a very singular character, was born at Melton-
iiennegau. Mowbray, Leicestershire, in 1691. His father, the reverend
Simon Henley, and his grandfather by his mother’s side,
John Dowel, were both vicars of the same parish. Having
passed through his exercises at Cambridge, and his exami¬
nation for the degree of bachelor, with the particular ap¬
probation of Mr Field, Mr Smales, and the master of the
college, he returned to his native place, upon which he was
desired by the trustees of the school in Melton, first to as¬
sist in, and then to take the direction of that school, which
he raised from a declining to a flourishing condition. In
this seminary he established a practice of improving elocu¬
tion by the recitation of passages in the classics, morning
and afternoon. Whilst at Melton, he w as invited by a let¬
ter from the reverend Mr Newcombe to become a candi¬
date for a fellowship in St John’s ; but as he had long been
absent, and therefore lessened his personal interest, he de¬
clined appearing as a competitor. Here likewise he began
his Universal Grammar, and finished ten languages, with
dissertations prefixed, as the most ready introduction to
any tongue whatsoever. In the beginning of this interval he
wrote his poem on Esther, which was well received. He
w as ordained a deacon by Dr Wake, then Bishop of Lin¬
coln ; and after having taken his degree in arts, was ad¬
mitted to priest’s orders by Dr Gibson, his successor in that
see. Having early formed a resolution to improve himself
with all the advantages ot books and conversation, he de¬
termined on the first opportunity to proceed to London.
But he laid the basis of future proficiency in assisting at.
the curacy of his native town, where he preached many
occasional sermons, particularly one at the assizes at Lei¬
cester ; he then gave a voluntary warning for the choice of
a new master and curate, and went to town recommended
by above thirty letters from the most considerable men in
the country, both of the clergy and laity, but against the
inclination of his neighbours and his school, which was
now, as from his first entrance upon it, still advancing. In
town he published a translation of Pliny’s Epistles, of se¬
veral works of the Abbe Vertot, and of Montfaucon’s Italian
Travels in folio. His most generous patron was the Earl
of Macclesfield, who gave him a benefice in the country, the
value of which to a resident would have been above L.80
a year ; he had likewise a lecture in the city, and preached
more charity sermons about town, wTas more numerously
followed, and raised more money for the poor children, than
any other preacher, however dignified or distinguished.
Henley preached on Sundays upon theological matters,
and on \\ ednesdays upon all other sciences. He used
every Saturday to print an advertisement in the Daily Ad¬
vertiser, containing an account of the subjects he intended
to discourse on the ensuing evening at his Oratory, near
Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, with a sort of motto before it, which
was generally a sneer at some public transaction of the
preceding week. His audience w as generally composed of
the low est ranks ; and it is well known that he collected a
great number of shoemakers, by announcing that he could
teach them a speedy mode of operation in their business,
which proved to be only the making of shoes by cutting off
the tops of ready-made boots. He died in October J756.
HEN>, EBON, a city of the arrondissement of L’Orient,
in the department of Morbihan, in France. It stands on
the navigable river Blavet, about nine miles from the sea.
It has a good harbour for small vessels, and an extensive
corn-market. The population amounts to 4678. Lone. 3.
22. 32. W. Lat. 47. 48. i. N. S
HENNEGAU, a province in the Netherlands. It is
formed from the former French department of Jemmappes,
with almost all of the ancient courtships ofHennegau and
Tournay, and some few communes from Liege, from Na¬
mur, and from Brabant. The French department of the
HEN
Ardennes bounds it on the south, south-west, and west sides- u
and it is otherwise enclosed by the other Netherland pro’ a i
yinces. It extends over 1745 square miles. It is divided [
into three arrondissements, viz. Mons, Tournay, and Char- Heilr
leroy, and these are subdivided into 29 cantons and 423 '•Y
communes, containing, in 1833, 604,957 inhabitants. In
the northern and western parts the province is hilly and
very w-oody. On the plains, and especially near Tournay,
the soil is generally very fertile; and in the other parts’
though stony, it may, by good cultivation, be highly pro¬
ductive. It produces so much corn as to spare three tenths
of the crop for exportation. Like the rest of Flanders, it
also yields great abundance of most excellent hemp, and
possesses good w-et and dry pasturage. It has some mines
of iron, and several of coal, of which substance nearly two
millions of chaldrons are extracted annually. The manufac¬
tures are extensive, consisting of carpets, cloths, cottons,
printed calicoes, lace and lace-making thread, hosiery, glass]
paper, ironmongery, and various smaller commodities. The
inhabitants all adhere to the Roman Catholic church, and
are under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of
Tournay, whose diocese comprehends 343 parishes, with
their respective churches.
HENNERSDORF, a city of the kingdom of Saxony, in
the bailiwick of the Elster and circle of Voightland. It
contains 620 houses, with 4300 inhabitants, employed in
making nankeens and other cottons, in gold and silver¬
smiths’ work, and in clock and watchmaking.
HENOTICUM ('Eiwjjs, union, from g/f, hog, one), in Ec¬
clesiastical History, a famous edict of the Emperor Zeno,
published a. d. 482, and intended to reconcile and reunite the
Eutychians with the Catholics. It w-as procured from the
emperor by means of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople,
with the assistance of the friends of Peter Mongus and Peter
1 rullo. The sting of this edict consists in this, that it repeats
and confirms all that had been enacted in the councils of
Nice, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, against the
Arians, Nestorians, and Eutychians, without making any
particular mention of the council of Chalcedon. It is in
form of a letter, addressed by Zeno to the bishops, priests,
monks, and people of Egypt and Libya. It w-as opposed
by the Catholics, and condemned in form by Pope Felix II.
HENRICANS, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect so called
from Henry its founder, who, though a monk and hermit,
undertook to reform the superstition and vices of the
clergy. For this purpose he left Lausanne in Switzer¬
land, and removing from different places, at length settled
at ioulouse in the year 1147, and there exercised his
ministerial function, till being overcome by the opposition
of Bernard, abbot of Clairval, and condemned by Pope
Eugenius III. at a council assembled at Rheims, he was,
in 1148, committed to prison, and there he soon ended
his days. This reformer rejected the baptism of infants,
severely censured the corrupt manners of the clergy,
treated the festivals and ceremonies of the church with
the utmost contempt, and held clandestine assemblies for
inculcating his peculiar doctrines.
HENR\, the name of several emperors of Germany, and
kings of England and France. See England, France,
and Germany.
Henry IV, king of France and Navarre, commonly
styled the Great, was the son of Antony de Bourbon, chief
of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that
name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of
the estate. His mother was the daughter of Henry d’Al-
bert, king of Navarre ; a woman of masculine genius, intre¬
pid, simple, and even rustic in her manners, but deeply versed
in politics, and a zealous Protestant. He was born in 1553;
and in 1569, when scarcely sixteen years of age, he was
declared the Defender and Chief of the Protestants at
Rochelle. Ihe peace of St Germain, concluded in 1570,
HEN
^Hen recalled to court the lords in the Protestant interest; and
ijKL jn 1572 Henry was married to Margaret de Valois, sister
to Charles IX. king of France. It was in the midst of the
rejoicings on account of these nuptials that the horrid mas¬
sacre of the Protestants took place at Paris. By this in¬
fernal stroke of barbarous policy, Henry was reduced to the
alternative of either changing his religion or being put to
death; he chose the former, and was detained a state pri¬
soner for three years. In 1587 he made his escape, and
putting himself at the head of the Huguenot party, he ex¬
posed himself to all the risks and fatigues of a religious
war, being often in want of the necessaries of life, and en¬
during all the hardships of the common soldiers ; but this
year he gained a victory at Courtras, which established his
reputation in arms, and endeared him to the Protestants.
On the death of Henry III. religion was urged as a pre¬
text for one half of the officers of the French army reject¬
ing him, and for the leaguers refusing to acknowledge him.
A phantom, the Cardinal de Bourbon, was set up against
him; but his most formidable rival was the Duke de
Mayenne. However, Henry, with few friends, few^er im¬
portant places, no money, and a very small army, supplied
every deficiency by his activity and valour. He gained
several victories over the duke, particularly that of Ivri in
1590, memorable for his heroic admonition to his soldiers :
“ If you love your ensigns, rally by my white plume ; you
will always find it in the road to honour and glory.” Paris
held out against him, notwithstanding his successes. But
he took all the suburbs in one day, and might have reduced
the city by famine, if he had not humanely suffered his own
army to relieve the besieged ; yet the bigoted friars and
priests in Paris all turned soldiers, excepting four of the
Mendicant order, and held daily military reviews and pro¬
cessions, with the swnrd in one hand and the crucifix in
the other, on which they made the citizens swear rather
to die with hunger than submit to Henry. The scarcity
of provisions in Paris, however, became at last universal
famine; bread had been sold, whilst any remained, for a
crown the pound; at last it was made from the bones of the
charnel-house of St Innocents; human flesh became the
food of the obstinate Parisians, and mothers devoured
the dead bodies of their children. In fine, the Duke of
Mayenne, convinced that neither Spain nor the League
would grant him the crown, determined to assist in giving
it to the rightful heir. He engaged the state to hold a
conference with the chiefs of both parties, which ended
in Henry’s abjuring the Protestant religion at St Denis,
and being consecrated at Chartres in 1593. The follow¬
ing year Paris opened its gates ; in 1596, the Duke of May¬
enne was formally pardoned ; and in 1598, peace was con¬
cluded with Spain. Henry now showed himself doubly
worthy of the throne, by his encouragement of commerce,
the fine arts, and manufactures, and by his patronage of
men of ingenuity and sound learning of every country.
But though the ferment of bigotry had been assuaged, the
leaven wTas not destroyed. Scarcely a year passed without
some attempt being made on his life ; and at last the dag¬
ger of Ravaillac reached his heart whilst in his coach, in
the streets of Paris, on the 14th of May 1610, in the fifty-
seventh year of his age and twenty-second of his reign.
Henry VIII. king of England, was the second son of
Henry VII. by Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edw ard
IV. He was born at Greenwich, on the 28th of June
1491; on the death of his brother Arthur, in 1502, he was
created Prince of Wales ; and the following year he was
betrothed to Catharine of Aragon, Prince Arthur’s widow,
the pope having granted a dispensation for the purpose.
Henry VIII. ascended the throne on the 22d of April 1509,
and his marriage with Catharine was celebrated about two
months thereafter. In the beginning of his reign he left the
government of his kingdom entirely to his ministers, and
VOL. XI.
HEN 233
spent his time chiefly in tournaments, balls, concerts, and Henry,
other expensive amusements. Nevertheless he was not
so totally absorbed in pleasure as not to find leisure to
sacrifice to the resentment of the people two of his father’s
ministers, Empson and Dudley. A house in London,
which had belonged to the former, was, in the year 1510,
given to Thomas WTolsey, who w^as now the king’s almo¬
ner, and who from this period began to insinuate himself
into Henry’s favour. In 1513, Wolsey became prime mi¬
nister, and from that moment governed the king and king¬
dom with absolute power. In this year Henry declared
war against France, gained the battle of Spurs, and took
the towns of Terouenne and Tournay; but before he em¬
barked his troops he beheaded the Earl of Suffolk, who
had long been confined in the Tower. In 1521, he sacri¬
ficed the Duke of Buckingham to the resentment of his
prime minister Wolsey, and the same year obtained from
the pope the title of Defender of the Faith.
Henry, having been eighteen years married, grew tired
of his wife, and in the year 1527 resolved to obtain a di¬
vorce ; but after many fruitless solicitations, finding it im¬
possible to persuade the pope to annul his marriage with
Catharine, he espoused Anne Boleyn in the year 1531.
During this interval his favourite Wolsey was disgraced,
and died ; whilst Henry threw off the papal yoke, and burn¬
ed three Protestants for heresy. In 1535, he put to death
Sir Thomas More, Fisher, and others, for denying his su¬
premacy ; and suppressed all the lesser monasteries.
Having now possessed his second queen about five years,
he fell violently in love w ith Lady Jane Seymour. Anne
Boleyn was accused of adultery with her own brother, and
with three other persons, and having been condemned, was
beheaded on the 19th of May 1536. The day following he
married Jane Seymour. In 1537, he put to death five of
the noble family of Kildare, as a terror to the Irish, of
whose disloyalty he had some apprehensions; and in the
following year he executed the Marquis of Exeter, with
four other persons of distinction, whose only crime was
corresponding with Cardinal Pole. In 1538 and 1539, he
suppressed all the monasteries in England, and seized their
revenues for his own use. 4 he queen having died in
child-bed, he this year married the princess Ann of Cleves,
but disliking her person, he immediately determined on a
divorce; and his obsequious parliament and convocation
unanimously pronounced the marriage void, for reasons too
ridiculous to be stated.
His majesty being once more at liberty to indulge him¬
self with another wife, fixed upon Catharine Howard, niece
to the Duke of Norfolk, who was declared queen in August
1540 ; but they had been privately married some time be¬
fore. Henry, it seems, w as so entirely satisfied with this
lady, that he daily blessed God for his present happiness.
But his felicity was of short duration. He had not been
married above a year, when the queen was accused of fre¬
quent prostitution, both before and since her marriage ; and
having confessed her guilt, she was beheaded in hebruary
1542.° In July 1543, he married his sixth w ife, Lady Ca¬
tharine Parr, the widow of John Neville Lord Latimer,
and lived till the year 1547 w ithout committing any more
flagrant enormities; but finding himself now approaching
his dissolution, he made his will; and, that the last scene of
his life might resemble the rest of the piece, he determined
to end the tragedy w ith the murder of two of his best friends
and most faithful subjects, the Duke of Norfolk and his son
the Earl of Surrey. The earl was beheaded on the 19th of
January, and the duke was in like manner ordered for execu¬
tion on the 29th, but he fortunately escaped by the king’s
death which, happened on the 28th. They were condemned
without the shadow of a crime; but Henry’s political rea¬
son for putting them to death was his apprehension that,
if they were suffered to survive him, they would counteract
234
HEN
Henry, some of his regulations in religion, and might be trouble-
•—--y-w some to his son. Henry died on the 28th January 1547, in
the fifty-sixth year of his age, and was buried at Windsor.
Lord Herbert tries to palliate his crimes, and exaggerates
what he is pleased to call his virtues. Bishop Burnet says,
“he was rather to be reckoned among the great than the good
princesbut he afterwards acknowledges that “ he is to
be numbered among the ill princes,” yet adds, “ I cannot
rank him with the worst.” Sir Walter Raleigh, with more
justice, says, “ If all the pictures and patterns of a merciless
prince were lost to the world, they might again be painted
to the life out of the history of this king.”
Henry of Huntingdon, an English historian of the
twelfth century, was canon of Lincoln, and afterwards arch¬
deacon cf Huntingdon. He wrote, 1. A History of Eng¬
land, which ends with the year 1154 ; 2. A Continuation of
the History of Bede ; 3. Chronological Tables of the Kings
of England; 4. A short treatise on the Contempt of the
World ; 5. Several books of epigrams and love-verses; 6. A
poem on herbs. All these productions were rvritten in Latin.
Henry the Minstrel, commonly called Blind Harry, an
ancient Scottish author, distinguished by no particular
surname, but well known as the author of an historical
poem reciting the achievements of Sir William Wallace.
It is difficult to ascertain the precise time in which
this poet lived, or when he wrote his history, as the two
authors who mention him speak somewhat differently on
these points. Dempster, who wrote in the beginning of
the seventeenth century, says that he lived in the year
1361 ; but Major, who was born in the year 1446, says
that he composed this book during the time of his in¬
fancy, which we must therefore suppose to have been a
few years posterior to 1446 ; for if it had been compos¬
ed that very year, the circumstance would probably have
been mentioned. As little can we suppose, from Demp¬
ster’s words, that Henry was born in 1361; for though he
says that he lived in that year, we must naturally imagine
that he had then attained the years of maturity, or had
begun to distinguish himself in the world, rather than that
he was only born at that time.
We are in entire ignorance of the family from which
Henry was descended ; though, from his writings, we
should be led to suppose that he had received a liberal
education. In these he discovers some knowledge of di¬
vinity, classical history, and astronomy, as well as of the
languages. In one place he boasts of his celibacy, which
seems to indicate his having engaged himself in some of
the religious orders of that age. From what Major says
of him, we may further suppose his profession to have
been that of a travelling bard ; though it does not appear
that he was skilled in music, or that he had no other
profession than that just mentioned. His being blind
from his birth, indeed, makes this not improbable; but
even this circumstance is not inconsistent with the sup¬
position of his being a religious mendicant. “ The parti¬
culars,” says Major, “ which he heard related by the vul¬
gar, he wrote in the vulgar verse, in which he excelled.
By reciting his histories before princes or great men, he
gained his food and raiment, of which he was worthy.” It
is thus probable that he was a frequent visitor at the
Scottish court; and welcomed by those great families
who could boast of any alliance with the hero himself, or
who took pleasure in hearing narrated either his exploits
or those of his companions.
According to the most early account of Henry, it ap¬
pears to have been at least fifty-six years after the death
of Wallace that Henry was born; yet he is said to have
consulted with several of the descendants of those who
had been the companions of that hero whilst he achieved
his most celebrated exploits, and who were still capable
of ascertaining the veracity of what he published. His
HEN
chief authority, according to his own account, was a Latin R
history of the exploits of Sir William, written partly bv ^
Mr John Blair and partly by Mr Thomas Gray, who had ^
been the companions of the hero himself. Henry’s ac¬
count of these two authors is to the following purpose*
“ They became acquainted with Wallace when the latter
was only about sixteen years of age, and at that time a stu¬
dent at the school of Dundee ; and their acquaintance with
him continued till his death, which happened in his twen¬
ty-ninth year. Mr John Blair went from the schools in
Scotland to Paris, where he studied some time, and re¬
ceived priest’s orders. He returned to Scotland in 1296,
where he joined Wallace, who was bravely asserting the
liberties of his country. Mr Thomas Gray, who was par¬
son of Libberton, joined Wallace at the same time. They
were men of great wisdom and integrity, zealous for the
freedom of Scotland ; and were present with Wallace,
and assisted him, in most of his military enterprises. They
were also his spiritual counsellors, and administered to
him ghostly comfort. The history written by these two
clergymen was attested by William Sinclair, bishop of
Dunkeld, who had himself been witness to many of Wal¬
lace s actions. The bishop, if he had lived longer, was to
have sent their book to Rome, for the purpose of obtain¬
ing the sanction of the pope’s authority.”
The book which Henry thus appeals to as his principal
authority is now lost, so that we have no opportunity of
comparing it with what he has written. The character
given of Henry by Dempster, however, is more favourable
than that given by Major. The former tells us that “ he
was blind from his birth ; a man of singular happy genius;
he was indeed another Homer. He did great honour to
his native country, and raised it above what was common
to it in his age. He wrote, in the vernacular verse, an
elaborate and grand work, in ten books, of the deeds of
William Wallace.” But in this account there is a mis¬
take, for the poem contains twelve books ; but Dempster,
who wrote in a foreign country, and had not a printed
copy of Henry’s work by him when he composed his eulo-
gium, is excusable in a mistake of this kind. It is conjec¬
tured that he wrote his Actis and Deidis of Shyr Wilham
Wallace about 1446, when he must have been an old man.
If we compare Henry’s Wallace with Barbour’s Bruce,
the result must be a decision in favour of the latter work.
T. he Bruce of Barbour is evidently the work of a politician
as well as a poet. 1 he characters of the king, his brother,
Douglas, and the Earl of Moray, are carefully discriminated,
and their separate talents always employed with judgment,
by which means every event is prepared and rendered pro¬
bable ; but the Actis and Deidis of Shyr Wilham Wallace
is a mere romance, in which the hero hews down entire
squadrons with his single arm, and is indebted for every
victory to his own physical strength. Both poems abound
with descriptions ot battles; but in those of Barbour our
attention is successively directed to the cool intrepidity of
the king, the brilliant temerity of his brother Edward, and
the enterprising stratagems of Douglas ; whilst in the work
of the Blind Minstrel we find little else than a disgusting
picture of hatred, revenge, murder, and bloodshed. Asa poe¬
tical story-teller, however, he has considerable merit; and
the numerous editions through which his Wallace has passed
sufficiently attests, if not the genius of the poet, at all events
the popularity of his subject. The only known manuscript
of this poem, from which all the printed copies have been
taken, is that in the Advocates’ Library, which bears date
1488. The first printed edition was that of Edinburgh,
15/0; but perhaps the best and most correct is that pub¬
lished by the Rev. Dr Jamieson, Edinburgh, 1820. Mor¬
risons edition, Perth, 1790, is also deserving of commen¬
dation, as being the first in which the text was given with
any regard to accuracy.
HEN
HEN 235
Henry Prince of Wales, eldest son of King James VI.
> of Scotland, by Anne, sister of the king of Denmark, and
one of the most accomplished princes of the age in which
he lived, was born on the 19th of February 1594. Besides
his knowledge of the learned languages, he spoke the French
and Italian ; and he had made a considerable progress in
philosophy, history, fortification, mathematics, and cosmo¬
graphy, in which last branches he was instructed by that
excellent mathematician Mr Edward Wright. He aspir¬
ed to know something of every thing, and to excel in what
was most excellent. He had a just apinion of the great
abilities of Sir Walter Raleigh ; and is reported to have said,
in allusion to the long imprisonment of Raleigh, that no king
but his father would keep such a bird in a cage. That emi¬
nent writer, soldier, and statesman, had a reciprocal regard
for the prince, to whom he had designed to address a dis¬
course on the Art of War by Sea, which his highness’s death
discouraged the author from finishing. He had also intend¬
ed, and, as he expresses it, hewn out a second and third
volume of his History of the World, which were to have
been dedicated to his highness; “ but it has pleased God,”
says he, “ to take that glorious prince out of this world,” a
prince, “ whose unspeakable and never-enough-lamented
loss hath taught me to say with Job, Versa est in luctum
cithara mea, et organum meum in vocern jlentium.” The
prince died in November 1612. Dr Welwood, in his Notes
on Wilson’s Life of King James I. informs us, though with¬
out giving any authority, that when the prince fell sick,
the queen sent to Sir Walter Raleigh for some of his cele¬
brated cordial, which she herself had taken some time be¬
fore in a fever with remarkable success. Raleigh sent it,
together with a letter to the queen, in which he expressed
a tender concern for the prince ; and, boasting of his me¬
dicine, said, “ that it would certainly cure him or any other
of a fever, except in case of poison.” Sir Anthony Wel¬
don suggests that the prince was poisoned; and the same
notion is countenanced by Wilson and by Dr Welwood.
Bishop Burnet likewise informs us, that Colonel Titus had
heard King Charles I. declare, that the prince his brother
was poisoned by means of Viscount Rochester, afterw ards
Earl of Somerset. But it will perhaps be sufficient to op¬
pose to all such suggestions the unanimous opinion of the
physicians who attended the prince during his sickness,
and opened his body after his death; from which, as Dr
Welwood himself observes, there can be no inference draw n
that he was poisoned. To this may be added the autho¬
rity of Sir Charles Cornwallis, who was well informed and
above all suspicion in this point, and who pronounces the
rumours spread of his highness having been poisoned as
groundless; affirming that his death was natural, and oc¬
casioned by a violent fever.
Henry, Philip, a pious and learned nonconformist mi¬
nister, son of Mr John Henry, page of the back stairs to
James duke of York, was born at Whitehall in 1631. He
was admitted into Westminster school at about twelve
years of age; became the favourite of Dr Bushby; and was
employed by him, with some others, in collecting materials
for the Greek Grammar which he afterwards published.
From Westminster he removed to Christ-Church, Oxford,
where, having obtained the degree of master of arts, he
was taken into the family of Judge Puleston, at Emeral,
in Flintshire, as tutor to his sons, and preacher at Worth-
enbury. He soon afterwards ^married the only daughter
and heiress of Daniel Matthews of Broad-oak, near Whit¬
church, by whom he became possessed of a competent
estate. When the king and episcopacy were restored,
he refused to conform, was ejected, and retired with his
family to Broad-oak, at which place, or in the immediate
neighbourhood, he spent the remainder of his life, reliev¬
ing the poor, employing the industrious, instructing the
ignorant, and exercising every opportunity of doing good.
His moderation in his nonconformity was eminent and Henry,
exemplary; and upon all occasions he bore testimony
against uncharitable and schismatical separation. In
church-government he wished for Archbishop Usher’s
reduction of episcopacy. But he thought it lawful to
join in the common prayer in public assemblies, which,
during the time of his silence and restraint, he devoutly
and reverently attended along with his family^
Henry, Matthew, an eminent dissenting minister and au¬
thor, was the son of the former, and was born in the year
1662. He continued under his father’s care till he was
eighteen years of age, by which time he had become well
skilled in the learned languages, especially Hebrew, which
his father had rendered familiar to him from his childhood;
and from first to last the study of the Scriptures formed his
principal employment. He completed his education in an
academy kept at Islington by Mr Doolittle, and was after¬
wards entered as a student of law in Gray’s Inn, where
he became well acquainted with the civil and municipal
law of his own country; and from his application and great
abilities it was thought he would have become very emi¬
nent in that profession. But at length, resolving to de¬
vote his life to the study of divinity, he, in 1685, retired
into the country, and was chosen pastor of a congregation
at Chester, where he lived about twenty-five years, great¬
ly esteemed and beloved by his people. He had several
calls from London, which he constantly declined; but he
was at last prevailed on to accept an unanimous invitation
from a congregation at Hackney. He wrote, 1. Exposi¬
tions of the Bible, in five vols. folio; 2. The Life of Mr
Philip Henry; 3. Directions for daily Communion with
God ; 4. A method for Prayer; 5. Four Discourses against
Vice and Immorality ; 6. The Communicant’s Companion ;
7. Family Hymns ; 8. A Scriptural Catechism ; and, 9. A
Discourse concerning the Nature of Schism. He died
of apoplexy, at Nantwich, in 1714, and was interred at
Trinity Church, in Chester.
Henry, Dr Robert, author of the Flistory of Great
Britain, was the son of James Henry, farmer at Muirtown,
in the parish of St Ninians, North Britain, and of Jean
Galloway, daughter of Mr Galloway of Burrowmeadow, in
Stirlingshire. He was born on the 18th of February
1718; and having early resolved to devote himself to a
literary profession, was educated first under Mr John Ni-
colson at the parish-school of St Ninians, and for some
time at the grammar-school of Stirling. He completed
his course of academical study at the university of Edin¬
burgh, and afterwards became master of the grammar-
school of Annan. He was licensed to preach on the 27th
of March 1746, and w^as the first licentiate of the presby¬
tery of Annan after its institution as a separate presby¬
tery. Soon afterwards he received a call from a congre¬
gation of Presbyterian dissenters at Carlisle, wdiere he
was ordained in November 1748. In this situation he
remained twelve years, and on the 13th of August 1760
became pastor of a dissenting congregation at Berwick-
upon-Tweed. Here he married, in 1763, Ann Balderston,
daughter of Thomas Balderston. surgeon in Berwick, by
whom he had no children, but with whom he enjoyed to
the end of his life a large share of domestic happiness.
He was removed from Berwick to be one of the ministers
of Edinburgh in November 1768; officiated in the church
of the New Grey Friars from that time until November
1776; and then became colleague-minister in the Old
Church, and remained in that situation till his death. The
degree of doctor in divinity was conferred upon him by the
university of Edinburgh in 1770; and in 1774 he was una¬
nimously chosen moderator of the general assembly of the
church of Scotland, being the only person on record who
had obtained that distinction the first time he was a mem¬
ber of assembly.
23G HEN
Henry. These facts contain the outline of Dr Henry’s life,
which, in fact, exhibits few events interesting to the bio¬
grapher. Though he must have been always distinguish¬
ed amongst his private friends, he had few opportunities
of being known to the public until he was translated to
Edinburgh. The composition of sermons must have occu¬
pied the chief part of his time during his residence at Car¬
lisle, as his industry in that situation is known to have ren¬
dered his labours in this department easy to him during the
remainder of his life. But even there he found leisure
for other studies; and the knowledge of classical litera¬
ture, in which he eminently excelled, soon enabled him
to acquire an extent of information which qualified him
for something more important than he had hitherto in his
view.
Soon after his removal to Berwick, Henry published a
scheme for raising a fund for the benefit of the widows
and orphans of Protestant dissenting ministers in the north
of England. This idea was probably suggested to him
by the prosperity of the fund which had about thirty years
before been established as a provision for ministers’ wi¬
dows in Scotland. But the situation of the clergy of
Scotland was very different from the circumstances of the
dissenting ministers in England. Annuities and provi¬
sions were to be secured to the families of dissenters, with¬
out subjecting the individuals, as in Scotland, to a pro¬
portional annual contribution, and without such means of
creating a fund as could be the subject of an act of par¬
liament to secure the annual payments. The acuteness
and activity of Dr Henry surmounted these difficulties;
and, chiefly by his exertions, this useful and benevolent
institution commenced about the year 1762. The ma¬
nagement was intrusted to him for several years; and its
success exceeded the most sanguine expectations which
were formed of it.
It w'as probably about the year 1763 that he first con¬
ceived the idea of his History of Great Britain; a work
which has long been established in the public opinion, and
will probably be regarded by posterity, not only as having
enlarged the sphere of history, and gratified our curiosity
on a variety of subjects which fall not within the limits
prescribed by preceding historians, but as one of the most
accurate and authentic repositories of historical informa¬
tion which this country has produced. The plan adopted
by Dr Henry is sufficiently explained in his general pre¬
face. In every period, it arranges, under separate heads
or chapters, the civil and military history of Great Britain;
the history of religion; the history of our constitution,
government, laws, and courts of justice; the history of
learning, of learned men, and of the chief seminaries of
learning; the history of arts; the history of commerce,
of shipping, of money or coin, and of the price of commo¬
dities ; and the history of manners, virtues, vices, customs,
language, dress, diet, and amusements. Under these
seven heads, which extend the province of the historian
greatly beyond its usual limits, every thing curious or in¬
teresting in the history of any country, may be compre¬
hended. But it certainly required a more than common
share of literary courage to attempt on so large a scale a
subject so intricate and extensive as the history of Britain
from the invasion of Julius Caesar. That Dr Henry nei¬
ther overrated his powers nor his industry, could only have
been proved by the success and reputation of his works.
But he soon found that his residence at Berwick was
an insuperable obstacle to the minute researches which
the execution of his plan required. His situation there
excluded him from the means of consulting the original
authoiities; and though he attempted to find access to
them by means of his literary friends, and with their as¬
sistance made some progress in his work, his information
was notwithstanding so incomplete, that he found it im-
H E N
possible to prosecute his plan to his own satisfaction, and Her,'
was at last compelled to relinquish it. w^ /f
By the friendship of Mr Gilbert Laurie, lord provost of ^
Edinburgh, and one of his majesty’s commissioners of ex¬
cise in Scotland, who had married the sister of Mrs Hen¬
ry, he was removed to Edinburgh in 1768; and it is to
this event that the public are indebted for his prosecution
of the History of Great Britain. His access to the public
libraries, and the means of supplying the materials which
these did not afford him, were from that time used with
so much diligence and perseverance, that the first volume
of his History, in quarto, was published in 1771, the second
in 1774, the third in 1777, the fourth in 1781, and the fifth
in 1785. The sixth volume was published after his death.
These volumes comprehend the most intricate and obscure
periods of our history; and when we consider the scanty
and scattered materials which Dr Henry has digested, and
the accurate and minute information which he has given
us, under every chapter of the work, we must entertain a
high opinion both of the learning and industry of the au¬
thor, and of the vigour and activity of his mind; espe¬
cially when it is added, that he employed no amanuensis,
but completed the manuscript with his own hand, and that,
excepting the first volume, the whole book, such as it is,
was printed from the original copy. Whatever correc¬
tions were made on it were inserted by interlineations, or
in revising the proof sheets. He found it necessary, in¬
deed, to confine himself to a first copy, from an unfortu¬
nate tremor in his hand, which made writing extremely
inconvenient, obliged him to write with his paper on a
book placed on his knee instead of a table, and unhap
pily increased to such a degree that in the last years of
his life he was often unable to take his victuals without
assistance. An attempt which he made after the publica¬
tion of the fifth volume, to employ an amanuensis, did not
succeed. Never having been accustomed to dictate his
compositions, he found it impossible to acquire a new habit;
and though he persevered only a few days in the attempt,
it had a sensible effect on his health, which he never af¬
terwards recovered. An author has no right to claim in¬
dulgence, and is still less entitled to credit,fro m the pub¬
lic, for any thing which can be ascribed to negligence in
committing his manuscripts to the press ; but considering
the difficulties which Dr Henry surmounted, and the accu¬
rate research and information which distinguish his History,
the circumstances which have been mentioned are far from
being uninteresting, and must add considerably to the
opinion formed of his merit amongst men who are judges
of what he has done. He did not profess to study the or¬
naments of language; but his arrangement is uniformly
regular and natural, and his style simple and perspicuous.
More than this he has not attempted, and this cannot be
denied him. He believed that the time which might be
spent in polishing or rounding a sentence was more use¬
fully employed in investigating and ascertaining a fact.
Hence, as a book of facts and solid information, supported
by authentic documents, his History will stand a compari¬
son with any other similar work of the same period.
But Dr Henry had other difficulties to surmount than
those which related to the composition of his work. Not
having been able to transact with the booksellers to his
satisfaction, the five volumes were originally published at
the risk of the author. When the first volume appeared,
it was censured with unexampled acrimony and perseve¬
rance. Magazines, reviews, and even newspapers, were
filled with abusive remarks and invectives, in which both
the author and the book were treated with contempt and
scurrility. When an author has once submitted his works
to the public, he has no right to complain of the just seve¬
rity of criticism. But Dr Henry had to contend with the
inveterate scorn of malignity. In compliance with the
HEN
usual custom, he had permitted a sermon to be published
' which he had preached in 1773 before the Society in Scot¬
land for propagating Christian Knowledge, a composition
containing plain good sense on a common subject, from
which he expected no reputation. This was eagerly seized
on by the adversaries of his History, and torn to pieces
with a virulence and asperity which no want of merit in
the sermon could justify or explain. An anonymous let¬
ter had appeared in a newspaper vindicating the History
from some of the unjust censures which had been published,
and asserting, from the real merit and accuracy of the book,
the author’s title to the approbation of the public. An
answer appeared in the course of the following week,
charging him, in terms equally confident and indecent, with
having written this letter in his own praise. The efforts
of malignity seldom fail to defeat their purpose, and to re¬
coil upon those who direct them. Dr Henry had many
friends, and till lately had not discovered that he had any
enemies. But the author of the anonymous letter was un¬
known to him, till the learned and respectable Dr Mac-
queen, from the indignation excited by the confident pe¬
tulance of the answer, informed him that the letter had
been written by him. These anecdotes are still remem¬
bered. The abuse of the History, which began in Scot¬
land, was renewed in some of the periodical publications in
South Britain; though it is justice to add, without mean¬
ing to refer to the candid observations of English critics,
that in both kingdoms the asperity originated in the same
quarter, and that paragraphs and criticisms written at Edin¬
burgh were printed in London. The same spirit appear¬
ed in Strictures published on the second and third volumes;
but by this time it had in a great measure lost the atten¬
tion of the public.
The progress of his work introduced Dr Henry to more
extensive patronage, and in particular to the notice and
esteem of the Earl of Mansfield. That nobleman thought
the merit of Dr Henry’s History so considerable, that, with¬
out any solicitation, after the publication of the fourth vo¬
lume, he applied personally to the king to bestow on the
author some mark of his royal favour. In consequence of
this, Dr Henry was informed by a letter from the secre¬
tary of state, of his majesty’s intention to confer on him an
annual pension for life of L.100, “ considering his distin¬
guished talents and great literary merit, and the import¬
ance of the very useful and laborious work in which he
was so successfully engaged, as titles to his royal counte¬
nance and favour.” Dr Henry had kept very accurate ac¬
counts of the sales of his work from the time of the ori¬
ginal publication ; and after his last transaction conveying
the copyright to a London bookseller, he found that his
profits had amounted in all to about L.3300; a striking
proof of the intrinsic merit of a work which had forced its
way to the public esteem, in spite of the malignant oppo¬
sition with which it had to struggle.
The prosecution of his History had been Dr Henry’s
favourite object for almost thirty years of his life. He
had naturally a sound constitution, and a more equal and
larger portion of animal spirits than is commonly possess¬
ed by literary men. But from the year 1785 his bodily
strength became sensibly impaired. Notwithstanding this,
he persisted steadily in preparing his sixth volume, which
brings down the history to the accession of Edward VI.
The materials of this volume were left in the hands of his
executors almost completed. Scarcely any thing remain¬
ed unfinished but the two short chapters on arts and man-
HEN 237
ners; and even for these he had left materials and autho- Henryson.
rities so distinctly collected, that there was no great diffi- —
culty in supplying what was wanting. This sixth volume
was published in the year 1793, with a life of the author
prefixed ; and it was found entitled to the same favourable
reception from the public which had been given to the for¬
mer volumes. Dr Henry’s original plan extended from
the invasion of Britain by the Homans to his own times ;
and men of literary curiosity must regret that he did not
live to complete his design; but he has certainly finish¬
ed the most difficult parts of his subject. The periods
after the accession of Edward VI. afford materials more
ample, better digested, and much more within the reach
of common readers. Till the summer of 1790 he was
able to pursue his studies, though not without some inter¬
ruptions. But at that time his health greatly declined; and,
with a constitution quite worn out, he died on the 24th
of November of that year, in the seventy-third year of
his age.
HENRYSON, Robert, one of the most celebrated of
the early Scotish poets, is described as chief schoolmaster
of Dunfermline, and this is almost the only particular of
his life that is sufficiently ascertained. According to one
w riter, he was a notary public, as well as a schoolmaster ;
and another is inclined to identify him with Henryson of
Fordell, the father of James Henryson, who was king’s ad¬
vocate and justice clerk, and who perished in the fatal
battle of Floddon. This very dubious account seems to
have originated with Sir Robert Douglas; who avers that
Robert Henryson appears to have been a person of distinc¬
tion in the reign of James the Third, and that he was the
father of the king’s advocate. Douglas refers to a certain
charter, granted by the abbot of Dunfermline in 1478,
where Robert Henryson subscribes as a w itness j1 but in
this charter he certainly appears without any particular dis¬
tinction, as he merely attests it in the character of a notary
public. A later writer is still more inaccurate when he
pretends that the same w itness is described as Robert Hen¬
ryson of Fordell :2 in this and other two charters which oc¬
cur in the chartulary of Dunfermline, he is described as a
notary public, without any other addition.3 That the no¬
tary public, the schoolmaster of Dunfermline, and the pro¬
prietor of Fordell, were one and the same individual, is by
no means to be admitted upon such slender and defective
evidence. Henryson, or, according to its more modern
and less correct form, Flenderson, was not at that period
an uncommon surname. It is not however improbable that
the schoolmaster may have exercised the profession of a
notary. While the canon law prevailed in Scotland, this
profession was generally exercised by ecclesiastics, and
some vestiges of the ancient practice are still to be traced :
every notary designates himself a clerk of a particular dio¬
cese ; and by the act of 1584, which under the penalty of
deprivation prohibited the clergy from following the pro¬
fession of the law, they still retained the power of making
testaments; so that we continue to admit the rule of the
canon law, w hich sustains a will attested by the parish priest
and two or three witnesses.4 If therefore Henryson wtis a
notary, it is highly probable that he was also an ecclesias¬
tic, and if he was an ecclesiastic, he could not well leave
any legitimate offspring. The poet, in one of his works,
describes himself as “ ane man of age;” and from Sir
Francis Kinaston we learn that “ being very old he dyed
of a diarrhea or fluxe.” With respect to the period of his
decease, it is at least certain that he died before Dunbar,
1 Douglas’s Baronage of Scotland, p. 518. 2 Sibbald’s Chronicle of Scottish Poetry, vol. i. p. 88.
3 Chartulary of Dunfermline, f. 04. a Robert Henryson is a witness to other two charters which occur in the same record, f.
63. a. b. His only mark of distinction is that of being designated Magister, while the names of several other witnesses appear with¬
out this title. He had perhaps taken the degree of master of arts.
4 Decretales Gregorii IX. lib. iii. tit. xxvi. cap. x.
238 HEN
HEN
Henryson. who in his Lament, printed in the year 1508, commemo-
v“’~s> rates him among other departed poets.
In Dunfermling he hes tane Broun,
With gude Mr. Robert Henryfoun.
The compositions of Henryson evince a poetical fancy,
and, for the period when he lived, an elegant simplicity of
taste. He has carefully avoided that cumbrous and viti¬
ated diction which had begun to prevail among the Scotish
as well as the English poets. With his power of poetical
conception he unites no inconsiderable skill in versifica¬
tion : his lines, if divested of their uncouth orthography,
might often be mistaken for those of a much more modern
poet. His principal work is the collection of Fables,
thirteen in number, which have been printed in various
forms. They are written in a pleasing manner, and are
frequently distinguished by their arch simplicity; but in
compositions of this nature, brevity is a quality which may
be considered as almost indispensable, nor can it be denied
that those of Henryson sometimes extend to too great
a length. The collection is introduced by a prologue,
and another is prefixed to the fable of the lion and the
mouse. The latter prologue exhibits a curious specimen
of the literature of that age. In a delightful morning of
June, the poet wanders into a wood, and reclines himself,
in the midst of flowers, under the shade of a hawthorn ;
where, having made the sign of the cross, he falls asleep,
and fancies himself to be accosted by a person of a goodly
appearance. This venerable stranger proves to be iEsop ;
who is here represented as a Roman and a poet, and in
whom it is not easy to recognise the reputed author of the
fables written in Greek prose. Mr Tyrwhitt, who was
equally familiar with classical and with Gothic literature,
has remarked that in many passages quoted from /Esop by
writers of the middle ages, it is difficult to ascertain what
author they mean.
Henryson’s Tale of the vponlands Mouse and the bur-
gesse Mouse may be regarded as one of his happiest efforts
in this department. ’Ihe same tale, which is borrowed
from Hisop, has been told by many other poets, ancient
as well as modern. Babrius has dispatched the story of
the two mice in a few verses,1 but Henryson has extend¬
ed it over a surface of several pages. To this fable of the
Scotish poet, it does not, in the opinion of Dr Nott, seem
improbable that Sir Thomas Wyatt might have been in¬
debted, if not for the idea of his first satire, at least for the
manner of telling the story.2 Henryson’s Tale of Sire Henr
Chauntecleire and the Foxe is evidently borrowed from 4
Chaucer’s Nonnes Preestes Tale. From these apologues '
some curious fragments of information may be gleaned.
That of the Sheepe and the Dog contains all the particu-*
lars of an action before the consistory court, and probably
as complete an exposure of such transactions as the author
could prudently hazard. The proceedings of the ecclesi¬
astical courts seem about this period to have been felt as a
common grievance ; and they are still more decidedly re¬
prehended in the Satyre of Sir David Lindsay, whose works
furnish many valuable contributions to the history of man¬
ners and customs.
Another conspicuous production of Henryson is the Tes¬
tament of Cresseid,3 which is a sequel to Chaucer’s Troy-
lus and Creseyde, and is commonly printed among the
works of that poet.4 It evidently rises above the ordinary
standard of that period, and on some occasions evinces no
mean felicity of conception. The silent interview between
Troilus and Cresseid is skilfully delineated; and the en¬
tire passage has been described as beautiful by a very com¬
petent judge of old poetry.5 It is unnecessary to remark
that for “ the tale of Troy divine,” neither Chaucer nor
Henryson had recourse to the classical sources :6 this, like
some other subjects of ancient history, had been invested
w ith all the characteristics of modern romance ; nor could
the Scotish poet be expected to deviate from the models
which delighted his contemporaries. Sir Troilus is com¬
mended for his knightly piety; a temple is converted into
a kirk ; Mercury is elected speaker of the parliament; and
Cresseid, on being afflicted with a leprosy, is consigned to
a spittal-house, in order to beg with cup and clapper. The
peisonages aie ancient, but the institutions and manners
are all modern.
Henryson’s tale of Orpheus is not free from similar in¬
congruities, and possesses fewer attractions; it is indeed
somewhat languid and feeble, and may have been a lucu¬
bration of the author’s old age. Sir Orpheus is represent¬
ed as a king of Thrace, and is first dispatched to heaven in
search of the lost Eurydice.
Quhen endit was the fangis lamentable,
He take his harp, and on his breft can hvng,
Syne pafsit to the hevin, as fais the fable, ‘
To feke his wyf, bot that auailit no thing:
^ By Wadlyng ftrete7 he went but tarying.
Syne come doun throu the fpere of Saturn aid,
Quhilk fader is of all thir fternis cald.8
2 Fabularum choliambicarum libri tres, coUegit Fr. Xav. Berger, p. 9. Monachii IfilbWi™
ly, and divers aged schollers of the Scottish nation, that it was made and wrt^ten by one Mr%nb;rt Hpn!'le m, te Tleof‘Kei'
schoole-master in Dumfermling, much about the time that Chaucer was first nrintwi an i i v Henderson, sometime cheife
Thinne, which was neere the end of his raigne. This Mr. Henderson witHlvnU ^ td^/catei .to Kinbr Henry the 8th by Mr.
death of Troilus, but made no mention Sbecam" JfCr^ ^ ^ ^ related tl*
punishment and end due to a false unconstant whore, which commonly terminates in extreme W J ^ cW8 thf
Creseid, written by Chaucer; with a Commentary by Sir Francis Kinaston n. xxix T nnd i roe ^ee the Loves of Iroilus and
Latin rhyme two books of Chaucer’s poem, and had published them under the'title of Amormn ‘Train KmfSto!1 lad translated into
co-Latim. Oxonire, 1635, 4to. He comnleted his version nf tlio * , i e ot -flmorum Troth et Creseidce hbn duo priorcs Angfi-
came into the possession of Mr Waldron,Pwho announced his intention Jf SmiUiT^Arthrnress^hut d"' ™?™SCriVl at lenSth
to proceed beyond a short specimen Uin° 1110 the Press> ^ut dl(l not find encouragement
and £ mS* Ml!'6 H*Ute °f ->• «■ P-
^ Scott s Notes to Sir Tristrem, p. 362.
" WafWS,”.’! of E"S1:sh po«Or, voL ii. p. 220, and Donne's Illustrations of Shakspeare vol ii n fr,
Lo, quod he, cafte vp thyne eye,
Se yonder, lo, the Galaxye,
The whiche men clepe the Milky Way,
For it is whyte ; and fome perfay
8 tt . , . , . . Callen it Watlynge ftrete.
in the lattir end. Edinburgh, Chepman^and MyUar, 1500,^to.110 t0 HeWyn and to Hel to feik his Quene : and ane othir Ballad
HEN
*■ nn, i. Having searched the sun and planets without success,
•' he directs his course towards the earth, and in his passage
is regaled with the music of the spheres. His subsequent
adventures are circumstantially, but not very poetically
detailed. In enumerating the various characters whom
he finds in the domains of Pluto, the poet is guilty of a
glaring anachronism : here Orpheus finds Julius Caesar,
Nero, and even popes and cardinals ; and it is likewise to
be remarked that the heathen and the Christian notions
of hell are blended together. But such anachronisms are
very frequently to be found in the writers of the middle
ages. Mr Warton remarks that Chaucer has been guilty
of a very diverting, and what may be termed a double
anachronism, by representing Creseyde and two of her
female companions as reading the Thebaid of Statius.
Like the fables of Henryson, his tale of Orpheus is fol¬
lowed by a long moral; and here he professes to have
derived his materials from Boethius and one of his com¬
mentators.
The Bludy Serk is an allegorical poem of considerable
ingenuity. The poet represents the fair daughter of an
ancient and worthy king as having been carried away by
a hideous giant, and cast into a dungeon, where she was
doomed to linger until some valiant knight should achieve
her deliverance. A worthy prince at length appeared as
her champion, vanquished the giant, and thrust him into
his own loathsome dungeon. Having restored the damsel
to her father, he felt that he had received a mortal wound.
He requested her to retain his bloody shirt, and to con¬
template it whenever a new lover should present himself.
It is unnecessary to add that the interpretation of this al¬
legory involves the high mysteries of the Christian faith.
The poem bears an obvious resemblance to two distinct
tales which occur in the Gesta Romanorum. In the first
of these, a noble lady having been cruelly oppressed by a
tyrant, is relieved by a valiant pilgrim, who falls in the
moment of victory. According to his injunctions, she
places his staff' and scrip in her chamber; but on being
addressed by three kings, in whom we are instructed to re¬
cognize the devil, the world, and the flesh, she afterwards
removes these memorials, and forgets her obligations. The
other tale represents the daughter of a king as having suf¬
fered dishonour from a tyrannical duke. When reduced
to poverty and wretchedness, she is accosted at the way-
side by a certain valiant knight, who, on condition of ob¬
taining her hand, undertakes to fight the oppressor, and to
recover her inheritance. A fierce combat ensues. Be¬
fore he slays his antagonist, he receives a mortal wound,
winch, after an interval of three days, terminates his life.
She hangs up his bloody armour in a chamber, and on
being addressed by any new suitor, she surveys this me¬
morial of her deliverer, and declares her resolution to form
no new attachment.1
The Abbay Walk is of a solemn character, and is not
altogether incapable of impressing the imagination. Its
object is to inculcate submission to the various dispensa¬
tions of Providence, and this theme is managed with some
degree of skill. Of his poem entitled the Garment of
Gude Ladyis, Lord Hailes has remarked that “ the com¬
parison between female ornaments and female virtues, is ex¬
tended throughout so many lines, and with so much of a
tire-woman’s detail, that it becomes somewhat ridiculous.” 2
But the most beautiful of Henryson’s productions is Ito-
bene and Makyne, the earliest specimen of pastoral poetry
in the Scotish language. We consider it as superior in
many respects to the similar attempts of Spenser and
Browne: it is free from the glaring improprieties which
HEP 239
sometimes appear in the pastorals of those more recent Hepatic
writers, and it exhibits many genuine strokes of poetical II
delineation. The shepherd’s indifference is indeed too ^t^aes"
suddenly converted into love ; but this is almost the only ’_x_s,
instance in which the operations of nature are not faith¬
fully represented. The story is skilfully conducted, the
sentiments and manners are truly pastoral, and the diction
possesses wonderful terseness and suavity.
The Fables of Henryson have lately been reprinted3
from the edition of Andrew Hart; of which the only copy
know n to exist was lately added to that great repository of
Scotish literature, the Advocates Library. It is a small
octavo volume, which, although in a very frail condition,
cost no small price. This edition, printed in 1621, is not
however the first; and indeed the title-page indicates the
work to be “ newlie reuised and corrected.” In the li¬
brary of Sir Andrew Balfour, which was sold by auction in
1695, there appears to have been a copy of an edition
printed at Edinburgh in 1570. And after a short interval
the work was exhibited in an English dress : “ The fabu¬
lous Tales of Esope and Phrygian, compiled moste elo¬
quently in Scottishe metre, by Mr. Robert Henrison, and
now lately Englished.” London, printed by Richard
Smith, 1577, 8vo. Of this edition there is a copy in the
library of Sion College. Among the Harleian manuscripts
in the British Museum are preserved “ The morall Fai-
billis of Esope, compylit be Maister Robert Henrisoun,
Scolmaister of Dunfermling, 1571.” This is apparently
the date of the transcript, which is conjectured to have
been taken from the edition of the preceding year. The
manuscript, as Mr Pinkerton has stated, “ is well writen
and preserved, and has some curious illuminations, tho
poorly done.”4 Ten of the fables, together with several
other poems of the same author, are to be found in Ban-
natyne’s manuscript. The various works of Henryson af¬
ford so excellent a specimen of the Scotish language and
versification, that a complete collection, printed with due
accuracy and accompanied with proper illustrations, could
not fail to be highly acceptable to the lovers of our early
literature. (x.)
HEPATIC, in Medicine and Anatomy, any thing be¬
longing to or connected with the liver.
HEPATOSCOPIA (formed of j^ao, liver, and cxoctsw,
I consider), in Antiquity, a species of divination, in which
predictions wrere made by inspecting the livers of animals.
Hepatoscopia is also used as a general name for divi¬
nation by entrails.
HEPHLESTIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athenian fes¬
tival in honour of Vulcan, the principal ceremony of which
consisted of a race, performed in the following manner:
The antagonists w'ere three young men, one of whom, by
lot, took a lighted torch in his hand, and began his course ;
if the torch was extinguished before he finished the race,
he delivered it to the second, and he in like manner to
the third; and the victory was his w'ho first carried the
torch lighted to the end of the race. To this successive
delivering of the torch we find many allusions in ancient
writers, particularly the poets.
HEPHAESTIO, one of the chief favourites of Alexander
the Great, was the son of Amyntor of Pella, the capital of
Macedonia. He accompanied Alexander in his expedition
against the Persians; and yet it is not a little surprising
that he held no military command till after the battle of
Arbela, b. c. 381, when he was appointed leader of a squa¬
dron of horse. (Arrian, iii. 15.) From this time his ad¬
vancement to superior command was rapid, for we find
him next year, b. c. 330, in the expedition against the
1 Clesta Rhomanorum, cum applicationibus moralizatis ac mysticis, f. xiii. xxvii. edit. Hagenaw, 1508, 4to.
4 Hailes’s Ancient Scottish Poems, p. 279. Edinb. 1770, 12mo.
* Edinb. 1832, 4to. This edition was printed for the Maitland Club. 4 Pinkerton’s List of the Scotish Poets, p. c.
240
HER
Hephaes- Parthians and Hyrcanians, hipparchos, or colonel, of a re-
ti° giment. (iii. 27.) In the campaign against the inhabitants
Heraclea. Sogdiana, he was appointed to the command of a bri-
gade, and w^as then sent with Perdiccas into the country
of Peucelastis, on the banks of the Indus, where he took
the chief town. (iv. 16, 22, 23.) After the battle in which
Porus was defeated on the banks of the Hydaspes, b. c.
327, Hephaestio was sent with a body of troops against
another Porus, who reigned over the country along the
banks of the Hydraotes. (v. 21; Diodor. xvii. 21.) As a
reward for his services, he received from his royal friend
Drypetis, the daughter of Darius, last king of Persia. (Ar¬
rian, vii. 4.) But he did not long survive the successful
termination of Alexander’s exploits; for being taken ill at
Ecbatana, where all had assembled to return thanks to the
gods with more than ordinary solemnity for their success,
Hephsestio suddenly died, to the inconsolable grief of Alex¬
ander. (vii. 14; Diodor. Sic. xvii. 114, 115.)
Heph^stio, a grammarian of Alexandria, in Egypt, who
lived a. d. 150, and is supposed to have been one of the
preceptors of TElius Verus, mentioned by Julius Capitoli-
nus in his life of that emperor. ( Vit. Veri, c. 2.) Suidas
states that he was a voluminous writer, though chiefly on
grammar and metres; but, of all his works, nothing has
been preserved except an Elementary Treatise on Metres.
(Ey^/cigidiov ‘Xioi [urow %at noirtijjCLTwv.) Though this work
is by no means complete, nor always correct, still it is
valuable as being the only one on that subject which has
reached us. It has been illustrated by numerous scholia ;
and there is an introduction to it (ngoteyopivcL), ascribed to
the celebrated Longinus, which was first published by
Hudson in the preface to his edition of the work (-Kg/
v^oug), Oxford, 1710. The principal editions of this work
of Hephaestio are, Florent. ap. Junt. 1526; Par. ap. Turne-
bum, with scholia, 1553; Trajecti ad Rhenum, ap. Pauw,
1726 ; but the best is by Gaisford, Oxford, 1810.
HEPHTHEMIMERIS (composed of g^rra, seven,
half, and ^og, part), in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
sort of verse consisting of three feet and a syllable; that
is, of seven half feet.
Hephthemimeris, or Hepthemimeres, is also a caesura
after the third foot; that is, on the seventh half-foot. It
is a rule that this syllable, though it be short in itself,
must be made long on account of the caesura, or to render
it an hephthemimeris.
HEPTACHORD, in the ancient poetry, signified verses
wdiich were sung or played on seven chords, that is, on
seven different notes. In this sense it was applied to the
lyre when it had but seven strings. One of the intervals
is also called an heptachord, as containing the same num¬
ber of degrees between the extremes.
HEPTAGON, in Geometry, a figure consisting of seven
sides and as many angles. In fortification, a place is
termed a heptagon which has seven bastions for its defence.
HEPTAGONAL Numbers, in Arithmetic, a sort of
polygonal numbers, in which the difference of the terms
of the corresponding arithmetical progression is 5. One
of the properties of these numbers is, that if they be mul¬
tiplied by 40, and 9 be added to the product, the sum will
be a square number.
HEP TANGULAR, in Geometry, an appellation given
to figures which have seven angles.
HEPTARCHY (compounded of the Greek gwra, septem,
seven, and a^)j, imperium, government), a government
composed of seven persons, or a country governed by
seven persons, or divided into seven kingdoms. The
Saxon heptarchy included all England, which was can¬
toned out into seven petty independent kingdoms. See
Britain.
HERACLEA, an ancient city of Romania, being the
see of an archbishop of the Greek church, and also a sea-
H E R
port. It was a famous place in former times, and there Heraci
are still some remains of its ancient splendour. Theo- itu
dore Lascaris took it from David Comnenus, emperor of |
Trebisond, after which it fell into the hands of the Ge- ^erai
noese; but Mahommed II. took it from them, and since
that time it has been in the possession of the Turks. It is r
situated near the sea. Long. 27. 58. E. Lat. 40. 59. N.
HERACLEONITES, a sect of Christians, the follow¬
ers of Heracleon, who refined upon the Gnostic divinity,
and maintained that the world was not the immediate
production of the Son of God, but that he was only the
occasional cause of its being created by the demiurgos.
The Heracleonites denied the authority of the prophe¬
cies of the Old Testament; maintaining that they were
mere random sounds in the air, and that St John the
Baptist was the only true voice that directed to the Mes¬
siah.
HERACLIDiE, the descendants of Hercules, who at
the time of their father’s death were residing with Ceyx,
king of Trachis, who generously protected them till he was
forced by the threats of Eurystheus to refuse them any
longer refuge. They fled to Athens, where they received
the protection of Theseus, dwelt in the Tetrapolis, and,
together with the Athenians under the command of Hyllus
and lolaus, fought a battle against: Eurystheus at the pass
of Sciron. The Argive king fell, and the result of this
battle w as the possession by the Heraclidae of the whole Pe¬
loponnesus, where they ruled for one year, at the expira¬
tion of which a pestilence drove them back again to Atti¬
ca. They were succeeded by the Pelopidae, against whom
the expeditions of the Heraclidae were now directed. Hyl¬
lus again collected his forces, and met the Arcadians, loni-
ans, and Achaeans at the isthmus, where he fell in single
combat with Echemus, the son of Aeropus, prince of Te-
gea ; upon which the Heraclidae promised not to renew the
attempt for fifty, or some say a hundred years. They made
two unsuccessful attempts under Cleodaeus and Aristoma-
chus; but at last, led by Temenus, they met the united
force of the Peloponnesus, under the command of Tisame-
nus, the grandson of Agamemnon, and completely defeat¬
ed it, 1104 b. c. This event, which is said to have hap¬
pened eighty years after the fall of Troy, and 328 years be¬
fore the first Olympiad, gave the Heraclidae, along with the
Dorians, entire possession of the country. (Diod. iv. 57,58.
Apollodor. ii. 8, ad fin. Herod, ix. 26. Paus. ii. 13, 18;
iii. 1 ; iv. 2 ; v. 3 ; Muller’s Doriansf
HERACLIDES, surnamed Ponticus, because he was a
native ol Heraclea in Pontus, was the son of Euthyphron,
of noble birth and of great riches. Of his private history
only a few particulars have come down to us, which are
found in Suidas and Diogenes Laertius (v. 86). At Athens
we find him the disciple of Plato, who died 347 b. c. ; of
Speusippus, who taught 347—339 b. c.; and of Aristotle,
who taught at Athens 334—322 b. c. On his return to
his native city he expelled a tyrant, and established free¬
dom ; but he is accused of having arrogated to himself
more power than w7as consistent with the principles which
he advocated. He persuaded the inhabitants of Heraclea
that an oracle had commanded him to be presented with
a golden crowm ; but whilst he was in the act of being
crowned, he fell down in a fit of apoplexy. Having re¬
covered consciousness, but aware that he was dying, it is
said that he wished a friend to remove his body and sub¬
stitute a serpent, that his fellow-citizens might believe
that he had been carried to heaven. Such stories, how¬
ever, ought to be regarded with great suspicion. He was
the author of many works of considerable merit, though
both Cicero (Nat. Deor. i. 13) and Plutarch (Carnil. 22)
speak of his judgment with no respect; whilst Aristoxenus
and Chamaeleon render us suspicious of his literary honesty.
His ethical writings were principally in the form of a dia-
H E R
I ], ;slogue, and treated of justice, moderation, self-restraint, re-
|| lio-ious feelings, firmness, virtue, and happiness. His phy-
lera sical works contained treatises on reason, the soul, nature,
tu? on things in heaven and in hell, on life, and on goodness.
^ ; Amongst his grammatical writings are mentioned a work in
two books on the age of Homer and Hesiod, on Archilo¬
chus and Homer, and on the qualities of Sophocles and Eu¬
ripides. (For a detailed account of his works, the reader
may consult Clinton’s Fasti Hellenici, vol. ii. p. 470.) Some
extracts from his treatise on the Constitutions of various
States remain. They are usually published along with the
YaricB Historice of AElian. The best edition is that by
Coray, Paris, 1805. There is a separate edition by Koeler,
Fragmenta de Civitatibus, Halae, 1804.
Heraclides, the author of a work on incredible events
(tfsg/ avigav), and another on Homeric allegories (dXXriyo-
yai' Owgaui), which has been falsely ascribed to the na¬
tive of Heraclea. We have no means of discovering at
what time Heraclides flourished, or of what city he was a
native; but his works are not without value, chiefly as
supplying us with many quotations from lost poets. In
the first we have a number of wonderful stories after the
manner of Palsephatus, but all naturally resolved. In the
second he has endeavoured to explain the mythic sto¬
ries of Homer as allegories, in order to relieve Homer
from the charge of impiety, to which he thinks he would
otherwise be exposed. It was first published along with
Pakephatus and some other authors, at Venice, by Aldus
(1505), then by Gessner, Basle (1544), and by Gale in
his Opuscula Mythologica, Amstel. 1688. The best edition
is that by Heyne, Heraclidce Allegories Homericee, cum no-
tis Schow. Gotting. 1782 ; De Incredibilibus, Gr. et Lat. ed
Teucher, Lemgo, 1796. The Allegories have been trans¬
lated into German by Schulthess, Zurich, 1779.
HERACLITUS, a celebrated philosopher of Ephesus,
in Asia Minor, flourished about b. c. 503, in the reign of
Darius, son of Hystaspes. Of his personal history we know
nothing more than that he was the son of Blyson, attended
the lectures of the philosophers Hippasus and Xenopha¬
nes, and made a particular study or the doctrines of the
Pythagoreans. Heraclitus was one of those spirits whose
eye was formed so as to view only the miseries of human
life, and who gave vent to their sensibility by tears, as De¬
mocritus did by laughter. He was usually called the
Weeping Philosopher. He was a voluminous writer, but his
most esteemed work was a treatise on nature, which, how¬
ever, was so obscure, that he obtained the surname of 2/.o-
nms. It is said that Euripides sent this work to Socrates,
and that the philosopher having read it, remarked that all
he could understand was very good, but that much of it
was unintelligible. Heraclitus retired from intercourse
with men to some deserted spot, where he could pursue
without interruption his philosophical speculations ; but
his austere mode of living brought on a dropsy, and find¬
ing no relief, he determined to destroy himself by fire,
and thus perished in his sixtieth year. Others say that he
was devoured by dogs. Heraclitus regarded fire as the
beginning and end of all things, as a matter subtile, eter¬
nal, unalterable, and ever moving. The less subtile por¬
tions of fire produced air, those of air generated water, and
from this again was formed earth. The soul he considered
as an igneous substance, or an exhalation (avc/Jvgiadig). He
was in fact a materialist, and admitted only body, form, and
motion. Every thing was only a change of body, death
only a change of form. This treatise was first published
by Crates, and put into Greek verse by Scythinus. Some
fragments of it which remain have been published by Ste¬
phens, with other pieces, in a work entitled Poesis P/tilo-
sophica, Paris, 1573. Also Fragmenta et Literce, Gr. et
Lat. ed. Lubin, Rostock, 1601. See likewise De principio
rerum naturalium ex mente Heracliti physici exercitatio,
vol. xr.
HER
241
Herald.
Lips. 1697 ; De rerum naturalium genesi ex mente Heracliti Heraclius
physici dissertation Lips. 1702.
HEHACLIUS, an eastern emperor, descended from
a Cappadocian family, was sent to subdue the tyrant s"‘
Phocas, whom he totally vanquished in the year 610. In
consequence of this victory, young Heraclius was raised
to the throne by the suffrages of the senate and people.
He confined in a monastery Crispus, the son-in-law of Pho-
cas, whose defection had contributed to his success. Hav¬
ing humbly requested peace from the Persian monarch,
who was extending his conquests all over the Asiatic part
of the empire, his exorbitant and unjust conditions so ex¬
asperated Heraclius, that he at once started from inglo¬
rious ease into a conspicuous hero, raised, by vast exer¬
tions, a considerable army, conquered the king of Persia,
and established his winter-quarters on the banks of the
Halys. He next year penetrated into the very heart of
Persia, and having resisted the attack of a threefold army
of Persians, he surprised the town of Salban. Another
of his expeditions was against the Tigris ; and he fought
a battle near the site of the ancient Nineveh in 627,
about the end of the year, at which time he gained a
complete victory over the Persians, having slain three of
their chiefs with his own hand. He recovered three hun¬
dred Roman standards, and set a vast number of captives
at liberty. In 628 he made the Persian king put an end
to the persecution of the Christians, renounce the conquests
of his father in the Roman empire, and restore the true cross,
which had been taken from Jerusalem. When at Emesa, he
first heard of the name of Mahommed, who invited him to
embrace his new faith, but without success. He brought a
reproach on his name by adhering to the doctrine of the
Monothelites, but chiefly by espousing his niece Martina
for his second wife, by whose influence he divided the suc¬
cession between Constantine and Heracleonas, his son by
Martina. He fell into a dropsical complaint, by which he
was carried off in the month of February 641, in the
thirty-first year of his reign.
HERALD, a term supposed to be derived from Acer, an
army, and healt, a champion.
The principal employment of heralds in early times was
to demand redress of injuries from foreign powers, carry
messages of amity or defiance, and proclaim war and peace;
whence they came also to record and emblazon armorial
bearings, and to marshal great public solemnities.
In the days of chivalry they were introduced into this
island from France; and as in that country, and indeed
also in Rome so likewise, both in England and Scotland
they were in high repute. The chief of them was styled
king of arms, and crowned at his installation to office by
the sovereign himself; and as the sovereign and other
lords had their armiger or armour-bearer, so every herald
had his signifer or ancient, or, as he was called from the
French, pursuivant, that is, follower or attendant.
In 1450 the heralds of England were by King Richard
II. incorporated into a college like the collegium, fecialium
of Rome. The earl marshal of England is superior of the
college, and has the right of appointing the members of
whom it consists, namely, three kings at arms, six heralds
at arms, and four pursuivants at arms. The kings are
garter, clarencieux, and norroy ; of w hom garter, instituted
and created by King Henry V. to attend on the order of
the garter, is principal. His distinguishing colour is blue ;
that of the “ provincial kings,” as clarencieux and norroy
are called, is purple. Clarencieux was ordained by King
Edward IV., when, on attaining the dukedom of Clarence
by the death of his brother, he made the herald which
properly belonged to the Duke of Clarence a king ot
arms, with power to marshal and dispose of funerals, and
other processions, throughout the realm of England on the
south side of Trent, as the office of norroy is the like on the
2 H
242 HER HER
Herald, north. The heralds are styled of York, Lancaster, Ches- of whom there is now, by statute 1587, c. 46, a certain num jj
  f—' ter, Windsor, Richmond, and Somerset. They are esquires her in every shire of the kingdom. They are admitted and ^
by creation, and rank according to seniority of appointment, removed by the lord lyon, and their duty is to execute the
For some time past the crown has occasionally issued a war- process and letters of the superior courts. The jurisdic-
rant to the earl marshal to create extraordinary heralds; tion and authority of the Scottish king of arms is thus
but these receive no salary, which the king’s ordinary heralds twofold; one over the officers at arms, in which respect
and pursuivants at arms do. The pursuivants are now reck- he may not inaptly be regarded as in many respects at the
oned of a sort in the number of heralds, and commonly sue- head of the executive department of the law here ; and the
ceed in the place of heralds, as these die or are preferred, other in relation to bearings and ensigns armorial. The
Their names are Blue-mantle, Rouge-croix, Rouge-dragon, lord lyon also appoints a procurator fiscal to sue before
and Portcullis. The meetings of the heralds’ college are him, a messenger to act as his macer, and a clerk andregis-
termed chapters; and matters are determined therein by a trar.
majority of voices. The earl marshal sits in the midst of Immemorial usage and the king’s concession of arms are
his court, attended sometimes by one or more of the judges, the main pillars of the law of arms. They give the funda-
He has also belonging to his court a pursuivant messen- mental right to use ensigns armorial, and to have those
ger to serve his precepts, a crier, a doctor of the civil law, ensigns matriculated in the heralds’ books. Where nei-
and the clerk or registrar, on either side of whom are pla- ther usage nor royal concession appears, the discretion of
ced the officers at arms to give their opinions when re- the college arises ; and as the principles on which coatar-
quired. mour is awarded were never very clearly defined, it is not
In Scotland there is but one principal herald or king of surprising that the power to purchase arms became the ch¬
arms. He is called Lyon from the cognisance of Scotland, terion of fitness to bear them ; and that, as Bailey savs,
as one of the signifer; or pursuivants is called Unicorn “ In our days all are accounted gentlemen that have mo-
from the supporters of the shield; and, as early as the co- ney, and if a man hath no coat of arms, the king of arms
ronation of King Robert II. on the 2/th of March 1371, we can sell him one.” The principles which regulate the he-
find lyon king of arms called in with his attending heralds raids’ court at Edinburgh are stated in the Report of
by the lord marischal of Scotland, sworn, and crowned, the Commission on Courts of Justice in Scotland, anno
(MS. Account of the Coronation, apiid Chalmers, Ca- 1821. Under that commission Mr George Tait, advo-
ledonia, vol. i. p. 763, note.) Indeed it would seem that cate, late lyon-depute, was examined on oath, and being
heralds are of greater antiquity in Scotland than in Eng- interrogated, according to what rules or ordinances cases
land ; and it is not unlikely that norroy, the most ancient respecting the grant of arms, or competition of claims be¬
ef the English kings of arms, had his origin in the wars of tween different parties, are determined, he deponed, that
the borders, lhat the Scottish king of arms was at one he was not aware of any record of precedents in cases
time dependent on the marischal of Scotland, as the Eng- of this nature, and he had not since his appointment had
lish heralds are on the marshal of England, there is clear occasion to decide any formal or regular question of com-
circumstantial, though certainly, from the state of the re- petition ; but that the rules according to which he would
cords, no direct evidence, lhat dependence, however, form his opinion, and which he had observed in as far as he
did not continue, and lyon has long held his place by com- had been called to decide on claims presented, were those
mission under the great seal, and been recognised as the to be found in the acts of the Scottish parliament, 1592,
head of the office oi arms; nor is there any such rule ac- c. 127, and 1672, c. 21, and the rules laid down by Sir
knowledged here as that established in the heralds’ college George Mackenzie, by Nisbet, and other waiters on heraldry,
at London, that none can be a king of arms before he is a And being interrogated, if there was any restriction observed
herald. Jurisdiction in arms, also, which was heretofore with respect to the class or description of persons tow'hom
in all the heralds jointly, is now exercised only by the a grant of arms would be allowed, he deponed that such
king of arms, who himself performs the duties of his place grants were not refused in any case .where the person ap-
by deputies of his own appointment. This devolution of plying was respectable, which he understood to be con-
duty to a deputy may be traced up to about the year 1663, formable to the practice now observed in all other colleges
wdien lyon first obtained the style of lord lyon king of arms, of arms ; but with regard to the right of bearing support-
I he heralds are Rothesay, Ross, Snowdon, Marchmont,. ers, he conceived it to be competent to be granted only
Islay, and Albany. The pursuivants are Unicorn, Or- in a very few cases, which cases Mr Tait enumerated at
mond, Garrick, Bute, Dingwall, and Kintyre. The num- length, but which, it is enough here to say, may be reduced
ber of each thus appears to be six, as it has been for at to those in which the claim rests on the immemorial use of
least three hundred years past; but in the end of the supporters by the claimant’s family, or on the claimant or
fifteenth century there were but five each, including the his ancestor being either a peer of the realm, or else one of
lyon herald. They receive their commission from the lord the ancient barones minores, or, lastly, on the king’s con-
lyon, usually for life ; and the only duty they now perform cession of supporters.
is to attend at royal proclamations, coronations, and other From the earl marshal of England an appeal lies to the
great public solemnities. Attached to this department of king in council. The case wras probably the same in Scot-
the office of arms are now also six trumpeters, officers ap- land, and both the language and context of the statutes
parently of modern origin. The macers used likewise to be above named imply that the lord lyon is, under his ma-
reckoned amongst the officers at arms, and in early times jesty, king and sovereign within the office of arms; but for
were placed after the pursuivants ; but, from the institu- some time past the Court of Session have treated his juris-
tion of the Court of Session, they took precedence of them, diction as subject to their review and control,
and are nowr altogether detached from the heralds’ office, By the statutes imposing and regulating the assessed
and wait only on the judges of the above court. They re- taxes, an annual duty of 12s. was made payable by every
ceive their commission from the crown, excepting one, which person using or wearing any armorial bearing or ensign,
is hereditary, and executed by deputy. After the pursui- which duty is doubled if the party be liable in house-duty,
vants are accordingly to be ranked the messengers at arms, and quadrupled if he be liable in the duty on a carriage.
(u. u. u.)
243
HERALDRY
Mn m,Is the science which teaches how to blazon, or explain in
Kpc.proper terms, all that belongs to coats-of-arms, and how to
J marshal, or dispose regularly, different arms on a field;
and it also teaches whatever relates to the marshalling of
solemn cavalcades, processions, and other public ceremo¬
nies, at coronations, installations, creations of peers, nup¬
tials, christening of princes, funerals, and the like. Arms,
or coats-of-arms, are hereditary marks of honour, com¬
posed of fixed and determined colours and figures, granted
by sovereign princes as a reward for military valour,
shining virtue, or signal public service, and which serve
to denote the descent and alliance of the bearer, or to dis¬
tinguish states, cities, societies, or orders, civil, ecclesias¬
tical, and military.
Thus heraldry is the science of which arms are the
proper object; but yet they differ much both in their origin
and in their antiquity. Heraldry, according to Sir George
Mackenzie, “ as digested into an art, and subjected to
rules, must be ascribed to Charlemagne and Frederick
Barbarossa, for it did begin and grow with the feudal law.”
Sir John Feme is of opinion that we borrowed arms from
the Egyptians, meaning probably from the hieroglyphics of
that people. Sir William Dugdale mentions that arms, as
marks of honour, were used by great commanders in war,
necessity requiring that their persons should be notified
to their friends and followers. Nisbet, in his System of
Heraldry, says that arms owe their rise and beginning to
the light of nature, and that signs and marks of honour
were made use of in the first ages of the world, and by all
nations, however simple and illiterate, to distinguish the
noble from the ignoble. We find from Homer, Virgil, and
Ovid, that the ancient heroes had different figures on their
shields, by which their persons were distinctly known.
Alexander the Great, desirous to honour those of his cap¬
tains and soldiers who had done any glorious action, and
also to excite emulation amongst the rest, granted them
certain badges to be borne on their armour, pennons, and
banners ; and at the same time ordained that no person or
potentate throughout his empire should attempt or presume
to give or tolerate the bearing of those signs upon the ar¬
mour of any other man, but that it should be a power re¬
served to himself, which prerogative has ever since been
claimed and exercised by all other kings and sovereign
princes within their dominions.
From these and many other opinions, it may with some
confidence be infei'red that in all ages men have made use
of figures of living creatures, or symbolical signs, to denote
the bravery and courage either of their chief or nation, to
render themselves more terrible to their enemies, and also
to distinguish themselves or families, as names do indivi¬
duals. Agrippa, in his treatise on the vanity of sciences
(c. 81), has collected many instances of these marks of
distinction, anciently borne by kingdoms and states which
were any way civilized. Thus the Egyptians bore an ox,
the Athenians an owl, the Goths a bear, the Romans an
eagle, the Franks a lion, and the Saxons a horse, which
last is still borne in the arms of his Britannic majesty.
As to hereditary arms of families, Camden, Spelman, and
others agree that they began towards the end of the se¬
venteenth century. According .to Menestrier, a French
writer whose authority is of great weight in this matter,
Henry 1’Oiseleur, or the Falconer, who was raised to the
imperial throne of the West in 920, by regulating tourna¬
ments in Germany gave occasion to the establishment of
family arms, or hereditary marks of honour, which are un¬
deniably more ancient and better observed amongst the
Germans than in any other nation. Menestrier likewise Hereditary
asserts, that with tournaments came coats-of-arms, which Arms, &c.
were a sort of livei’y, made up of several lists, fillets, or
narrow pieces of stuff of different colours, whence came
the fess, the bend, the pale, and other devices, which were
the original charges of family arms ; for they who had never
been at tournaments had not such marks of distinction.
Those who engaged in the crusades also took up several
figures hitherto unknown in armorial ensigns; such as
alerians, bezants, escalop-shells, martlets, and the like, but
more particularly crosses, of different colours for the sake
of distinction. From this it may be concluded that he¬
raldry, like most human inventions, was insensibly intro¬
duced and established; and that, after having been rude
and unsettled for many ages, it vras at last methodised,
perfected, and fixed, by the crusades and tournaments.
These marks of honour are called arms, from their be¬
ing principally worn in war and in tournaments by mili¬
tary men, who had them engraved, embossed, or depicted
on shields, targets, banners, or other martial instruments.
They are also called coats-of-arms, from the custom of the
ancients embroidering them on the coats which they wore
over their arms, as heralds do to this day% Arms are
distinguished by different names, to denote the causes of
their bearing; such as, arms of dominion, of pretension,
of concession, of community, of patronage, of family, of
alliance, of succession. Arms of dominion or sovereignty
are those which emperors, kings, and sovereign states
constantly bear, and which are, as it were, annexed to
the territories, kingdoms, and provinces they possess.
Thus the three lions are the arms of England, the fleurs-
de-lis those of France, and so on. Arms of pretension
are those of kingdoms, provinces, or territories, which a
prince or lord has some claim to, and which he adds to
his own, although these kingdoms or territories be pos¬
sessed by a foreign prince or other lord. Thus the kings
of England have quartered the arms of France with their
own ever since Edward III. laid claim to the kingdom of
Fiance, which happened in the year 1330, on account of
his being son to Isabelle, sister to Charles the Handsome,
who died without issue. Arms of concession, or augmen¬
tation of honour, are either entire arms, or else one or
more figures, granted by princes as a reward for some
extraordinary service. We read in history that Robert
Bruce, king of Scotland, allowed the Earl of Wintoun’s
ancestor to bear, in his coat-armour, a crown supported
by a sword, to show that he and the clan Seaton, of which
he was the head, had supported his tottering crown.
Queen Anne granted to Sir Cloudesly Shovel, rear-ad¬
miral of Great Britain, a cheveron between two fleurs-de-
lis in chief, and a crescent in base, to denote three great
victories which he had gained, two over the French and
one over the Turks. Arms of community are those of bi¬
shoprics, cities, universities, academies, societies, compa¬
nies, and other bodies corporate. Arms of patronage are
such as governors of provinces, lords of manors, patrons
of benefices, and others, add to their family arms, as a
token of their superiority, rights, and jurisdiction. These
arms have introduced into heraldry, castles, gates, wheels,
ploughs, rakes, harrows, and the like. Arms oifamily, or
paternal arms, are those which belong to one particular
family, and distinguish it from others, and which no per¬
son is suffered to assume without committing a crime that
sovereigns have a right to restrain and punish. Arms of
alliance are those which families or private persons take up
and join to their own, to denote the alliances which they
244
HERALDRY.
Of the have contracted by marriage. This sort of arms is either
Escut- impaled, or borne in an escutcheon of pretence, by those who
cheon. have married heiresses. Arms of succession are such as
are taken up by those who inherit certain estates, manors,
and other hereditaments, either by will, entail, or dona¬
tion, and which they either impale or quarter with their
own arms; and this multiplies the titles of some families
from necessity, and not through ostentation, as some have
imagined.
These are the eight classes under which the different
kinds of arms are generally arranged ; but there is a sort
which blazoners call assumptive arms, being such as are
assumed by the caprice or fancy of upstarts, though of
ever so mean extraction, who, being advanced to a de¬
gree of fortune, take them without any legal title. This
is considered as a great abuse of heraldry, and common
only in Britain, no such practice being permitted on the
Continent.
We now proceed to consider the essential and integral
parts of arms, which are, the Escutcheon, the Tinc¬
tures, the Charges, and the Ornaments.
I OF THE SHIELD OR ESCUTCHEON.
The shield or escutcheon is the shield or ground on which
are represented the figures that make up a coat-of-arms.
These marks of distinction were originally put on bucklers
or shields before they were placed on banners, standards,
flags, and coat-armour; and wherever they may be fixed,
they are still represented on a plain or superficies the form
of which resembles a shield.
Shields, in heraldry called escutcheons or scutcheons, from
the Latin word scutum, have been, and still are, of different
forms, according to the usages of different times and nations.
Amongst ancient shields, some were almost like a horse¬
shoe, and others triangular, somewhat rounded at the bottom.
The people who inhabited Mesopotamia, now called Diar-
hekir, made use of this sort of shield. Sometimes the shield
was heptagonal, that is, bad seven sides. The first of this
shape is said to have been used by the celebrated triumvir
Marc Antony. That of knights-banneret was square, like
a banner. As to modern escutcheons, those of the Italians,
particularly of ecclesiastics, are generally oval. The Eng¬
lish, French, Germans, and other nations, have their es¬
cutcheons formed different ways, according to the carver’s
or painter’s fancy. But the escutcheon of maids, widows,
and such as are born ladies, and are married to private gen¬
tlemen, is generally of the form of a lozenge. Sir George
Mackenzie mentions one Muriel, countess of Strathern,
who carried her arms in a lozenge, in 1284 ; a circumstance
which shows how long we have been conversant with he¬
raldry.
Armorists distinguish several parts or points in escut¬
cheons, in order to determine exactly the position of the
bearings they are charged with. Thus, in the annexed out¬
line of an escutcheon,
ABC
D
E
F
G H I
A is the dexter chief, B the precise middle chief, C the
sinister chief, D the honour point, E the fess point, F the
nombril point, G the dexter base, H the middle precise
base, and I the sinister base.
The knowledge of these points is of great importance,
and ought to be well observed, for they are frequently oc¬
cupied with things of different kinds. It is necessary to
observe, that the dexter side of the escutcheon is opposite o' i)
to the left hand, and the sinister side to the right hand, ofTinctlr v
the person who looks on it. Furs 4 4
A
II. OF TINCTURES, FURS, LINES, AND DIFFERENCES.
1. Of Tinctures.
By tinctures is meant that variable hue of arms which
is common both to shields and their bearings. According
to the French heralds, there are but seven tinctures in ar¬
moury, of which two are metals, and the other five colours.
The metals are gold, termed or ; and silver, termed argent.
The colours are blue, termed azure; red, termed gules 1
green, termed vert; purple, termed purpure ; and black,
termed sable. When natural objects, such as animals,
plants, celestial bodies, and the like, are introduced into
coats-of-arms, they retain their natural colours, which is
expressed in this science by the word proper. Besides
the five colours above mentioned, the English writers on
heraldry admit two others, namely, orange, termed tenny;
and blood-colour, termed sanguine. But these two are
rarely to be found in British bearings.
These tinctures are represented in engravings and draw¬
ings by dots and lines (as in fig. 3, No. 1-9), which are Plate
the invention of the ingenious Silvester de Petra Sancta,ccLnv
an Italian author of the seventeenth century. Thus, or
is expressed by dots; argent needs no mark, and is therefore
plain ; azure, by horizontal lines; gules, by perpendicular
lines ; vert, by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to the
sinister base points; purpure, by diagonal lines from the
sinister chief to the dexter base points ; sable, by perpen¬
dicular and horizontal lines crossing each other; tenny, by
diagonal lines from the sinister chief to the dexter base
points, traversed by horizontal lines; sanguine, by lines
crossing each other diagonally from dexter to sinister, and
from sinister to dexter.
Sir George Mackenzie observes, that some fantastic he*
raids have blazoned not only by the ordinary colours and
metals, but by flowers, days of the week, parts of a man’s
body, and the like, and have been condemned for it by
the heralds of all nations. Yet, he adds, the English have
so far owned this fancy, that they lay it down as a rule that
the coats of sovereigns should be blazoned by the planets,
and those of noblemen by precious stones. According to
this rule, which some think judicious, though Cartwright
and others reprobate it as absurd, the relative blazonry
would stand thus:
Or Topaz Sol.
Argent Pearl Luna.
Sable Diamond Saturn.
Gules Ruby Mars.
Azure Sapphire Jupiter.
Vert Emerald Venus.
Purpure Amethyst Mercury.
Tenny Jacinth Dragon’s-head.
Sanguine Sardonix Dragon’s-tail.
“ But I crave leave to say,” continues Sir G. Mackenzie,
“ that these are but mere fancies, and are likewise unfit for
the art, for these reasons: Is*, The French, from whom
the English derive their heraldry, not only in principles, but
in words of the French language, do not only not use these
different ways of blazoning, but treat them en ridicule.
2dly, The Italian, Spanish, and Latin heralds use no such
different forms, but blazon by the ordinary metals and co¬
lours. Qdly, Art should imitate nature; and as it would
be an unnatural thing in common discourse not to call red
red because a prince wears it, so it is unnatural to use
these terms in heraldry. And it may fall out to be very
ridiculous in some arms ; for instance, if a prince had for
® 0 his arms an ass couchant under his burden gules, how ridi-
'incti is, culous would it be to say he had an ass couchant Mars?
' urs, c. ^ hundred other examples might be given; but it is
^ enough to say, that this is to confound colours with
charges, and the things that are borne with colours, ktldy,
It makes the art unpleasant, and deters gentlemen from
studying it, and strangers from understanding what our
heraldry is; nor could the arms of our princes and nobi¬
lity be translated in this disguise into Latin or any other
language. But that which convinces most that this is
an error is, because it makes that great rule unnecessary,
whereby colour cannot be put upon colour, nor metal upon
metal; but this cannot hold but where metals and colours
are expressed.” The English heralds give different names
to the roundlet (No. 10), according to its colour. Thus, if
it be or, it is called a bezant; if argent, opiate; if azure,
a hurt; if gules, a torteau ; if vert, a pompey ; if purpure,
a golpe; if sable, a pellet; if tenny, an orange; and if
sanguine, a guze. The French, and all other nations, do
not admit such a multiplicity of names for this figure, but
call them bezants, after an ancient coin struck at Con¬
stantinople, anciently Byzantium, if they are or and tor-
teaux; or of any other tincture, expressing the same.
2. Of Furs.
Furs represent the hairy skin of certain beasts, prepar¬
ed for the doublings or linings of robes and garments of
state; and as shields were anciently covered with furred
skins, they are therefore used in heraldry not only for the
linings of the mantles, and other ornaments of the shields,
but also in the coats-of-arms themselves.
There are three different kinds in general use, namely,
\. Ermine, which is a field argent, powdered with black spots,
the tails of which terminate in three hairs (No. 11); 2.
Counter-ermine, where the field is sable, and the powder¬
ing white (No. 12); and, 3. Vair (No. 15), which is ex¬
pressed by blue and white skins, cut into the forms of lit¬
tle bells, ranged in rows opposite to each other, the base
of the white ones being always next to that of the blue
ones. Vair usually consists of six rows; if there be more
or fewer, the number ought to be expressed; and if the co¬
lours be different from those above mentioned, they should
likewise be expressed.
The English multiply the furs, as well as the names of
the tinctures, though no other nation has adopted such
varieties. Thus they give us, 1. White, which is the na¬
tural colour of the ermine, but is used upon no occasion
except in the description of mantles. 2. Ermines, which is
the same with contra-ermine. 3. Erminois, where the
field is or, and the powdering sable (No. 13). 4. Fean,
where the field is sable, and the powdering or (No. 14).
The French use no such term; but they call all furs or
doublings des pannes or pennes, a term which has possibly
given rise to this mistake, and many others, on the part
of those who did not understand the French language. 5.
Erminites, the same as ermine, with the addition of a red
hair on each side of the black. Sir George Mackenzie calls
these distinctions “ but fancies, for erminites signifies pro¬
perly little ermines? 6. Counter-vair, when the bells of
the same tincture are placed base against base, and point
against point (No. 16). 7. Potent-counter-potent, anciently
called vairy-cuppy, as when the field is filled with crutches
or potents counterplaced (No. 17).
It may not be improper to observe here, that the use of
the tinctures took its rise from the several colours used
by warriors whilst they were in the army, which Silves¬
ter de Petra Sancta proves by many citations. And be¬
cause it was the custom to embroider gold and silver on
silk, or silk on cloth of gold and silver, the heralds therefore
appointed, that, in imitation of the clothes so embroidered,
245
upon colour, nor metal upon Of
Tinctures,
Furs, &c.
3. Of the Lines used in the parting of Fields.
Escutcheons are either of one tincture or more than one.
Those which are of one only, that is, when some metal,
colour, or fur, is spread all over the surface or field, are said
to have such a tincture predominant; but in those which
have more than one, the field is divided by lines, which,
according to their different forms, receive various names.
Lines may be either straight or crooked. Straight lines
are carried evenly through the escutcheon, and are of four
different kinds, viz. a perpendicular line [ ; a horizontal,
—; a diagonal dexter, \ ; a diagonal sinister, /. Crooked
lines are those which are carried unevenly through the es¬
cutcheon, rising and falling. French armorists reckon ele¬
ven different sorts of these ; Guillim admits of only seven ;
but there are fourteen distinct kinds, viz. 1. The engrail-Under fig.
ed; 2. the invected; 3. the wavy; 4. the embattled, orl.
crenelle ; 5. the nebule ; 6. the regule ; 7. the indented;
8. the dancette; 9. the dove-tail; 10. the grafted; 11.
the embattled aronde; 12. the battled embattled; 13. the
patee or dove-tail; and 14. the champaine.
The principal reason why lines are thus used in herald¬
ry, is to distinguish bearings which would otherwise be the
same; for an escutcheon charged with a chief engrailed,
differs from one charged with a chief w avy, as much as if
the one bore a cross and the other' a saltier.
As the lines above mentioned serve to divide the field,
it must be observed, that if the division consist of two
equal parts formed by the perpendicular line, it is called
parted per pale; by the horizontal line, parted per fess;
by the diagonal dexter, parted per bend; and by the dia¬
gonal sinister, parted per bend sinister. If a field be divided
into four equal parts by any of these lines, it is said to be
quartered, and this may be done in two ways, viz.
1. Quartered or parted per cross, which is made by a per- Under fig.
pendicular and horizontal line, crossing each other at the !•
centre of the field, and dividing it into four equal parts
called quarters. 2. Quartered or parted per saltier, which
is made by two diagonal lines, dexter and sinister, cross¬
ing one another in the centre of the field, and likewise
dividing it into four equal parts.
The escutcheon is sometimes divided into a greater
number of parts, in order to place in it the arms of the se¬
veral families to which one is allied; and in this case it is
called a genealogical achievement. These divisions may
consist of six, eight, twelve, and sixteen, quarters, and even
sometimes of twenty, thirty-two, sixty-four, and upwards;
there being examples of such divisions frequently exhibited
at pompous funerals. An extraordinary instance of this
kind was exhibited at the funeral of the Viscountess Town-
shend, whose corpse was brought from Dublin Castle to
Rainhamhall in Norfolk; on which occasion one of the
principal tenants on horseback carried before the hearse
a genealogical banner, containing the quarterings of his
lordship’s and her ladyship’s families, to the amount of up¬
wards of 160 coats. But Sir William Dugdale justly ob¬
jects to so many arms being clustered together in one shield
or banner, on account of the difficulty of knowing and dis¬
tinguishing one coat-of-arms from another.
4. Of the Differences of Coats-of-Arms.
Armorists have invented various differences or cha-
racteristical marks, by which bearers of the same coat-ol-
arjns may be distinguished from one another, and their
nearness to the principal bearer demonstrated ; and these
differences are to be considered as either ancient or mo¬
dern.
HERALDRY.
colour should never be used
metal.
246
HERALDRY.
Of Of Ancient Differences. Those which are called ancient
Tinctures, differences consist in bordures,1 which is a bearing that goes
1 urs, &c. aj] round, and parallel to the boundary of the escutcheon, in
the form of a hem, and always contains a fifth part of the
field in breadth. Bordures were used in ancient times
not only for distinguishing one nation or tribe from ano¬
ther, but also for noting a diversity between particular
persons descended of one family and from the same pa¬
rents. This distinction, however, was not expressly sig¬
nified by invariable marks ; nor were bordures always ap¬
propriated to denote the different degrees of consangui¬
nity; for, as Sir Henry Spelman rightly observes, ancient
heralds, being fond of perspicuous differences, often invert¬
ed the paternal tincture, or sometimes inserted another
charge in the escutcheon, such as bends, croslets, cantons,
or the like; an irregularity which, he supposes, has indu¬
ced modern armorists to invent and make use of others.
Plate There are bordures of different forms and tinctures, as,
ccLxxvm.for example, 1. Sable, a bordure argent, borne by the
% Earl of Thanet. When a border is plain, it is not neces¬
sary to mention it, as it is always so understood in heraldry,
though it be not expressed ; but if it has any other form,
this must be signified. 2. Gules, a bordure engrailed ar¬
gent, borne by Lord Gray. This is called engrailedfrom the
French word engrele. which signifies a thing the hail has
fallen upon and broken off the edges, leaving it with little
semicircles struck out of it. 3. Gules, a bordure engrailed
or, borne by the Earl of Shrewsbury. In a bordure or or¬
dinary formed of these lines, the points are represented on
all sides towards the field, and the semicircles are turned
towards the bordure or ordinary. 4. Argent, a bordure
invected azure. This is quite contrary to the last, which
turns its points from the bordure into the field. 5. Gules,
a bordure indented argent. The word indented requires
little explanation, the signification being obvious, from its
figure, which is composed of tracks resembling teeth,
called in Latin dentes. 6. Azure, a bordure ermine.
7. Vert, a bordure vair. 8. Ermine, a bordure compony,
or gobony, or and sable. This is so termed from its
being composed of small equal pieces. 9. Quarterly,
azure and gules, a bordure compony argent and azure,
borne by the Duke of Beaufort. 10. Azure, a bordure
counter-compony argent and gules. But the counter-
compony always consists of two tracks and no more.
11. Or, a bordure cheeky argent and sable. This has a
great resemblance to the last bordure, having only one
track more. Before blazoning, therefore, care must be
taken to number them, so as to avoid taking the one for the
other. 12. Gules, a bordure argent, charged with eight
trefoils slipped proper, that is, vert. All nations use few
terms in blazoning bordures ; but English armorists have
perplexed it, and rendered it unintelligible to all foreign¬
ers, by introducing several mystical proper names, amongst
which may be reckoned the following, viz. They call a
bordure, if charged with eight plants, fruits, flowers, or
leaves, verdoy of such vegetables ; or enaluron of such
birds ; enurny of beasts ; perjlew of furs ; and entoyre of
inanimate things, of whatsoever kind. 13. Gules on a
bordure azure, eight stars or. 14. Argent, a bordure
compony of the last and gules, the first charged with
roses of the second, barbed and seeded proper. This
bordure is borne by the Duke of Richmond. 15. Ermine,
with a bordure engrailed gules, the coat-of-arms of Vis¬
count Kingsland. This family is of French extraction,
and allied to the Dukes of Lower Bretagne. 16. Argent,
a bordure sable charged with eight bezants, borne by
Lord Ranelagh. 17. Party per pale argent and gules, a
bordure charged with eight escalops counterchanged;
the coat of arms of Maule, Lord Panmure. This ancient of
family is originally French, and derives its surname fromTinctu,
the lordship of Maule in Normandy, where the same arms Furs,)
are still to be seen in the parish church. 18. Azure, a
bordure quarterly, the first and fourth ermine, the second
and third counter-compony argent and azure. 19. Purpure,
a bordure compony or and gules, each of the last charged
with a bezant. 20. Quarterly or and gules, within a bor¬
dure vert, charged with eight escalops or. We shall con¬
clude this head with observing, that a bordure is never
of metal upon metal, and seldom of colour upon colour,
but rather of the same tincture with the principal bear¬
ing or charge. Thus Dalziel of Glenae, whose predeces¬
sor was a younger brother of the family of Carnvvath, has,
within a bordure argent, the paternal coat of the ancient
name of Dalziel, viz. sable, a hanged man with his arms ex¬
tended, argent, and whom they formerly carried hanging
on a gallows. This bearing, though so very singular for a
coat-of-arms, was given as a reward to one of the ancestors
of the Earl of Carnwath, to perpetuate the memory of a
brave and hazardous exploit performed, in taking down
from a gallows the body of a favourite and near relative of
Kenneth II. who had been hung up by the Piets. The story
is thus related by Nisbet: “ The king being exceedingly
grieved that the body of his minion and kinsman should
be so disgracefully treated, he proffered a great reward
to any of his subjects who would adventure to rescue his
corpse from the disgrace his cruel enemies had unjustly
put upon it; but when none wmuld undertake this ha¬
zardous enterprise, at last a valorous gentleman came
and said to the king, Dalziel, which signifies, ‘ I dare
and he did actually perform that noble exploit to the
king’s satisfaction and his own immortal honour, and in
memory of it got the aforesaid remarkable bearing; and
afterwards his posterity took the word Dalziel for their
surname; and the interpretation of it, I dare, continues
even to this day to be the motto of that noble family.” We
can have no better proof of the truth of the tradition than
this, that the heads of the ancient family in question have
for ages carefully retained this bearing without any alter¬
ation or addition.
Of Modern Differences. The modern differences which
the English have adopted, not only for distinguishing sons
issued out of one family, but also for denoting the differ¬
ence and subordinate degrees in each house from the ori-
ginal ancestors, are nine, viz. for the heir or first son, the Plate
label; second son, the crescent; third son, the mullet ;CCLH’
fourth son, the martlet; fifth son, the annulet; sixth son,™er'
the fleur-de-lis; seventh son, the rose; eighth son, the
cross-moline ; ninth son, the double quatre-foil. By these
differences the six sons of Thomas Beauchamp, the fif¬
teenth Earl of Warwick, who died in the thirty-fourth
year of the reign of Edward III. are distinguished in an old
window of the church of St Mary at Warwick; so that
although they are called modern differences, their usage
among the English is ancient.
It must be observed, that of all the above-mentioned
marks of distinction, none but the label is affixed on the
coats-of-arms belonging to any of the royal family ; which
the authors of this peculiarity have, however, thought
proper to distinguish by additional pendants and distinct
charges on them.
As to the distinction to be made in the arms of the off¬
spring belonging to each of the above-mentioned brothers,
it is expressed by figures on the top and margin of the
table contained in fig. 3. For instance, the heir or first Pb^.
son of the second house bears a crescent charged with a la¬
bel during his father’s lifetime only; the second son of the
1 Bordures are still introduced into English coats-of-arms, but for particular reasons, which heralds can best explain. They are
by the French frequently taken for a principal figure, and numbered amongst the rest of the ordinaries.
Of second house, a crescent charged with another crescent;
(f-jctui, the third son of the second house, a crescent charged
Vlrs, ■ with a mullet; the fourth son of the second house, a
'""V ’ rharpred with a martlet; the fifth son of the se¬
ll E R A L D R Y.
247
lit.—OF THE CHARGES.
>v~ orescent charged with a martlet; the fifth son of the se
cond house, a crescent charged with an annulet; the sixth
son of the second house, a crescent charged with a fleur-
de-lis; and so on of the other sons, taking care to have
them of a different tincture.
It is not certain in what part of the escutcheon these
differences should be borne ; for Guillim, Morgan, and
others, give us many different examples of their position.
The honour-point would be the most proper place, if the
arms would admit of it; but that is not always the case,
as the part in question may be charged with some figure in
the paternal coat, which cannot with propriety receive the
difference. There are instances where these are borne
as perfect coats-of-arms, which are to be blazoned thus :
The first is azure, a label argent. When such a label is
borne as a difference, the pendants, according to Leigh,
signify that he is but the third person ; the dexter pen¬
dant referring to his father, the sinister to his mother,
and the middle one to himself. The second is argent, a
label of five points azure, borne by the name of Henting-
ton. If a label has more or less than three pendants or
points, they are to be expressed as in the foregoing ex¬
ample. The third is azure, a crescent argent, borne by
the name of Lucy. The reason Leigh assigns for the
second son having a crescent for a difference, is to show
that he should increase the family by adding to its riches
and reputation. The fourth is argent, a mullet sable, on
a chief azure, a fleur-de-lis or ; borne by the name of
Rogers, in Gloucestershire. A mullet or spur was ap¬
pointed for the third son’s difference, to indicate that he
should follow chivalry. The fifth is azure, a fleur-de-hs
argent; borne by Digby Baron Digby of GeaShill, in
King’s County, Ireland.
These examples, with many more which might be pro¬
duced, demonstrate the impropriety of adopting these
modern differences as marks of cadency to distinguish the
different branches of a family; for it is impossible to dis¬
tinguish the uncle or granduncle from the nephew^ or
grandnephew, if each of them are second, third, or fourth
sons; and in the course of succession these differences
would multiply to such a number, that it would be im¬
possible in most cases to delineate them distinctly. But
as they are given by most of the English writers on he¬
raldry, though no foreign nation uses them, it w as thought
proper to insert them here.
Sisters, except of the blood-royal, have no other mark
of difference in their coats-of-arms, than the form of the
escutcheon ; and therefore they are permitted to bear the
arms of their father, even as the eldest son does after his
father’s decease. The reason of this is said to be, that
when they are married, they lose their surname, and re¬
ceive that of their husbands.
Next to these diminutions Leigh, Guillim, and Dr
Harris in his Lexicon Technician, set forth at large dif¬
ferent figures, which, they pretend, wrere formerly added
to the coats of such as were to be punished and branded
for cowardice, fornication, slander, adultery, treason, or
murder, for which they give them the name of abatements
of honour; but as they produce but one instance of such
whimsical bearings, we have not inserted them here. Be¬
sides, arms being marks of honour, they cannot admit of
any note of infamy ; nor would any body now-a-days bear
them if they were so branded. It is true, a man may be
degraded for various crimes, particularly high treason ;
but in such cases the escutcheon is reversed, trodden
upon, and torn in pieces, to denote a total extinction and
suppression of the honour and dignity of the person to
whom it belonged.
Armorists call a charge whatsoever is contained in the
field, whether it occupy the whole or only a part thereof.
All charges are distinguished by the names oi' honourable
ordinaries, subordinaries, and common charges.
Honourable ordinaries, the principal charges in heraldry,
are made of lines only, which, according to their disposi¬
tion and form, receive different names. Sub-ordinaries
are ancient heraldic figures, frequently used in coats of
arms, and which are distinguished by terms appropriated
to each of them. Common charges are composed of na¬
tural, artificial, and even chimerical objects or figures;
such as planets, creatures, vegetables, instruments, and
the like.
Of the
Charges.
1. Of Honourable Ordinaries.
The most judicious armorists admit of only nine honour¬
able ordinaries, viz. the chief, the pale, the bend, the
bend sinister, the fess, the bar, the cheveron, the cross,
and the saltier. Of these, six only have diminutives,
which are as follow : That of the chief is a fillet ; the pale
has a pallet and endorse ; the bend, a bendlet, cost, and
riband; the bend sinister has the scarp and baton; the
bar, the closet and barulet; and the cheveron, a cheveronel
and couple-close.
Of the Chief. The chief is an ordinary determined by
a horizontal line, which, if it be of any other form but
straight, must be expressed. It is placed in the upper
part of the escutcheon, and contains in depth the third
part of the field. Its diminutive is a fillet, the content of
which is not to exceed one fourth of the chief, and it stands
in the lowest part of the escutcheon. This ordinary is sub¬
ject to be charged w ith variety of figures; and may be
indented, wavy, nebule, and so forth.
1. Or, a chief indented azure ; borne by Viscount Mount- Fig. 2.
garret. The family of the Butlers is descended from the
ancient Counts of Brion in Normandy; but since Henry
II. conferred the office of chief butler of Ireland upon one
of the family, he and his successors have assumed the
name of Butler. 2. Azure, a chief engrailed or. 3. Ar¬
gent, a chief invected vert. 4. Vert, a chief undy or. 5.
Azure, a chief nebule argent. 6. Or, a chief cheeky azure
and argent. 7. Ermine, a chief quarterly or and gules ;
borne by the name of Peckham. 8. Argent, a chief sable ;
in the lower part thereof a fillet of the field. 9. Azure,
fretty argent, a chief or; borne by \ iscount Doneraile.
This family is of French extraction, and is descended
from Sir Robert Saint Leger, knight, who in 1066 ac¬
companied William duke of Normandy in his expedition
into England. 10. Argent, on a chief engrailed azure, a
tortoise passant or ; borne by the name of Bidgood. II.
Argent, on a chief gules, two spur revels or; borne by
Lord St John of Bletshoe. This ancient family de¬
rive their surname from a place called St John in Nor¬
mandy. 12. Argent, on a chief vert, two spears’ heads
erect of the field, the points imbrued gules; borne by
Viscount Middleton. This family is lineally descended
from George de Brodrick, who came into England in the
reign of W illiam II. 13. Or, on a chief sable, three esca-
lops of the field, for the name of Graham; and borne
quartered in the arms of the Duke, Marquis, and Earl of
Montrose, with argent three roses gules. According to
the Scottish writers, this family is descended from the re¬
nowned Greme or Grseme, who in the year 404 was gene¬
ral of Fergus II.’s army, and in 420 forced his way through
the wall built by the Romans between the rivers Forth
and Clyde, in order to prevent the Scots from molesting
them in their possessions; and the said breach has ever
since been called Grcemes Dike. 14. Argent, on a chief
248
HERALDRY.
Of the indented gules, three crosses patee of the field ; borne
^harges^ by the Earl of Egmont. This family is supposed to have
sprung from a younger branch of the sovereign dukes of
Bretagne in France. They were transplanted into Nor¬
mandy before the Conquest, possessed of great estates and
power, and were invested with the office of chief butler.
15. Azure, on a chief indented or, three spur revels gules ;
borne by the Earl of Drogheda. This family, which is of
French extraction, came into England soon after the Con¬
quest, and established their first residence in the manor of
Moore Court, in the county of Kent. 16. Ermine, on a
chief indented azure, three ducal coronets or; borne by
the name of Lytton. 17. Azure, on a chief or, three mart¬
lets gules, for the name of Wray ; and borne by Sir Cecil
Wray, Bart, of Lincolnshire. 18. Ermine, on a chief gules ;
five lozenges of the first; borne by the name of Dixin. 19.
Argent, fretty gules, on a chief of the second, three leo¬
pards’ faces or ; borne by Lord Ravensworth. 20. Ermine,
a chief party per pale azure and or, on the dexter the
sun in his splendour, on the sinister a cross patee gules;
the arms of the bishopric of Raphoe, in Ireland.
Oj the Pale. The pale is an ordinary, consisting of two
perpendicular lines drawn from the top to the base of the
escutcheon, and contains the third middle part of the field.
Its diminutives are, the pallet, which is the half of the pale ;
and the endorse, which is the fourth part of a pale. This
ordinary and the pallet may receive any charge, but the
endorse should not be charged. The endorse, besides, is
never used, except to accompany the pale in pairs, as co-
tises do the bend ; but Sir John Feme is of a different opi¬
nion.
Fig. 4. The following are examples : 1. Gules, a pale or ; borne
by the name of Grandmain. 2. Party per pale argent and
gules, a pale counterchanged. 3. Argent, a pale between
two endorses gules. 4. Party per pale, 1st, paly of six
argent and sable ; 2d, azure ; borne by the name of Trench-
ard. 5. Pale of six or and azure. 6. Argent, three pallets
undy sable ; borne by the name of Downes. 7. Party per
pale, argent and gules; borne by Earl Waldegrave. 8.
Party per pale indented, or and gules ; borne by Berming-
ham, baron of Athenry, in Ireland. This family, which are of
English extraction, took their name from the town of Ber-
mingham in the county of Warwick. 9. Quarterly per pale
dove-tail, gules and or; borne by Lord Montfort. Sir Thomas
Bromley, one of his lordship’s ancestors, was by the 21st
Elizabeth constituted lord high chancellor of England, in
which post he died. 10. Argent, a pale flory counterflory
sable. 11. Argent, a pale lozengy sable ; borne by the name
of Savage. 12. Argent, a pale indented vert; borne by the
name of Dickson. 13. Argent, on a pale engrailed sable,
three crescents or; borne by the name of Ashley. 14.
Ermine on a pale engrailed azure, three lions’ heads couped
or; borne by the name of Avery. 15. Vert, on a pale ra¬
diant oi, a lion rampant sable ; borne by Lord Tyrawley,
in Ireland, supposed to be descended from Milesius king of
Spain, by his eldest son Hiberius, who, with his brother
Heremon, established a colony in Ireland. 16. Azure, a
pallet argent. 17. Vert, an endorse or. 18. Argent on
two pallets sable, six cross croslets fitchy or ; borne by the
name of Bethunes, of the county of Salop. 19. Argent,
two endorses gules, in chief three mullets sable ; borne by
the name of Vautort. 20. Azure, on a pale walled with,
three pieces on each side or, an endorse sable ; borne by
the name of Sublet de Noyers, a family of distinction in
r ranee.
Oftl
°J the and Bend Sinister. The bend is an ordi w
nary formed by two diagonal lines, drawn from the dexter
chief to the sinister base, and contains the fifth part of the
field in breadth if uncharged; but if charged, then the
third. Its diminutives are, the bendlet, which is the half
of a bend ; the cost or cotise, when two of them accom
pany a bend, which is the fourth part of a bend ; and the
riband, the moiety of a cost, or the eighth part of the
held. I here is also the bend sinister, which is of the same
breadth as the bend, but drawn the contrary way. Thr
is subdivided into a scarpe> which is the half of the bend*5
and into a baton, which is the fourth part of the bend but
does not extend itself to the extremities of the field there
being part of it seen at both ends.
The examples are, 1. Argent, a bend wavy sable; borne Plate
by the Earl of Portsmouth, descended from the Wallops ecu*,
o Hampshire, a Saxon family, who were possessed of lands
to a considerable value in the county at the time of the
Conquest. 2. Cheeky or, and azure, a bend ermine; borne
by Viscount Dudley and Ward. 3. Azure, a bend entail¬
ed argent, between two cotises or ; borne by Lord
Fortescue, as also by Baron Fortescue, in Ireland, this last
nobleman bearing a crescent in his arms for difference.1
4. Sable, a bend argent between two cotices indented or •
borne by the name of French. 5. Paly of six or and sable’
a bend counterchanged; borne by Baron Baltimore. 6.
Party per bend crenelle argent and gules ; borne by the
Earl of Cork and Orrery, in Ireland. 7. Argent, three
bendlets, enhansed gules, as the English express it, though
the phrase enhansed is used by no other nation. The pro¬
per blazon of this arms is, parted per bend, 1st, bendy of
six gules and argent, and, 2d, of the last; borne by Lord
Byron.2 8. Ermine, a bend voided gules; borne by the
name of Ireton. 9. Argent, three bendlets wavy azure;
borne by the name of Wilbraham. 10. Bendy of six pieces
argent and azure. When the shield is filled with an equal
number of bendlets of metal andcolour, it is called bendy; but
it the number of them be unequal, they are to be blazoned
by the name bendlets, and their number specified. 11. Party
per bend azure and argent, two bendlets engrailed counter-
changed ; borne by the name of Frenes. 12. Quarterly,
or and gules, a bend over all vair ; borne by the Duke of
Dorset and Earl of Middlesex. 13. Gules on a bend ar¬
gent, three trefoils slipped proper; borne by the Earl of
Bristol, who derives his pedigree from Robert Fitz-Hervey,
a younger son of Hervey duke of Orleans, who came over
from France with William the Conqueror. 14. Argent, on
a,. end gules cotised sable, three pair of wings conjoined
i St ’ k°rne by Viscount Powerscourt, in Ireland.
15. Gules, on a bend centre ermine cotised or, three boars’
heads couped argent; borne by Lord Edgcumbe, whose
ancestors received their name from the manor of Edg¬
cumbe in Devonshire. 16. Argent, a bend sinister gules.
17. Or, a bendlet gules. 18. Argent, a riband gules. The
name of this bearing corresponds with its form, being long
and narrow, in the shape of a riband. 19. Azure, a scarf
m. I Ins bearing is that kind of ornament which is used
by officers on duty, and usually worn after the same man-
ner". * p bis contains three batons ; the first is compony
ermine and azure, set over the royal arms; the second is
compony argent and azure, set over the royal arms; the
nied William d^ke of N^mandyT? Hs iLlsim^of Emdand •^n'fbeLdnffa0'? °f stren£th and courage, who accompa-
had three horses killed under him, and from that s-nalevenl Z “ ]?efore the duke> a‘ the battle of Hastings,
scutum, or the old French word a S ^ ™ t0 family Were assumed ’ for the Latin word
ducum. ’ 3 SmelCt’ bein» added tof°rie’ strong, composes their name; and the motto is, Forte scutum salu,
and mam and land3 in ihe "*>««»com-****
HERA
f'Qf t third is gules, charged with three roses argent, seeded and
^harji- barbed proper, set over the royal arms.
fljy ''' Of the Fess and Bar. The fess is an ordinary which is
produced by two parallel lines drawn horizontally across
the centre of the field, and contains in breadth the third
part thereof. Some English writers think it has no dimi¬
nutive, as a bar is a distinct ordinary of itself. The bar,
according to their definition, is formed of two lines, and
contains only the fifth part of the field ; but this is not the
only respect in which it differs from the fess; for there
may be more than one in an escutcheon, placed in diffe¬
rent parts of it, whereas the fess is limited to the centre-
point. The bar has two diminutives ; the barulet, wEich
contains the half of the bar ; and the closet, which is the
half of the barulet. When the shield contains a number
of bars of metal and colour alternate, of even number, that
is called harry of so many pieces, expressing their num¬
ber.
: 2 The examples are, 1. Argent, afess indented sable; borne
by Earl Delaware. 2. Argent, a fess wreathed azure and
gules; borne by the Earl of Hyndford.1 3. Party per
fess or and argent, a fess nebule gules ; borne by the name
of Anteshed. 4. Party per fess indented or and azure;
borne by the name of Saunders. 5. Cheeky or and azure
on a fess gules, a crescent argent for difference ; borne
by Lord Clifford of Chudley, descended from Walter de
Clifford of Clifford Castle, in the county of Hereford, who
came over into England with the Conqueror.2 6. Argent,
on a fess azure, three lozenges or; borne by the Earl of
Denbigh and Desmond, descended from the Earls of
Hapsburg, in Germany; Geoffroy earl of Hapsburg be¬
ing oppressed by Rodolph emperor of Germany. 7. Or,
on a fess gules, three fleurs-de-lis of the first; borne by
the name of Leonard. 8. Ermine, on a fess gules, a lion
passant or ; borne by Baron Craysfort, in Ireland. 9. Sable,
a fess ermine, between three crescents or; borne by the
Earl of Coventry, descended from John Coventry, a native
of the city of Coventry, and afterwards mercer and Lord
Mayor of London in the reign of Henry V. 10. Sable,
a fess cheeky, or and azure, between three bezants;
borne by the Earl and Baron of Londonderry.3 II. Or
on a fess sable, between three Muscovy ducks proper,
arose of the field; borne by Viscount Bateman. 12.
Sable, on a fess argent, between three leopards passant
guardant or, three escalops gules; borne by the Earl
of Hillsborough. 13. Or, a fess-couped gules, between
two lions passant sable ; borne by Lord Masham, descend¬
ed from Sir John Masham, who flourished in the reign of
King Henry VI. 14. Argent, a lion rampant guardant
gules, debruised by a fess azure, between three etoiles is-
L D R Y. 249
suing out of as many crescents of the second; borne by Of the
the Earl of Roscommon in Ireland.4 5 15. Or, two bars Charges,
azure, a chief quarterly of the second and gules, the first
and fourth charged each with two fleurs-de-lis of France,
the second and third with a lion of England ; borne by the
Duke of Rutland and Marquis of Granby. 16. Barry of
ten pieces argent and azure, over all six escutcheons 3,
2, 1, sable, each charged with a lion rampant of the first,
armed, and langued gules, a crescent for difterence ; borne
by the Earl of Salisbury, descended from the famous
William Cecil, Lord Burghley, who left two sons, Thomas
and Robert, both of whom were made earls in one day;
Robert, the younger, being created Earl of Salisbury in
the morning; and Thomas, the eldest, Earl of Exeter in
the afternoon. 17. Gules, two bars or; borne by the
Earl of Harcourt, descended from the Harcourts of Nor¬
mandy, who took their name from a place called Har¬
court in that province, where the family usually resided.
18. Ermine, two bars gules; borne by the Earl of West¬
meath, Baron Delvin. 19. Argent, two bars indented
sable ; borne by the Earl of Athlone.6 20. Argent, three
bars gemels gules ; borne by the Earl of Barrymore.
Of the Cheveron. The cheveron, which represents two
rafters of a house well joined together, or a pair of com¬
passes half open, occupies the fifth part of a field with the
English, but the French allow it the third. Its diminu¬
tives are, the cheveronel, which contains the half of a che¬
veron ; and the couple close, which is the half of a cheve¬
ronel, that is, its breadth is only a fourth part of a cheve¬
ron. But this last diminutive is never borne except in
pairs, or with a cheveron between two of them. The French
have but one diminution of this ordinary, called etaye, con¬
taining the third part of its breadth.
The examples of cheverons are, 1. Argent, a cheveron Fig. 3.
gules between three torteaux ; borne by the Earl of Har-
borough, lineally descended from Scherard, who possess¬
ed manors and lands in the counties of Cheshire and Lan¬
cashire in the reign of William the Conqueror. 2. Sable,
a cheveron between three etoiles argent; borne by Lord
Langdale, descended from the Langdales of Yorkshire,
who resided at the town of Langdale, whence they took
their name, in the reign of King John. 3. Sable, a cheve¬
ron between three leopards’ heads or; borne by the Earl
of Stafford.6 4. Argent, a cheveron between three griffons
passant sable, a crescent for difference; borne by the Earl
of Ailesford, descended from Herbert Fitz-FIerbert, earl
of Pembroke, and chamberlain to King Henry I. They
took the name of Finch in the reign of King Edward I.7
5. Azure, a cheveron ermine between three escalops ar¬
gent; borne by Viscount Townshend. This family is of
1 Of this ancient family, which is said to assume their surname from the lands of Carmichael, in the county of Lanark, in Scot¬
land, where they still have their chief seat, was Sir John Carmichael, who accompanied Archibald, earl of Douglas, to the assistance
of Charles VI. of France, against the English ; and signalizing his valour at the battle of Baughey in April 1421, and breaking his
spear when the French and Scotch obtained the victory, had thereupon added to his paternal coat a dexter arm holding a broken
spear, which is now the crest of the family.
*' Fair Rosamond, mistress to Henry II. was of this family.
3 Of this family, anciently of Bandfort, in the county of Dorset, was Thomas Pitt, who, in the reign of Queen Anne, was made
governor of Fort St George in the East Indies, where he resided many years, and purchased a diamond, which he sold to the king of
Irance for L.125,000 sterling, weighing 136 carats, and commonly known by the name of the Pitt Diamond.
* This noble family is derived from Logan, surnamed DUune or Delion, which signifies brave and valiant, to whom the Duke of
Aquitaine gave his daughter in marriage, in whose right, after her father’s death, he became prince and sovereign of Aquitaine, which
continued in his posterity till Henry II. married Alionora, daughter and heir to William V. duke of Aquitaine, and about 1172 ob¬
tained that principality by superior force ; and, to prevent any disturbance, brought Sir Henry Delion or Dillon, and his brother
Ihomas, then infants, to England, their father being slain.
5 Godart, the first earl, was descended of an ancient family in the United Provinces of Holland, where he was Baron de Reede
and Ginkel. In 1691, he was a lieutenant-general of King William’s forces in Ireland, where, in June the same year, he took
Ballymore for the English, and, in July following, the town of Athlone.
6 All genealogists agree that the name of Wentworth is of Saxon original, and taken from the manor of Wentworth in Yorkshire,
where, in the reign of William the Conqueror, lived Reginald de Wenteworde, as it is spelt in Doomsday Book.
5 One of the ancestors of this family was the Right Honourable Heneage Finch, earl of Nottingham, who was constituted lord
high chancellor of England in 1675 ; and lord high steward on the trials of Philip earl of Pembroke, and William viscount Stafford,
in 168(1.
VOL. XI. 2 I
250
HERALDRY.
Of the Norman extraction, and came into England about the time
Charges. 0f the Conquest. 6. Azure, a cheveron between three
mullets or; borne by Viscount Chet wind, of Ireland. 7. Ar¬
gent, a cheveron gules, between three square buckles sable ;
borne by Lord Ducie, descended from the Ducies in Nor¬
mandy. 8. Argent, a cheveron cheeky gules, and of the
field, between three bugle-horns strung sable, garnished
of the second; borne by Lord Semple. The first Lord
Semple was Sir Robert, who, being much in favour with
King James IV. was by him created Lord Semple in 1489.
9. Argent, a cheveron engrailed between three lions pas¬
sant sable ; borne by Viscount Strangford. 10. Quarterly
argent and azure, a cheveron engrailed counter-changed;
borne by the name of Chamber. 11. Party per cheveron
engrailed gules and argent, three talbots’ heads erased
counter-changed; borne by Lord Feversham, descended
from the Buncombes of Barley-end in Buckinghamshire.
12. Paly of six, argent and gules, on a cheveron azure,
three cross-croslets or; borne by the name of Carpenter,
Baron Carpenter of Killaghy in Ireland. 13. Azure, on
a cheveron or, between three bezants, a bay leaf proper;
borne by the Earl of Hopetoun, descended from Henry
Hope, a native of Holland, who, about two centuries ago,
came over and settled in Scotland. 14. Vert, on a che¬
veron between three unicorns’ heads erased argent, horned
and maned or, three mullets sable; borne by the name of
Kerr, being the first and fourth quarters in the arms of
Kerr, duke of Roxburghe, &c. This family is said to have
come from Normandy. 15. Azure, on a cheveron or,
between three bears’ heads couped argent, muzzled gules,
a roebuck’s head erased, between two hands holding dag¬
gers all proper; borne by Mackay, Lord Reay.1 16. Er¬
mine, on a cheveron azure, three foxes’ heads erased or,
and in a canton of the second a fleur-de-lis of the third;
borne by the Earl of Ilchester, &c. 17. Or, two cheve-
ronels gules, borne by Lord Monson, descended from John
Monson, who flourished in the reign of King Edward HI.
and from whom descended another John, who attended
King Henry V. in his wars in France. 18. Or, on a fess,
between two cheveronels sable, three cross-croslets of the
first; borne by the Earl of Orford. This family took their
name from Walpole in Norfolk, where they resided before
the Conquest. 19. Azure, three cheveronels interlaced or,
and a chief of the last; borne by the name of Fitz-Hugh.
20. Argent, three cheveronels gules, in chief a label azure;
borne by Viscount Barrington, &c. This family is of Nor¬
man extraction.
Of the Cross. The cross is an ordinary formed by the
meeting of two perpendicular with two horizontal lines in
the fess-point, where they make four right angles; the
lines are not drawn throughout, but discontinued the
breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the fifth
part of the field when not charged; but if charged, the
third. It is borne as well engrailed, indented, &c. as plain.
There is so great a variety of crosses used in heraldry,
that it would be a difficult task to treat of them all. Guillim
has mentioned thirty-nine different sorts; Be la Colurn-
biere, seventy-two; Leigh, forty-six ; and Upton declares
he cannot ascertain all the various crosses borne in arms,
as they are almost innumerable. As their different forms
cannot be given here, we shall, therefore, only take notice
of such as are most commonly seen at present in coats-
of-arms.
Fig. 4. 1 he first is quarterly, ermine and azure, a cross or ;
borne by the Buke of Leeds. 2. Gules, a cross engrailed
tu!yT canfe'tolreland1 a •''“"K"' son of Ochonachcr, who, about the end of the twelfth ten.
began 4e suruaSe”fF XL or S It” m”” a0n|‘d “t SJtatl“aver, whose son was named V More, and from him
20th of June 1628 was created Baron’Keav „f conn^ of CmLnesVb^ ChaXs ^ Cr'iated bar<“,e‘ “ 1625’ a“d “ ““
argent, a lozenge in the dexter chief of the second; borne Of
by Lord Leigh. This family took their surname from the ChX! £
town of High Leigh in Cheshire, where they resided be-
fore the Norman conquest. 3. Gules, a cross argent fretty ^ ^
azure; borne by Viscount Taaffe of Corran, in Ireland.
4. Sable, a cross raguly or; borne by the name of Stoway!
5. Argent, on a cross sable, a leopard’s face or; borne
by Brydges, duke of Chandos. The ancestors of this
noble family took their name from the city of Bruges in
Flanders; and one of them, who came over with William
the Conqueror, had a considerable share in the victory of
Hastings. 6. Or, on a cross sable, a patriarchal cross of
the field ; borne by Vesey, Baron Knapton in Ireland.
The family of Vescey or Vesey derives its origin from
Charles the Great, king of France, and emperor of the
West, who died at Aix-la-Chapelle in Germany, on the
28th of January 814. 7. Argent, on a cross gules, five
escalops or; borne by the Earl of Jersey, descended from
the family of Villiers in Normandy, some of whom came
over to England with the Conqueror. 8. Sable, on a cross
within a bordure engrailed or, five pellets; borne by the
Earl of Brooke and Warwick. The ancestors of this fa¬
mily are of Norman extraction, and came over with Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, who conferred on them manors and
lands in England. 9. Argent, a cross bottony sable ; borne
by the name of Winwood. 10. Or, a cross-croslet gules,
borne by the name of Taddington. 11. Azure, a cross
potent fitchy or. This ensign is said to have been borne
by Ethelred, king of the West Saxons. 12. Party per pale,
gules and argent; a cross potent quadrate in the centre,
between four crosses patee counter-changed; the arms of
the episcopal see of Litchfield and Coventry. 13. Azure,
a cross moline argent; borne by Bentinck, duke of Port¬
land, descended from a family in the United Provinces of
Holland, of which was William Bentinck, who in his youth
was page of honour to the Prince of Orange, afterwards
William HI. king of Great Britain, and, on the accession
of William and his consort, was made groom of the stole,
privy-purse to his majesty, lieutenant-general of his ma¬
jesty’s army, and also created Baron of Cirencester, Vis¬
count Woodstock, and Earl of Portland, in 1689. 14. Ar¬
gent, a cross patonce sable ; borne by the name of Rice.
15. Sable, a cross patee argent; borne by the name of
Maplesden. 16. Azure, a cross flowery or; borne by the
name ot Cheney. 1 his is said to have also been the arms
of Edwin, the first Christian king of Northumberland. 17.
Argent, six cross-croslets fitchy 3, 2, 1, sable, on a chief
azure two mullets pierced or; borne by the Buke of
Newcastle, descended from Jeffrey de Clinton. 18.
Gules, a cheveron between ten crosses patee, six above
and four below, argent; borne by the Earl of Berkeley,
descended from Robert Fitz-Harding, who obtained a
grant of Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire, which the
family still inherits, and whence they obtained the sur¬
name of Berkeley, from Henry, duke of Normandy, after¬
wards king of England. 19. Azure, three mullets or,
accompanied with seven cross-croslets fitchy argent, three
in chief, one in fess, two in flanks, and the last in base;
borne by Lord Somerville. 20. Gules, three crosses re-
cercelee, voided or, a chief vairy ermine and contre er¬
mine ; borne by Baron Willoughby de Broke, descended
from William de Vernai, who flourished in the reign of
King Henry I.
Of the Saltier. The saltier, which is formed by the
bend and bend sinister crossing each other in right angles,
oft
late
;lx?
?.l.
HERALDRY.
as the intersecting of the pale and fess forms the cross,
i. contains the fifth part of the field; but if charged, the
> third. In Scotland, this ordinary is frequently called a
St Andrew’s Cross. It may, like the others, be borne en¬
grailed, wavy, &c. also between charges, or charged with
any thing.
The examples are, 1. Argent, a saltier gules ; borne by
the Duke of Leinster, descended from Otho, or Other, a
powerful lord in the time of King Alfred, descended from
the dukes of Tuscany. 2. Gules, a saltier argent, between
twelve cross-croslets or; borne by the Earl of Plymouth,
descended from Robert Fitz-Hicman, lord of the manor of
Bloxham, Oxfordshire, in the 56th Henry III. 1272. 3.
Vert, a saltier wavy ermine ; borne by the name of Wake-
man of Beckford, in Gloucestershire. 4. Ermine, a saltier
counter-compony or and gules ; borne by the name of
Ulmston. 5. Argent, a saltier azure with a bezant in the
centre ; borne by Yorke, earl of Hardwicke. 6. Argent,
on a saltier gules an escalop or ; the arms of the bishop-
rick of Rochester. 7. Party per saltier, azure and ar¬
gent, on a saltier gules, a crescent of the second for dif¬
ference ; quartered by Viscount Gage of Castle-Island,
in Ireland. This noble family is of Norman extraction,
and derives its descent from De Gaga or Gage, who at¬
tended William I. in his expedition to England; and, af¬
ter the conquest thereof, was rewarded with grants of
lands in the forest of Dean, and county of Gloucester. 8.
Gules, on a saltier argent, a rose of the first barbed and
seeded proper ; borne by Lord Abergavenny, premier ba¬
ron of England. 9. Or, on a saltier azure, nine lozenges
of the first; the paternal arms of Dalrymple, earl of Stair.
10. Argent, on a saltier engrailed sable, nine annulets or ;
borne by the name of Leak. 11. Gules, a saltier between
four crescents or; borne as the second and third quarters
in the coat-of-arms of Lord Kinnaird. 12. Argent, a sal¬
tier engrailed between four roses gules, for Lennox ; and
borne as first and fourth quarters in the coat-of-arms of
Lord Napier.1 13. Gules, a saltier or, surmounted of an¬
other vert; for the name of Andrews. 14. Azure, a saltier
quarterly quartered or and argent; the arms of the epis¬
copal see of Bath and Wells. 15. Party per saltier argent
and gules, a saltier counter-changed. 16. Party per pale in¬
dented argent and sable, a saltier counter-changed ; borne
by persons of the name of Scot. 17. Argent, three saltiers
couped and engrailed sable ; borne by the name of Benton.
18. Argent, a saltier gules, and a chief ermine; borne by
Fitz-Maurice, earl of Kerry, &c. This family is a branch
of that of Kildare, who originally descended from the
Grand Duke of Tuscany, and of which was Otho, a baron
of Italy, whose son Walter, attending the Norman con¬
queror into England, was made constable of the castle of
Windsor. 19. Sable, a saltier argent, on a chief azure,
three fleurs-de-lis or ; borne by the Earl of Upper Ossory,
and Baron of Gowran in Ireland, descended from Here-
mon, the first monarch of the Milesian race in Ireland.
After they had assumed the surname of Fitz-Patrick, they
were for many ages kings of Ossory, in the province of
Leinster. 20. Party per pale argent and gules, three sal¬
tiers counterchanged; borne by the name of Lane. These
arms are also borne, without the least alteration, by the
name of Kingsman.
2. Of Sub-Ordinaries.
Besides the honourable ordinaries and the diminutions
already mentioned, there are other heraldic figures, called
sub-ordinaries, or ordinaries only, which, by reason of their
ancient use in arms, are of worthy bearing; namely, the
gyron, franc-quarter, canton, pairle, fret, pile, orle, ine¬
scutcheon, tressure, annulet, flanches, Basques, voiders,
billet, lozenge, gutts, fusil, rustre, mascle, papillone, and
diaper. See Plate CCLXXVII. under fig. 1.
The gyron is a triangular figure formed by two lines,
one drawn diagonally from one of the four angles to the
centre of the .shield, and the other is drawn either ho¬
rizontal or perpendicular, from one of the sides of the
shield, meeting the other line at the centre of the field.
Gyronny is said, when the field is covered with six,
eight, ten, or twelve gyrons in a coat-of-arms; but a
French author contends that the true gyronny consists of
eight pieces only. The franc-quarter is a square figure,
which occupies the upper dexter quarter of the shield,
but is rarely carried as a charge. The canton is a square
part of the escutcheon, somewhat less than the quarter,
but without any fixed proportion, representing the banner
that was given to ancient knights-bannerets, and, gene¬
rally speaking, possesses the dexter-chief point of the
shield; but should it possess the sinister corner, which
but seldom occurs, it must be blazoned a canton sinister.
The joaiYfe is a figure formed by the conjunction of the
upper half of the saltier with the under half of the pale.
The fret is a figure representing two little sticks in saltier,
with a mascle in the centre interlaced. Gibbon terms it
the herald's true lover s knot, but many dissent from his
opinion. Pretty is said when the field or bearings are co¬
vered with a fret of six, eight, or more pieces. The pile,
consisting of two lines terminating in a point, is formed
like a wedge, and is borne engrailed, wavy, &c. It issues
in general from the chief, and extends towards the base ;
yet there are some piles borne in bend, and issuing from
other parts of the field. The orle is an ordinary compos¬
ed of two lines going round the shield, the same as the
bordure; but its breadth is but one half of the latter, and
at some distance from the brim of the shield. The ine¬
scutcheon is a little escutcheon borne within the shield.
Modern heralds give the name of inescutcheon to such as
are borne single in the fess-point or centre, and call that
which is fixed upon the fess-point escutcheon of pretence.
The pressure is an ordinary commonly supposed to be the
half of the breadth of an orle, and is generally borne
flowery and counter-flowery, as it is also very often double,
and sometimes treble. This double tressure forms part of
the arms of Scotland, as marshalled in the royal achieve¬
ment, and granted to the Scotch monarch by Charle¬
magne. The annulet, or ring, is a well-known figure, and
is frequently found in arms throughout every kingdom of
Europe. The fianches are formed by two curved lines, or
semicircles, being always borne double, d he Jlasques re¬
semble the flanches, except that the^circular lines do not
no so near the centre of the field. Ihe voiders are con¬
sidered as a subordinate ordinary, and are not unlike the
Basques, but they occupy less of the field. The billet is an
oblong square figure, twice as long as broad. Some heralds
251
Of the
Charges.
1 This family is said to be descended from the ancient thanes or stewards of Lennox in ^ havln/ionvSated
of Napier from the following occurrence. King David II. in his wars with the ng is , , , , • ’ f . an(j com_
his subjects to battle, the Earl of Lennox sent his second son Donald, with such forces as his duty obllge<J hl1" t0 1 ’
ing to an engagement, where the Scotch gave ground, this Donald, taking his fat er s s an ar _ rom i ’ every one ad
ing the enemy with the Lennox men, the fortune of the battle changed, and they obtained the whereupon ^^ne ad¬
vancing, and reporting their acts, as the custom then was, the king declared they had all ’ ,b^ r^ardf0r Osgood
among them who had «« pier, that is, no equal; upon which the said Donald took the name of Napier, and h^ his good
services, the lands of Gosfield, and other estates in the county of Fife. I or this tradition, however, we have been unable to Una any
sufficient authority.
252
HERALDRY.
Of the
Charges.
Plate
CC1LXXX.
fig. 2.
imagine that they represent bricks for building; but
others more properly consider them as representing fold¬
ed paper or letters. The lozenge is an ordinary of four
equal and parallel sides, but not rectangular; two of its
opposite angles being acute, and the other two obtuse.
. Gutts, or drops, are round at bottom, waved on the sides,
and terminate at the top in points. Heralds have given
them different names, according to their different tinc¬
tures. Thus, if they are yellow, they are called dor;
if white, deau ; if red, de sang ; if blue, de larmes ; if
green, de vert; if black, de poix. The fusil is longer
than the lozenge, having its upper and lower part more
acute than the other two collateral middle parts, which
acuteness is occasioned by the short distance of the space
between the two collateral angles; and this space, if the
fusil be rightly made, is always shorter than any of the
four equal geometrical lines of which it is composed.
The rustre is a lozenge pierced round in the middle. The
inascle is pretty much like a lozenge, but voided or perfo¬
rated throughout its whole extent, showing a narrow bor¬
der.1 PapMone is an expression used for a field or charge
that is covered with figures like the scales of a fish. Dia¬
pering is said of a field or charge shadowed with flourish-
ings or foliage, with a colour a little darker than that on
which it is wrought. The Germans frequently use it;
but it does not enter into the blazoning or description of
an arms, and only serves to embellish the coat.
If the forementioned ordinaries have any attributes,
that is, if they are engrailed, indented, wavy, &c. they
must be distinctly specified, after the same manner as the
honourable ordinaries.
The following are examples of sub-ordinaries, viz. 1.
Gules, an orle ermine; borne by the name of Humfran-
ville. 2. Argent, three inescutcheons gules ; borne by the
name of Hay, and the second and third quarters in the
coat-of-arms of Hay, earl of Kinnoull. The first of the
name of Hay who bore these arms obtained them be¬
cause he and his two sons, after having defeated a party of
the Danes at the battle of Lonearty in the year 942, were
brought to the king with their shields all stained with
blood. 3. Argent, a fret sable ; borne by Talmash, earl
of Dysart. 4. Or, fretty of gules, a canton ermine ; borne
by Noel, earl of Gainsborough, descended from Noel,
who came into England with William the Conqueror, and,
in consideration of his services, obtained a grant of se¬
veral manors and lands. 5. Gironny of eight pieces or
and sable ; the first and fourth quarters of the coat-of-
arms of Campbell, now Marquis of Breadalbane, descend¬
ed in regular succession from Duncan, the first Lord
Campbell, ancestor of the family of Argyll. 6. Lozengy
argent and gules; borne by Earl Fitz-William, descended
from Sir William Fitz-William, marshal of the army of
William the Conqueror at the battle of Hastings. 7. Sa¬
ble, a mascle within a tressure flowery argent; borne by
the name of Hoblethorne. 8. Gules, three mullets or,
within a bordure of the latter, charged with a double
tressure flowery, and counter-flowery with fleurs-de-lis of
the first; borne by the family of Sutherland, &c. This
family is amongst the oldest in Britain, if not in Europe; Oft
the title of Earl having been conferred on one of their Chart
ancestors in 1067. 9. Azure, a pile ermine; for the^■ -
name of Wyche, and quartered as first and fourth in
the coat-of-arms of Wyche. 10. Or, on a pile engrailed
azure, three cross-croslets fitchy of the first; borne by
the name of Rigdon. 11. Or, on a pile gules, three lions
of England between six fleurs-de-lis azure ; the first and
fourth quarters of the Duke of Somerset, granted him by
Henry VIII. on his marriage with Lady Jane Seymour.
12. Ermine, two piles issuing from the dexter and sinis¬
ter sides, and meeting in base sable; borne by the name
of Holies. 13. Argent, three piles, one issuing from the
chief between the others reversed, sable ; for the name of
Hulse. 14. Azure, a pile wavy bendways or; borne by
the name of Aldham. 15. Or, three piles in bend, each
point enseigned with a fleur-de-lis sable; borne by the
name of Norton. 16. Argent, three piles meeting near
the point of the base azure ; borne by the name of Bryan.
17. Party per pale and per bend or and azure counter-
changed ; borne by the name of Johnson. 18. Party per
pale and per cheveron argent and gules counterchanged.
19. Party per pale chappe or and vert counterchanged.
This is a bearing seldom to be met with. 20. Party per
fess gules and argent, a pale counterchanged; borne by
the name of Lavider.
3. Of Common Charges borne in Coats-of-Arms.
It has been already observed, that in all ages men have
made use of the representation of living creatures, and
other symbolical signs, to distinguish themselves in war;
and that these marks, which were promiscuously used as
hieroglyphics, emblems, and personal devices, gave the
first notion of heraldry. But nothing shows the extent of
human ingenuity more than the great variety of these
marks of distinction, since they are composed of all sorts
of figures, some natural, others artificial, and many chi¬
merical or fantastical.
Hence it is that the sun, moon, stars, comets, meteors,
and so on, have been introduced to denote glory, grandeur,
power; that lions, leopards, tigers, serpents, stags, have
been employed to signify courage, strength^ prudence,
swiftness. The application to certain exercises, such as
war, hunting, music, has furnished lances, swords, pikes,
arms, fiddles; architecture, columns, cheverons, &c.; and
the other arts several things that relate to them. Human
bodies, or distinct parts of them, also clothes and orna¬
ments, have, for some particular intention, found a place
in armorial bearings; and trees, plants, fruits, and flowers,
have likewise been admitted to denote the rarities, ad¬
vantages, and singularities of different countries. The re¬
lation of some creatures or figures to particular names has
farthermore been a very fruitful source of variety in arms.
Ihus the family of Coningsby bears three coneys; that of
Arundel, six swallows; that of Urson, a bear; that of
Lucie, three pikes, in Latin tres lucios pisces; that of
Starkey, a stork; that of Castlemain, a castle triple-tow-
flints tad'aboutSn -"S ^ese™bla1nce of a mas^ taking it for the mash of a net, and others for the spots of certain
Sciente Heraldioue we shall transrr’V° 'N1.61'38 £1VCT a clearer account in support of this last opinion than Colombier, author of La
d Onhiions have varied vervT h6 \ ^ ^ satls!factl0? of the curious. “ Rohan,” says he, “ bears gules, nine mascles, or, 3, 3,
mv own part having often ohse^edV^in the °Tlgin °Jtbe niascles f mashes, as being somewhat like the meshes of nets; but for
ed the lords thei'eof to renresent- tl ^ fi°S-e ings which are remarkable and singular in some countries, have sometimes occasion-
wh o I believe anf tlmfirst th^t Weth IT escutche°nS’ and to take them for their arms, I am of opinion, that the lords of Rohan,
took them because in the most -in ' 0‘ e S^ies m their arms, though descended from the ancient kings and princes of Bretagne,
in V1SC0U^ 0f Rohan, afterwards erected into a duchy, there are abundlnce of small flints,
the same mark upon their s-ales • wIiLh^h ^ 16 inside tbem ’ as a*so the carps, which are in the fish-ponds of that duchy, have
jnnfnfr7ueXtl£a0rdma,ry’ and Peculiar t0 that countr-v’ the anc'ient lords of the same had
the name oiviacles from the 1 atin word ’ ° i& G- tb7e. hgures for their arms, and to transmit them to their posterity, giving them
maclay that is, a mascle without a spot.”1 slgmf;ylDg a sPot; whence some of that house have taken for their motto, Sine macula
)f th*
;harg(
HERALDRY.
fig'
ered; and that of Shuttleworth, three weavers’ shut-
tics*
Besides these natural and artificial figures, there are
chimerical or imaginary ones used in heraldry, the result
of fancy and caprice ; such as centaurs, hydras, phoenixes,
griffons, hippogriffs, dragons, and the like. This great va¬
riety of figures shows the impossibility of comprehending
all common charges in a work of this nature; therefore
such only shall be treated of as are most frequently borne
in coats-of-arms, or escutcheons.
ARX. i. Of Natural Figures borne in Coats-of-Arms.
Amongst the multitude of natural things which are used
in coats-of-arms, those most usually borne are, for the sake
of brevity as well as perspicuity, distributed into the fol¬
lowing classes: viz. Celestial figures, as the sun, moon,
stars, &c. and their parts ; effigies of men, women, &c. and
their parts; beasts, as lions, stags, foxes, boars, &c. and
their parts; birds,-as eagles, swans, storks, pelicans, &c.
and their parts; fishes, as dolphins, whales, sturgeons,
trouts, &c. and their parts ; reptiks and insects, as tortoises,
serpents, grasshoppers, &c. and their parts ; vegetables, as
trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and their parts ; stones,
as diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, and the like. These
charges have, as well as ordinaries, various attributes or
epithets, which express their qualities, positions, and dis¬
positions. Thus the sun is said to be in his glory, eclipsed,
and the moon in her complement, increscent; animals are
said to be rampant, passant; birds have also their deno¬
minations, such as close, displayed; and fishes are de¬
scribed to be hauriant, naiant, and so forth.
1st. Examples of Celestial Figures.—1. Azure, a sun
in his glory; borne by the name of St Gere, and found
in the first and fourth quarters of the coat-of-arms of the
Marquis of Lothian. 2. Azure, one ray of the sun, bend-
ways gules, between six beams of that luminary argent;
borne by the name of Aldam. 3. Argent, five rays of the
sun issuing out of the sinister corner gules ; borne by the
name of Mudtshideler, a family of distinction in Franco¬
nia. 4. Or, a sun eclipsed. This bearing is seldom to be
met with, except in emblematic or hieroglyphic figures,
and might be expressed sable, because that hue is acci¬
dental and not natural. 5. Gules, the moon in her com¬
plement or, illustrated with all her light proper. This is
sufficient without naming the colour, which is argent. 6.
Azure, a moon decrescent proper; borne by the name of
Delaluna. 7. Gules, a moon increscent or; borne by the
name of Descus. 8. Argent, a moon in her detriment, sa¬
ble. This word is used in heraldry to denote her being
eclipsed. 9. Azure, a crescent argent; borne by the name
of Lucy. This bearing is also used as a difference, being
assigned to the second son, as before mentioned. 10.
Gules, three crescents argent; borne by Oliphant, Lord
Oliphant. 11. Azure, a crescent between three mullets
argent; borne by Arbuthnot, Viscount and Baron Arbuth-
not. 12. Gules, a star issuing from between the horns of
a crescent argent. 13. Azure, a star of sixteen points ar¬
gent ; borne by the name of Huitson. 14. Argent, three
mullets pierced sable; borne by the name of Wollaston.
15. Azure, six mullets, 3, 2, 1, or; borne by the name
of Welsh. 16. Ermine, a mullet of six points gules
pierced; borne by the name of Hessenhul. 17. Argent,
a rainbow with a cloud at each end proper. This is part
of the crest to the Earl of Hopetoun’s coat-of-arms. The
whole of it is a globe split on the top, and above it is the
rainbow and clouds. 18. Party per fess crenelle gules
and azure, three suns proper; borne by the name of Pier¬
son. 19. Gules, a mullet between three crescents argent;
borne by the name of Oliver. 20. Gules, a chief argent,
on the lower part thereof a cloud, the sun’s resplendent
rays issuing throughout proper; borne by the name of Of the
Leeson. . ®
2rf. Examples of Effigies of Men, fyc. and their Parts. ^ ^
 1. Azure, the Virgin Mary crowned, with her babe in
her right arm and a sceptre in her left, the coat-of-arms of
the bishopric of Salisbury. 2. Azure, a presbyter sitting
on a tombstone, with a crown on his head surmounted by
a glory or, his right hand extended, and holding in his
left hand an open book argent, with a sword cross his
mouth gules; the coat-of-arms of the bishopric of Chi¬
chester. 3. Azure, a bishop habited in his pontificals sit¬
ting on a chair of state, and leaning on the sinister side
thereof, holding in his left hand a crosier, his right being
extended towards the dexter chief of the escutcheon, all
or, and resting his feet on a cushion gules, tasseled of the
second ; the coat-of-arms of the bishopric of Clogher in
Ireland. 4. Azure, a bishop habited in his pontificals,
holding before him, in a pale, a crucifix proper; the coat-
of-arms of the Bishop of Waterford in Ireland. 5. Or, a
man’s leg couped at the midst of the thigh azure ; borne
by the name of Haddon. 6. Azure, three sinister hands
couped at the wrist, and erected argent; borne by the
family of Malmains. 7. Argent, three sinister hands
couped at the wrist, and erected gules; borne by the
name of Maynard. 8. Argent, a man s leg erased at the
midst of the thigh sable ; borne by the name of Prime.
9. Gules, three legs armed proper, conjoined in the fess
point at the upper part of the thighs, flexed in triangles,
garnished and spurred, or. Phis is the coat-of-arms of
the Isle of Man ; and is quartered by the Duke of Atholl,
titular lord or king of that island. 10. Gules, three dex¬
ter arms vambraced fessways, in pale proper; borne by
the name of Armstrong. 11. Or, three legs couped above
the knee sable ; borne by the name of Hogg. _ 12. Vert,
three dexter arms conjoined at the shoulders in the fess
point, and flexed in triangle or, with fists clenched ar¬
gent ; borne by the name of Tremaine. 13. Argent, a
man’s heart gules, with two equilateral triangles interlaced
sable; borne by the name of Villages, a family of distinc¬
tion in Provence. 14. Azure, a sinister arm, issuing out
of the dexter-chief, and extended towards the sinister base
argent. 15. Argent, a dexter hand couped at the wrist,
and erected, within a bordure engrailed sable; borne by
the name of Manly. 16. Argent, a man’s heart gules, en-
signed with a crown or, and on a chief azure, three mul¬
lets of the first. The paternal coat of the name of Douglas,
and quartered in the arms of the Dukes of Hamilton and
Queensberry ; as also in those of the Earls of Morton and
March. 17. Gules, a Saracen’s head affrontee, erased at
the neck argent, environed about the temples with a wreath
of the second and sable; borne by the name of Mergith.
18. Argent, three blackamoors’ heads couped proper, band¬
ed about the head argent and gules; borne by the name
of Tanner. 19. Gules, three bezants, each charged with
a man’s face affrontee proper; borne by the name of Gamin.
2X). Or, a blackamoor’s head couped proper, banded about
the head argent; borne by the name of Ustoc.
When half of the face, or little more, of human figures,
is seen in a field, it is then said to be in profile; and when
the head of a man, woman, or other animal, is represented
with a full face, it is termed affrontee.
3d. Examples of the diff erent Positions of Lions, fyc. in Plate
Coats-of-Arms.— 1. Or, a lion rampant gules; quarteredcclxxxi.
by Percy, duke of Northumberland. 2. Azure, a lion%- L
rampant-guardant or ; borne by the name of Fitz-Ham-
mond. 3. Gules, a lion rampant-reguardant or; quarter¬
ed by Cadogan, Lord Cadogan. 4. Ermine, a lion saliant
gules; borne by the name of Worley. 5. Azure, a lion
statant-guardant or; borne by the name of Broomfield.
6. Or, a lion passant gules; borne by the name of Games.
7. Argent, a lion passant guardant gules crowned or ;
254
HERALDRY.
Of the quartered by Ogilvy, earl of Findlater. 8. Gules, a lion surmounted of the sinister gules ; for the name of Kadrod Of
^Charges, sejant argent. 9. Or, a lion rampant double-headed Hard, an ancient British family, from which are descend- Char
azure; borne by the name of Mason. 10. Sable, two ed the Wynns, who bear this quartered, second and y
lions rampant-combatant or, armed and langued gules ; third, in their coat-of-arms. 10. Argent, three bulls pas-
borne by the name of Carter. 11. Azure, two lions ram- sant sable, armed and unguled or; for Ashley, and quar-
pant-adosses or. This coat-of-arms is said to have been tered by Ashley Cooper, earl of Shaftesbury, descended
borne by Achilles at the siege of Troy. 12, Sable, two from Richard Cooper, who flourished in the reign of Hen-
lioncels counter-passant argent, the uppermost towards ry VIII., and purchased the manor of Paulet in the coun-
the sinister side of the escutcheon, both collared gules ; ty of Somerset, of which the family are still proprietors,
borne by the name of Glegg.1 13. Argent, a demi-lion 11. Ermine, three cats passant in pale argent; for the
rampant sable ; borne by the name of Mervin. 14. Gules, name of Adams. 12. Gules, two greyhounds rampant or
a lion couchant between six cross-croslets, three in chief, respecting each other ; borne by the name of Dogget.
and as many in base, argent; for the name of Tynte. 13. Or, an ass’s head erased sable; borne by the name of
15. Azure, a lion dormant or. 16, Or, out of the midst of Hackwell. 14. Gules, three lions gambs erased argent; for
a fess sable, a lion rampant naissant gules; borne by the the name ofNewdigate. 15. Argent, three lions’tails erect-
name of Emme.2 17. Azure, three lioncels rampant or; ed and erased gules; borne by the name of Cork. 16.
borne by Fienes, Viscount and Baron Saye and Sele. 18. Azure,a buck’s headcabossed argent; borne by Legge, earl
Gules, a tri-corporated lion issuing from three parts of of Dartmouth, descended from Signior de Lega, an Italian
the escutcheon, all meeting under one head in the fess nobleman, who flourished in Italy in the year 1297. 17.
point or, langued and armed azure ; borne by the name Argent, two squirrels sejant adossee gules, for the name of
of Crouchback. This coat appertained to Edmund Crouch- Samwell. 18. Gules, a goat passant argent; borne by the
back, earl of Lancaster, in the reign of his brother King name of Baker. 19.« Sable, a stag standing at gaze argent;
Edward I. 19. Gules, a bezant between three demi-lions borne by the name of Jones of Monmouthshire 20.
rampant argent; borne by Bennet, earl of Tankerville, Azure, three holy lambs or; borne by the name of Row.
descended from the family of the Bennets in Berkshire, 5th. Examples of Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, fyc.—1. Ermine, Fig, S
who flourished in the reign of King Edward III. 20. an eagle displayed sable; borne by the name of Bedding-
Party per pale azure and gules, three lions rampant ar- field. 2. Gules, a swan close proper; borne by the name
gent; borne by Herbert, earl of Pembroke, descended of Leigham. 3. Argent, a stork sable, membered gules;
from Henry Fitz-Roy, natural son to Henry I. borne by the name of Starkey. 4. Gules, a pelican in
It is to be observed that, if a lion, or any other beast, be her nest with wings elevated, feeding her young ones
represented with its limbs and body separated, so that or, vulned proper; borne by the name of Carne. 5. Argent,
they remain upon the field at a small distance from their three peacocks in their pride proper; borne by the name
. natural places, it is then termed Dehache, or couped in all of Pawne. 6. Sable, a goshawk argent, perching upon
its parts; of which remarkable bearing there is an in- a stock in the base-point of the escutcheon of the second,
stance in armory, namely, or, a lion rampant gules, de- armed, jessed, and belled or; borne by the name of Wheele.
hache, or couped in all its parts, within a double tressure 7. Or, a raven proper; borne by the name of Corbet,
flowery and counter-flowery of the second; borne by the 8. Argent, three cocks gules, crested and jow-lopped sable,
name of Maitland. a crescent surmounted of a crescent for difference; borne
Jig-2- Ath. Examples of other Quadrupeds and their Parts, borne by Cockayne, Viscount Cullen, of Donegal in Ireland.
in Coats-of-Arms.—1. Sable,acamel statant argent; borne 9. Sable, a dolphin naiant embowed or, borne by the name
by the name of Camel. 2. Gules, an elephant statant ar- of Symonds. This animal is borne by the eldest son of
gent, tusked or. 3. Argent, a boar statant gules, armed the French king, and next heir to the crown, no other
or; borne by the name of Trewarthen. 4. Sable, a bull subject in that kingdom being permitted to bear it. 10.
passant or ; borne by the name of Fitz-Geffrey. 5. Sa- Argent, three whales’ heads erect and erased sable ; borne
ble, three nags’ heads erased argent; borne by Blayney, by the name of Whalley. 11. Gules, three escalops ar-
Baron Blayney of Monaghan, in Ireland, descended in a di- gent; borne by Keppel, earl of Albemarle, descended from
rect line from Cadwallader, a younger son of the Prince Arnold Joost van Keppel, a nobleman of the province of
of Wales. 6. Argent, three boars’ heads erased and erect Guelderland in Holland, who came over into England with
sable, langued gules, for the name Booth. 7. Azure, three the Prince of Orange in 1688, to whom he was then a page
boars heads erased or ; quartered by Gordon, duke of of honour, and was by him created a peer of England, by
Gordon, &c. Of this family, which took their surname the title of Earl of Albemarle, in the duchy of Normandy
from the barony of Gordon in the county of Berwick, there in France, 10th February 1696. 12. Azure, three trouts
have been, besides those in North Britain, several of great fretted in triangle argent; borne by the name of Troutbeck.
distinction in Muscovy. In the time of King Malcolm 13. Vert, a grasshopper passant or. 14. Azure, three bees,
IV. 1160, it was very numerous, and flourished in the two and one, volant, in pale argent; borne by the name of
county of Berwick. 8. Argent, three bulls’ heads erased, Bye. 15. Vert, a tortoise passant argent; borne by the
sable, armed or; borne by Skeffington, earl of Massa- name of Gawdy. 16. Gules, an adder nowed or; borne
reene. 9. Argent, two foxes counter-saliant, the dexter by the name of Nathiley.3 17. Ermine, a rose gules barb-
It is the natural disposition of the lion not to bear a rival in the field ; therefore two lions cannot be borne in one coat-of-arms,
but must be supposed to be lions’ whelps, called lioneeh; except when they are parted by an ordinary, or so disposed that they
seem to be distinctly separated from each other. In the two preceding examples they are called lions, because in the 10th they seem
to be striving for the sovereignty of the field, which they would not do unless they were of full growth ; and in the 11th they are sup¬
posed to represent two valiant men, whose dispute being accommodated by the prince, are leaving the field, their pride not suffering
them to go both one way. a ■> r
3 fj™5 form blaz°n is peculiar to all living things which are found issuing out of the midst of some ordinary or other charge.
Adders, snakes, and serpents, are said to represent many things, which being according to the fancy of the ancients, and a few
modern authors who have adopted their opinions, it is needless to enlarge upon. It is certain they often occur in armory ; but the
noblest is that of the duchy of Milan viz. “ argent, a serpent gliding in pale azure, crowned or, vorant an infant issuing gules.”
I he occasion of this bearing was as follows: Otho, first viscount of Milan, on his way to the Holy Land with Godfrey of Bouillon,
defeated and slew m single combat the great giant Volux, a man of extraordinary stature and strength, who had challenged the
bravest of the Christian army. The viscount having killed him, took his armour, and amongst it his helmet, the crest of which was a
serpent swallowing an infant, worn by him to strike terror into those who should be so bold as to engage him.
HERALDRY.
255
ed and seeded proper; borne by Boscawen, Viscount Fal¬
mouth, descended from Richard Boscawen, in the county
' of Cornwall, who flourished in the reign of King Edward
VI. 18. Azure, three laurel leaves slipped or; borne by
the name of Leveson, and quartered by Granville-Leveson
Gower, Earl Gower, &c. 19. Azure, three garbs or ; borne
by the name of Gumming. 20. Gules, three cinquefoils
argent; borne by Lambart, baron of Cavan, in Ireland.
This ancient family is of French extraction.
It is to be observed, that trees and plants are sometimes
said to be trunked, eradicated, fructuated, or raguled, ac¬
cording as they are represented in arms.
Art. 2. Of Artificial Figures borne in Coats-of-Arms.
After the various productions of nature, artificial figures,
the objects of art and mechanism, claim the next rank.
They may be distributed into the following classes, viz.
Warlike instruments, as swords, arrows, battering-rams,
gauntlets, helmets, spears, pole-axes ; ornaments used in
royal and religious ceremonies, as crowns, coronets, mitres,
wreaths, crosiers; architecture, as towers, castles, arches,
columns, plummets, battlements, churches, portcullises;
navigation, as ships, anchors, rudders, pendants, sails, oars,
masts, flags, galleys, lighters, and so on.
All these bearings have different epithets, serving to ex¬
press their position, their disposition, or their form. Thus
swords are said to be erect, pommeled, hiked; arrow's,
armed, feathered ; towers, covered, embattled; and so of
all others, as will more fully appear by the following exam¬
ples : 1. Sable, three swords, their points meeting in the
base argent, pommeled and hiked or, a crescent in chief of
the second for difference; borne by Powlet, duke of Bolton,
descended from Hercules, lord of Tournon in Picardy, who
came over to England with Jeffrey Plantagenet, earl of An¬
jou, third son of King Henry II., and amongst other lands
had the lordship of Paulet in Somersetshire conferred on
him. 2. Argent, three battering-rams barways in pale, head¬
ed azure and hooped or, an annulet for difference; borne by
Bertie, earl of Abington. 3. Azure, three left-hand gaunt¬
lets with their backs forward or; borne by Fane, earl of
Westmoreland, descended from the Fanes, an ancient
family which resided at Badsal in Kent. 4. Azure, three
arrows, their points in base or; borne by Archer, Lord
Archer, descended from John de Archer, who came over
from Normandy with William the Conqueror. 5. Gules,
two helmets in chief proper, garnished or, in a base of a
garb of the third ; borne by Cholmondeley, earl of Chol-
mondeley, descended from the ancient family of Egerton in
Cheshire, which flourished in the time of the Conquest, from
whom also the Duke of Bridgewater was descended. 6. Ar¬
gent, a ship with its sails furled up sable; quartered by
Hamilton, earl of Abercorn. The descent of this family is
from that of the Duke of Hamilton. 7. Or, an anchor in
pale gules; quartered by Johnston, marquis of Annandale.
The Johnstons are an ancient and warlike family, and de¬
rive their surname from the barony of Johnston in Annan¬
dale. 8. Sable, three spears’ heads erect argent, imbrued
gules, on a chief or, as many pole-axes azure; borne by
King, Lord King. 9. Gules, three clarions or; quartered by
Carteret, earl of Granville. This ancient family derives
its pedigree from Offerey de Carteret, who attended William
the Conqueror in his descent upon England, and contri¬
buted to the victory he obtained over Harold, at Hastings,
in 1066. 10. Argent, a maunch sable ; borne by Hastings, Of the
earl of Huntingdon, descended from Hugh de Hastings, Charges,
a younger son of the ancient and noble family of the Has-
tings, earl of Pembroke, of which was William de Hastings,
steward of the household to King Henry I. 11. Azure, a
circular wreath argent and sable, with four hawks’ bells
joined thereto in quadrature or; borne by Jocelyn, Viscount
Jocelyn.1 12. Gules, three towers argent; quartered by
Fowler, Viscount Ashbrook. 13. Gules, two keys in saltier
argent, in chief a royal crown proper; the arms of the arch¬
bishopric of York. 14. Gules, two swords in saltier argent,
pommeled and hiked or; the arms of the bishopric of Lon¬
don. 15. Sable, a key in bend, surmounted by a crosier in
bend sinister, both or; the arms of thebishopricof St Asaph.
16. Gules, two keys adossee in bend, the uppermost argent,
the other or, a sword interposed between them in bend
sinister of the second, pommeled, and hiked of the third ;
the arms of the bishopric of Winchester. 17. Gules, three
mitres with their pendants or ; the arms of the bishopric of
Chester. 18. Sable, three ducal coronets paleways or ; the
arms of the bishopric of Bristol. 19. Gules, a sword erect
in pale argent, pommeled and hiked or, surmounted by
two keys in saltier of the last; the arms of the bishopric
of Exeter. 20. Gules, three ducal coronets or; the arms
of the bishopric of Ely.
Art. 3.— Of Chimerical Figures.
The last and the oddest kind of bearings in coats-of-arms
is comprehended under the name of chimerical figures;
that is, such figures as have no real existence, but are
mere fabulous and fantastical inventions. These, charges,
griffons, martlets, and unicorns excepted, are so uncom¬
mon in British coats, that in order to make up the same
number of examples hitherto contained in each collection,
several foreign bearings are introduced ; which, however,
as they are conformable to the laws of heraldry, may also
contribute both to entertain and instruct the reader. Those
most in use are the following, namely, angels, cherubims,
tritons, centaurs, martlets, griffons, unicorns, dragons, mer¬
maids, satyrs, wiverns, harpies, cockatrices, phoenixes.
These, like the foregoing charges, are subject to various Plate
positions and dispositions, which, from the principles al-cclxxxii.
ready laid down, will be easily understood by the fol-%- T
lowing examples: 1. Gules, an angel standing affrontee,
with his hands conjoined and elevated upon his breast, ha¬
bited in a long robe close girt argent, his wings displayed
or ; borne by the name of Brangor de Cerevisia, a foreign
prelate, who assisted at the council of Constance in 1412.
2. Sable, a cheveron between three cherubim or; borne
by the^ name of Chaloner of Yorkshire and Cheshire. 3.
Azure, a fess indented between three cherubim argent.
These arms were granted to John Ayde, Esq. of Dodding-
ton in Kent, by Sir William Segar, garter. 4. Gules, a
cherub having three pair of wings, the uppermost and
lowermost counter-crossed saltierways, and the middle¬
most displayed argent; borne by the name of Buocasoco,
a foreign prelate. This example is copied from Menes-
trier’s Methode du Blason. 5. Azure, a griffon segreant
or, armed and langued gules, between three crescents ar¬
gent ; quartered by Bligh, Lord Clifton. 6. Gules, three
martlets or; borne by the name of Macgill. This bird,
which is represented without feet, is given for a difference
to younger brothers, to put them in mind that, in order to
1 This noble family is of great antiquity ; for, after the Romans had been masters of Britain for five hundred years, weaned with
the wars, they took their final leave of it. and carried awav with them a great many of their brave old British soldiers, who had served
them in their wars both at home and abroad, to whom they gave Armorica in France, for their former services, winch country was irom
them afterwards denominated Little Britain. It is supposed that there were some of this family amongst them; and that they gave the
name of Jocelyn to a town in this country, which still preserves the name; and it is thought probable that they returned with Wiliiaiu
the Conqueror, since in 1066 we find mention made of Sir Gilbert Jocelyn.
256
HERALDRY.
External raise themselves, they should trust to the wings of virtue IsA The imperial crown, which is made of a circle of Ex
Orna- and merit, and not to their legs, having but little land to gold, adorned with precious stones and pearls, heightened 0
set their feet on. 7. Azure, three mullets argent within with fleurs-de-lis, bordered and seeded with pearls, and ®'
nfpr.flnwprv nr. in the centre a mart- raised in the form of a can voided at. the ton hire a ^
merits.
raised in the form of a cap voided at the top like a crescent
From the middle of this cap rises an arched fillet enrichedFig'
with pearls, and surmounted with a mound on which is a
cross of pearls. No. 1.
2d. The crown of the kings of Great Britain, which is a
a double tressure counter-flowery or, in the centre a mart
let of the last; borne by Murray, Lord Elibank. 8. Sable,
a cockatrice displayed argent, crested, membered, and jow-
lopped gules. 9. Argent, a mermaid gules, crined or, hold¬
ing in her right hand a comb, and in her left a mirror, both
proper; borne by the name of Ellis. 10. Argent, a wi- circle of gold, bordered with ermine, enriched with pearls
vern, his wings elevated, and his tail nowed below him and precious stones, and heightened up with four crosses
gules; borne by the name of Drakes. 11. Or, a dragon patee and four large fleurs-de-lis alternately; .from these
passant vert. 12. Gules, a centaur or sagittary in full rise four arched diadems adorned with pearls, which close
speed reguardant proper. This was the coat-of-arms of under a mound, surmounted with a cross like those at the
Stephen of Blois, son of Adela, daughter of William the bottom. No. 2.
Conqueror, and of Stephen, earl of Blois ; who, grounding %d. The crown of the kings in France, which is a circle
his pretension to the crown of England on this descent, enamelled, adorned with precious stones, and heightened
was proclaimed king in 1135, and reigned till the 25th of up with eight arched diadems, rising from as many fleurs-
October 1154. 13. Argent, an unicorn sejant sable, un- de-lis, which conjoin at the top under a double fleur-de-lis,
guled and horned or ; borne by the name of Harling. 14. all of gold. No. 3.
Argent, a dragon’s head erased vert, holding in his mouth ^th. The crowns of Spain, Portugal, and Poland, are all
a sinister hand couped at the wrist gules ; borne by the three of the same form, and are described by Colonel Par-
name of Williams. 15. Gules, three unicorns’heads couped sons in his Genealogical Tables of Europe. A ducal coronet,
or; borne by the name of Paris. 16. Argent, a wivern heightened up with eight arched diadems, which support a
volant bendways sable; borne by the name of Raynon. mound, ensigned with a plain cross. Those of Denmark
17. Azure, a lion sejant guardant winged or, his head and Sweden are both of the same form, and consist of eight
encircled with a glory, holding in his fore-paws an open arched diadems, xfising from a marquis’s coronet, which con-
book, in which is wrritten, Pax tibi, Marce, Evangelista join at the top under a mound ensigned with a cross-bot-
meus ; over the dexter side of the book a sword erect, all tony. The crowns of most other kings are circles of gold,
proper. These are the arms of the republic of Venice, adorned with precious stones, heightened up with large
18. Azure, a bull saliant and winged or, borne by the trefoils, and closed by four, six, or eight diadems, support-
name of Cadenet, a family of distinction in Provence. 19. ing a mound, surmounted of a cross.
Argent, a wivern with a human face affrontee hooded, and 5M. The Grand Signior bears over his arms a turban,
winged vert; borne by the Buseraghi, an ancient and noble enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two coronets, the
family of Lucca. 20. Azure, a harpy displayed, armed, first of which is made of pyramidical points heightened up
crined, and crowned or. These are the arms of the city of with large pearls, whilst the uppermost is surmounted with
Nuremberg in Germany. crescents. No. 4.
To the above-mentioned figures may be added the mon- 6th. The pope, or bishop of Rome, appropriates to him-
tegre, an imaginary creature, supposed to have the body self a tiara or long cap of golden cloth, from which hang
°f a tiger with the head and horns of a satyr; also those two pendants embroidered and fringed at the ends, semee
which have a real existence, but are said to be endowed
with extravagant and imaginary qualities, as the salaman¬
der, beaver, cameleon, and others.
IV. OF THE EXTERNAL ORNAMENTS OF ESCUTCHEONS.
The ornaments which accompany or surround escut¬
cheons were introduced to denote the birth, dignity, or of¬
fice, of the persons to whom the coat-of-arms appertained ;
and this Was practised both amongst the laity and the clergy.
Those which are most in use consist of ten sorts, viz.
crowns, coronets, mitres, helmets, mantlings, chapeaux,
wreaths, crests, scrolls, and supporters.
1. Of Crowns.
The first crowns were only diadems, bands, or fillets ;
but afterwards they were composed of branches of various
trees, and then flowers were added to them. Amongst the
Greeks, the crowns given to those who carried off the prize
at the Isthmian games were of pine; at the Olympic, of
laurel; and at the Nemean, of smallage. The Romans
also had various crowns to reward martial exploits and ex-
ti aordinary services done to the republic. Examples of
some of these crowns are frequently met with in modern
achievements.
But modern crowns are only used as an ornament, which
emperors, kings, and independent princes set on their heads,
in great solemnities, both to denote their sovereign autho¬
rity, and to render themselves more imposing to their sub¬
jects. Those most in use in heraldry are as follow :
with crosses of gold. This cap is enclosed by three mar¬
quises’ coronets; and has on its top a mound of gold, on
which is a cross of the same, sometimes represented by en¬
gravers and painters pometted, recrossed, flowery, or plain.
It is a difficult matter to ascertain the time when the popes
assumed the three coronets above mentioned. A succession
of the supreme pontiffs, engraved and published by order
of Clement XIII. for the edification of his subjects in
Great Britain and Ireland, represents Marcellus, who was
chosen bishop of Rome in the year 310, and all his suc¬
cessors, adorned with such a cap ; but it appears from good
authority, that Boniface VIII. who was elected to the see of
Rome in the year 1295, first compassed his cap with a co¬
ronet ; whilst Benedict XII. in 1335, added to it a second,
and John XXIII. in 1411, a third, with a view to indicate
that the pope is the sovereign priest, the supreme judge,
and the sole legislator, amongst Christians. No. 5.
2. Of Coronets.
The coronet of the Prince of Wales, or eldest son of the
king of Great Britain, was anciently a circle of gold set
round with four crosses patee, and as many fleurs-de-lis
alternately; but since the restoration it has been closed
w ith one arch only, adorned wdth pearls, surmounted by a
mound and cross, and bordered with ermine like the king’s.
No. 7.
Besides this coronet, the Prince of Wales has another
distinguishing mark of honour, peculiar to himself, called
by the vulgar the prince’s arms, namely, a plume of three
ostrich-feathers, with an ancient coronet of a prince of
Wales. Under this, in a scroll, is the motto, Ich Dien,
HERALDRY.
257
rten which in the German or old Saxon language signifies 1
3n>a serve. This device was first assumed by Edward, prince of
ients Wales, commonly called the Black Prince, after the famous
battle of Cressy, in 1346, where having with his own hand
killed John, king of Bohemia, he took from his head such
a plume as that here described, and put it on its own.
No. 6.
The coronet of all the intermediate sons and brothers
of the kings of Great Britain is a circle of gold bordered
with ermine, heightened up with four fleurs-de-lis and as
many crosses patee alternate. No. 8. The particular and
distinguishing form of such coronets as are appropriated
to princes of the blood-royal is described and settled in
a grant of Charles II. in the thirteenth year of his reign.
The coronet of the princesses of Great Britain is a circle
of gold bordered with ermine, and heightened up with
crosses-patee, fleurs-de-lis, and strawberry leaves alternate
(No. 9); whereas a prince’s coronet has only fleurs-de-lis
and crosses.
A duke’s coronet is a circle of gold bordered with er¬
mine, enriched with precious stones and pearls, and set
round with eight large strawberry or parsley leaves. No.
10. A marquis’s coronet is a circle of gold bordered with
ermine, set round with four strawberry leaves and as many
pearls on pyramidical points of equal height alternate. No.
11. An earl’s coronet is a circle of gold bordered with
ermine, heightened up wdth eight pyramidical points or
rays, on the tops of which are as many large pearls, which
are placed alternately with as many strawberry leaves,
but the pearls much higher than the leaves. No. 12.
A viscount’s coronet differs from the preceding ones as
being only a circle of gold bordered with ermine, with
large pearls set close together on the rim, without any li¬
mited number, which is the prerogative above the baron,
who is limited. No. 13. A baron’s coronet, which was
granted by King Charles II., is formed with six pearls set
at equal distances on a gold circle bordered with ermine,
four of which only are seen on engravings, paintings, and
the like, to show that he is inferior to the viscount. No.
14. The eldest sons of peers, above the degree of a
baron, bear their father’s arms and supporters with a
label, and use the coronet appertaining to their father’s
second title; and all the younger sons bear their arms
with proper differences, but use no coronets.
As the crown of the king of Great Britain is not quite
like that of other potentates, so most of the coronets of
foreign noblemen differ a little from those of the British
nobility. For example, the coronet of a French earl is a
circle of gold with eighteen pearls set on the brim of it; a
French viscount’s coronet is a circle of gold only enamel¬
led, charged with four large pearls ; a French baron’s co¬
ronet is a circle of gold enamelled and bound about with
a double bracelet of pearls; but these coronets are only
used on French noblemen’s coats-of-arms, and not worn
on their heads, as the British noblemen and their ladies
do at the king’s coronation.
3. Of Mitres.
The archbishops and bishops of England and Ireland
place a mitre over their coats-of-arms. It is a round cap
pointed and cleft at the top, from which hang two pen¬
dants fringed at both ends; with this difference, that the
bishop’s mitre is only surrounded with a fillet of gold, set
with precious stones (Plate CCLXXXIII. fig. I, No. 6),
whereas the archbishop’s issues out of a ducal coronet.
(Plate CCLXXXII. fig. 2, No. 15.) This ornament, with
other vestments, is still worn by the archbishops and
bishops of the church of Rome, whenever they officiate
with solemnity; but it is never used in England, other¬
wise than on coats-of-arms, as before mentioned.
VOL. XI.
4. Of Helmets. External
Orna-
The helmet was formerly worn as a defensive weapon, ments-
to cover the bearer’s head, and is now placed over a coat-
of-arms as its chief ornament, and the true mark of gen¬
tility. Several sorts have been distinguished, ls£, by the
matter they are made of; ‘Hdly, by their form; and, 2>dly,
by their position.
ls£, As to the matter they are, or rather were, made of,
the helmets of sovereigns were of burnished gold damask¬
ed ; those of princes and lords, of silver figured with gold ;
those of knights, of steel adorned with silver; and those
of private gentlemen, of polished steel. 2e?(y, As to their
form, those of the king and the royal family, and noble¬
men, of Great Britain, are open-faced and grated, and the
number of bars serves to distinguish the bearer’s quality;
that is, the helmet appropriated to the dukes and mar¬
quises is different from the king’s, by having a bar exact¬
ly in the middle, and two on each side, making but five
bars in all (No. 1), whereas the king’s helmet has six Plate
bars, or three on each side (No. 7). The other grated CCLXXXir*
helmet with four bars is common to all degrees of peer-
age under a marquis. The opened-faced helmet without
bars denotes baronets and knights. The close helmet is
that for all esquires and gentlemen, ‘idly, Their position
is also looked upon as a mark of distinction. The grated
helmet in front belongs to sovereign princes. The grated
helmet in profile is common to all degrees of peerage. The
helmet standing direct without bars, and the beaver a
little open, denotes baronets and knights. Lastly, the
side-standing helmet, with the beaver close, is the man¬
ner of wearing it peculiar to esquires and gentlemen.
See Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7.
5. Of Manllings.
Mantlings are pieces of cloth jagged or cut into flowers
and leaves, which now serve as an ornament for escut¬
cheons. They were the ancient coverings of helmets, to
preserve them, or the bearer, from the injuries of the
weather, as also to prevent the evil consequences of their
too much dazzling the eye in action. But their shape
must have undergone a great alteration since they have
been out of use, and therefore they might more properly be
termed flourishmgs than mantlings. The French heralds
assure us that these mantlings were originally no other
than short coverings which commanders wore over their
helmets, and that, going into battle with them, they often,
on coming away, brought them back in a ragged manner,
occasioned by the many cuts which they had received
on their heads ; and therefore the more hacked they were,
the more honourable they were accounted; as our colours
in time of war are the more esteemed for having been shot
through in many places. Sometimes skins of beasts, as
lions, bears, and such like, were thus borne, to make the
bearer look more terrible, and that gave occasion to the
doubling of mantlings with furs.
6. Of Chapeaux.
A chapeau is an ancient hat, or rather cap, of dignity,
worn by dukes, generally scarlet-coloured velvet on the
outside, lined and turned up with fur, and frequently to be
met with above an helmet, instead of a wreath, under gen¬
tlemen’s and noblemen’s crests. Heretofore they were
seldom to be found, as of right appertaining to private fa¬
milies ; but by the grants of Robert Cooke, clarencieux,
and other succeeding heralds, these, together with ducal
coronets, are now frequently to be met with in families,
who yet claim not above the degree of gentlemen. (Plate
CCLXXXII. fig. 3, No. 5.)
2 K
258 HERA
External 7. Of the Wreath.
Orna¬
ments. wreat]1 is a ]j;n(j 0f ro]} made of two skeins of silk
0f different colours twisted together, which ancient knights
usually wore as a head-dress when equipped for tourna¬
ments. The colours of the silk are always taken from the
principal metal and colour contained in the coat-of-arms
of the bearer. They are still accounted one of the lesser
ornaments of escutcheons, and are placed between the
helmet and the crest. In the time of Henry I. and long
afterwards, no man who was under the degree of a knight
had his crest set upon a wreath ; but this, like other prero¬
gatives, has been so far infringed, that every body now-a-
days wears a wreath.
8. Of Crests.
The crest is the highest part of the ornaments of a
coat-of-arms. It is called crest, from the Latin word crista,
which signifies comb or tuft, such as many birds have upon
their heads, as the peacock, pheasant, and others, in allu¬
sion to the place on which it is fixed.
Crests were formerly great marks of honour, because
they were only worn by heroes of great valour, or by such
as were advanced to some superior military command, in
order that they might be the better distinguished in an
engagement, and thereby rally their men if dispersed ;
but they are at present considered as a mere ornament.
The crest is frequently apart either of the supporters, or
of the charge borne in the escutcheon. Thus the crest of
the royal achievement of Great Britain is a lion guardant
crowned, and the crest of France is a double fleur-de-lis.
Out of the many crests borrowed from supporters, are
the following, namely, the Duke of Montagu’s, a griffon’s
head couped or, backed and winged sable; the Marquis of
Rockingham’s, a griffon’s head argent, gorged with a ducal
coronet; the Earl of Westmoreland’s, a bull’s head argent,
pyed sable, armed or; and Lord Archer’s, out of a mural
crown or, a wivern’s head argent. There are several in¬
stances of crests which relate to alliances, employments,
or names; and which on that account have been changed.
9. Of the Scroll.
The scroll is the ornament placed above the crest, con¬
taining a motto, or short sentence, alluding thereto, or to
the bearings, or to the bearer’s name. Thus, the motto
of the Earl of Cholmondeley is, Cassis tutissima virtus,
“ Virtue is the safest helmet,” on account of the helmet
in the coat-of-arms; and the motto of Lord Fortescue is,
Forte scutum solus ducum, “ A strong shield is the safety
of the commanders,” alluding to the name of that ancient
family. Sometimes, however, the motto has reference to
neither, but expresses something divine or heroic; as that
of the Earl of Scarborough, Murus cercus conscientia sana,
“ A good conscience is a wall of brass.” Others are enig¬
matical, as that of the royal achievement, which is, Dieu
et mon droit, “ God and my right,” introduced in 1340 by
Edward III., when he assumed the arms and title of king
of France, and began to prosecute his claim, which occa¬
sioned long and bloody wars, fatal by turns to both king¬
doms ; or that of the Prince of Wales, Ich dien, “ I serve,”
the origin of which has already been explained. Mottos,
though hereditary in the families which first took them,
have been changed on particular occasions, and others ap¬
propriated in their stead. Instances of this are sometimes
to be met with in the history of families.
10. Of Supporters.
Supporters are figures standing on the scroll, and placed
LDR Y.
at the side of the escutcheon; they are so called because Ei i
they seem to support or hold up the shield. The rise of 0
supporters is, by Menestrier, traced to ancient tourna- ®'
ments, in which the knights caused their shields to be ^'
carried by servants or pages under the disguise of lions,
bears, griffons, blackamoors, and the like, who also held
and guarded the escutcheons, which the knights were
obliged to expose to public view for some time before
the lists were opened. But Sir George Mackenzie dis¬
sents from this opinion, and contends (TVeaft'se ora the Sci¬
ence of Heraldry, chap. xxxi. p. 93), “ That the first ori-
gin and use of them was from the custom which ever was,
and is, of leading such as are invested with any great
honour to the prince who confers it. Thus, when any
man is created a duke, marquis, or knight of the garter, or
any other order, he is supported by, and led to the prince,
betwixt two of the quality, and so receives from him the
symbols of that honour ; and in remembrance of that so¬
lemnity, his arms are thereafter supported by any two
creatures he chooses.” Supporters were formerly taken
from such animals or birds as were borne in the shields,
and sometimes they have been chosen as bearing some al¬
lusion to the names of those whose arms they are made to
support. The supporters of the arms of Great Britain,
since the accession of James I. to the throne, are a lion
rampant guardant crowned or, on the dexter side, and an
unicorn argent, crowned, armed, unguled, maned, and
gorged with an antique crown, to which a chain is affixed,
all or, on the sinister.
This last figure represents the coat-of-arms of the king
of Great Britain, or the royal achievement, as it has been
marshalled since the accession of George I. in 1714, and
is blazoned as follows, viz.
ARMS. Quarterly, in the first grand quarter gules,
three lions rampant guardant in pale or, the imperial en¬
signs of England ; impaled with or, a lion rampant, with-
in a double tressure flowery and counter-flowery gules,
the royal arms of Scotland. The second is azure, three
fleurs-de-lis or, the arms of France. The third is azure,
a harp or, stringed argent, the ensign of Ireland. The
fourth grand quarter is gules, two lions passant guardant
in pale or, for Brunswick ; impaled with or semee of hearts
proper, a lion rampant azure, for Lunenburg ; with graft¬
ed in base gules a horse current argent, for ancient Sax¬
ony; and in a shield surtout gules, the crown of Charle¬
magne or, as arch-treasurer of the empire ; the whole
within a garter, inscribed with this motto, Horn soix qui
MAL y PENSE, as sovereign of that noble order, given by
the founder King Edward III.
CREST. On a helmet full faced, grated and surmount¬
ed by a crown, a lion guardant crowned or ; the mantlings
of the last, and lining, ermine.
SUPPORTERS. On the dexter side a lion rampant
guards or, crowned as the crest. On the sinister side an
unicorn argent, crowned, armed, maned, and unguled or,
gorged with an antique crown ; a chain affixed thereto, re¬
flecting over the back, and passing over the hind legs of the
last, both standing on a scroll inscribed with this motto,
Dieu et mon droit, from which issue the two royal
badges of his majesty’s chief dominions, viz. on the dexter
side a rose party per pale argent and gules, stalked and
leaved proper, for England; and on the sinister side a thistle
proper,, for Scotland, being so adorned by King James I.
upon his succeeding to the crown of England. As king
of Scotland, he bore two unicorns as his supporters; but
upon the union of that crown with England, in 1603, he
introduced one of the above supporters on the sinister side
of the royal achievement, which continues to this day.
It is to be observed, that bearing coats-of-arms support¬
ed, is, according to the heraldic rules of England, the pre¬
rogative, first, of those called nobiles majores, viz. dukes,
HERALDRY. 259
ule? marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons; secondly, of all
knights of the garter, though they should be under the
%T degree of barons ; thirdly, of knights of the bath, who, as
well as the former, receive on their creation a grant of
supporters ; and, lastly, of such grants as the king chooses
to bestow this honour upon. An instance of this occur¬
red in the case of Sir Andrew Fountain, who was knight¬
ed by Philip, earl of Pembroke, when lord lieutenant of
Ireland, Fountain being then his secretary; and on his
return to England, King William granted him supporters
to his arms, viz. two griffons gules and or. In Scotland all
the chiefs of clans or names have the privilege of claim¬
ing supporters, and also the baronets. But by act of par¬
liament, 10th September 1672, none are allowed to use
either arms or supporters, under a penalty and confiscation
of all moveables on which arms are put, without the au¬
thority of the lord lyon.
have inserted examples ot the different dispositions of figures. Marshal
in which they are properly represented. Thus, two may be hng Coats-
ranged in pale, in fess, &c. Three may be 2 and 1, as
also in bend, &c. Four are placed 2 and 2, or cantoned,
Five, 1, 3, 1, in cross ; or 2, 1, 2, in saltier. Six, 3, 2, l,CCLXXxn.
in pile ; or 2, 2, 2, paleways. Eight, in orle, or on a bor- fig. 4.
dure. Nine, 3, 3, 3, barways ; or 3, 3, 2, 1, in pile. Ten,
4, 3, 2, 1, in pile ; or else 4, 2, 4, barways. Twelve are
placed 4, 4, 4, barways.
There are other positions called irregular; as, for ex¬
ample, when three figures are naturally placed, 2 and 1 are
disposed 1 and 2, &c. It must also be observed, that when
the field is strewred with the same figures, this is express¬
ed by the word semee ; but, according to the opinion of a
French armorist, if the figures strewed on the field are
whole ones, it must be denoted by the words sans nombre ;
whereas, if part of them be cut off at the extremities of the
escutcheon, the word semee must then be used.
v.—OF THE RULES OR LAWS OF HERALDRY.
The several escutcheons, tinctures, charges, and orna¬
ments of coats-of-arms, and their various properties, being
now explained, it may not be improper to subjoin such
rules for blazoning these as the ancient usage and laws of
heraldry have established amongst us.
I. The first and most general rule is, to express one’s
self in proper terms, so as not to omit any thing which
ought to be specified, and at the same time to be clear
and concise without tautology.
II. We must begin with the tincture of the field, and
then proceed to the principal charges which possess the
most honourable place in the shield, such as fess, cheveron,
&c. always naming that charge first which lies next and
immediately upon the field.
III. After naming the tincture of the field, the honour¬
able ordinaries, or other principal figures, their attributes,
and afterwards their metal or colour, must be specified.
IV. When an honourable ordinary, or some one figure,
is placed upon another, whether it be a fess, cheveron,
cross, &c. it is always to be named after the ordinary or
figure over which it is placed, with the expression sur-
tout, or over all.
V. In blazoning such ordinaries as are plain, the bare
mention of them is sufficient; but if an ordinary should be
made of any of the crooked lines mentioned above, its form
must be specified ; that is, whether it be engrailed, wavy,
&c.
VI. When a principal figure possesses the centre of the
field, its position is not to be expressed ; or, which amounts
to the same thing, when a bearing is named, without spe¬
cifying the point where it is placed, then it is understood
to possess the middle of the shield.
VII. The number of the points of mullets or stars must
be specified when more than five ; and also if a mullet or
any other charge be pierced, it must be mentioned as such,
to distinguish it from what is plain.
VIII. When a ray of the sun, or other single figure, is
borne in any other part of the escutcheon than the centre,
the point it issues from must be named.
IX. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits, birds, and
the like, is no otherwise to be expressed in blazoning but
by the word proper ; but if discoloured, that is, if they
differ from their natural colour, it must be particularized.
X. When three figures are in a field, and their position
is not mentioned in the blazoning, they are always under¬
stood to be placed, two above, and one below.
XI. When there are many figures of the same species
borne in a coat-of-arms, their number must be observed as
they stand, and distinctly expressed.
But, for the better understanding of this hist rule, we
VI.—OF MARSHALLING COATS-OF-ARMS.
By marshalling coats-of-arms is to be understood the
art of disposing them in one escutcheon, and of distribut¬
ing their contingent ornaments in proper places.
Various causes may occasion arms to be thus conjoined,
and these Guillim comprehends under two heads, viz. mani¬
fest and obscure. By manifest causes in the marshalling of
coats-of-arms, are meant such as betoken marriages, or a
sovereign’s gift, granted either through the special favour
of the prince, or for some eminent services. Concerning
marriages it is to be observed, that when the coats-of-arms
of a married couple, descended of distinct families, are to be
put together in one escutcheon, the field of their respec¬
tive arms is conjoined paleways, and blazoned parted per
pale, baron and femme, two coats, first, fyc.; in which case
the baron’s arms are always to be placed on the dexter side,
and the femme’s arms on the sinister side.
If a widower marry again, his late and present wife’s
arms are, according to Leigh, to be both placed on the si¬
nister side, in the escutcheon with his own, and parted per
pale. The first wife’s coat should stand on the chief, and
the second on the base ; or he may set them both in pale
with his own, the first wife’s coat next to himself, and his
second outermost. If he should marry a third wife, then
the first two matches should stand on the chief, and the third
should have the whole base. And if he take a fourth wife,
she must participate one half of the base w ith the third
wife, and so they will seem to be so many coats quartered.
But it must be observed, that these forms of impaling are
meant of hereditary coats, by which the husband stands in
expectation of having the hereditary possessions of his
wife united to his patrimony.
In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal coat of the
baron, the proper differences by which they were borne by
the fathers of such women must be inserted.
If a coat-of-arms which has a bordure be impaled with
another, as by marriage, then the bordure must be wholly
omitted in the side of the arms next the centre.
The person who marries an heiress, instead of impaling
his arms with those of his wife, is to bear them in an es¬
cutcheon placed in the centre of his shield, after the same
manner as the baronet’s badge is marshalled, and which,
on account of its showing forth his pretension to her es¬
tate, is called an escutcheon of pretence, and is blazoned sur-
tout, or over all, as in the escutcheon borne in the fourth
quarter of the royal achievement. But the children are
to bear the hereditary coat-of-arms of their father and mo¬
ther quarterly, which denotes a fixed inheritance, and so
transmit them to posterity. The first and fourth quarters
generally contain the father’s arms, and the second and
260 HERALDRY.
Funeral third the mother’s; unless the heirs should derive not on-
Escut- ly their estate, but also their title and dignity, from their
cheons. mother.
If a maiden or a dowager lady of quality marry a com¬
moner, or a nobleman inferior to her in rank, their coats-of-
arms may be set beside one another in two separate escut¬
cheons, upon one mantle or drapery, and the lady’s arms
may be ornamented according to her title.
Archbishops and bishops impale their arms differently
from the before-mentioned coats, in giving the place of
honour, that is, the dexter side, to the arms of their dignity.
It may be observed of these prelates, that they thus bear
their arms parted per pale, to denote that they are joined
to their cathedral church in a sort of spiritual marriage.
With respect to such armorial ensigns as the sovereign
thinks fit to augment a coat-of-arms withal, they may be
marshalled in various ways, as may be seen by the arms
of the Duke of Rutland, and others.
To those augmentations may be added, first, the baro¬
net’s mark of distinction, or the arms of the province of
Ulster in Ireland, granted and made hereditary in the male
line by King James I. who erected this dignity on the 22d
of May 1611, in the ninth year of his reign, in order to
propagate a plantation in that province. This mark is,
Argent, a sinister hand couped at the wrist, and erected
gules; which may be borne either in a canton, or in an
escutcheon, as will best suit the figures of the arms. Se¬
condly, the ancient and respectable badge of the order of
the garter, instituted by King Edward III. in 1349, and
which, ever since its institution, has been looked upon as a
great honour bestowed on the noblest persons of this nation
and other countries. This honourable augmentation is
made to surround, as with a garter, the arms of such
knights, and is inscribed with the motto, Honi soil qui mal
y pense.
So far the causes for marshalling different arms in one
shield, &c. are manifest. As to those which are called ob¬
scure, that is, when coats-of-arms are marshalled in such a
manner that no probable reason can be given why they
are so conjoined, they must be left to heralds to explain,
as being the most proper persons to unfold these and other
mysteries of the science.
VII.—OF FUNERAL ESCUTCHEONS.
After having treated of the essential parts of the coats-
of-arms, of the various charges and ornaments usually
borne therewith, of their attributes and dispositions, and
of the rules for blazoning and marshalling them, we shall
next describe the several funeral escutcheons, usually call¬
ed hatchments, by which it may be known, after any per¬
son s decease, what rank either he or she held when living;
and if it be a gentleman’s hatchment, whether he was a
bachelor, married man, or widower, with similar distinc¬
tions for gentlewomen.
rifvvvrr, r- The represents such as are affixed to the
r* fronts of houses when any of the nobility and gentry dies,
the arms therein being those of a private gentleman and
his wife parted per pale; the dexter side, which is gules,
three bars or, for the husband, having the ground without
the escutcheon black, denotes the man to be dead; and
the ground on the sinister side being white, signifies that
the wife is living, which is also demonstrated by a small
latchment, which is there depicted without mantling, hel¬
met, and crest, for the sake of perspicuity alone.
When a married gentlewoman dies first, the hatchment
is distinguished by a contrary colour to the former; that
is, the arms on the sinister side have the ground without
the escutcheon black, whereas those on the dexter side, for
her surviving husband, are upon a white ground. The
hatchment of a gentlewoman is, moreover, differenced by pu
a cherub placed over the arms instead of a crest. ji
When a bachelor dies, his arms may be depicted single ctl(
or quartered, with a crest over them, but never impaled as ^ J
the two first are, and all the ground without the escutcheon
is also black.
When a maid dies, her arms, which are placed in a lo¬
zenge, may be single or quartered, as those of a bachelor;
but, instead of a crest, they have a cherub placed over
them, and all the ground without the escutcheon is also
black.
When a widower dies, his arms are represented impaled
with those of his deceased wife, having a helmet, mantling,
and crest over them, and all the ground without the escut¬
cheon black.
When a widow dies, her arms are also represented im
paled with those of her deceased husband, but enclosed in
a lozenge, and, instead of a crest, a cherub is placed over
them; all the ground without the escutcheon being also
black.
If a widower or bachelor should happen to be the last of
his family, the hatchment is depicted as in the case of a wi¬
dower ; and that of a maid or widow, whose family is ex¬
tinct by her death, is depicted as in that of a widow, with
this difference only, that a death’s-head is generally annexed
to each hatchment, to denote that death has conquered all,
leaving nothing but the vain formalities of heraldry.
By these rules, which are sometimes neglected through
the ignorance of illiterate people, may be known, upon the
sight of any hatchment, what branch of the family is dead;
and by the helmet or coronet, the title and degree of the
person deceased.
The same rules are observed with respect to the escut¬
cheon placed on the hearse and horses used in pompous
funerals ; excepting that they are not surmounted with any
crest, as in the foregoing examples of hatchments, but are
always plain. It is necessary, however, to ensign those of
peers with coronets, and that of a maiden lady with a knot
of ribands.
In Scotland, a funeral escutcheon not only shows forth
the arms and condition of the defunct, but is also a proof
of the gentility of his descent; and such persons for whom
this species of escutcheon can be made out, are legally
entitled to the character of gentlemen of blood, which is
the highest species of gentility. The English hatchment
above described exhibits no more than a right to a coat of
arms which may be acquired by purchase, and is only the
first step towards establishing gentility in a family.
The funeral escutcheon, as exhibited in Scotland, France,
and Germany, is in the form of a lozenge, above six feet
square of black cloth; in the centre of w hich is painted, in
proper colours, the complete achievement of the defunct,
with all its exterior ornaments and additional marks or
badges of honour; and round the sides are placed the six¬
teen arms of the families from which he derives his de¬
scent, as far back as the grandfather’s grandfather, as the
proofs of his gentility. They exhibit the armorial bear¬
ings of his father and mother, his two grandmothers, his
four great-grandmothers, and his eight great-grandmothers’
mothers; and if all these families have acquired a legal
light to bear arms, then the gentility of the person whose
proof it is must be accounted complete, but not otherwise.
On the four corners are placed mort-heads, and the initials
of his name and titles or designation ; and the black inter¬
stices are semee or powdered with tears.
On the morning of the interment, one of these is placed
on the front of the house where the deceased lies; and
another on the church where he is to be buried, and after
the burial it is fixed above the grave. The pall, too, is
generally adorned with these proofs of gentility, and the
horses of the hearse with the defunct’s arms.
HER
HER
261
HERALDUS, Desiderius, in French Hsvci.ult.) a coun- culent sterns or stalks that die down to the ground every Herbage
Ien seller of the parliament of Paris, who in different works year. Of herbaceous plants, those are annual which pe-
Herl save proofs of uncommon learning. His Adversaria ap- rish, stem, root, and all, every year ; biennial, which sub-
ccoi neared in the year 1599; but if the Scaligerana may be sist by the roots two years ; perennial, which are perpe-
” ,1 * . j i : ki- trio Kv tboir rnfits fnr a series of vears. a new stem
Herbert.
Plan
credited, he repented having published it. His notes on tuated by their roots for a series of years, a new stem
Tertullian’s Apology, on Minutius Felix, and on Arnobius, being produced every spring. -
are esteemed; and he also wrote notes on Martial’s Epi- HERBAGE, in Law, signifies the pasture provided by
£rrams. He disguised himself under the name of David nature for the food of cattle; also the liberty to feed
Leidhresserus, to write a political dissertation on the in- cattle in the forest, or in another person’s ground,
dependence of kings, some time after the death of Henry HERBAL signifies a book which treats of the classes,
IV He had a controversy with Salmasius, De Jure Attico genera, species, and virtues of plants.
ac 'Romano ; but did not live to finish what he had writ- Herbal is also used to signify what is sometimes called
ten on the subject. What he had executed, however, hortus siccus, or a collection of dried plants,
was printed in 1650. He died in June 1649. Guy Patin HERBELOT, Barthelemi d’, a celebrated French
savs that he was looked upon as a very learned man, both orientalist, eminent for his oriental learning, was born at
in the civil law and in polite literature, and that he wrote Paris on the 24th of December 1625. He travelled seve-
with great facility on any subject he pitched on. ral times into Italy, where he obtained the esteem of some
HERAULT, a department of France, formed out of a of the most learned men of the age. Ferdinand II. grand
part of the ancient province of Lower Languedoc. On duke of Tuscany, showed him many marks of favour.. A
the southern side it is bounded by the Mediterranean library being exposed to sale at Florence, the duke desired
Sea, and on the other sides by French departments. Its him to examine the manuscripts in the oriental languages,
extent is 2926 square miles, or, according to the Royal to select the best of them, and to mark the price; and
Almanac, 630,935 hectares. It is divided into four ar- this being done, that generous prince purchased the whole,
rondissements, and these into thirty-six cantons and 333 and made him a present of them. Colbert, informed of
communes; and it contains 346,207 inhabitants, of whom D’Herbelot’s merit, recalled him to Pans, and obtained for
about 50,000 are Protestants, and the rest adhere to the him a pension of 1500 livres ; and he afterwards became
Church of Rome. They speak a patois, that is, a mixture secretary and interpreter of the oriental languages, and
of Celtic, Arabic, Latin, and French, of which three royal professor of the Syriac tongue. He died at Paris
fifths of the words are Latin. Of late years, however, in 1695. His principal work is the Bibliotheque Orientale,
especially in the towns, the peculiar dialect has been giv- ou Dictionaire Universel, contenant generalement tout ce qui
ing way to pure French. The northern division of the regarde la Connaissance des Peoples de l' Orient, Paris, 1697,
department consists of mountains, with valleys between in folio. The Bibliotheque Orientale, considered in its de-
them, which gradually decline in height as they approach tails, occupied the same rank in the seventeenth, as the
the coast, where they expand into a level and fertile Uistoire des Huns did in the eighteenth century ; but with
plain. The soil on the higher parts is commonly stony, this difference, that D Herbelot cleared the road, and was
chalky, and barren ; but on the plain on the coast, though often copied by De Guignes. Both these celebrated ori-
marshy, extremely fruitful. The corn raised in the de- entalists were men of prodigious erudition; and in fact
partment is of less importance than those vegetable sub¬
stances which are the produce of southern climates. The
chief attention is paid to the vines, and the wines are
highly esteemed, especially those called Muscatel, Fron-
tignac, and Lunel; but a very large proportion of the
grapes are distilled, and yield brandy and spirits of wine
for the foreign trade. Many olive trees are planted, and
the oil which they afford is said to be equal to that of Pro¬
vence. Silk worms are extensively bred, but chiefly in the
district of the Cevennes. The country abounds in mines,
which were once extensively worked; but at present all
we can hardly persuade ourselves that the most laborious
life could be sufficient for collecting the treasures which
are to be found in this collection. If we reflect on the
number of Arabic, Turkish, and Persian chronicles of
which the Bibliotheque Orientale contains extracts ; at¬
tend to the immense extent of the biography of Hadgi
Khalfa, of which it presents an abridged translation ; and
consider the amount of accessory knowledge necessary in
such an undertaking, some idea may be formed of the
erudition, perseverance, and activity of D’Herbelot. M.
d’Herbelot’s modesty was equal to his erudition; and his
are abandoned except some of coals, which yield annu- uncommon abilities were accompanied and adorned with
ally about 90,000 tons, and serve as fuel where wood is probity, piety, and charity, which he practised through-
beginning to become scarce. Some salt is made by na- °U1 the whole course of his he.
tural evaporation on the sea-coast; but not more than HERBERT, Mary, Countess of Pembroke, was sister
6000 tons, though it would be very easy to procure a of Sir Philip Sidney, and wife of Henry, earl of 1 embroke.
much larger quantity. The fishing for sardinias gives She was not only a lover of the muses, but a great en-
employment to numerous persons on the sea-shore. There courager of polite literature ; a character which 18 not
are manufactures of woollen and cotton goods, and some very common amongst titled ladies. Her brother dedi-
of silk; and there are establishments for preparing che- cated to her his Arcadia. She translated a dramatic
mical articles, perfumery, and dyers’colours. The chief piece from the French, entitled Antomus, a tragedy, though
exports consist of wine, brandy, vinegar, spirits of wine, it is said that in this she was assisted by her chaplain, Dr
rosins, figs, almonds, capers, cork, oil, honey, wax, soap, Babington, afterwards Bishop of Exeter. She also trans-
and perfumery. The capital is the city of Montpellier, lated the Psalms of David into English metre; but it is
whose salubrity is much celebrated. doubtful whether these works were ever printed. This
HERB, in Botany, a name by which Linnaeus denomi- lady died in 1621; and an exalted character of hei may
nates that portion of every vegetable which arises from be found in Osborne s Memoirs of James 1. ^
the root, and is terminated by the fructification. It com- Herbert, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherburyin Shrop-
prehends, 1. the trunk, stalk, or stem; 2. the leaves; shire, an eminent English writer, was born in 1581, and
3. those minute external parts called by the same author educated at Oxford, after which he travelled, and at is
the/wfcm or supports of plants ; and, 4. the buds, or, as return was made a knight of the bath. James I. sent him
he also terms them, the winter-quarters, of the future ve- as ambassador to Louis XIII. in behalf of the 1 rotestants
getable. who were besieged in several cities of E ranee ; and he con-
HERBACEOUS Plants are those which have sue- tinued in this situation until he was recalled, on account of
262
HER
Herbert, a dispute between him and the constable de Luines. In
1625 he was advanced to the dignity of baron of tlie king¬
dom of Ireland, by the title of Lord Herbert of Castle
Island; and in 1631 to that of Lord Herbert of Cherbury
in Shropshire. After the breaking out of the civil wars,
he adhered to the parliament; and in 1644 obtained a
pension, on account of his having been plundered by the
king’s forces. Lie wrote a History of the Life and Reign
of Henry VIII., a treatise Zte Veritate, of considerable ce¬
lebrity, and several other works. Lord Herbert died at
London in 1648. This nobleman, according to Granger,
“ stands in the first rank of the public ministers, historians,
and philosophers of his age. It is hard to say whether his
HER
York in 1782, leaving several manuscripts to the public H<
library at Oxford, and others to that of the cathedral at roi
York. i
HERBIVOROUS Animals, those which feed only on
herbs or vegetables. He
HERBIERS, a town of the arrondissement of Boubon- ^
Vendee, in the department of Vendee, in France. It is
situated on the river Maine, which passes through it, and
contains 501 houses, with 2247 inhabitants. It is-in a
pleasant and fertile district, and produces very good wine.
HERBORN, a city of the duchy of Nassau, in Ger¬
many, on the river Dille, and the capital of a bailiwick of
the same name. It contains a theological seminary, with
person, his understanding, or his courage, was the most four professors for Protestants, two churches, 430 houses,
extraordinary ; as the fair, the learned, and the brave and 2350 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in
held him in equal admiration. But the same man was linen goods and hosiery, in breweries and paper-making,
wise and capricious; redressed wrongs, and quarrelled HERCULANEUM, the name of an ancient city of
for punctilios; hated bigotry in religion, and was himself Campania, in Italy, which was destroyed by an eruption of
a bigot to philosophy. He exposed himself to such dan- Vesuvius in the first year of the Emperor Titus, or the 79th
gers as other men of courage would have carefully declin- of the Christian era; and which has been rendered inte-
ed; and called in question the fundamentals of a religion resting on account of the curious monuments of antiquity
which none had the hardiness to dispute besides himself.” discovered and disinterred from its ruins. The epoch of
Herbert, William, Earl of Pembroke, was born at
Wilton, in Wiltshire, 1580, and admitted to New College,
Oxford, in 1592, where he continued about two years. In
1601 he succeeded to his father’s honours and estate, and
the foundation of Herculaneum is unknown. Dionysius of
Halicarnassus conjectures that it may be referred to a
period about half a century anterior to the war of Troy,
or about 1840 years before Christ; and therefore that it
was made a knight of the garter in 1604, and governor of lasted about 1400 years,
Portsmouth six years afterwards. In 1626 he was elected The thickness of the heap of lava and ashes by which
chancellor of the university of Oxford, and about the the city was overwhelmed has been much increased by
same time made lord steward of the king’s household, successive streams vomited forth since that catastrophe,
He died suddenly at his house in London on the 10th of and now forms a mass tw'enty-four feet deep, of dark gray
April 1630, if we may credit Wood, according to the cal- stone, which is easily broken in pieces. By its non-adhe-
culation of his nativity made several years before by Mr
Thomas Allen of Gloucester Hall. Concerning this cal¬
culation, Clarendon relates, that some considerable per¬
sons connected with Lord Pembroke having met at Mai¬
denhead, one of them at supper drank a health to the lord
steward; upon which another said, that he believed his lord-
ship was at that time very merry, for he had now outlived
the day which it had been prognosticated from his nativity
that he would not survive. The next morning, however,
they received the news of his death. Whether the noble
historian really believed this and other accounts relating
to astrology, apparitions, providential interpositions, and
other marvels not dreamt of in philosophy, which he has
inserted in his history, we do not presume to say; he nar¬
rates them, however, as if he did not actually disbelieve
them. Lord Pembroke was not only a great favourer of
learned men, but was himself learned, and endowed with
a considerable share of poetical genius. All that are ex¬
tant of his productions in this way were published under
the title of Poems written by William. Earl of Pembroke.
Herbert, Sir Thomas, a gentleman of the Pembroke
family, was born at York, where his father was an aider-
man. V\ illiam, earl of Pembroke, sent him abroad in
1626; and he spent four years in travelling through Asia
and Africa. In 1634 he published, in folio, a Relation of
some Years’ Travel into Africa and the Great Asia, espe¬
cially the Territories of the Persian Monarchy, and some
parts of the Oriental Indies and Isles adjacent. On the
breaking out of the civil war, he adhered to the parlia¬
ment; and at Oldenby, on the removal of the king’s ser¬
vants, by the desire of the parliamentary commissioners, he
and James Harrington were retained as grooms of the bed¬
chamber, and attended the king even to the block. At the
Restoration he was created a baronet by Charles II. for his
fmthfnl services to his father during the last two years of
his life. In 1678 he wrote Threnodia Carolina, contain¬
ing an account of the last two years of the life of Charles
L ; and he assisted Sir William Dugdale in compiling the
third volume of his Monasticon Anglicanum. He died at
sion to foreign bodies, marbles and bronzes are preserved
in it as in a case made to fit them; and exact moulds of
the faces and limbs of statues are frequently found in this
substance. The precise situation of this subterranean city
was not known till the year 1713, when it was accidentally
discovered by some labourers, who, in digging a well,
struck upon a statue on the benches of the theatre. Many
others were afterwards excavated and sent to France by
the Prince of Elbceuf. But little progress was made in the
excavations till the Infanta Charles of Spain ascended the
throne of Naples, when, by unwearied efforts and great li¬
berality, a considerable portion of Herculaneum was ex¬
plored, and such treasures of antiquity thence extracted, as
form the most curious museum in the world. To attempt
removing the covering being found too arduous a task, the
king contented himself with cutting galleries to the princi¬
pal buildings, and causing one or two of them to be cleared
out. Of these the theatre is the most considerable. On a
balustrade which divided the orchestra from the stage was
found a row of statues; and, on each side of the pulpitum,
the equestrian figure of a person of the Nonia family.
From the great rarity of equestrian statues in marble, these
would have been very valuable objects had their work¬
manship been even less excellent than it is; and one of
them in particular is a very fine piece of sculpture. After
the king of Spain left Naples, the digging was continued,
but with less spirit and expenditure; indeed, the collec¬
tion of curiosities derived from Herculaneum and Pompeii
had become so considerable, that a relaxation of zeal and
activity ensued. These relics are arranged in a wing of the
palace, and not only consist of statues, busts, altars, inscrip¬
tions, and other ornamental appendages of ancient opulence
and luxury, but comprehend an entire assortment of the
domestic, musical, and chirurgical instruments used by the
ancients ; tripods of elegant form and exquisite execution,
lamps in endless variety; vases and basins of noble dimen¬
sions, chandeliers of the most beautiful shapes, paterae and
other appurtenances of sacrifice, looking-glasses of polished
metal, coloured glass so hard, clear, and well stained, aa
HERCULANEUM.
||rct - to appear emeralds, sapphires, and other precious stones ;
neui a kitchen completely fitted up with copper-pans lined with
JKy' ' silver, kettles, cisterns for heating water, and every utensil
necessary for culinary purposes ; specimens of various sorts
of combustibles, retaining their form though burned to a
cinder; corn, bread, fish, oil, wine, and flour; a lady’s
toilet, fully furnished with combs, thimbles, rings, paint,
ear-rings, and so forth. Amongst the statues, which are
numerous, the greatest share of merit is allowed to a Mer¬
cury and a sleeping faun ; the busts occupy several apart¬
ments, but very few of the originals whom they were meant
to represent are known. The floors are paved with ancient
mosaic. A few rare medals have been found in these ruins ;
the most curious is a gold medallion of Augustus, struck in
Sicily in the fifteenth year of his reign. The fresco paint¬
ings, which, for the sake of preservation, have been taken
off the walls and framed and glazed, are to be seen in an¬
other part of the palace. The elegance of the attitudes,
and the infinite variety of the subjects, stamp them as per¬
formances worthy of the attention of artists and antiqua¬
ries ; but no pictures yet found are masterly enough to
prove that the Greeks had carried the art of painting to
as great perfection as they did that of statuary. But
we cannot suppose those authors incapable of appreciat¬
ing the merits of an Apelles or a Zeuxis, who with so
much critical discernment have pointed out the beauties
of the works of a Phidias, or a Praxiteles; nor can we ima¬
gine that they would have bestowed equal praise upon
both kinds of performances if either of them had been
much inferior to the other. We must therefore presume
that the capital productions of the ancient painters being
of more perishable materials than busts and statues, have
been destroyed in the fatal disasters which have so often
afflicted both Greece and Italy. Plerculaneum and Pom¬
peii were but towns of the second order, and not likely to
possess the masterpieces of the great artists, which were
usually destined to adorn the more celebrated temples, or
the palaces of kings and emperors. A more valuable ac¬
quisition than bronzes and pictures was thought to have
been made when a large parcel of manuscripts was found
amongst the ruins ; and hopes were entertained that many
classical works, of which time has deprived us, were about
to be restored to light, and that a new mine of science wTas
on the point of being opened. But the difficulty of unrol¬
ling the parchment, of pasting the fragments on a flat sur¬
face, and of deciphering the obscure letters, has proved
so great, that little progress has hitherto been made ; and
the value of the Avritings which have been unrolled has by
no means corresponded to the public expectation.
But although the few successful results of the investi¬
gation, which have hitherto been laid before the public, are
indeed of such a nature as not to have rewarded, by their
importance, the great labour which has been bestowed on
them, the zeal of the lovers and patrons of literature has
not allowed their ardour to be subdued by the difficulties
of the task. The progress of the discovery and examina¬
tion of these singular remains of antiquity has been de¬
scribed, from time to time, in the Philosophical Transac¬
tions, and in many other publications. It was in October
1752 that the first of the carbonised rolls of papyrus were
found; and Paderni’s account of them is accompanied by
an interesting specimen, which exhibits the genuine form
of the characters used by the Romans in their manuscripts.
N-AlfERlVS-DMLC
DENNC^RISCRVDE
The precise spot AA’here the discovery wras made was the
Bosco di Sant’ Agostino, a shrubbery belonging to the
church of St Austin, close to Portici, toAvards Torre del
Greco; it was covered with ashes, and a hard tufa or lava,
263
to the depth of about a hundred and twenty English feet. Hercula-
In the course of a year or two about two hundred and fifty neum.
rolls had been found, some Greek and some Latin. The
library appeared to be an apartment belonging to a con¬
siderable palace, which had not been further examined.
The floor was of an elegant mosaic work ; and the books
were in presses, inlaid with different sorts of wood, dispos¬
ed in rows, and ornamented with cornices. In 1754 Pa-
derni spent twelve days in this room, and found in it three
hundred and thirty-seven volumes, all apparently made
brittle by the fire, and all in Greek; besides eighteen rolls
of a larger size, lying in a separate bundle, which were in
Latin, and more injured than the Greek. The former
two hundred and fifty seem to have been in a separate
room belonging to the same building. Some few of the
rolls had an umbilicus or roller of wood in the centre. The
Canon Mazzocchi began his labours about this time, and
found that the subject of one of the manuscripts was mu¬
sic, and that of another the Epicurean Philosophy ; a small
bust of Epicurus having also been found in the same room.
In 1755 a further account of these operations was com¬
municated to the Royal Society by Mr Locke. “ Within
two years last past,” says his correspondent, “ in a cham¬
ber of a house, or, more properly speaking, of an ancient
villa (for by many marks it is certainly known that the
place where they are hoav digging was never covered with
buildings, but Avas in the middle of a garden), there has
been found a large quantity of rolls, about half a palm long,
and round, which appeared like roots of wood, all black,
and seemed to be only of one piece. One of 'them
falling on the ground, it broke in the middle, and many
letters were observed, by which it was first known that the
rolls were of papyrus. The number of these rolls, as I am
told, Avere about a hundred and fifty, of different sizes.
They were in wooden cases, which are so much burnt, as
are all the things made of wood, that they cannot be re¬
covered. The rolls, however, are hard, though each appears
like one piece. Our king has caused infinite pains to be
taken to unroll them and read them ; but all attempts Avere
in vain ; only by slitting some of them a few words were
observed. At length Signor Assemanni, having come a se¬
cond time to Naples, proposed to the king to send for one
Father Antonio [Piaggi], a writer at the Vatican, as the
only man in the world who could undertake this difficult
affair. It is incredible to imagine Avhat this man contrived
and executed. He made a machine, with which, by means
of certain threads, which, being gummed, stick to the
back part of the papyrus, where there was no writing, he
begins by degrees to pull, whilst, with a sort of engraver’s
instrument, he loosens one leaf from the other, which is
the most difficult part of all; and then makes a sort of
lining to the back of the papyrus, with exceeding thin
leaves of onion [goldbeaters’ skin] if I mistake not; and
with some spirituous liquor, with which he wets the papy¬
rus, by little and little he unfolds it. All this labour can¬
not be well comprehended without seeing. With patience
superior to what man can imagine, this good father has un¬
rolled a pretty large piece of papyrus, the worst preserved,
by way of trial. It is found to be the work of a Greek
writer, and is a small philosophic tract, in Plutarch’s man¬
ner, on Music; blaming it as pernicious to society, and
productive of softness and effeminacy. It does not dis¬
course of the art of music. The beginning is wanting.
The papyrus is written ‘ across,’ in so many columns,
every one of about twenty lines, and every line is about
four inches long. Between column and column is a void
space of ‘ more than’ an inch. The letters are distin¬
guishable enough. Father Antonio, after he has unloosen¬
ed a piece, takes it off' where there are no letters, and places
it between two [pieces of glass] for the better observation ;
and then, having an admirable talent in imitating charac-
264 HERCULANEUM.
Hercula- ters, he copies it with all the lacunae, which are very numer-
neum. ous jn SCorched papyri, and gives this copy to the Ca-
non Mazzocchi, who tries to supply the loss and explain it.
The letters are capital ones, and almost without any abbre¬
viation. The worst is, the work takes up so much time,
that a small quantity of writing requires five or six days to
unroll, so that a whole year is already consumed about half
this roll. The lacunae, for the most part, are of one or two
words, that may be supplied by the context. As soon as
this roll is finished, they will begin a Latin one. There
are some so voluminous, and the papyrus so fine, that un¬
rolled they would take up a hundred palms’ space [or al¬
most a hundred feet]. The curiosity of these papyri is,
that there is no little shaft of wood on which they were
rolled.”
It may here be remarked, that the practice of rolling
books on an umbilicus of wood was by no means universal
where papyrus was employed. The Egyptian manuscripts,
for instance, so frequently found in the catacombs, are
without any umbilicus, the end of the sheet being left blank,
for the purpose of being doubled up into a sort of core,
which remained unopened, and served instead of a roller.
A wooden pen without a slit was found in some of the sub¬
sequent excavations, together with other materials for writ¬
ing. In 1755 the name of Philodemus had been discovered
at the end of the first manuscript; and another work of the
same author, on rhetoric, had been unrolled. Mazzocchi
laboured in translating these, and two persons were con¬
stantly employed upon other volumes.
Some interesting particulars respecting the history of
these operations may also be found in Barthelemi’s Voyage
en Italic, published at Paris in 1801. “ It was a long time,”
says the author, “ before any mode could be devised of
unrolling them, and in this dilemma some of them were
cut with a knife longitudinally, as we divide a cylinder in
the direction of its axis. This mode of proceeding dis¬
closed the writing to view, but completely destroyed the
work. The different strata of the paper adhered so close¬
ly together, that in attempting to separate them they were
reduced to ashes [or rather dust]; and all that could be
obtained was a single column or page of a manuscript that
consisted perhaps of a hundred.”
“ Under these circumstances, a patient and persevering
monk suggested a mode of completely unrolling the paper.
He made some attempts, which occupied a considerable
portion of time, but in which by degrees he was success¬
ful. He goes on with his tedious labour, and in the same
manner gradually and slowly succeeds. His plan is this.
Having found the beginning of the manuscript, he fastens
to the exterior edge some threads of silk, which he winds
round so many pegs, inserted in a small frame. These
pegs he turns with the utmost precaution, and the manu¬
script is imperceptibly unrolled. Little is to be expected
from the first few layers of the paper, which in general are
either torn or decayed. Before any pages of a work can be
obtained, the manuscript must be unrolled to a certain
depth, that is, till the part appears which had suffered no
other injury than that of being calcined. When a few co¬
lumns have been thus unrolled, they are cut off, and pasted
on linen. For unfolding one of these manuscripts several
months are requisite, and hitherto nothing has been ob¬
tained but the last thirty-eight columns of a Greek work
against music. Two other columns or pages are also shown
of two Gieek manuscripts that were cut to pieces before
the method of unrolling them was discovered. Each ap¬
pears to have been part of a philosophical dissertation.”
In some letters from the secretary of the French em¬
bassy at Naples, subjoined by M. de St Croix, and dated
1785, 1786, and 1787, it is asserted, that of about fifteen
hundred or eighteen hundred manuscripts which had been
discovered, two hundred or more had been destroyed by a
charlatan who undertook to restore them with the assist- H
ance of some chemical application. It is also stated as tin
highly probable that many thousands of similar manuscripts 'A i
may still exist in different parts of the ruins; a conjecture
so much the more interesting, as the greater number of the
rolls hitherto found “ have been so crushed that it will
never be possible to open them, and several have been in¬
jured by the barbarous attempt to separate the leaves with
a knife.”
The work of Philodemus was published at Naples in
1793, as the first volume of the Herculanensium Volumi-
num qiue supersunt. The manuscript is faithfully deli¬
neated in copperplates, and the restored readings and trans¬
lation are printed on the opposite page, followed by an ela¬
borate commentary. The academicians of Portici are the
professed editors. The title at the end stands thus, the
work being the fourth book only of the essay.
<$IAQ AHMOY
nepiMOYCIKH
A
A passage in the last column will serve as another specimen.
PA I /VON TA C TOCAY TA TO 1
AfYAJ ei*>H K^C npOCATJ/v
£rK€ PHK A C)AIAT6INA1
MHMANAGONTGoCO XA PIN
IVIOMniOANOT TO GAY TO/V
The subsequent volumes of the series are little known in
this country. But a part of another manuscript was in¬
serted in the Herculanensia of Sir W. Drummond and Mr
R. Walpole, London, 1810, in 4to; together with a very
favourable report of the progress of the operations, which
had been continued at the expense of the British govern¬
ment.
“ Many obstacles,” say the authors in their dedication,
“ opposed themselves to the accomplishment of this no¬
ble design, which address and perseverance could alone
remove. The difficulty of opening the rolls of papyrus,
which had been reduced to perfect carbo, can scarcely
be conceived by those who have not witnessed the pro¬
cess. Much time and many hands were required in
carrying it on; and the expense incurred was propor¬
tionate to the labour. When the manuscripts were un¬
rolled, it was necessary that persons competent to the
task should decipher and transcribe them ; distribute the
(capital) letters into the words to which they belonged;
and supply those deficiencies in the text which but too
frequently occurred. At the head of the directors of this
difficult undertaking were Ilosini, the editor of Philode¬
mus ; an English gentleman (Mr Hayter) sent out for the
purpose; and, we believe, a Neapolitan priest, supposed to
be deeply conversant in ancient literature. It was not until
large sums had been expended by your royal highness, and
the success of the execution had justified the boldness of
the plan, that pecuniary assistance was requested and ob¬
tained from parliament. Attentive as the people of this
country are, and ought to be, to the expenditure of the
public money, they must glory in having contributed to¬
wards a work which does honour to the English name.”
Again, in the preface, “ The first papyrus which was
opened contained a treatise upon music by Philodemus the
Epicurean. It was in vain that Mazzocchi and Rosini
wrote their learned comments on this dull performance.
The sedative was too strong ; and the curiosity, which had
HERCULANEUM. 265
been so hastily awakened, was as quickly lulled to repose,
neiin A few men of letters indeed lamented that no further
search was made for some happier subject on which learned
industry might be employed ; but the time, the difficulty,
and the expense, which such an enterprise required, and
ffie uncertainty of producing any thing valuable, had appa¬
rently discouraged and disgusted the academicians of Por-
tici.
« Things were in this state when the Prince of Wales
proposed to the Neapolitan government to defray the ex¬
penses of unrolling, deciphering, and publishing the manu¬
scripts. This offer was accepted by the court of Naples;
and it was consequently judged necessary by his royal high¬
ness to select a proper person to superintend the under¬
taking. The reputation of Mr Hayter as a classical scho¬
lar justified his appointment to the place, which the mu¬
nificence of the prince, and "his taste for literature, had
created. This gentleman arrived at Naples in the begin¬
ning of the year 1802, and was nominated one of the di¬
rectors for the development of the manuscripts.
“ During a period of several years the workmen con¬
tinued to open a great number of the papyri. Many, in¬
deed, of these frail substances were destroyed, and had
crumbled into dust, under the slightest touch ot the ope¬
rator.
“ When the French invaded the kingdom of Naples in
the year 1806, Mr Hayter was compelled to retire to Si¬
cily. It is certainly to be deeply regretted that all the pa¬
pyri were left behind. The writer of this preface only
knows, with certainty, that when he arrived at Palermo in
1806, on his second mission to his Sicilian majesty, he
found that all the papyri had been left at Naples, and that
the copies of those which had been unrolled were in the
possession of the Sicilian government. How this happened
it would be now fruitless to inquire. The English minis¬
ter made several applications to the court of Palermo to
have the copies restored, but without success, until the
month of August 1807. It was pretended that, according
to the original agreement, the manuscripts should be pub¬
lished in the place where his Sicilian majesty resided;
that several Neapolitans had assisted in correcting, sup¬
plying, and translating them ; that his Sicilian majesty had
never resigned his right to the possession, either of the
originals or of the copies ; and that, as a proof of this
right being fully recognised, the copies had been deposited
by Mr Hayter himself in the Royal Museum at Palermo.
It was, however, finally agreed that the manuscripts should
be given up, pro tempore, to Mr Drummond, who imme¬
diately replaced them in the hands of Mr Hayter. In the
space of about a year, during which period they remained
in the possession of the latter, a fac simile of part of one
of the copies was engraved, and some different forms of
Greek characters, as found in these fragments, were print¬
ed under his direction.
“ From some circumstances which took place in the
summer of 1808, and to which we have no pleasure in al¬
luding, a new arrangement became indispensable. Mr
Drummond proposed to the Sicilian government that the
copies should be sent to London, where they might be
published with advantages which could not be obtained at
Palermo. His proposal was acceded to, and they have
been accordingly transmitted to England. The manner
in which their publication will be conducted will, of course,
depend upon the determination of his Royal Highness the
Prince of Wales, in whose hands they have been deposited;
but it may be presumed that the republic of letters will
not have to lament that these interesting fragments are to
be brought to light under the auspices of a prince, who
has always shown himself to be the protector of learning
and the arts. We venture not to assert, but we believe, that
the manuscripts will be submitted to the inspection of a se-
vol. XI.
lect number of learned men, and will be edited under their Hercuia-
care, and with their annotations and translations.” neum.
Mr Walpole informs us in a subsequent article, dated at "V'*-'
Palermo, 1807, that the whole of the manuscripts which
were then in Sir W. Drummond’s house, amounting to
more than eighty, were Greek, with the exception of one
fragment of a Latin poem, which is said to have been a de¬
scription of the battle of Actium and its consequences, and
which has been conjectured by some critics to be the work
of the Varius well known by name as the friend of Ho¬
race. One of the eighty has appeared in the Herculanen-
sia ; but where are the seventy-nine ? The whole of the
manuscripts were reported to have been presented to the
university of Oxford. Has a new volcano, throwing out
darkness and ashes, overwhelmed them on the banks of the
Isis ? Or were they, notwithstanding all the labour and
expense of obtaining them, found too imperfect to deserve
publication ? It seems, indeed, not improbable, that the
persons employed to unroll them in the first instance, who
were paid in proportion to the number of pages they ob¬
tained, were too strongly .tempted to sacrifice such parts
of the manuscript as would have required the most labour,
for the more profitable object of proceeding with a portion
which would allow them to earn the most pay with the
least loss of time, and that some irreparable injuries have
been done to the manuscripts from these interested mo¬
tives. Some pages, however, of the copies were certainly
very little impaired, and these must at least deserve to be
preserved from further accidents, by printing and publish¬
ing them in the simplest form possible.
It was well known, that at the time of the first arrange¬
ment between the two courts respecting these operations,
the king of Naples sent six of the rolls unopened, as a pre¬
sent to the Prince of Wales; nor were the antiquaries
and philosophers of Great Britain inattentive to this latent
treasure. Several experiments were made at Carlton
House, in imitation of the processes which were said to
have been successful in Italy ; and at last two ot the ma¬
nuscripts were intrusted to the care ot an individual, who
is supposed to have given an account ot his own further
attempts, in the fifth number of the Quarterly Review.
“ At first,” he informs us, “ as it often happens in such
cases, he appeared to be very confident of ultimate suc¬
cess ; but difficulties afterwards occurred, and he did not
continue his experiments long enough to overcome them,
or even very materially to lessen them ; his professional
engagements interfered, much of his time had already
been sacrificed, and the intelligence that Sir W. Drum¬
mond had succeeded in obtaining possession of the whole
collection of the works which had been unrolled, made his
own attempts appear comparatively too insignificant to de¬
serve immediate prosecution.”
“ One mode of treating the papyri occurred, however,
to this gentleman, which appeared to him to promise a de¬
cided advantage to such as might hereafter proceed in the
operation. This was the employment of the anatomical
blowpipe, an instrument which he had many years before
been in the habit of using for delicate purposes, in the
place of a dissecting knife. The blowpipe served him . .
for a knife and a forceps ; for the gum, the goldbeater’s
skin, and the threads of the Italians. No instrument can
be so soft in its pressure as the air, for holding a thin frag¬
ment by suction, without danger of injuring it; no edge
nor point can be so sharp as to be capable of insinuating
itself into all the crevices which the air freely enters. But
the humidity of the breath he found to add much to the
utility of the instrument. The slight degree of moisture
communicated to the under or inner surface of a fold made
it curl up and separate from the parts beneath, where the
adhesion was not too strong ; while dry air from a bladder
was perfectly incapable of detaching it. But the process
266
HERCULANEUM.
Hercula- 0f separating every leaf in this manner was always tedious
neiim. an[j laborious where there was much adhesion, and some-
times altogether impracticable. Chemical agents of all
kinds he tried without the least advantage ; and even ma¬
ceration for six months in water was unable to weaken the
adhesion. It is remarkable that the characters were not
effaced by this operation ; so that the gum which had fixed
them on the paper must have wholly lost its solubility, and
the rest of its original properties.
“ It has indeed been supposed by some travellers that
the manuscripts were in reality never charred, the ashes
thrown out by the volcano having been probably incapable
of communicating to them a sufficient degree of heat for
producing this effect. In fact, it is said that some of the
spices found in an embalmed body retained a considerable
portion of their aromatic smell. But there is no doubt
whatever that the papyri are now complete charcoal, such
as is formed by heat only. A small fragment of their sub¬
stance burns readily, like common charcoal, with a creep¬
ing combustion, without flame, and with a slight vegetable
smell; fresh papyrus burns with a bright flame ; and al¬
most all mineral coal, which may possibly have been formed
from vegetable substances, without the operation of heat,
flames abundantly. Bovey coal, for example, which re¬
tains much of the appearance of wood, exhibits a consider¬
able flame. It is highly probable that many of the adhe¬
sions have been formed by the oily and smoky vapours
distilled off from the hottest parts, and irregularly con¬
densed in the colder; and, so far as this conjecture may
be true, it would perhaps be advisable to try the etfects of
a longer maceration in alcohol and in ether than has hither¬
to been employed. The ‘ spear of Achilles’ might also be
applied with very reasonable hopes of success. A repe¬
tition of the exposure to heat, kept up more equably and
more powerfully, might very probably expel the adhesive
substances, without injuring the texture of the charcoal;
proper care being taken to preclude completely the access
both of air and of water, which might be done first by
means of the air pump, and then by the insertion of a little
potassium, together with the roll, in a vessel hermetically
sealed. But the adhesions appear sometimes to be of a
mere mechanical nature, being derived from the irregular
folds into which the manuscripts have been pressed, or
from some roughness of the contiguous surfaces.” (P.
18, 20.)
Mr Hayter thought it necessary to reply to some of the
criticisms contained in this article, and published a pamph¬
let entitled Observations upon a Beview of the Herculanen-
sia, London, 1810, in 4to, strenuously maintaining that
the quotation from the comedy of Timocles, already extant
in Athenaeus, ought to be a hexameter, and not an iambic;
and seeming almost to believe that Pluto, and not Plato, is
the author of the fanciful etymology of the name of Juno,
though the passage quoted happens to be found in Plato’s
Cratylus. It is difficult to understand by what test the
merits of such a scholar were appreciated, when he was
appointed to superintend the operations at Portici.
The next era of our national exertions exhibits, how¬
ever, a still more striking example of good nature and fa¬
cility. Dr Sickler of Hildburghausen, who had been in
Italy as a private tutor, succeeded in convincing a com¬
mittee of the Royal Society of Gottingen that he had
unrolled a fragment of papyrus, of which he exhibited a
specimen. There was no evidence that the particular ma¬
nuscript, on which the experiment was said to have been
performed, had presented any considerable difficulty ; and
it was well known that some of the pages had been read
before with comparative ease. It happened, however, that
the page in question bore the intrinsic marks of a gross
fraud. At first sight it read like perfectly good Greek,
and it had all the genuine rust of antiquity about it; but
upon examination it was found to contain a blunder which He
no Greek writer, nor any Greek librarian, could ever have d*
committed ; for the name of a serpent is made feminine, w
whilst in all ancient authors it is uniformly masculine-
and the general air of authenticity was easily understood,'
when it was found that it was copied, with little variation,
from detached passages of Diodorus Siculus, and princi¬
pally from the fabulous account of the voyage of Jambu-
lus to Ceylon and beyond it. In the mean time a nego¬
tiation with Dr Sickler had been commenced ; an account
of it was published, with the specimen in question, under
the title of Herculaneum Rolls. ( Correspondence relative
to a Proposition made by Dr Sickler, London, 1817, in
4to.) The parties thought themselves too far engaged to
retract; nor had they the patience to wait for the result
of a preliminary experiment upon a portion of a roll, which
had been weighed in London, and sent, carefully packed,
to Hildburghausen, in order that the surface developed
might be accurately compared with the weight; and Dr
Sickler was brought to London with his family for the
more effectual prosecution of his operations, which in a few
months were so successful as to ruin twelve chosen spe¬
cimens which had been sent over as a second present to
the Prince of Wales, with the exception, however, of a
few fragments, w hich w-ere left sufficiently entire to be
made the subject of some subsequent experiments of a
chemical nature.
This mischievous farce was at last terminated by a Re¬
port of the Committee appointed to superintend the Ex¬
periments of Dr Sickler, ordered by the House of Com¬
mons to be printed, in March 1818; the committee stat¬
ing, in conclusion, that Dr Sickler had totally failed in his
endeavours to satisfy them that his method was practicable;
and annexing an account of the expenditure, of something
more than L.1100, in the purchase of this total failure.
But one advantage, and that not an unimportant one,
was derived from this investigation. Sir Humphry Davy
had been appointed one of the superintending committee;
and his studies having recently been directed to the dif¬
ferent states of carbonic substances, in the course of his
patriotic and benevolent researches into the means of
preventing explosions in coal mines, he was the more
naturally led to consider by what agents these apparently
carbonized substances might be capable of modification.
The whole detail of the process which he invented has
never been made public, in order that it might not be
abused by any unprincipled projector; but there is rea¬
son to think that it bears considerable analogy to the ma¬
ceration in ether, which had been tried unsuccessfully,
but still recommended as deserving further examination,
by a less fortunate operator. A very interesting report
of Sir H. Davy on the state of the manuscripts was pub¬
lished in the Journal of the Royal Institution for April
1819.
“ My experiments soon convinced me,” says Sir Hum¬
phry, “ that the nature of these manuscripts had been
generally misunderstood ; that they had not, as is usually
supposed, been carbonized by the operation of fire, and
that they were in a state analogous to peat or Bovey coal,
the leaves being generally cemented into one mass by a
peculiar substance, which had formed during the fermen¬
tation and chemical change of the vegetable matter com¬
prising them, in a long course of ages. The nature of
this substance being known, the destruction of it became
a subject of obvious chemical investigation ; and I was
fortunate enough to find means of accomplishing this
without injuring the characters or destroying the texture
of the manuscripts.
“ After the chemical operation, the leaves of most of
the fragments perfectly separated from each other, and
the Greek characters were in a high degree distinct; but
HERCULANEUM.
267
two fragments were found in peculiar states ; the leaves
* of one easily separated, but the characters were found
J wholly defaced on the exterior folds, and partially de¬
faced on the interior. In the other the characters were
legible on such leaves as separated, but an earthy mat¬
ter, or a species of tufa, prevented the separation in some
of the parts; and both these circumstances were clearly .
the results of agencies to which the manuscripts had been
exposed, during or after the volcanic eruption by which
they had been covered.
« it appeared probable from these facts that different
manuscripts might be in other states, and that one pro¬
cess might not apply to all of them; but even a partial
success was a step gained, and my results made me anxi¬
ous to examine in detail the numerous specimens pre¬
served in the museum at Naples. Having had the ho¬
nour of showing some of my results to the Prince Regent,
his royal highness was graciously pleased to express his
desire that I should proceed in my undertaking; and I
found, on my arrival at Naples, that a letter from his
royal highness to the king, and a communication made
from the right honourable the secretary of state for fo¬
reign affairs to the Neapolitan government, had prepared
the way for my inquiries, and procured for me the neces¬
sary result of such patronage, every possible facility in
the pursuit of my objects.
“ An examination of the excavations that still remain
open at Herculaneum immediately confirmed the opinion
which I entertained, that the manuscripts had not been
acted on by the fire. These excavations are on a loose
tufa, composed of volcanic ashes, sand, and fragments of
lava, imperfectly cemented by ferruginous and calcareous
matter. The theatre, and the buildings in the neigh¬
bourhood, are encased in this tufa ; and, from the manner
in which it is deposited in the galleries of the houses,
there can be little doubt that it was the result of torrents
laden with sand and volcanic matter, and descending at
the same time with showers of ashes and stones, still
more copious than those that covered Pompeii. The ex¬
cavation in the house, in which the manuscripts were
found, as I was informed by Monsign. Rosini, has been
filled up; but a building, which is said by the guides to
be this house, and which, as is evident from the engraved
plan, must have been close to it, and part of the same
chain of buildings, offered me the most decided proofs
that the parts nearest the surface, and, a fortiori, those
more remote, had never been exposed to any consider¬
able degree of heat. I found a small fragment of the
ceiling of one of the rooms, containing lines of gold leaf
and vermilion in an unaltered state, which could not
have happened if they had been acted upon by any tem¬
perature sufficient to convert vegetable matter into char¬
coal.
“ The state of the manuscripts exactly coincides with
this view ; they were probably on shelves of wood, which
were broken down when the roofs of the houses yielded
to the weight of the superincumbent mass ; hence many
of them were crushed and folded in a moist state, and
the leaves of some pressed together in a perpendicular
direction, and all of them mixed in two confused heaps;
in these heaps the exterior manuscripts, and the exterior
part of the manuscripts, must have been acted on by the
water; and as the ancient ink was composed of finely di¬
vided charcoal suspended in a solution of glue or gum,
wherever the water percolated continuously, the charac¬
ters were more or less erased.
“ Moisture, by its action upon vegetable matter, pro¬
duces decomposition, which may be seen in peat bogs in
all its different stages : when air and water are conjunct-
ly on leaves or small vegetable fibres, they soon become
brown, then black, and by long continued operation of air,
even at common temperatures, the charcoal itself is de- Hercula-
stroyed, and nothing remains but the earths which en- neum.
tered into the construction of the vegetable substance.
When vegetable matter is not exposed to moisture or air,
its decay is much slower; but in the course of ages its
elements gradually re-act on each other, the volatile prin¬
ciples separate, and the carbonaceous matter remains.
“ Of the manuscripts, the greater number (those which
probably were least exposed to moisture or air, for, till the
tufa consolidated, air must have penetrated through it)
are brown, and still contain some of their volatile sub¬
stance, or extractive matter, which occasions the cohe¬
rence of the leaves ; others are almost entirely converted
into charcoal, and in these, when the form is adapted to
the purpose, the layers may be readily separated from
each other by mechanical means. Of a few, particularly
the superficial parts, and which probably were most ex¬
posed to air and water, little remains except the earthy
basis ; the charcoal of the characters, and some of that of
the vegetable matter, being destroyed; and they are in a
condition approaching to that of the manuscripts found
at Pompeii, where the air, constantly penetrating through
the loose ashes, there being no barrier against it as in the
consolidated tufa of Herculaneum, has entirely destroyed
all the carbonaceous parts of the papyrus, and left no¬
thing but earthy matter. Four or five specimens that I
examined were heavy and dense, like the fragment to
which I referred in the introduction to this report, a con¬
siderable quantity of foreign earthy matter being found
between the leaves, and amongst the pores of the carbo¬
naceous substance of the manuscripts, evidently deposit¬
ed during the operation of the cause which consolidated
the tufa.
“ The number of manuscripts and of fragments origi¬
nally brought to the museum, as I vvas informed by M.
Ant. Scotti, amounted to 1696; of these, eighty-eight
have been unrolled, and found in a legible state ; 319
more have been operated upon, and more or less unrolled,
and found not to be legible ; twenty-four have been pre¬
sented to foreign potentates. Amongst the 1265 that
remain, and which I have examined with attention, by far
the greater number consists of small fragments, or of mu¬
tilated or crushed manuscripts, in which the folds are so
irregular as to offer little hopes of separating them so as
to form connected leaves ; from eighty to a hundred and
twenty are in a state which presents a great probability
of success ; and of these, the greater number are of the
kind in which some volatile vegetable matter remains,
and to which the chemical process referred to in the be¬
ginning of this report may be applied with the greatest
hopes of useful results.
“ The persons charged with the business of unrolling
the manuscripts in the museum informed me that many
chemical experiments had been performed upon the ma¬
nuscripts at different times, which assisted the separation
of the leaves, but always destroyed the characters. To
prove that this was not the case with my method, I made
two experiments before them ; one on a brown fragment
of a Greek manuscript, and the other on a similar frag¬
ment of a Latin manuscript, in which the leaves were
closely adherent; in both instances the separation of the
layers was complete, and the characters appeared to the
persons who examined them more perfect than before.
“ It cannot be doubted that the 407 papyri which have
been more or less unrolled were selected as the best fitted
for attempts, and were probably the most perfect; so
that amongst the 100 or 120 which remain in a fit state
for trials, even allowing a superiority of method, it is not
reasonable to expect that a much larger proportion will
be legible. Of the eighty-eight manuscripts containing
characters, with the exception of a few fragments, in
1
268
HERCULANEUM.
Hercula- which some lines of Latin poetry have been found, the
neum. great body consists of works of Greek philosophers or
sophists; nine are of Epicurus ; thirty-two bear the name
of Philodemus ; three of Demetrius, and one of each of
these authors, Colotes, Polystratus, Carneades, and Chry-
sippus; and the subjects of these works, and the works
of which the names of the authors are unknown, are either
natural or moral philosophy, medicine, criticism, and gene¬
ral observations on the arts, life, and manners"
The opinion of Sir Humphry Davy, and that of the
anonymous operator, with respect to the state of the ma¬
nuscripts, are so inconsistent with each other, that the de¬
cision between them seems almost reduced to the com¬
parison of the credibility of opposite testimonies. Ac¬
cording to the article in the Quarterly Review, “ there is
no doubt whatever that the papyri are now complete char¬
coal, such as is formed by heat only ; a small fragment of
their substance burns readily, like common charcoal, with
a creeping combustion, without flame, and with a slight
vegetable smell; Bovey coal exhibits a considerable
flame.” On the other hand, Sir Humphry’s experiments
convinced him that the manuscripts were “ in a state ana¬
logous to a peat, or Bovey coaland he inferred, from
his examination of the surrounding objects, that they
could not have been acted upon “ by any temperature
sufficient to convert vegetable matter into charcoal.” Now
it seems natural to prefer, on such an occasion, the au¬
thority which stands the highest with respect to the de¬
partment of science in question, especially when one of
the parties is unknown. But in the present instance
some additional evidence may not be thought superfluous ;
and in fact a portion of one of the rolls, which had been
examined both by Sir Humphry and by the earlier expe¬
rimenter, was submitted to a new analysis, by a chemist
well known for the minute accuracy of his investigations,
and the solidity of his conclusions. He exposed the car¬
bonaceous matter to the process of destructive distilla¬
tion, and he could obtain nothing whatever from it like
asphaltum or any other product of mineral coal. It had
scarcely enough of volatile matter to give any percep¬
tible tinge of brown to the humidity absorbed by the sub¬
stance, but enough to afford an animal smell, extreme¬
ly like that of burnt bone, which he could only attribute
to the glue or size of the ink not being completely de¬
composed by the same heat which had expelled all the
volatile parts of vegetable origin ; and upon exposing
some glue, spread on paper, to the heat of boiling quick¬
silver, he obtained a partial carbonization, which he
conceived to be perfectly analogous to that of the manu¬
scripts ; the substance thus formed affording, when ex¬
posed to a stronger heat, very copious vapours of an em-
pyreumatic oil, though the products of the vegetable mat¬
ter were probably expelled by the heat first applied. On
the other hand, the heat of boiling quicksilver did not
produce the animal smell from the papyrus. Hence he
judged that the precise temperature of the overwhelming
mass might be ascertained with tolerable accuracy ; and
he was persuaded that nothing but a heat approaching to
600° of Fahrenheit could have reduced the roll which he
examined to the state in which he found it. At any rate,
when we consider that a heat a little above 220° is ca¬
pable of blackening, when applied for a long continuance,
t le wood that surrounds the boiler of a steam engine, it
seems very difficult to agree with Sir Humphry Davy in
t unking that the manuscript could not have been sub¬
jected to “ any heat capable of converting vegetable mat¬
ter into charcoal,” unless by charcoal he understands
pure carbon ; and in this sense his observation will readily
be admitted by all parties. It seems, indeed, to have
been precisely with this conception of the state of the
manuscripts, that it was suggested by the Quarterly Re¬
viewer that some benefit might be expected from submit- H<
ting the rolls to a heat more intense than that which they n 4
appeared to have undergone. The experiment, however ^ w
was subsequently performed with considerable care; but
it failed completely of success. A fragment of a roll
consisting of several thicknesses, adhering together, was
enclosed in a crucible, surrounded by charcoal powder
and kept for some time in a red heat; but no perceptible
alteration took place in the state of the fragment, the ad¬
hesions were in no degree detached, nor was the legibi¬
lity of the characters on the surface impaired.
After the failure of this experiment, in order to leave
no mechanical means untried, a cutting machine was con¬
trived, consisting of a very thin circular plate made into
a fine saw, and put in rapid motion by wheel-work. This
apparatus was found perfectly capable of dividing the
substance of the roll without splintering it, as knives had
been found to do; and it was hoped that, by cutting it
across wherever there was a considerable fold, it would
be possible to extricate many parts from each other, which
were only retained in contact by this accidental complica¬
tion of form ; and that having the advantage of beginning
from within, it would be easier to work down upon the
successive surfaces bearing the letters, the writing being
always found on the inside only ; and no material diffi¬
culty was apprehended in reuniting the several parts,
when they should once have been rendered legible. It
was also recollected that the interior parts of the manu¬
script had in general been the least crushed and the least
adherent; and it was hoped that a part at least of each
manuscript might thus be rendered legible with ease, and
at the same time without destroying the parts remaining
unopened. But the interior parts of the roll which had
been thus divided were found as adherent as the exterior,
and the adhesions still remained everywhere invincible;
so that all hopes of succeeding by mechanical means only
were finally abandoned. The machine was afterwards
sent to Naples, as it was thought likely to be of use in
some of the operations that Sir Humphry Davy’s process
would require ; but it is said not to have been found ne¬
cessary for this purpose.
With regard to Sir Humphry’s observation that vege¬
table matter not exposed to moisture or air undergoes a
much slower decay, but that in the course of ages “ its
elements gradually re-act on each other, the volatile prin¬
ciples separate, and the carbonaceous matter remains,” it
may be remarked that the rolls of papyrus do not seem
to undergo any change of this nature in the course of
twenty or thirty centuries; for the Egyptian volumes,
which are often found enclosed within the bandages of
mummies, are generally so free from decay, that the pa¬
per has retained its primitive whiteness, without much
alteration, except sometimes a slight tinge of brown;
and its texture is so little impaired that it still bears ink
well without running. When, however, a roll has been
in any degree pervaded by moisture, the water is found
to have dissolved the gum which unites the elementary
leaves ot the plant, and to have caused partial adhesions
of the contiguous surfaces of the sheets to each other.
Whatever difference of opinion there may be respect¬
ing the reasoning upon which Sir Humphry Davy appears
to have grounded his processes, there can be no doubt
that they have actually been employed with considerable
advantage. Mr Burton was encouraged by the British
government to undertake the manipulation of the chemi¬
cal operations which were required; and Mr Elmsley was
requested to prolong his stay in Italy, and to become the
superintendent ot the literary department. Sir Humphry
appears to have been well satisfied with his success, and
a great variety of manuscripts have been rendered more
or less legible ; but their contents have proved of little
HERCULANEUM.
269
. inore importance than might have been expected from
the nature of the specimens before examined. Sir Hum-
J nhry is of opinion, however, that an acquaintance with
the contents of the remainder of the collection would af¬
ford much curious and useful information respecting the
state of society, literature, science, and the arts, particu¬
larly in the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia and Sicily,
which were at one time the rivals of the mother country in
civilization and glory. It is highly probable, indeed, that
many of the works in the collection at Herculaneum were
composed by natives of Magna Graecia; in a collection
made in that country such works would not be neglected;
and in cities like Tarentum, Crotona, Pompeii, and others,
the advanced state of civilization necessarily implied ac¬
tivity, both in literature and in science. The schools of
Pythagoras and Archytas alone must have furnished nu¬
merous works, the recovery of some of which, nay even
of fragments thereof, would unquestionably be an object
of equal interest and importance.
With regard to the restoration of the mutilated ma¬
nuscripts, if this delicate and difficult task had been in¬
trusted to scholars like Mr Elmsley, it would have been
executed in a much more satisfactory manner, and we
should have met with none of those errors which have
disgraced some of the former restorers of the Greek
text; for, in fact, even the work of Philodemus on Mu¬
sic, which is commonly supposed to have been well edit¬
ed, exhibits some singular instances of a want of fami¬
liarity with the idiom of the language, and of a criti¬
cal knowledge of its rules. In the thirty-eighth and last
column, which was cursorily examined, for the purpose
of selecting a specimen of the characters only, a passage
occurs which is thus read and translated by the aca¬
demicians of Portici. Tomvrcc roim ii£r,xug, ‘ttpoc, a ring
syxiyji^xasi, dia. r’ hvcci dv deovrojg, on %ag/v /xsv “rf^ai/o-
rrjTog durcov ovds ‘ffoXXotfr^/U/O^iov ups/Xov sxrs/veiv. 1 ot igitur
tantaque disserui adversus ea quce aliqui tractarunt, prop-
terea quia opportunum fortasse erat. Namque profecto
propter ipsorum suadelam ne minima quidem parte debebam
me extendere. It is scarcely necessary to point out to any
Greek scholar, that the true reading must be hiaramip/rg
dv hwTug. “ Having said thus much, I may probably have
been sufficiently diffuse in replying to the arguments of
some persons but “ that, in proportion to the plausibility
of these arguments, I ought not to have extended my dis¬
cussion beyond a very small part of its actual magnitude.'
Such mistakes, however, can do but little injury to the
mutilated authors, provided that the original be preserved
at the same time in its unaltered state. But that origi¬
nal, in its authentic though imperfect form, is the only
object of comparative value ; and to delay its publication
for the sake of restorations of any kind, seems to be but
a refined species of selfishness. “ When we reflect,”
says the Quarterly Reviewer, “ on the shortness of hu¬
man life, and on our own grey hairs, we tremble to think
how little chance there is of our being benefited by any
great proportion of the eighty manuscripts still unpub¬
lished.” Many years have now elapsed since these re¬
flections were printed, and not a line of the manuscripts
in question has yet made its way to that public which
had so equitable a claim to a full communication of their
contents.
It must not, however, be denied, that to the great ma¬
jority of readers it would be far more agreeable and con¬
venient to have the works not only restored, but trans¬
lated, if it could be done with tolerable accuracy, and
without any very great loss of time. And even where a
probable restoration is beyond our reach, it might be of
some advantage to substitute a possible one. Thus the
specimen which has been copied from the Philosophical
Transactions for 1752 might suggest the three hexameters,
ALTER.IN.ALTERIUS.DULCI.AMPLEXU.
MORITURUS.
NON.EQUIDEM.CURIS.CRUDELIA.FATA.MOVERI.
POSSE.REOR.NEC.ME.VITAE.SPES. VAN A.FEFELLIT.
Lines which are not indeed very harmonious or poetical,
but which might have stood in the same work with
CONSILIIS.NOX.APTA.DUCUM.LUX.APTIOR.ARMIS,
and with Cleopatra’s
TRAHITURQUE.LIBIDINE.MORTIS,
which are almost the only specimens that we possess of
the poem attributed to Varius. If several independent
attempts of this kind were made by different critics, the
presumption in favour of those restorations, which were
found to be common to all, would be raised from a mere
possibility to a strong probability; but whether the same
expense of labour and talents, directed into some other
channel, might not create original works of still greater
value, is a question not easy to be decided.
Signor Rosini, the president of the Bourbon Society of
Antiquaries, published, in 1788, the first volume of those
manuscripts which had been found at Herculaneum, under
the title of Herculanensium Voluminum quce supersunt; a
volume which, as we have already mentioned, contains the
first book of Philodemus on Music. The second volume
was published in 1809, and, besides the preliminary disser¬
tation, which had originally appeared in 1797, furnished
only some small fragments of Epicurus. But soon after the
return of Ferdinand to Sicily in 1815, there was founded
the Royal Bourbon Society, which is divided into three
academies, viz. the academy of archaeology, that of the
sciences, and that of the fine arts. Two academicians,
Savaroni and Geterino, were intrusted with the labours
relative to the manuscripts found in the excavations of
Herculaneum ; and, in the third volume of the Hercula-
nensia, which appeared at Naples in 1827, they comment¬
ed on two other productions of Philodemus, the publica¬
tion of which had been confided to the care of Signor Ro¬
sini. The first of these is entitled 4>/Xo§?3/aou mot xaxiuv
xut ruv avrixsifjjsvcuv ugerwv xcu ruv sv big siGt xut mp d, Philo-
demi de Vitiis et Virtutibus appositis et de rerum subjectis
et objectis. In this work the author treats of domestic eco¬
nomy, and shows how a good father of a family ought to
govern his household, if he wishes to avoid faults, and to
practise the virtues which are opposed to them. The se¬
cond production is entitled ^/Xo^aou mp xaxtcdv, Philodemi
de Vitiis. In this writing the author treats of particular de¬
fects, at the same time indicating the virtues which are op¬
posed to them. Speaking of pride, for example, he cha¬
racterises its different species, with the manifestations and
inconveniences of each, and the antidotes to be applied ;
and of the proud he enumerates eight classes, viz. bmoovrai,
dvdabtig, uXaYovzg, dvkxacrot, tfavrzidrrfAoveg, 6yj,ioxovroi r, (3ozv-
Soopivoi, ivriktorcu, and oubivwxcu; whilst Theophrastus, on
the contrary, admits only three classes. This writing of
Philodemus will enrich the Greek vocabularies-. It is unfor¬
tunately full of lacunae; but in the preface, the editor, Aloi-
sio Caterino, has indicated the probable import of the pas¬
sages which are wanting. In 1824, the university of Ox¬
ford published two volumes entitled Herculanensium Volu¬
minum partes duce, containing four fragments lithographed
from the papyri, without note, commentary, or any attempt
to correct the text or supply lacunae. Two of these frag¬
ments are the essays of Philodemus already mentioned;
and the fourth is a fragment of a work on rhetoric by De¬
metrius ; but, from the negligent manner in which they
have been edited, the publication is of comparatively lit¬
tle value. The Herculanensium Voluminum quae super¬
sunt tomus iii. however, has been brought out with greater
care, and in a much more creditable manner. “ Chaque
page est gravee sur cuivre ; a cote se trouve Timpression
en caracteres ordinaires, et les complemens de lettres ou
270
HER
Hercules, de mots en couleur rouge ; vient ensuite la traduction
Latine, qui est presque toujours litterale; a la fin il y a
quatre tables contenant les mots Grecs peu usites, qui sont
expliquees dans les notes, les auteurs et les personnes
que Philodemus a cites; en fin, les objets qui presentent
quelque importance.” Prefixed to the Oxford work is a
catalogue of papyri, ninety-five in number, presented to the
university by his majesty; but we do not observe in it any
thing which seems calculated to increase the regret of the
learned at the difficulties met with in attempting to unfold
these disinterred relics of ancient literature.
It now only remains to notice a very singular opinion
expressed by Ignarra as to the epoch at which Hercula¬
neum and Pompeii were buried under the ashes of Vesu¬
vius. According to this savant, these cities existed long
after the eruption of the year 79, nay even in the fifth
century. The principal proof he produces in support of
his assertion is, that their names are found in the map of
Peuttinger, which, he thinks, could not have been con¬
structed before the end of the fourth century, but that
they are no longer observed in the itinerary of Antoni¬
nus, which could not have been composed previously to the
year 471. Between these two epochs, therefore, must,
according to Ignarra, be placed that of the destruction
of these cities. But this surely is not valid reasoning.
The map called Peuttinger’s is probably a copy of one
more ancient, made by some ignorant person, who either
did not know that these cities no longer existed, or who
did not venture to suppress any thing he found in the ori¬
ginal which he copied. Besides, it is possible that the
sites which Herculaneum and Pompeii occupied may have
preserved the names of these cities long after their de¬
struction. The name of Stabia still remains, although
of the city not a single monument has been preserved.
But whilst neither at Herculaneum nor at Pompeii has
any monument, inscription, or medal been found of a date
posterior to the reign of Titus, it may nevertheless be rea¬
sonably maintained that these cities were not entirely over¬
whelmed by the irruption which Pliny the younger has de¬
scribed with so much exactness and interest; and hence it
is highly probable that, as Ignarra pretends, some remains
of the city of Herculaneum were still to be seen in the
fifth century. This is indeed placed beyond a doubt by
the following verses of Sannazaro :
Rupe sub hac mecum sedit Galatea: videbam
Pt Capreas,-et quae Sirenum nomina servant
Rura procul; veteres alia de parte ruinas
Herculis ambusta signabat ab arce Vesevus.
But what is it this teaches us ? Nothing except that, se¬
veral centuries after the calamity described by Pliny, some
ruins of Herculaneum were still visible ; perhaps some por¬
tico which, having been constructed upon a height in the
town, had not yet been totally covered by the lava. It is
no doubt from some such portico that the village of Portici
originally derived its name. “ Ce qu’il y a detonnant,”
says the editor of Count OrlofF’s Me moire sur le lloyaume
de Naples, “ c’est qu’ayant sous les yeux des ruines qui ne
leur permettaient pas de douter que, sous le sol meme, ils
trouveraient Herculanum, les habitans de ce pays n’aient
pas eu plus tot le desir de fouiller ; que cette ville ait ete
completement oubliee, et qu’il ait fallu qu’un heureux ha-
sard vint de nos jours seulement en reveler Texistence.”
HERCULES, in fabulous history, a most renowned
Grecian hero, who after his death was ranked amongst the
gods, and received divine honours. According to the an¬
cients, there were many persons of the same name. Dio¬
dorus mentions three, Cicero six, and some authors extend
the number to more than forty. Of all these, one gene¬
rally called the Theban Hercules is the most celebrated;
and to him, as may easily be imagined, the actions of the
others have been attributed. He is reported to have been
HER
the son of Jupiter by Alcmena, wife to Amphitryon, kino- Here
of Argos, whom Jupiter enjoyed in the shape of her hus-
band whilst he was absent; and, in order to add the greater
strength to the child, made that amorous night as long as
three. Amphitryon having soon afterwards accidentally
killed his uncle and father-in-law Electryon, was obliged
to fly to Thebes, where Hercules was born. The jealousy
of Juno, on account of her husband’s amour with Alcme¬
na, prompted her to attempt destroying the infant. For
this purpose she sent two serpents to kill him in the cradle
but the young Hercules strangled both of them. He was
early instructed in the liberal arts, whilst Castor the son of
Tyndarus taught him how to fight, Elirytus how to shoot with
a bow and arrows, Autolycus to drive a chariot, Linus to
play on the lyre, and Eumolpus to sing. Like the rest of
his illustrious contemporaries, he soon afterwards became the
pupil of Chiron the centaur, and under him rendered him¬
self the most valiant and accomplished of the age. In the
eighteenth year of his age he resolved to deliver the neigh¬
bourhood of Mount Cithaeron from a huge lion which preyed
on the flocks of Amphitryon his supposed father, and which
laid waste the adjacent country. He went to the court of
Thespius, king of Thespis, who, sharing in the general ca¬
lamity, received him kindly, and entertained him during
fifty days. The fifty daughters of the king became mo¬
thers by Hercules during his stay at Thespis, and some say
that it was effected in one night. After he had destroyed
the lion of Mount Cithaeron, he delivered his country from
the annual tribute of a hundred oxen which it paid to Er-
ginus. Such public services became universally known;
and Creon, who then sat on the throne of Thebes, reward¬
ed the patriotic deeds of Hercules by giving him his daugh¬
ter in marriage, and intrusting him with the government
of his kingdom.
Eurystheus, the son of Amphitryon, having succeeded
his father, soon became jealous of Hercules; and fearing
lest he might be deprived of his crown, left no means un¬
tried in order to get rid of him. Of this Hercules was
not insensible, because he was perpetually engaging him
on some desperate expedition; and therefore went to con¬
sult the oracle. But being answered that it was the plea¬
sure of the gods that he should serve Eurystheus twelve
years, he fell into a deep melancholy, which at last ended in
furious madness. Among other desperate actions which
he perpetrated whilst afflicted with this disease, he put
away his wife Megara, and murdered all the children he had
by her. As an expiation of this crime, the king imposed
upon him twelve labours surpassing the power of all other
mortals to accomplish, but which nevertheless our hero per¬
formed with great ease. The favour of the gods had in¬
deed completely armed him when he undertook his labours.
He had received a coat of armour and helmet from Mi¬
nerva, a sword from Mercury, a horse from Neptune, a
shield from Jupiter, a bow and arrows from Apollo, and
from Vulcan a golden cuirass and brazen buskin, with a
celebrated club, of brass, according to the opinion of some
writers.
The first labour imposed upon him was the killing a lion
in Nemea, a wood of Achaia, the hide of which was proof
against any weapon, so that be was forced to seize him by
the throat and strangle him. He carried the dead beast on
his shoulders to Mycenae, and ever afterwards clothed him¬
self with the skin. Eurystheus was so astonished at the sight
of this beast, and at the courage of Hercules, that he or¬
dered him never to enter the gates of the city when he re¬
turned from his expeditions, but to wait for his orders
without the walls. He even made himself a brazen vessel,
into which he retired whenever Hercules returned. The
second labour was to destroy the Lernaean hydra, which
had seven heads according to Apollodorus, fifty according
to Simonides, and a hundred according to Diodorus. This
HER
es. celebrated monster he first attacked with his arrows; but
soon afterwards he came to a close engagement, and by
means of his heavy club he destroyed the heads of his
enemy. This, however, was productive of no advantage;
for as soon as one head was beaten to pieces by the club,
two immediately sprang up; and the labour of Hercules
would have remained unfinished, had he not commanded
his friend lolas to burn with a hot iron the root of the head
which he had crushed to pieces. This succeeded; Hei-
cules became victorious, and opening the belly of the mon¬
ster, he dipped his arrows in the gall, to render the wounds
which he inflicted incurable. He was ordered in his third
labour to bring alive and unhurt into the presence of Eu-
rystheus a stag, famous for its incredible swiftness, its
colden horns, and its brazen feet. This celebrated animal
frequented the neighbourhood of CEnoe; and Hercules
was employed for a whole year in continually pursuing it,
but at last he caught it in a trap, or when tired, or, ac¬
cording to others, by slightly wounding it and lessening its
swiftness. The* fourth labour was to bring alive to Eurys-
theus a wild boar which ravaged the neighbourhood of
Erymanthus. In this expedition he destroyed the centaurs,
and caught the boar by closely pursuing him through the
deep snow. Eurystheus was so frightened at the sight of
the boar, that, according to Diodorus, he hid himself for
some days in his brazen vessel. In his fifth labour Her¬
cules was ordered to clean the stables of Augeas, where
three thousand oxen had been confined for many years.
For his sixth labour he was enjoined to kill the carnivorous
birds which ravaged the country near the lake Stymphalis
in Arcadia. In his seventh labour he brought alive into
Peloponnesus a prodigious wild bull, wdiich laid waste the
island of Crete. In his eighth labour lie was employed in
obtaining the mares of Diomedes, which fed upon human
flesh. He killed Diomedes, and gave him to be eaten by
his mares, which he brought to Eurystheus. They were
sent to Mount Olympus by the king of Mycenae, where they
were devoured by the wild beasts ; or, according to others,
they were consecrated to Jupiter, and their breed still ex¬
isted in the age of Alexander the Great. For his ninth
labour nhe was commanded to obtain the girdle of the queen
of the Amazons. In his tenth labour he killed the monster
Geryon, king of Gades, and brought to Argos his numerous
flocks, which fed upon human flesh. This was in Iberia or
Spain, in the furthest parts of which he erected his two
pillars, as the utmost limits of the then known world. These
ten labours he achieved, as the fable says, in about eight
years. In this last expedition he is likewise affirmed to
have killed Antaeus, a famous giant of a monstrous size,
who, when weary with wrestling or labour, was immediate¬
ly refreshed by touching the earth. Hercules overcame
him in wrestling, and slew him; and afterwards, on his way
through Egypt, the tyrant Busiris. This bloody man used
to sacrifice all his guests and strangers upon his altars;
and designing to have done the same by Hercules, was
slain by him, together with all his attendants. His eleventh
labour was the carrying away the Hesperian golden apples
kept by a dragon. The last and most perilous of his la¬
bours was to bring upon earth the three-headed dog Cer¬
berus. Descending into hell by a cave on Mount I aena-
rus, he was permitted Dy Pluto to carry away his friends
Theseus and Pirithous, who were condemned to punishment
in hell; and Cerberus also was granted to his prayers, pro¬
vided he made use of no arms but force only to drag him
away. Hercules, as some report, carried him back to hell
after he had brought him before Eurystheus.
Many other exploits are said to have been performed by
Hercules. In particular, he accompanied the Argonauts to
Colchis before he delivered himself up to the king of My¬
cenae. He assisted the gods in their wmrs against the gi¬
ants ; and it was through him alone that Jupiter obtained
HER
271
a victory. He conquered Laomedon, and pillaged Troy. Hercules.
When lole, the daughter of Eurytus, king of CEchalia, of ' '
whom he was deeply enamoured, was refused to his entrea¬
ties, he became the victim of a second fit of insanity, and
murdered Iphitus, the only one of the sons of Eurytus w ho
favoured his addresses to lole. He was some time after¬
wards purified of the murder, and his insanity ceased ; but
the gods persecuted him, and he was visited by a disorder
which obliged him to apply to the oracle of Delphi for re¬
lief. The coldness with which the Pythia received him
irritated him, and he resolved to plunder Apollo’s temple
and carry away the sacred tripod. Apollo opposed him,
and a severe conflict began, which nothing but the inter¬
ference of Jupiter with his thunderbolts could have pre¬
vented. He was upon this told by the oracle that he must
be sold as a slave, and remain three years in the most ab¬
ject servitude, to recover from his disorder. He complied;
and Mercury, by order of Jupiter, conducted him to Om-
phale, queen of Lydia, to whom he was sold as a slave.
Here he cleared all the country from robbers; and Omphale,
who was astonished at the greatness of his exploits, married
him. Hercules had Agelaus and Lamon by Omphale,
from whom Croesus king of Lydia was descended. He al¬
so became enamoured of one of Omphale’s f emale servants,
by whom he had Alceus. After he had completed the
years of his slavery he returned to Peloponnesus, where
he re-established on the throne of Sparta iyndarus, who
had been expelled by Hippocoon. He became one of De-
janira’s suitors, and married her after he had overcome all
his rivals. He was obliged to leave Calydon, his father-in-
law’s kingdom, because he had inadvertently killed a man
w ith a blow of his fist; and it was on account of this expul¬
sion that he was not present at the hunting of the Calydo-
nian boar. From Calydon he retired to the court of Geyx,
king of Trachinia. The king received him and his wife
with great marks of friendship, and purified him of the
murder which he had committed at Calydon. Hercules
was still mindful that he had once been refused the hand
of lole ; he therefore made wTar against her father Em ytus,
and killed him, with three of his sons. lole fell into the
hands of her father’s murderer, and found that she was
beloved by Hercules as much as before. She accompanied
him to Mount CEta, where he was going to xaise an altar
and offer a solemn sacrifice to Jupiter. As he had not then
the shirt and tunic in which he arrayed himself to offer a
sacrifice, he sent Lichas to Trachin to his wife Dejanira,
in order to provide himself a proper dress. Dejanira had
some time before been attempted by the centaur Nessus,
as he was ferrying her over the river Euenus; and Her¬
cules beholding it from the shore, had given him a moital
wound wfth an arrow. The monster finding himself dying,
advised her to mix some oil with the blood which flowed
from his wound, and to anoint with it her husband s shirt,
pretending that it would infallibly secure him from loving
any other woman ; and she, too well apprised of his incon¬
stancy, had actually prepared the poisoned ointment ac¬
cordingly. Lichas coming to her for the garments, unfor¬
tunately acquainted her with his having brought away lole;
upon which Dejanira, in a fit of jealousy, anointed his shirt
with the fatal mixture. This had no sooner touched his
body than he felt the poison diffuse itself through his
veins ; the violent pain of which caused him to disband his
army, and to return to Trachin. His torment still increas¬
ing, he sent to consult the oracle for a cure; and was an¬
swered, that he should cause himself to be conveyed to
Mount CEta, and there rear up a great pile of wood, and
leave the rest to Jupiter. By the time he had obeyed the
oracle, his pains having become intolerable, he dressed
himself in his martial habit, flung himself upon the pile,
and desired the bystanders to set fire to it. Others say
that he left the charge of it to his son Philoctetes, who.
272
HER
Hercules having performed his father’s command, had his bow and
II arrows given him as a reward for his obedience. At the
Hereford. same time Jupiter, to be as good as his word, sent a flash
0f lightning, which consumed both the pile and the hero;
insomuch that lolas, coming to take up his bones, found
nothing but ashes; from which they concluded that he
had passed from earth to heaven, and joined the gods. His
friends showed their gratitude to his memory by raising an
altar where the burning pile had stood. Menoetius the son
of Actor offered him a sacrifice of a bull, a wild boar, and
a goat, and enjoined the people of Opus yearly to observe
the same religious ceremonies. His worship soon became
as universal as his fame ; and Juno, who had once perse¬
cuted him with the utmost fury, forgot her resentment, and
gave him her daughter Hebe in mai'riage. Hercules has
received many surnames and epithets, either from the place
where his worship was established, or from the labours
which he achieved. His temples were numerous and mag¬
nificent, and his divinity revered. No dogs or flies ever
entered his temple at Rome ; and that of Gades, according
to Strabo, was always forbidden to women and pigs. The
Phoenicians offered quails on his altars; and as it was sup¬
posed that he presided over dreams, the sick and infirm
were sent to sleep in his temples, that they might receive
in their dreams the agreeable presages of their approaching
recovery. The white poplar was particularly dedicated to
his service.
Hercules, in Astronomy, one of the constellations of
the northern hemisphere. The stars in the constellation
Hercules in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 29; in Tycho’s 28;
in the Britannic catalogue 113.
Hercules's Pillars, in Antiquity, a name given to two
lofty mountains, one situated on the most southern extre¬
mity of Spain, and the other on the opposite coast of Afri¬
ca. They were called by the ancients Abyla and Calpe.
They were reckoned the boundaries of the labours of Her¬
cules ; and, according to ancient tradition, they were join¬
ed together till they were severed by the arm of the hero,
and a communication opened between the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic.
HERCYNIA Silva, in Ancient Geography, the largest
of forests. Its breadth was a journey of nine days to the
best traveller. Taking its rise at the limits of the Helvetii,
Nemetes, and Rauraci, it extended along the Dauube to
the borders of the Daci and Anartes, a length of sixty days’
journey, according to Caesar, who appears to have been
well acquainted with its true breadth, seeing it occupied all
Lower Germany. It may therefore be considered as co¬
vering the whole of Germany; and most of the other fo¬
rests may be considered as parts of it, though distinguished
by particular names; consequently the Hartz, in the duchy
of Brunswick, which gave name to the whole, may be con¬
sidered as one of its parts. J he name Hartz denotes re¬
sinous, or pine-trees. By the Greeks it is called Orcynius,
as a name common to all the forests in Germany; in the
same manner as Hercynius was the name given by the Ro¬
mans. Both are derived from the German Hartz.
HEREDITARY, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a family by right of succession from heir to heir.
Hereditary is also figuratively applied to good or ill
qualities supposed to be transmitted from father to son.
bus we say virtue and piety are hereditary qualities in
such a family.
HEREFORD, a city, the capital of the county of the
same name, situated on the river Wye. It was built before
where the first church was erected, and afterwards, in
1015, converted into a cathedral. The present cathedral
was begun by the second bishop, on the model of the church
fu Al^-1^*Chapelle. The city is composed of six parishes,
though there are only four churches now in existence. A
part of the cathedral fell down in 1786, but has been since
HER
rebuilt. The streets are wide and clean, and the build- H
ings generally handsome. In the market-place or square 2
is the county hall, a good building, in which the assizes wr
and sessions are held. As Herefordshire is the nearest
English county to Wales, much legal business is brought
to the city from that principality. The government of the
city is in the hands of a corporate body, consisting of a
mayor, six aldermen, a recorder, and a common council.
Two members are returned to the House of Commons by
the freemen and householders, about 1100 in number.
The air of the vicinity is considered peculiarly salubrious!
There are well-supplied markets on Wednesday and Sa¬
turday, at which provisions of all kinds are moderate.
The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 6828, in 1811 to
7306, in 1821 to 9090, and in 1831 to 10,280.
HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland English county, bound¬
ed on the north by Shropshire, on the east by Worcester¬
shire, on the south by Gloucestershire and Monmouth¬
shire, and on the west by the Welsh counties of Breck¬
nock and Radnor. Its greatest length is thirty-eight, and
its greatest breadth thirty-five miles. It is nearly of a cir¬
cular form ; but the dividing lines are broken by many in¬
dentations. Its circumference is 120 miles, and its square
area 1221 miles, or 781,44)0 statute acres.
It is divided into eleven hundreds, containing one city,
seven towns, and 221 parishes. The population amounted
in 1801 to 89,191, in 1811 to 94,073, in 1821 to 103,243,
and in 1831 to 110,300. By the comparative tables of
mortality, it appears that the ratio of deaths to the whole
population has been thus: From 1801 to 1811 one in fifty-
seven, from 1811 to 1821 one in fifty-eight, and from 1821
to 1831 one in fifty-eight. Few manufactures exist in the
county; about forty persons are employed in making hats
at Leominster, and a few cloths and stockings are made in
other parts. The occupations stand thus : Agriculturists
employing labourers, 2505; agriculturists employing no
labourers, 1679 ; labourers in agriculture, 12,213; employ¬
ed in manufacture, 63 ; retail traders or handicraft, 7576;
capitalists, bankers, &c. 911; labourers not agricultural,
2410; other males twenty years of age, 1521; male ser¬
vants, 725 ; female servants, 5512.
Ihe face of the country is very beautiful, when viewed
from the western descent of the Malvern Hills. The whole
country is rather thickly enclosed with high hedges; the
divisions of the fields are generally small; and the abun¬
dance, both of forest and fruit trees, with which its sur¬
face is covered, gives it the appearance of an extensive
wood. The roads are all narrow and bad, and even the
turnpike ones are scarcely an exception.
In the eastern side of the county, a part of the Malvern
Hills is rather barren, as are the Hatterel or Black Moun¬
tains, which divide it from Wales on the west. With the
exception of these two portions, the whole of the land is
highly fertile, and the fields are clothed with perpetual
verdure. The soil is generally a mixture of marl and clay,
but contains calcareous earth in various proportions in
different parts. Towards the western part, the soil is te¬
nacious, and retentive of water; the eastern side is prin¬
cipally a stiff clay, in some places of a red colour. In the
south, some of the soil is a light sandy loam. The subsoil
is almost universally limestone ; in some parts a species of
marble, beautifully variegated with red and white veins,
and capable of receiving a high polish. Where the soil
does not rest on limestone, as near the city of Hereford,
it is sometimes a siliceous gravel, and occasionally fuller’s
earth and yellow ochres are found. The climate is rather
more inclined to rain than the more eastern parts of Eng¬
land, and at times is much subject to damp fogs, which
moisten the earth, and may be one cause of its great ver¬
dure.
The cultivation of grain is generally in a state behind
HER
„ ,rd- most of the English counties, and the crops bear no pro-
, . portion to the excellence of the soil. Wheat is generally
J, g0Wed on a clover ley, with a dressing of lime, and then
yields, on an average, twenty bushels to the acre. After
this wheat is harvested, a winter and spring ploughing
are followed by peas, which do not average more than
fourteen bushels to the acre. The peas are followed by
wheat again, when the produce is not usually more than
fourteen bushels. In the succeeding spring it is sowed
with barley and clover, neither of which crops yields a
good increase. Oats are only sowed partially in the room
of barley. Turnips are carelessly cultivated, and artificial
trasses sowed to a very limited extent, though somewhat
increased of late years. On the borders of some of the
rivers there are most valuable meadows of natural grass,
which are the most productive of any lands in the county.
One cause of the neglect manifested in the cultivation
of corn may be the attention paid to the growth of hops
and fruit. The cultivation of hops is considerable, and
increasing on the borders of Worcestershire, and much
more of the manure is applied to them than to the corn.
The soils selected for hop gardens are those where a dry
loam predominates, with but a small proportion of clay ;
and old pastures are deemed more fit for them than the
land that has been recently under the plough. The time
of planting them is usually the month of April. In July
the gardens are hoed carefully, and the same operation is
repeated five or six weeks after; and in September the
earth is formed into hillocks around the roots of the young
plants. The hops are picked from the plants in October,
are then gently dried in a kiln, and packed for sale. I he
average produce of an acre of garden is about five hun¬
dredweight of hops. Each acre requires 1000 poles, around
which the plants entwine themselves. The cost of poles,
of manure, and of labour, makes the cultivation highly
expensive, and in some years it far exceeds the amount
of the produce, but in others the growers gain very large
profits. The whole is a very speculative pursuit.
The rearing of fruit-trees, to the growth of which the
soil and climate seem admirably adapted, engrosses the
greatest share of the attention and skill of the Hereford¬
shire cultivators. Although almost every soil and situa¬
tion in the county is favourable to the growth of apples
and pears, yet those spots are preferred which are ex¬
posed to the south-east and sheltered to the westward ;
as it is found that the winds from that quarter are un-
genial to the fruit trees. Orchards, though planted in
Kent as early as the reign of Henry VIII., did not ex¬
tend to Herefordshire till they were introduced by Lord
Scudamore and some other gentlemen in the reign of
Charles I. when the circumstance of their adaptation to the
soil being ascertained, they quickly spread over the whole
county. It is a fact, that many varieties of apples and
pears, which a few years ago were the most highly es¬
teemed, have entirely disappeared; but new varieties
have by care and attention been produced, which equal
in value, if not in fame, the celebrated redstreak and
slime apple, and the squash pear, the value of whose
cider and perry was thirty years ago most highly prized.
Some of the proprietors of orchards, who are most atten¬
tive to the selection of the fruit, and most skilful in the
management of the juice when expressed, have produced
such exquisitely flavoured cider and perry as to obtain for
them a preference over any wines made from the grape.
The prices at which the best of these liquors are sold by
the growers far exceed those which are obtained for the
best wines of any vineyards either in France or Germany.
They are sometimes sold as high as L.20 the hogshead
direct from the press. Some of the orchards are from
thirty to forty acres in extent, and the trees being at con¬
siderable distance from each other, the intervals are kept
VOL. XI.
HER 273
in tillage. The produce of the orchards is very fluctu- Hereford-
ating, though less so in Herefordshire than in Somerset, shire.
Devon, or Gloucester; yet the growers seldom expect v-'"V-—'
more than one year in three to be fully productive. In a
good year an acre of orchard will produce from eighteen
to twenty-four hogsheads of cider or perry. The quan¬
tity of apples or pears required to make a hogshead varies
from twenty-four to thirty bushels. I he greater part ot
the best descriptions of both liquors is purchased by mer¬
chants from Bristol, who find bottles, and export it to the
East and West Indies, and to America.
Herefordshire has long been celebrated for one of the
best races of cows. They are of the middle-horned kind,
have a large and athletic frame, and, from the silky na¬
ture of their coats, have an unusually sleek appearance.
The most prevailing colour is a reddish brown, and their
faces are white and bald. The heifers fatten quickly at an
early age, and the calves are highly esteemed. The rear¬
ing of oxen for the plough is a common pursuit, and the
greater part of the animal labour of the county is per¬
formed by them. After being worked five or six years,
they are usually sold to graziers from Buckinghamshire,
and fattened in the Vale of Aylesbury for the consumption
of the metropolis, where their flesh is highly prized.
The fame of the Herefordshire sheep equals that of its
cows. They are best known by the name of the Rylands,
a district in the southern part of the county, in which the
superior varieties of them are fed. They are small, white¬
faced, and without horns. In symmetry of shape, and in
the exquisite flavour of the meat, they surpass most other
kinds; and, in addition, their wool is by far the finest pro¬
duced from any of the native English races. The quan¬
tity of wool from them does not average more than two
pounds each, but it is usually sold for three times the
price of coarse wool. Many experiments have been made
to improve this breed by crossing them with the Meri¬
nos; but it has been found that the flesh has deteriorated
as much as the wool has improved by the mixture. The
practice of keeping the sheep in houses in cold weather
is general, and perhaps the wool may be in some degree
indebted to that management for a portion of its fineness
of fibre.
The excellence of the wool has not induced many ma¬
nufactures, for most of it is sold to the clothiers of Glou¬
cestershire and Somersetshire. Attempts have been made
to establish manufactories of woollen goods in the city ot
Hereford, but they proved abortive. At Kington some
few woollens are made, and likewise at Leominster, but
to no great extent. The river Wye is navigable to Here¬
ford, but either floods or droughts so often suspend the
navigation, that the trade carried on by it is very inconsi¬
derable. . . .
The principal river, the Wye, is celebrated for its pic¬
turesque beauties, especially in the vicinity of Ross, and
till it enters Monmouthshire. I he other streams, the
Lugg, receiving the waters of the Arrow and the Frome,
the& Munnow receiving those of the Dore, and the Led-
don, are but inconsiderable, though they tend to fertilize
the lands through which they flow.
Few counties are more rich in antiquities than Here¬
fordshire, especially in the remains of those feudal castles,
which were probably erected when it was the frontier to¬
wards the hostile Welsh. The most remarkable of these
are Goodrich Castle, Dore Abbey, Wigmore Abbey, Vine¬
yard Camp, and Bransil Castle.
The largest towns, and their population, are, Hereford,
10,280; Leominster, 5249; Ledbury, 3909; Ross, 3078;
and Kington, 3111.
By the law of 1832 this county returns three members
to parliament; and the polling places are Hereford, Leo¬
minster, Bromyard, Ledbury, Ross, and Kington. Ihe
2 M
274 HER
Heresy, borough of Weobly was disfranchised by the same law,
and Hereford and Leominster return each two members.
The towns in Herefordshire are generally worse built
than in any other English county, and more nearly ap¬
proach to those of their adjoining Welsh neighbours. In
the villages the buildings are still worse. The construc¬
tion of most of the farm-houses and of the barns is rude
and slight; they are usually built of stone, only cemented
with mud or clay, about two feet high ; and upon these
imperfect walls the superstructure is raised, composed of
timber frame-work, with laths intertwined, and plastered
with mud or clay. They are usually covered with thick
flag-stones, which increase the weight, and soon reduce
them to a most ruinous state.
See Duncomb’s Herefordshire; Marshall’s Rural Eco¬
nomy ; Lodge’s Sketches; Clark’s General View; and
Brayley and Britton’s Beauties of England, vol. vi. (g.)
HERESY, an offence against Christianity, consisting in
a denial of some of its essential doctrines, publicly and ob¬
stinately avowed. It is defined sententia rerum divinarum
humano sensu excogitata, palam docta et pertinaciter defensa.
And here it must be acknowledged, that particular modes
of belief or unbelief, not tending to overturn Christianity
itself, or to undermine the foundations of morality, are by no
means the object of coercion by the civil magistrate. What
doctrines therefore should be adjudged heresy, was left by
our old constitution to the determination of the ecclesiasti¬
cal judge, who had therein a. most arbitrary latitude allow¬
ed him. The general definition of an heretic, given by
Lyndewode, extends to the smallest deviations from the
doctrines of the holy church. Hcereticus est qui dubitat de
fide catholica, et qui negligit servure ea, quce Romana eccle-
sia siatuit, sen servare decreverat; or, as the statute 2 Hen.
IV. c. 15, expresses it in English, “ teachers of erroneous
opinions contrary to the faith and blessed determinations
of the holy church.” Ibis was very contrary to the usage
of the first general councils, which defined all heretical
doctrines with the utmost precision and exactness. But
what ought to have alleviated the punishment, namely, the
uncertainty of the crime, seems to have enhanced it in
those days of blind zeal and pious cruelty. It is true, that
for the crime of heresy the sanctimonious hypocrisy of the
canonists went at first no farther than enjoining penance,
excommunication, and ecclesiastical deprivation; though
afterwards they proceeded boldly to imprisonment by the
ordinary, and confiscation of goods in pros usus. But in the
mean time they had prevailed upon the weakness of bigoted
princes to make the civil power subservient to their pur¬
poses, by making heresy not only a temporal, but even a
capital offence; the ecclesiastics determining, without ap¬
peal, whatever they pleased to consider as heresy, and shift¬
ing to the secular arm the odium and drudgery of execu¬
tions, with which they themselves were too tender and de¬
licate to intermeddle. Nay, they pretended to intercede
on behalf of the convicted heretic, utcitra mortispericulum
sententia circa eum moderetur; well knowing that at the
same time they were delivering the unhappy victim to cer¬
tain death. Hence the capital punishments inflicted on
the ancient Donatists and Manichseans by the emperors
Theodosius and Justinian; and hence also the constitution
of the emperor Frederic mentioned by Lyndewode, adjudg¬
ing all persons without distinction to be burned with fire
w 10 weie convicted of heresy by the ecclesiastical judge,
ihe same emperor, in another constitution, ordained, that
n any temporal lord, when admonished by the church,
should neglect to clear his territories of heretics within a
year, R should be lawful for good Catholics to seize and
occupy the lands, and utterly to exterminate the heretical
possessors. And upon this foundation was built that arbi¬
trary power, so long claimed and so fatally exerted by the
supreme pontiff, of disposing of the kingdoms of refractory
HER
princes to more dutiful sons of the church. The imme- Heresy
diate consequence of this constitution was something singu-
lar, and may serve to illustrate at once the gratitude of the
holy see, and the righteous punishment of the royal bigot;
for, upon the authority of this very constitution, the pope
afterwards expelled Frederic from his kingdom of Sicily,
and gave it to Charles of Anjou.
Christianity being thus deformed by the demon of per¬
secution upon the Continent, we cannot expect that our own
island should have been entirely free from the same scourge;
and accordingly we find amongst our ancient precedents a
writ de hceretico comburendo, which is thought by some to
be as ancient as the common law itself. From this writ it
appears that the conviction of heresy by the common law
was not in any petty ecclesiastical court, but before the
archbishop himself in a pi-ovincial synod; and that the de¬
linquent was delivered over to the king to be dealt with
according to the royal pleasure. Thus the crown had a
control over the spiritual power, and might pardon the
convict by issuing no process against him ; the writ de Ike-
retico comburendo being not a writ of course, but issuing
only by the special direction of the king in council.
But in the reign of King Henry IV., when the eyes of the
Christian world began to be opened, and the seeds of the
Protestant religion, though under the opprobrious name of
Lollardy, took root in this kingdom, the clergy, taking
advantage of the king’s dubious title to demand an increase
of their power, obtained an act of parliament, which sharp¬
ened the edge of persecution to its utmost keenness. By
that statute, the diocesan alone, without the intervention
of a synod, might convict of heretical tenets; and unless
the convict abjured his opinions, or if after abjuration he
relapsed, the sheriff was bound ex officio, if required by the
bishop, to commit the unhappy victim to the flames, with¬
out waiting for the consent of the crowm. By the statute
2 Henry V. c. 7, Lollardy was also made a temporal of¬
fence, and indictable in the king’s courts; which thereby
gained not an exclusive, but only a concurrent, jurisdiction
with the bishop’s consistory.
Afterwards, when the reformation of religion began to
advance, tire power of the ecclesiastics became somewhat
moderated; for though it was not then precisely defined
what heresy was, yet people were informed in some points
what it was not. The statute 25 Flenry VIII. c. 14, de¬
clared that offences against the see of Rome were not he¬
resy ; and the ordinary was thereby restrained from pro¬
ceeding in any case upon mere suspicion; that is, unless
the party delated were accused by two credible witnesses,
or an indictment of heresy had been previously found in
the king’s courts of common law. And still the spirit of
persecution was not yet abated, but only diverted into a
lay channel. For in six years afterwards, by statute 31
Henry VIII. c. 14 the law of the six articles was made,
which established the six most contested points of popery,
namely, transubstantiation, communion in one kind, the
celibacy of the clergy, monastic vows, the sacrifice of the
mass, and auricular confession; points which were “ de¬
termined and resolved by the most godly study, pain, and
travail of his majesty, for which his most humble and obe¬
dient subjects, the lords spiritual and temporal and the
commons, in parliament assembled, did not only render
and give unto his highness their most high and hearty
thanks, ’ but did also enact and declare all oppugners of the
first to be heretics, and to be burned with fire, and of the
five others to be felons, and to suffer death. The same
statute established a new and mixed jurisdiction of clergy
and laity for the trial and conviction of heretics ; the reign-
ing prince being then equally intent on destroying the su¬
premacy of the bishops of Rome, and at the same time
establishing all their corruptions of the Christian religion.
Without perplexing this detail with the various repeals
HER
HER
275
t- Ptic and revivals of these sanguinary laws in the two succeeding
reians, we proceed to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when
H est’s the^reformation was finally established with temper and de-
I ilds- cency unsullied with party-rancour or personal caprice and
u ^ resentment. By statute 1 Eliz. c. 1, all former statutes relat¬
ing to heresy were repealed, and the jurisdiction of heresy
was left as it stood at common law, viz. as to the infliction
of common censures in the ecclesiastical courts ; and in case
of burning the heretic, in the provincial synod only. Sir
Matthew Hale is indeed of a different opinion, and holds
that such power resided also in the diocesan; though he
agrees that in either case the writ de haretico comburendo
was not deman dable of common right, but grantable or
otherwise merely at the king’s discretion. But the princi¬
pal point now gained was, that by this statute a boundaiy
was for the first time set to what should be accounted he¬
resy For the future nothing was to be determined here¬
tical but only such tenets as had been heretofore so de¬
clared, first, by the words of the Holy Scriptures; or, se¬
condly, by the first four general councils, or such others as
had only used the words of the Holy Scriptures; or, thirdly,
which should thereafter be so declared by the parliament,
with the assent of the clergy in convocation. Thus was
heresy reduced to a greater certainty than before ; though
it mi<dit not have been amiss to have defined it in terms
still more precise and particular, as even yet a man con¬
tinued liable to be burned for what perhaps he did not un¬
derstand to be heresy till the ecclesiastical judge had so in¬
terpreted the words of the canonical scriptures.
But the writ de hceretico comburendo remained still in
force; and we have instances of its being put in execution
against two Anabaptists in the seventeenth of Elizabeth,
and two Arians in the ninth of James I. But it was to¬
tally abolished, and heresy again subjected only to ecclesi-
astical correction, pro salute animcB^ by virtue oi the statute
29 Car. II. c. 9; for, in one and the same reign, our lands
were delivered from the slavery of military tenures, our
bodies from arbitrary imprisonment by the habeas corpus
act, and our minds from the tyranny of superstitious bigot¬
ry by removing this last badge of persecution fiom the sys¬
tem of English law.
HERETIC, a general name for all those persons of any
religion, but especially the Christian, who profess or teach
religious opinions contrary to the established faith, or to
what is fixed as the standard of orthodoxy.
HERETOCHS, amongst our Saxon ancestors, signified
the same with dukes or duces, denoting the commanders
or leaders of their armies.
It appears, from the laws of Edward the Confessor, that
the military force of this kingdom was in the hands of the
dukes or heretochs, who were constituted through every
province and county in the kingdom, being selected fiom
the principal nobility, and such as were most remarkable
for being sapientes, Jideles, et animosi. Their duty was to
regulate and command the English armies; and because
of their great power, they were elected by the people in
their full assembly, or folkmote, in the same manner as
sheriffs were elected.
HERFORDEN, a city of Prussia, the capital of a circle
of the same name, in the Minden division of the province
of Westphalia. It stands at the junction of the rivers Aa
and Werre, and its walls are converted into promenades.
It contains 1396 houses and 6804) inhabitants, with four
Lutheran and one Reformed church. There is a large
house of correction, with 500 prisoners, who are employed
in spinning cotton. There are several mills for spinning
and weaving cotton goods, and manufactures of linen.
Long. 8. 33. 49. E. Lat. 52. 7. 25. N.
HERGEST’S Islands, a group of islands in the South
Pacific Ocean, so called from Lieutenant Hergest, by
whom they were discovered in 1792. They consist of
Riou’s, Trevenen’s, Sir Henry Martin’s, and Robert’s Isles, Heriot
and extend from longitude 219. 47. to 220. 21. E. and Hel-J)ann.
latitude 7. 53. to 9. 14. S.
HERIOT, in Law, a customary tribute of goods and
chattels, payable to the lord of the fee on the decease of
the owner of the land.
HERISAU, a town, the capital of the canton of Appen-
zell, in Switzerland. It stands in a beautiful, district, is
well built, and contains 750 houses and 7000 inhabitants.
It is a place of extensive manufactures, especially of cotton
goods for the fairs of Germany. Long. 9. 11. 5. E. i^at.
47. 23. 16. N.
HERISSON, in Fortification, a beam armed with a great
number of iron spikes with their points turned outwaids,
and supported by a pivot on which it turns. Ilerissons
serve as barriers to block up passages, and are frequently
placed before the gates, and more especially the wicket-
doors, of a town or fortress, to secure those passages
which must of necessity be frequently opened and shut.
HERIURA, a town of Hindustan, in the south of In¬
dia, and province of Mysore, situated on the east side of
the river Vedawati. "During the government of the
Chittledroog rajahs it was a place of great consequence,
and contained 2000 houses, with an outer and inner fort..
It was twice sacked by the Mahrattas in the ieign of
Hyder ; and has since fallen into great decay, owing part¬
ly to a dreadful famine which followed, and swept away
most of the inhabitants. Under its piesent mild govern¬
ment the town is gradually reviving. Long. 76. 37. E.
Lat. 13. 46. N.
HERMiEA, in Antiquity, ancient Greek festivals cele¬
brated in honour of the god Hermes or Mercury. One of
these was celebrated by the Pheneatae in Arcadia; a second
by the Cellenians in Elis; and a third by the Tanagraeans,
where Mercury was represented carrying a ram upon his
shoulder, because he was said to have walked, through
the city in that manner in time of a plague, and to have
cured the sick, in memory of which, it was customary at
this festival for one of the most beautiful youths in the
city to walk round the walls with a ram upon his shoul¬
der. A fourth festival of the same name was observed in
Crete, when it was usual for the servants to sit down, at
the table whilst their masters waited; a custom which
was also observed at the Roman Saturnalia.
HERMOGENES, St, an island in the North Pacific
Ocean, about six leagues in circuit, discovered by Beh¬
ring, and further explored by Cook, situated at the en¬
trance of Cook’s Inlet, and separated from the adjacent
coast by a channel one league broad. Long. 152. VV.
Lat. 58. 20. N. , , . , ,
HERMANN, Paul, a celebrated botanist, was born at
Halle, in Saxony, and practised physic in the island of
Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope, after which, in 167 J,
he was chosen professor of botany at Leyden, and superin¬
tendent of the botanical garden. In the science of plants
he obtained the highest reputation, and died in the year
1695. His first publication, in 1687, was a catalogue of
plants in the university garden, which he had much en¬
riched with plants from the East and West Indies. His
method of botanical classification is contained in his LLorw
Luqduno-Batavce Flores, published in 1690. His iW
disusBatavus was published after his decease by William
Sherard, and contains many rare, with some entirely new
species, delineated in a very elegant manner. The rest
of Hermann’s works are, Mused Indici Catalogus, continens
varia exotica animalia, insecta, vegetabilia, mineralia ; and
Lapis Lydius Materice Medicce, in which last his new cha¬
racters of plants are made use of to illustrate their medical
properties. At his death he left behind him four hundred
and fifty fine drawings, and a numerous collection of dried
plants, which served as the basis of the Flora Ceylanica
276 HER HER
Herman- of Linnaeus, and also a Catalogue of Plants of the Cape of
stack Good Hope. Dr Hannes addressed to him a beautiful
Hennas °^e’ preserved ; but many of the trea-
i.. sures of his industrious life were strangely neglected, and
allowed to be dispersed.
HERMANSTADT, a city of Hungary, in the province
of Sieberbergen, the capital,of a circle of the same name,
which extends over 984 square miles, and contains about
60,000 inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Eidin,
and is surrounded with double walls and extensive sub¬
urbs. It contains four Lutheran, three Catholic, one Re¬
formed, and one Greek church, and is the seat of a Greek
bishop, of a Lutheran lyceum with ten professors and a
good library, of a Catholic orphan-house with 500 pupils,
and a gymnasium or high school attached to it, and of
the palaces of several of the nobles of the province. It
has 2000 houses and 16,450 inhabitants. There are car¬
ried on within the city the trades of cloth and blanket¬
weaving, hat-making, and other manufactures. Long. 24.
3. 53. E. Lat. 45. 47. 4. N.
HERMAPHRODITE is generally understood to sig¬
nify a human creature possessed of both sexes, or who
has the parts of generation of both male and female. The
term however is also applied to other animals, and even
to plants. The word is formed from the Greek 'E^apgo-
dirog, a compound of’Eg/Ajjg, Mercury, and Atpgobirri, Venus ;
a mixture of Mercury and Venus, or of male and female.
Hermaphroditus was originally a proper name applied by
the heathen mythologists to a fabulous deity, whom some
represent as a son of Hermes, Mercury, and Aphrodite,
Venus, and who, being desperately in love with the nymph
Salamis, obtained permission of the god to have his body
and hers united into one. But others say, that the god
Hermaphroditus was conceived as a composition of Mer¬
cury and Venus; to exhibit the union between eloquence,
or rather commerce, of which Mercury was god, with
pleasure, of which Venus was the proper deity. Lastly,
others think this junction intended to show that Venus or
pleasure was of both sexes.
In a treatise by Mr Hunter, in the sixty-ninth volume
of the Philosophical Transactions, hermaphrodites are di¬
vided into natural, and unnatural or monstrous. The first
belongs to the more simple orders of animals, of which
there are a much greater number than of the more per¬
fect. The unnatural takes place in every tribe of animals
having distinct sexes, but is more common in some than
in others. The human species, our author imagines, has
the fewest; but amongst horses, sheep, and black cattle,
they are very frequent.
Hermaphrodite Flowers, in Botany. These are so
called by the sexualists, on account of their containing
both the antherae and stigma, the supposed organs of ge¬
neration, within the same calyx and petals. Of this kind
are the flowers of all the classes in Linnaeus’s sexual me¬
thod, except the classes moncecia and dicecia ; in the for¬
mer of which, male and female flowers are produced on the
same root; in the latter, in distinct plants from the same
seed. In the class polygamia, there are always herma¬
phrodite flowers mixed with male or female, or both, either
on the same or distinct roots. In the plantain-tree the
flowers are all hermaphrodite; in some, however, the an¬
therae or male organ, in others the stigma or female organ,
proves abortive. The flowers in the former class are styled
female hermaphrodites ; in the latter, male hermaphrodites.
Hermaphi odites are thus as frequent in the vegetable king¬
dom as they are rare and scarce in the animal one.
HERMAS, an ecclesiastical author of the first century,
and, according to Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome, the same
whom St Paul salutes in the end of his epistle to the Ro¬
mans. ^ He wrote a book in Greek some time before Do-
mitian’s persecution, which happened in the year 95.
This work is entitled The Pastor, from his representing an Herm
angel speaking to him in it under the form of a shepherd. ||
The Greek text is lost, but a very ancient Latin version ®errn<
is still extant. Some of the fathers have considered thisca1^
book as canonical. The best edition of it is that of 1698,
where it is to be found amongst the other apostolical fa¬
thers, illustrated with the notes and corrections of Cotele-
rius and Le Clerc. It was translated into English by Arch¬
bishop Wake.
HERMES, or Herma, amongst antiquaries, a sort of
square or cubical figure of the god Mercury, usually made
of marble, though sometimes of brass or other materials,
without arms or legs, and planted by the Greeks or Ro¬
mans in their cross-ways.
Servius, in his comment upon the eighth book of the
Aineid, states the origin of this. Some shepherds, says
he, having one day caught Mercury, called by the Greeks
Hermes, asleep on a mountain, cut off his hands, whence
he, as well as the mountain where the action occurred, was
denominated Cyllenius, from xaXXog, warned; and hence
it is, according to Servius, that certain statues without arms
are denominated Hermce. But this etymology of the epi¬
thet of Cyllenius contradicts most of the other ancient au¬
thors, who derive it from this, that Mercury was born at
Cyllene, a city of Elis, or even on the mountain Cyllene
itself, which had been so called before his time.
Suidas gives a moral explication of the custom of making
statues of Mercury without arms. The Hermeses, he in¬
forms us, were statues of stone placed at the vestibules
or porches of the doors and temples at Athens; and as
Mercury was the god of speech and truth, square and
cubical statues were peculiarly proper, because they have
this in common with truth, that on what side soever they
are viewed, they always appear the same.
Athens abounded more in Hermeses than any other
place; there were numbers of them in different parts of
the city, and they were indeed one of its principal orna¬
ments. They were also placed in the high-roads and
cross-ways, because Mercury, who was the courier of the
gods, presided over the high-ways; hence his surname of
Trivius, from trivium, and that of Viacus, from via.
From Suidas’s account, above cited, it appears that the
termini, used amongst us in the door-cases, balconies, and
other parts of our buildings, take their origin from these
Athenian Hermeses, and that it was more proper to call
them hermetes than termini, because, though the Roman
termini were square stones, on which a hand was frequent¬
ly placed, yet they were rather used as landmarks and
mere stones than as ornaments of building.
HERMESIANAX, a poet of Colophon, in Asia Minor,
of whose private history we know scarcely any thing. He
seems to have flourished about b. c. 280, at the same time
as Theocritus, and was the author of three books of ele¬
gies, which he addressed to his mistress Leontium, as Pro¬
pertius did to Cynthia. Athenaeus (xiii. 597) has pre¬
served ninety-eight verses of a very beautiful elegy, which
has been published separately by Weston in his Conjec-
turce in Athenaeum, Lond. 1784. Van Santen has translat¬
ed it into Latin verse under the title of Tentamen Her-
mesianacteum, as also Rigler and Axti (Colon. 1828).
The best edition is by Bach (Hale, 1829). See Leontium.
HERMETIC, or Hermetical Art, a name given to che¬
mistry, on the supposition that Hermes Trismegistus was the
inventor of that science, or that he excelled therein.
Hermetical Philosophy is that which undertakes to
solve and explain all the phenomena of nature from the
three chemical principles, salt, sulphur, and mercury.
Hermetical Physic, or Medicine, is that system or hypo¬
thesis in the art of healing, which explains the causes of
diseases, and the operations of medicine, on the principles
of the hermetieal philosophy.
HER
■[. Hermetical Seal, a manner of stopping or closing glass
tl* vessels, for chemical operations, so very accurately, that
Ca nothing can exhale or escape, not even the most subtile
Hen ?e- spirits. It is performed by heating the neck of the vessel
^n‘!| in the flame of a lamp till it be ready to melt, and then
^ ^ with a pair of pincers twisting it close together. I his
they call putting on Hermes s seal.
HERMHARPOCRATES, or Hermarpocrates, in
Antiquity, a deity, or figure of a deity, composed of Mer¬
cury, and Harpocrates the god of silence. .
HERMIANI, or Hermiatitje, a sect of heretics in
the second century, so called from their leader Hermias.
They were also denominated Seleuciani, One of their dis¬
tinguishing tenets was, that God is corporeal; and another,
that Jesus Christ did not ascend into heaven with his
body, but left it in the sun.
HERMIONE, in Ancient Geography, a considerable
city of Argolis. Excepting a few temples, it was in ruins
in the time of Pausanias, who says that the new city was
situated at the distance of four stadia from the promon¬
tory on which stood the temple of Neptune. It gave name
to the Sinus Hermionicus, a part of the Sinus Argolicus.
HERMIT, or Eremit, Eremita, a devout person re¬
tired into solitude, to be more at leisure for prayer and
contemplation, and to disencumber himself of the affairs
of this world. The word is formed from the Greek, Igij/xos,
desert or wilderness ; and hence, according to the etymo-
looy, it should rather be written Eremit. Paul surnamed
the Hermit is usually reckoned the first hermit; though
St Jerome, at the beginning of the life of that saint, says
it is not known who was the first. Some go back to the
time of John the Baptist, others to that of Elias; some
make St Anthony the founder of the eremitical life, and
others think that he only rekindled and heightened the
fervour thereof, holding that the disciples of that saint
owned St Paul of Thebes as the first who practised it.
The persecutions of Decius and Valerian are supposed to
have been the occasion of driving men to the wilderness.
There are also various orders and congregations of re¬
ligious persons distinguished by the title of hermits ; as her¬
mits of St Augustin, of St John Baptist, of St Jerome, of
St Paul, and so forth.
HERMITAGE properly signifies a little hut or habi¬
tation, in some desert place, where a hermit dwells.
Hermitage is also popularly attributed to any religious
cell, built and endowed in a private and recluse place, and
thus annexed to some large abbey, of which the superior
was called kermita.
HERMOGENES, the first and most celebrated archi¬
tect of antiquity, was, according to Vitruvius, born at Al-
anbada, a city in Caria. He built a temple of Diana at
Magnesia, and another of Bacchus at Iros; and he was
the inventor of several parts of architecture. He compos¬
ed a book on the subject, which is lost.
Hermogenes Tarsensis, a rhetorician and orator, who
was in every respect a prodigy. At the age of seventeen
he published his system of rhetoric, and at twenty his phi¬
losophic ideas; but at twenty-five he forgot every thing he
had known. It is said that his body being opened after his
death, his heart was found of an extraordinary size, and all
covered with hair. He died about 168 before Christ.
HERMOGENIANS, a sect of ancient heretics, so deno¬
minated from their leader Hermogenes, who lived towards
the close of the second century. Hermogenes established
matter as his first principle; and regarding it as the source
of all evil, he maintained that the world, and every thing
contained in it, as also the souls of men and other spirits,
were formed by the Deity from an uncreated and eternal
mass of corrupt matter. The opinions of Hermogenes,
with regard to the origin of the world and the nature of
the soul, were warmly opposed by Tertullian.
HER 277
The Hermogenians were divided into several branches Hermon
under their respective chieftains; as Hermiani, Seleuci- II
ani, Materiani, and so on.
HERMON, or Aermon, in Ancient Geography, a moun-
tain of the Amorites, called Sanior by the Phoenicians,
and Sanir or Senir by the Amorites, on the east of Jordan.
It is also called Sion, but must not be confounded with
the Sion of Jerusalem.
HERMOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, the name of
several cities in Egypt, dedicated, as the name imports, to
Hermes or Mercury. Near one of these cities, probably
Hermopolis Magna, was situated a most magnificent tem¬
ple, of which the portico only remains. It was visited by
Denon, who accompanied the French army in their expedi¬
tion to Egypt in 1799, and who describes it as a most beau¬
tiful monument of ancient architecture, a splendid relic
of the highest antiquity. Amongst the hillocks within
three hundred or four hundred yards of the portico, enor¬
mous blocks of stone are seen buried in sand, and regular
architecture beneath, which appears part of an edifice con¬
taining columns of granite, just rising above the present
level of the soil. Every part of this edifice is covered with
hieroglyphics. Connected with the scattered fragments
of the great temple, a mosque has been built, in which is
a number of columns of cipoline marble. Near this is the
village of Aschmunein, containing about 5000 inhabitants.
HERMUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Ionia,
which, rising near Dorylseum, a town of Phrygia, in a moun¬
tain sacred to Dindymene or Cybele, touched Mysia, and
ran through the Eegio Comhusta, and then through the
plains of Smyrna down to the sea, carrying along with it the
Pactolus, Hyllus, and other less notable rivers. Its waters
were said, by Virgil and other poets, to roll down gold.
HERNOSAND, a town of Sweden, the capital of the
province of Norrlandslan. It is the seat of a bishop, and is
built on the island formed by two arms of the river Anger-
man, which here empties itself into the Gulf of Bothnia.
The harbour is one of the best in Northern Sweden. It
contains 340 houses, and 1980 inhabitants, who are oc¬
cupied in linen weaving, in ship-building, and in the fish¬
ery. Long. 17. 46. 7. E. Lat. 63. 38. N.
HERO, in Pagan mythology, a great and illustrious
person, of a mortal nature, though supposed by the popu¬
lace to have partaken of immortality, and after his death
to have been placed amongst the number of the gods.
The word is formed from the Latin heros, and that from
the Greek jjgw;, semi-deus or demi-god. The Greeks erect¬
ed columns and other monuments over the tombs ot their
heroes, and established a kind of worship in honour ot the
manes both of their heroes and heroines. The Romans
also raised statues in honour of their heroes; but there
were six of their heroes of a superior order, who were sup¬
posed to have been admitted into the community of the
twelve great gods, namely, Hercules, Bacchus, TEscula-
pius, Romulus, Castor, and Pollux. Writers have distin¬
guished between the worship which the ancients paid to
their heroes and that offered to their gods. The latter,
it is said, consisted of sacrifices and libations ; the former
was only a kind of funeral honour, in which they cele¬
brated their exploits, concluding the rehearsal with feasts.
Hero is also used in a more extensive sense, for a great,
illustrious, and extraordinary personage. _
Hero, in fabulous history, a famous priestess of Venus,
lived at Abydos, in a tower situated on the banks of the
Hellespont. She was beloved by Leander, who lived at
Sestos, on the other side of the strait, and every night swam
across to visit her, being directed by a light fixed on the
tower. But the light being put out on a stormy night,
the youth missed his way and was drowned ; upon which
Hero threw herself into the sea, and perished.
Hero, the name of two celebrated Greek mathema-
278 HER HER
Herod, ticians; the one called the older and the other the younger
JJero% The latter was a disciple of Ctesibius. They are
known by two works translated into Latin by Barochius;
Spiralium liber, by Hero the elder; and Tractat. Artis et
Machin. Militar. by Hero the younger. They flourished
about 130 and 100 b. c.
HEROD, surnamed the Great, was born about seventy-
one years before the commencement of the Christian era.
When about twenty-five years of age, his father Antipater
made him governor of Galilee, where he distinguished him¬
self by suppressing a band of robbers, and executing their
ringleader. For this action, which was performed by his
own authority, and without trial of the criminals, he was
ordered to appear before the Sanhedrim; but, by the in¬
fluence of his party, and the favour of the high priest, he
escaped judgment. During the civil war between the re¬
publican and Julian parties, Herod joined Cassius, was
made governor of Ccelosyria, caused Malichus to be assas¬
sinated for having poisoned his father, and ingratiated
himself with Marc Antony. After wandering for some
time as an exile in Egypt, he found means to arrive at
Rome, where Antony received him with great kindness,
and the senate made choice of him for the crown of Ju¬
daea, about forty years before the birth of Christ. It was
at that time in the possession of Antigonus, and he had
consequently to fight his way to it. But he was finally
victorious, Antigonus was taken prisoner, and Herod suc¬
ceeded to the regal dignity in the year thirty-seven be¬
fore Christ. In filling his empty coffers he was guilty of
many cruel extortions; yet it is but justice to add, that
he performed many acts of clemency. He sent for the
aged high priest Hyrcan, who had been deposed, treated
him with the greatest kindness, and raised Aristobulus, the
brother of his beloved Mariamne, to the pontifical dignity.
But soon afterwards, in a fit of jealousy, he caused Aris¬
tobulus to be drowned in a bath. Being accused to An-
tony by his mother-in-law, he appointed his uncle Joseph
to govern in his absence, charging him to put the queen
to death if his trial should prove fatal to him, as he could
not support the idea of her falling into the possession of
another.
Herod received a visit from Cleopatra, who is reported
to have had amorous inclinations towards him, which he
prudently disappointed, from fear of the vengeance of An¬
tony ; but he satisfied her avarice with the most ample
donations. When hostilities commenced between Antony
and Octavius, he raised an army to join the former; but
had first to contend with Malchus, king of part of Arabia,
whom he defeated, and compelled to sue for peace. After
the battle of Actium, he resolved to make terms with the
victor, and with this view he put the aged Hyrcan to death,
and embarked for Rhodes, where Augustus at that time
was. He appeared before the emperor in all the insignia
of royalty except his diadem, boldly relating all the ser¬
vices he had performed to his benefactor Antony, and ob¬
served that he was willing to transfer the same gratitude
to a new patron, from whom he might hold his crown and
kingdom.
Augustus was struck with the magnanimity of this de¬
fence, and replaced the diadem on his head. When Au¬
gustus passed through Syria in his way to Egypt, he was
magnificently entertained by Herod, to whom he restored
the whole of his dominions, which he even enlarged. Be-
ore his interview with Augustus, Herod had given a se¬
cond order respecting the murder of Mariamne; and be-
commgjealous of Sohemus, her last guardian, he soon after¬
wards had her condemned and executed, in spite of the
most solemn protestations of innocence. But the remorse
occasioned by this barbarous murder was dreadful, and no
scenes of not or debauchery could banish her from his
mmd. He would frequently call aloud upon her name, and
order his attendants to bring her into his presence, as ifHerc
unwilling to forget that she was no more. He built an ^
amphitheatre at Jerusalem, for the purpose of celebrating
games in honour of Augustus; but this exasperated the
Jews to such a degree, that a conspiracy was formed against
him, which however was detected, and the principal con¬
trivers punished with merciless severity.
He built several strong fortresses in different parts of
Judaea for his own security, one of which, in honour of the
emperor, was denominated Caesarea. To supply in some
measure the loss of Mariamne, he married another lady
of the same name, the daughter of a priest, whom he
raised to the supreme pontificate. He was in such favour
with Augustus, that he was appointed imperial procurator
of Syria, and obtained a tetrarchate for his brother. To
conciliate the favour of the Jews, he undertook the vast
work of rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem ; and, by con¬
stantly employing a whole army of workmen for a year
and a half, this magnificent edifice was completed. In
the course of another visit to the emperor, Herod obtain¬
ed new favours, particularly a grant of half the produce of
the mines of Cyprus, and the inspectorship of the rest.
After this he dedicated his new city of Caesarea, when he
exhibited so much profuse magnificence, that Augustus
declared his soul was too large for his kingdom. He pro¬
cured the condemnation and death of his two sons by the
first Mariamne, for which he has been bitterly accused;
but when we recollect that he took the greatest care of
the two sons whom each left behind him, we must conclude
that there may have been more reason for their punish¬
ment than some are willing to allow. The charge brought
against them was an unnatural conspiracy against his life
and crown, and it seems to have been fairly substantiated.
His brother Pheroras, and his favoured son Antipater,
conspired against him ; but soon after the discovery of the
plot the former died, and the latter went to Rome.
The birth of Christ happened in the thirty-third year
of his reign, and is said to have been soon followed by that
act of barbarous cruelty, the massacre of the children of
Bethlehem, instigated by jealousy of this king of the Jews
in a spiritual sense, of whose birth he had obtained infor¬
mation from the magi. It is to be observed that the ac¬
count of this deed is to be met with now'here but in St Mat¬
thew’s gospel; for whilst Josephus seems to dwell with stu¬
died minuteness on the cruelties of Herod, he drops not a
single hint respecting this massacre. As Antipater was
returning from Rome, he was arrested by his father’s orders,
tried and condemned for treasonable practices. These
calamities, joined to a shattered constitution, threw Herod
into a loathsome distemper, accompanied with remarkable
symptoms, which has sometimes been considered as a
judgment from heaven. He ordered the sentence against
Antipater to be put in execution, and appointed his son
Archelaus to succeed him on the throne. According to
Josephus, he collected together at Jericho the chief per¬
sons amongst the Jews, whom he ordered to be shut up
in the circus, giving strict orders to his sister Salome to
have them all massacred as soon as he had breathed his
last. This order was never executed, and we very much
doubt whether it was ever given.
His remains were interred with great pomp and magni¬
ficence ; and although his memory has been consigned to
detestation and abhorrence, his great talents and the glo¬
ries ,of his reign conspire to secure him a distinguished
place in the list of able but unscrupulous sovereigns.
HERODIANS, a sect amongst the Jews at the time
of our Saviour. The critics and commentators are very
much divided with regard to the Herodians. St Jerome,
in his dialogue against the Luciferians, takes the name to
have been given to those who owned Herod as the Mes¬
siah ; and Tertullian and Epiphanius are of the same opi-
»
HER
HER
279
nion But the same Jerome, in his Commentary on St 163, to whom we find him dedicating a work on Prosody Herodotus.
Ber a" Matthew, treats his opinion as ridiculous, and maintains (ngotfw&a KadoX/xjj), in twenty books. He is praised by the 'w^irw
^ that the Pharisees gave this appellation by way of ridicule ancients as an acute philologist, and possessed an intimate
to Herod’s soldiers,°who paid tribute to the Romans ; and knowledge of grammar, which is proved to be correct by
accordingly the Syrian interpreters render the word by the numerous fragments of his works. (See Fabricii
the domestics of Herod, that is, his courtiers. Simon, in Biblioth. Grac. ed. Harles, v. vi. p. 278; also Essai Histo-
his notes on the twenty-second chapter of St Matthew, rique sur VEcole dAlexandrie, par Matter, Par. 1820.)
advances a more probable opinion. The name Herodian HERODOTUS, a celebrated historian, the son of Lyx-
he imagines to have been given to such as adhered to as and Dryo, was a native of Halicarnassus, a city of Asia
Herod’s party and interest, and were for preserving the Minor. He was born 484. a. c. being descended of a fa-
(Tovernment in his family, about which were great divi- mily not less distinguished for its love of literature than
sions amongst the Jews. Hardouin represents the Herodi- for its wealth and political influence. His uncle Panyasis
ans and Sadducees as the same. Dr Prideaux is of opi- was highly esteemed as an epic poet, his writings being
nion that they derived their name from Herod the Great, regarded by his contemporaries as only second to those of
and that they were distinguished from the other Jews by Homer. We are therefore justified in believing that the
their concurrence with Herod’s scheme of subjecting him- youthful mind of Herodotus was cultivated with an assi-
selfand his dominions to the Romans, and likewise by com- duity which contributed in no small degree to the emi-
plying with many of their heathen usages and customs, nence of his maturer years. (Suidas,'Hgodorog and Uctwatug,
This symbolizing with idolatry upon views of interest and Schol. Aristoph. Nab. 331.) The period of history which
worldly policy was probably that leaven of Herod against he selected had nothing of novelty to recommend it; many
which our Saviour cautioned his disciples. It is further writers of great celebrity had preceded him, but their high
probable that they were chiefly of the sect of Sadducees, name andreputation, far from discouraging him, served only
because the leaven of Herod is also denominated the lea- to excite his emulation and to develope his talents. Xan-
ven of the Sadducees. thus of Lydia, Hecataeus of Miletus, Pherecydes, Acesi-
HERODI ANUS, a Greek historian of considerable ce- laus, Hellanicus of Lesbos, Charon of Lampsacus, had each
lebrity, respecting whose birthplace we are ignorant, but treated different parts of his subject with a masteily hand,
he seems to have spent much time at Rome. Of his pri- and it required no small confidence in his own powers to
vate history we know nothing, except that he flourished in venture on a period of history which had been so neaily
the reign of the younger Gordian (a. d 238). His work, exhausted. Io enable him to do justice to his subject,
which has been preserved, contains, in eight books, the lives he ^determined to visit those countries the tiansactions of
of the later Roman emperors, from the death of M. Aure- which he was about to narrate. It is impossible to trace
lius Antoninus (a. d. 180) to the succession of the younger the exact route which he pursued with any degree of pre-
Gordian (a. d. 238), a period of fifty-eight years. It thus cision, or to say with certainty whether he visited Greece
contains an account of the transactions during the reigns and the adjoining isles before he proceeded to the moie
of Commodus, Pertinax, Julianus, Niger and Albinus, Se- remote parts of the East. But be this as it may, Egypt was
verus, Caracalla and Geta, Macrinus, Heliogabalus, Alex- one of the first and most constant objects of his attention
ander Severus, Maximinus, the two Gordians, Balbinus, and research. Ihis country, which had long been inac-
and Gordian the younger. The style of his history is simple cessible to strangers, from the defensive policy of its sove-
and natural, free from that affected Attic purity which reigns and the inhospitable nature of its inhabitants, a
was the fault of the writers of his age. Still in many pas- been recently thrown open to the Greeks. 1 hither He-
sages there are evident marks of his having imitated Thu- rodotus proceeded; and it is cui ious to remark, that t mug
cydides, and sometimes Demosthenes and Polybius. The many since that period have visited the country, and pub-
period which he undertook to describe was one full of lished the results of their inquiries, no one has given a
spirit-stirring events; frequent changes of emperors, con- more exact description, either of the physical appearance
slant wars both foreign and domestic, numerous earth- of Egypt, or of the manners of its inhabitants, than the
quakes, plague and pestilence, were all crowded into the father of history. It was not merely to the geogiapiy
page of half a century. Whilst occupied with these wars of the country that he directed his attention, but to its
and wonderful phenomena, he forgets to make us acquaint- productions, its peculiar customs, its strange superstitions,
ed with the internal changes that were taking place in and the history of the princes who reigned immediately
the constitution of the Roman empire ; and whilst he gives before its conquest by toe Persians. In his second boo
us a minute account of the contests for empire, of court we have the fruits of his voyage to Egypt; and it may
intrigues, and long, often unmeaning, speeches, he omits be still referred to as the purest source for acquning a
to notice the movements of those barbarous hordes which minute knowledge of its ancient history and institutions,
had already begun to threaten, and shortly after succeed- (Herodotus, ii.)
ed in subverting, the Roman empire. All however of which From Egypt he must have passed into Libya, or we
he gives us an account bears on it the stamp of truth, though cannot believe that his accurately detailed account of the
perhaps he sometimes praises beyond what they deserve, whole coast, from the frontiers of Egypt to the remote dis-
hazards blame with too lenient a hand, and approves of cha- tricts beyond Gibraltar, even as far as the promontory of So-
racters which are only distinguished for their follies and loe’is, could have been acquired otherwise than by personal
their vices. Herodian is the last of the Greek historians examination. It is too minute, and too conformable with
of importance. The first edition is byr Aldus, Venice, 1503 ; what we know of these countries at the piesent time, to
another by Stephens, Paris, 1581. There is a large edi- have been collected from the hearsay statements of tra-
tion in five volumes by Irmisch, Leipsig, 1789, 1805. The vellers. (ii. 181; iv. 16b, 195, 196.)
best is by Becker, Berlin, 1826. See also Wolf. Narratio His visit to Tyre, the splendid city of the Phoenicians,
de Herodiano et libro ejus, in his edition of Herodian, Hal. is attested by himself (ii. 44) ; and he must at the same
Sax. 1792. There are several German translations, of time have examined the coasts of Palestine, as he mentions
which the best are by Gunradi Frankfort, 1784, and by having seen the pillar, and the disgraceful emblem en-
Osiander, Stuttgardt, 1830. graved on it, intended by Sesostris to commemorate his
Herodianus, a grammarian of Alexandria in Egypt, victory, about 1350 A. c., over a weak and demoialized
was son of the grammarian Apollonius Dyscolus. He seems people, (ii. 106.)
to have resided at Rome in the reign of M. Aurelius, a. d. Some have ventured to deny that he ever journeyed so
280
HER
HER
Herodotus, far to the east as Babylon, and the rich plains of Assyria :
yet if he had not been on the spot, he could scarcely have
delineated with such minuteness the topography of that
mighty city. Besides, in recording the existence of the
temple of Jupiter Belus, he adds that he did not see the
celebrated golden statue which had adorned its shrine, be¬
cause Xerxes had carried it elsewhere (i. 181). We may
add, that his frequent intercourse with the Chaldasans, and
the conversations he held with them, could scarcely have
taken place in any part of the world beyond the confines
of Assyria.
Colchis, as the theatre of an adventure depicted in all
the glowing colours with which the creative genius of the
poets could adorn it, was a natural object of curiosity. He
traversed its rugged coast; and finding himself in the vi¬
cinity of the wandering Scythians, he penetrated into their
wild and desolate solitude as far as the commercial specu¬
lations of the Greeks had reached (iv. 81). The country
of the Getse, Thrace, Macedon, and Epirus, were each in
their turn examined; but Greece was the chief object of
his labours; and though we are unable to specify the time
when he first visited it, he no doubt did so before his work
was begun.
On his return to his native city, he found its govern¬
ment usurped by the tyrant Lygdamis; his uncle Panya-
sis was soon afterwards put to death: and he himself becom¬
ing an object of suspicion, retired to the island of Samos.
Here probably he composed his history, in the soft Ionic
dialect, preferring it to the harsher sounds of his native
Doric. Yet, amidst the pursuits of literature, he did not
forget the claims of the city which gave him birth. He
organized a conspiracy by which Lygdamis was expelled;
but the tyranny of the aristocracy which succeeded proved
even more hateful to the citizens than that from which
they had been delivered. They probably ascribed to He¬
rodotus the crimes of his associates, which he had no power
to avert; anti, disgusted with the ingratitude of his fellow-
citizens, the historian left for ever the shores of Caria, and
proceeded to Greece. (Lucian in Herod, iv. p. 116.)
He arrived at the beginning of the eighty-first Olym¬
piad (456 a. c.), and found a vast concourse of people assem¬
bled to celebrate the games at Olympia. He was unknown
to all; but, ambitious of fame, he invited an audience to
come and hear him recite a portion of his history; and as
he no doubt selected the parts most likely to flatter the
pride and to excite the enthusiasm of his compatriots, his
success was complete, the acclamations with which he
was received were overwhelming, and from that moment
he was considered one of the first men of his age. It is
supposed that it was at this recitation that Thucydides,
then in his fifteenth year, shed tears of emulation when
he saw the honours showered on the head of the historian.
Herodotus foretold to the father the future fame of his
son, and the sanction of posterity has verified the predic¬
tion. (Suid.; Marcellii Vit. Thucyd. p. 32.) Of the next
twelve years, we can only conjecture that he spent them
in Gieece, and that he employed them in travelling lei¬
surely over the country, examining with attention the ar-
e lives oi different people, verifying on original monuments
t le genealogies of the most illustrious families, and col-
ecting the local traditions of great events at their source.
It is said he was in the habit of reading to the different
states the portions of history which more particularly re¬
ferred to them, and was thus able to correct any error
into which he might have fallen. At Athens, at the fes-
tival of Panathenasa, 446 A. c., he again recited a portion
of his history, and received from the hands of that dis-
cermng people a donation of ten talents. (Eusb. Citron.
p. 104.) In 444 a. c. Athens was preparing to send a co¬
lony to Thurium, and Herodotus determined to accom¬
pany it as a volunteer. Here he must have spent the re¬
mainder of his life in dignified repose, employing his time H
in retouching his history, and rendering the style still 8
more harmonious. The period of his death is uncertain- He t,
but from a fact which he records, and which we know to w ^
have happened 408 a. c. he must have been employed in
his history till that time. (Herodot. i. 130; iii. 15.)
The work is contained in nine books, each dedicated to
one of the muses; but whether this was done by himself
or by posterity we are unable to decide. To it we are
indebted for our knowledge of the origin and progress of
the Persian monarchy; of that of the Medes and Assyrians
which preceded it; the origin of the kingdom of Lydia,
its destruction by Cyrus the elder, and the numerous ex¬
peditions of that monarch; the conquest of Egypt by Cam-
byses, with a minute description of that country; the va¬
rious wars in which the successors of Cyrus were engaged,
and particularly the expedition of Darius against the Scy¬
thians, where he takes an opportunity of introducing an ac¬
count of that people in the north of Europe and Asia. Then
follows his narrative of the Persian expedition against the
Greeks, and their noble struggle against the overwhelm¬
ing power of that monarchy. This narrative breaks off at
the siege of Sestos, 478 a. c. ; and though he alludes to
events that happened seventy years later, he does not
seem to have continued his history further. (Diodor. xi.
37.) Some have ascribed to him a life of Homer, which is
generally bound up with his work; but there are strong
reasons for believing that it is the composition of a later
age. He seems also to allude to a work on Assyria (As-
syriaca), i. 184; but as no notice is taken of it by subse¬
quent writers, it was probably never executed.
For an able disquisition on the style of Herodotus, and
his character as an historian, see Edinburgh Review, vol.
xlvii. p. 331.
HEROIC, something belonging to a hero or heroine.
Heroic Age is that age or period of the world in which
the heroes, or those called by the poets the children of
the gods, are supposed to have lived. The heroic age
coincides with the fabulous age.
Heroic Poem is that which undertakes to describe some
extraordinary action or enterprise. Homer, Virgil, Sta¬
tius, Lucan, Tasso, Camoens, Milton, Wilkie, Glover, Vol¬
taire, and others, have composed heroic poems. In this
sense, heroic coincides with epic poem.
Heroic Verse is that in which heroic poems are usually
composed, or it is that which is proper for such poems.
In the Greek and Latin, hexameter verses are peculiarly
denominated heroic verses, as being alone used by epic
poets. Alexandrine verses, of twelve syllables, were for¬
merly called heroic verses, as being supposed the only verse
proper for heroic poetry; but later writers use verses of
ten syllables.
HEROINE, Heroina, or Herois, a woman who has
the qualities and virtues of a hero, or who has done some
heroic action.
HERON. See Ornithology.
HERRENBERG, a city of Wurtemberg, of the circle
of the Black Forest, and the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name extending over ninety-two square miles, and
containing 22,910 inhabitants. The city is situated on
the river Auer. It is built around a mountain fortress of
great antiquity. It contains 330 houses, and 2100 inhabi¬
tants, who produce good wine, and make some woollen
goods. Near to it are quarries of marble and alabaster,
in which many curious petrifactions are found.
HERRERA T ordesillas, Antonio de, a Spanish
historian, the son of Roderigo de Tordesillas and Agnes
de Herrera, it being the custom of that country to bear
the mother’s name, was born in 1565. He was at first
secretary to Vespasian de Gonzaga, viceroy of Naples, but
was afterwards appointed historiographer of the Indies by
H E R H E E 281:
Hei a Philip II. who granted him a liberal pension. Whilst he
held this office, he wrote his General History of the Indies .
Her g- from 1492 to 1554, in four volumes folio. Of all the Spanish
^ authors, Herrera is the one who has given the most exact
and circumstantial recital of the conquest of Mexico, and
the other events in America. Hence, to use the words of
Dr Robertson, his work “ furnishes the fullest and most
accurate information concerning the conquest of Mexico,
as well as every other transaction of America. The in¬
dustry and attention with which he consulted, not only the
books, but the original and public records, were so great,
and he usually judges of the evidence before him with so
much impartiality and candour, that his decades may be
ranked among the most judicious and useful historical col¬
lections.” His death, which happened at Madrid on the 29th
of March 1625, prevented him from occupying the office
of secretary of state, to which Philip IV. had just raised him.
Besides the work above mentioned, Herrera wrote in Spa¬
nish, 1. Description of the West Indies, Madrid, 1601, in
folio; 2. History of what passed in England and in Scot¬
land during the forty-four years of the life of Mary Stuart,
queen of Scotland, Lisbon, 1590, in 12mo; 3. Five Books
of the History of Portugal, and the conquest of the Azores
in the years 1581 and 1583, Mhdrid, 1591, in 4to; 4.
History of the affairs of France from the year 1585 until
the end of the year 1594, Madrid, 1598, in 4to; 5. His¬
tory of the world under the reign of Philip II. from the
year 1584 until the year 1598, Valladolid, 1606, in three
vols. folio ; 6. Historical Treatise, Relation, and Discourse,
of the Movements which took place in Aragon in the years
1591 and 1592, in 4to; 7. Commentary on the Proceed¬
ings of the Spaniards, the French, and the Venetians, in
Italy, from the year 1285 until the year 1559, Madrid,
1624, in folio.
Herrera, Ferdinand de, a Spanish poet of the sixteenth
century, was born at Seville about the year 1516. He
was thoroughly conversant with the Greek, Latin, Italian,
and French languages, and also passed for a profound the¬
ologian ; but he applied himself, in preference, to poetry,
and was the first of the four Spanish poets who obtained
the surname of divine. Although he had taken holy or¬
ders at the age of thirty, all his verses are addressed to
a distinguished lady of Andalusia, whom he celebrates
under various names ; but his love was as pure and plato¬
nic as that of Petrarch, whom he endeavoured to imitate,
in following the footsteps of Boscan and Garcilaso. Her¬
rera died in his native place about the year 1595. 1 he
collection of his poetry, entitled Obrasde Herrera, Seville,
1619, contains sonnets, songs, lyrics, and elegies, full of
spirit, grace, and expression ; but his style is at times de¬
ficient in correctness. Herrera was also the author of, 1.
Relacion de la Guerra de Cypre y batalla de Lepanto, Se¬
ville, 1572; 2. Vida y Muerte de Thomas Moro, ibid.
1592, translated from the Latin of Stapleton; 3. An edi¬
tion of the Poems of Garcilaso de la Vega, with interest¬
ing notes, Seville, 1580, in 8vo. (a.)
HERRING, in Ichthyology, a species ofCLUPEA. The
name herring is derived from the German word signifying
an army, to express their number, when they enter our
seas. See Fisheries.
Herring, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, memo¬
rable for his attachment to civil and religious liberty, was
the son of a clergyman, and born in the year 1693. He
received his grammar-school education at Wisbech, in the
isle of Ely; and at the age of seventeen was sent to Jesus
College, Cambridge, at which place he was made bachelor
of arts in 1714, and had the degree of master of arts con¬
ferred upon him about three years afterwards. In the
year 1722, he was appointed chaplain to Dr Fleetwood,
bishop of Ely, who gave him two rectories ; and in 1/26
he was nominated preacher to the honourable society of
VOL. XI.
In’s Inn. He was chosen chaplain in ordinary to his Herrnhuth
majesty about the same period, and obtained from Cam- II
bridge the degree of doctor of divinity in the year 1728. HerscheL
Bishop Fleetwood, his patron, declared to his friends that
he never heard a sermon from Dr Herring which he would
not have been proud to be the author of himself. In 1731,
he was chosen rector of Blechingley in Surrey; the same
year he was appointed dean of Rochester; and in the year
1737 the king promoted him to the see of Bangor. In
1743 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of York;
and it was peculiarly fortunate for the country at such a
critical juncture, that a man of his principles and public
spirit was raised to so exalted a rank. The rebellion in
Scotland had been so artfully concealed by its friends in
England, that it was scarcely believed the Highlanders
were in arms until the royalists were defeated at the battle
of Gladsmuir. Amidst the universal consternation which
this event occasioned, Archbishop Herring roused the
people to a sense of their danger, contributed to assuage
the panic, and encouraged them to unite with firmness and
vigour in the defence of their country.
A meeting of the nobility, gentry, and clergy, was held
at York, where the archbishop addressed them in a very
able and animated speech, requesting them to unite as
one man in averting the present danger, to preserve their
happy constitution, and to contribute by a subscription to
raise troops for the defence of the country. The whole
assembly entered warmly into his views, and immediately
subscribed about L.40,000 for the important purpose re¬
commended by his grace. On the death of Archbishop
Potter, which happened in 1747, Dr Herring was translat¬
ed to the see of Canterbury. In 1753 he was seized with
a violent fever, which brought him to the verge of the
grave; and although he so far recovered that he lan¬
guished a few years, yet his strength and spirits were
much exhausted, and he expired in 1756, in the sixty-
third year of his age. He was buried, according to his own
desire, without any pomp or parade, and no monument
was erected to his memory.
FIERRNHUTH, a town of the kingdom of Saxony, in
the circle of Voightland, at the foot of the mountain Huts-
berg, but 1054 feet above the level of the sea. It is the
place from which the religious sect known in England as
Moravians has received the name of Herrnhutters, by which
they are commonly distinguished on the Continent. It was
built by Count Zinzendorf in 1722, for the reception of
the refugees of the sect driven by persecution from Mo¬
ravia. It contains 100 houses, and about 1400 inhabitants,
who are occupied in various manufactures upon a small
scale. It is considered as the point of union for the scat¬
tered members of the sect in Europe and America.
HERSCHEL, Sir William, an illustrious astronomer,
and inventor of the telescope which bears his name, was
born at Hanover on the 15th of November 1738. He was
the second of four sons, all of whom were brought up to
their father’s profession, which was that of musician. As
he evinced a peculiar taste for intellectual pursuits, his
father provided him with a French tutor, who instructed
him in the rudiments of logic, ethics, and metaphysics, and
under whom he made considerable progress. But, owing
to the untoward circumstances of his family, his studies
were soon interrupted, and, at the age of fourteen, he was
placed in the band of the Hanoverian regiment of guards,
a detachmentof which he accompanied to England in 1757,
or, as some say, in 1759. His father came with him to
England, but after the lapse of a few months he return¬
ed home, leaving the young musician to push his fortune,'
as he best could, in London. After struggling with many
difficulties, he attracted the notice of the Earl of Darling¬
ton, who engaged him to superintend and instruct a mili¬
tary band then forming for the Durham militia. Having ful-j
2 N
282 HER
Herschel. filled this engagement, he passed several years in the west
riding of Yorkshire, giving lessons to pupils in the principal
towns, officiating as leader in oratorios and public concerts,
and employing his leisure hours in improving his knowledge
of English, acquiring the Italian language, which he consi¬
dered as necessary to the exercise of his profession, and in¬
structing himself in Latin, as well as learning a little Greek.
About the close of the year 1765, he was appointed to the
situation of organist at Halifax, which he obtained through
the good offices of Mr Joah Bates, and there continued to
give instructions in music, though with what success does
not appear. Anxious to make himself master of the the¬
ory of harmony, he studied Dr Smith’s treatise on that sub¬
ject ; in connection with this science he also cultivated the
mathematics, and thus, perhaps unconsciously, prepared
himself for those sublime investigations which were des¬
tined to open a new field of discovery, and to confer im¬
mortality on his name. In the year 1766 he and his elder
brother repaired to Bath, where they were both engaged
by Mr Linley for the Purnp-room band ; but the principal
object which attracted him to that place was the advan¬
tageous situation of organist to the Octagon Chapel, which
opened to him a profitable range of engagements at the
concerts, the rooms, the theatre, and the oratorios, besides
affording him an opportunity of obtaining many private
pupils. This accession of employment, however, was so far
from abating his propensity to study, that frequently, after
the fatigue of twelve or fourteen hours occupied in pro¬
fessional avocations, he sought relaxation (for to him it
was really such) in extending his knowledge of the pure
and the mixed mathematics.
Some discoveries then recently made having awakened
his curiosity, he next applied himself to the study of as¬
tronomy, and to that of the auxiliary science of optics, in
which he laboured with indefatigable perseverance during
every interval of leisure. Anxious to observe with his
own eyes the wonders of which he had read, he borrow¬
ed from a neighbour in Bath a two-feet Gregorian tele¬
scope, which delighted him so much that he commissioned
a friend in London to purchase for him one of larger di¬
mensions. The price demanded, however, exceeded both
his calculation and his means; but, far from being dis¬
couraged, he resolved to attempt with his own hands the
construction of that complicated instrument which he
had found himself unable to purchase; and in this, after
successive disappointments, which served only to stimulate
his exertions, he at length succeeded. In the year 1774,
he had the inexpressible gratification of beholding the
planet Saturn through a five-feet Newtonian reflector con¬
structed by himself, and, with the prophetic instinct of
genius, already discerned the path of discovery opening
before him. Encouraged by this success, he extended
his operations; constructed telescopes of seven, ten, and
even twenty feet in length ; and worked with such inde¬
fatigable perseverance that, in perfecting the parabolic
figure of a seven-feet reflector, he finished two hundred spe¬
cula before producing one which answered his purpose in a
satisfactory manner. Becoming more and more attached
to astronomy, he now limited his professional engagements,
restricted the number of his pupils, and, about the end of
the year 1779, commenced a regular survey of the heavens
by means of a seven-feet reflector. In the course of his
observations, which were continued during eighteen months,
he remarked that a star, which had been recorded by Bode
as fixed, was progressively changing its position ; and pro¬
longed attention to it enabled him to ascertain, beyond all
doubt, that it was an hitherto undiscovered planet. Hav¬
ing determined the mean and periodic motions, and the
orbit of this body, he communicated the particulars to the
Hoyal Society, who, in return, awarded him their annual
gold medal, and unanimously elected him a fellow. This
HER
important discovery he made on the 13th of March 1781, HeL
and, in compliment to the king of England, bestowed on L
the planet the name of Georgium Sidus ; but the Conti¬
nental astronomers chose to honour the discoverer by call¬
ing it Herschel, an appellation subsequently changed to
that of Uranus, which was considered as more consistent
with the received astronomical nomenclature.
This discovery at once established the fame of Herschel
as an astronomical observer; and the king having bestow¬
ed on him a handsome salary, he was enabled to relinquish
his profession as musician, and to devote the remainder of
his life exclusively to astronomy. Accordingly he quitted
Bath ; and having fixed his residence first at Datchet and
afterwards at Slough, he resumed the career of discovery
on which he had so auspiciously entered. His first under¬
taking was to construct a telescope forty feet in length,
which he completed in 1787; but this huge instrument
disappointed the expectations he had formed from it; and
it was by instruments of a more manageable size that he
perused the great volume of the heavens, and derived
from it new contributions to enrich the records of science.
In these researches, and in the laborious calculations to
which they led, he was assisted by his sister Miss Caro¬
line Herschel, whose indefatigable assiduity and devotion
in the performance of a task usually considered as incom¬
patible with female habits excited equal surprise and ad¬
miration. The discoveries of Herschel were communi¬
cated, as they occurred, to the Royal Society, and consti¬
tute an important part of the printed transactions of that
body during a period extending from 1782 to 1818. In
1783 he announced the discovery of a volcanic mountain
in the moon ; and four years afterwards he communicated
an account of two other volcanoes in the same orb, which
appeared to be in a state of eruption. In prosecuting his
observations on the planet discovered by himself, he ascer¬
tained that Uranus was surrounded with rings, and had
six satellites. Although the results obtained by means of
the forty-feet telescope wrere not such as to realize the
expectations he had formed, yet they w’ere too consider¬
able to justify the somewhat contemptuous allusion made
to them by Lalande in his History of Astronomy. By
means of this instrument he discovered the sixth and se¬
venth satellites of Saturn ; and in observing the quintuple
belt of Saturn, he was enabled to demonstrate the length of
its day, and to determine its diurnal rotation. Amongst the
papers communicated by this great astronomer, was a me¬
moir on the power of telescopes to penetrate into space, or
to render sensible distant and faint objects, which would be
imperceptible without the aid of such instruments ; and his
opinion was, that the greatest amplification cannot exceed
that produced by a telescope of from twenty to twenty-
five feet. In 1802, he presented to the Royal Society a
catalogue of five thousand new nebulae, nebulous stars,
planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars; preceded by a
view of the sideral bodies composing the universe, in which
he enumerated twelve species of stars that enter into the
composition of the heavenly host.
By these and other scientific labours he established his
claim to rank amongst the most eminent astronomers of
the age, and amply merited the distinctions which were
conferred on him. Oxford had previously done itself ho¬
nour by bestowing on him the honorary degree of doctor of
laws; and in 1816, George IV. then prince regent, invest¬
ed him with the Hanoverian and Guelphic order of knight¬
hood. Sir William Herschel did not relinquish his astro¬
nomical observations until within a few years of his death,
which took place on the 23d of August 1822, at the ad¬
vanced age of eighty-three. He expired full of years and
honours, leaving behind him a considerable fortune, and,
what is of far greater importance, a son who inherited his
father’s genius, under more favourable auspices for its
HER
ve liel early development, and who unquestionably ranks in the
first class of the scientific men of his day. (a.)
Jle tfd Heeschel, the name by which the French, and most
i6, other European nations, call the planet discovered by Dr
w ^ Herschel in the year 1781. The Italians call it Uranus,
and the British Georgium Sidus.
HERSE, in Fortification, a lattice, or portcullis, in the
form of a harrow, beset with iron spikes. The word herse
is French, and literally signifies harrow ; being formed of
the Latin herpex or irpex, which denotes the same thing.
It is usually suspended by a rope fastened to a moulinet,
to be cut, in case of surprise, or when the first gate is
broken with a petard, that the herse may fall, and stop
up the passage of the gate or other entrance of a fortress.
HERSFELD, a province of the principality of Hesse
Cassel, in Germany, extending over I06 square miles, on
an elevated plain, but watered by the river Fulda. It con¬
tains one city, one market-town, and sixty-two villages
or hamlets, with 2885 houses, and about 19,000 inhabi¬
tants. The chief city, of the same name, is situated on
the river Fulda, and is an open town, which was burnt by
the French on their retreat from Leipsic, but has been
since rebuilt. It contains 433 houses, and 5220 inhabi¬
tants, chiefiy linen weavers and bleachers.
HERSILLON, in the military art, a sort of plank or
beam, ten or twelve feet in length, two sides of which are
driven full of spikes or nails, to incommode the march of
the infantry or cavalry. The word is a diminutive of herse;
the hersillon doing the office of a little herse.
HERSTAT, a town of the Netherlands, in the province
of Liege, on the left bank of the Meuse. It is a place in
which there are very large iron works, and near to it is
abundance of coals. It contains 4710 inhabitants, chiefly
employed in making ironmongery.
HERTFORD, a town, the capital of the county of the
same name, twenty-one miles from London, on the river
Lea. It is supposed to have been a town as early as the
time of the Britons. The Saxon kings held their court at
this place; and Alfred, to check the irruptions of the Danes,
constructed a castle, the remains of which are still to be
seen. It is a corporate town, governed by a mayor or
high steward, a recorder, and nine aldermen, and two
members are returned to parliament. Christ Hospital in
London has here a branch of its establishment, in which
400 boys and sixty girls are educated. Ihere are two
parish churches, and several places of worship for the dif¬
ferent dissenters from the establishment. The assizes
and sessions being held here, brings some trade to the
town; and there is a good market on Saturday, at which
much corn, especially barley, is sold. The chief trade con¬
sists in converting barley into malt for the great brewe¬
ries in the metropolis. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 3360, in 1811 to 3900, in 1821 to 4265, and in 1831
to 5247.
Hertford College. The design of this institution
is to train up and qualify a race of youths, for filling in
succession the various and important offices of government
in our Indian empire. “ To dispense justice to millions
of people of various languages, manners, usages, and reli¬
gions ; to administer avast and complicated system of re¬
venue, through districts equal in extent to some of the
most considerable kingdoms in Europe; to maintain civil
order in one of the most populous and litigious regions in
the world ; these,” says Marquis Wellesley, “are now the
duties of the larger portion of the civil servants of the
Company. The senior merchants, composing the courts
of circuit and appeal under the presidency of Bengal, ex¬
ercise in each of these courts a jurisdiction of greater local
extent, applicable to a larger population, and occupied in
the determination of causes infinitely more intricate and
numerous, than that of any regularly constituted courts of
HER 283
justice in Europe. The senior or junior merchants em- Hertford
ployed in the several magistracies and courts, the writers College,
or factors filling the stations of registrars, and assistants
to the several courts and magistrates, exercise, in differ¬
ent degrees, functions of a nature purely judicial, or inti¬
mately connected with the administration of the police,
and with the maintenance of the peace and good order of
their respective districts.” I he marquis points out, in
the same strong manner, the arduous duties of the several
departments which the Europeans are required to perform
in India; and sums up by saying, “ that the civil servants
of the East India Company can no longer be considered
as the agents of a commercial concern ; they are in fact
the ministers and officers of a powerful sovereign ; they
must be viewed in that capacity with a reference, not to
their nominal, but to their real occupations. They are
required to discharge the functions of magistrates, judges,
ambassadors, and governors of provinces, in all the com¬
plicated and extensive relations of those sacred trusts and
exalted stations, and under peculiar circumstances, which
greatly enhance the solemnity of every public obligation,
and the difficulty of every public charge. Their duties
are those of statesmen in every other part of the world;
with no other characteristic differences than the obstacles
opposed by an unfavourable climate, a foreign language,
the peculiar usages and laws of India, and the manners of
its inhabitants.”
The system of education adopted holds a due medium
between the strictness of our public schools and the laxity
of the English universities. Upon being appointed, each
youth must undergo an examination in Greek and Latin, and
arithmetic, before the principal professors. This previous
examination at once prevents persons from offering them¬
selves who have not received the usual school education
of the higher classes of society; and those who offer them¬
selves, and are found deficient, are remanded till another
period of admission. The lectures of the different pro¬
fessors in the college are given in a manner to make pre¬
vious preparation necessary, and to encourage most efiec-
tually habits of industry and application. In their sub¬
stance they embrace the important subjects of Classical
Literature, the Oriental Languages, the elements of Ma¬
thematics and Natural Philosophy, the Laws of England,
General History, and Political Economy.
On all the important subjects above enumerated, exa¬
minations take place twice in the year. These examina¬
tions are conducted upon the plan of the great public and
collegiate examinations in the universities, particularly of
Cambridge, with such improvements as experience has
suggested. The questions given are framed with a view
to ascertain the degree of progress and actual proficiency
in each particular department on the subjects studied dur-
ino- the preceding term; and the answers, in all cases which
acbnit of it, are given in writing, in the presence of the
professors, and without the possibility of a reference to
books. After the examination in any particular depart¬
ment is concluded, the professor in that department re¬
views, at his leisure, all the papers that he has received, and
places, as nearly as he can, each individual in the numeri¬
cal order of his relative merit, and in certain divisions im¬
plying his degree of positive merit. These arrangements
are all subject to the control of the whole collegiate body.
They require considerable time and attention, and they
are executed with scrupulous care and strict impartiality.
The course of study continues two years, and com¬
mences at such an age that the students may be qualified
to proceed to India by the time they are eighteen or nine¬
teen years old; and having begun the study of the^orien¬
tal languages, they are prepared to prosecute them in Cal¬
cutta, so as to proceed to their official appointments by the
time they have attained the age of twenty or twenty-one.
284 HER
Hertford- HERTFORDSHIRE, an inland English county, of
shire* great riches, derived principally from its vicinity to the
metropolis of the British empire. It is bounded by Essex
on the east, by Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire on the
north, by Buckinghamshire on the west, and by Middlesex
on the south. Its extreme length is thirty-eight miles, and
its greatest breadth twenty-eight miles. Its area is about
six hundred and twenty square miles. It is divided into
eight hundreds, and contained seventeen towns, 134 pa¬
rishes, and 20,781 houses, at the time of the last survey.
The population, at the four decennial censuses, has been
found to amount in 1801 to 97,577, in 1811 to 111,654, in
1821 to 129,714, and in 1831 to 143,300. Of these, the
occupiers of land employing labourers were 1518, the oc¬
cupiers of land not employing labourers 1679, labourers
employed in agriculture 1470, those employed in manu¬
factures 290, capitalists, bankers, &c. 1429, labourers not
agricultural 2410, other males twenty years of age 1521,
male servants 725, female servants 5512.
It is generally a level district, with gentle undulations,
no part rising to the height of mountains, though Kings-
worth Hill, the most elevated spot, is nine hundred feet
above the level of the sea. Though beautifully diversi¬
fied with ornamented woods, there are no extensive tracts
of forest land. The intermixture of pasture and arable
fields with the great number of gentlemen’s seats, the
pleasing rivulets and the shady hedges, give it a peculiar
character of beauty. Notwithstanding the deficiency of
forests, the abundance of trees, especially oaks of ancient
growth, which the hedge-rows and parks display, gives a
richness to the scenery which is not surpassed by that of
any county in England.
The rivers of Hertfordshire are, first, the Lea, which
rises in Bedfordshire, enters this county at Hide-mill,
and passes by Ware to Hertford, where it becomes navi¬
gable. Near Hoddesdon it forms a junction with the
Stort, and at length falls into the Thames a little below
London. Ihe Stort is navigable to Bishops Stortford, at
the extremity of the county. In its course it receives
the waters of the smaller streams of the Rib, the Quin,
the Beane, the Maran, and the Kime. Secondly, the Colne,
which rises on the borders of Middlesex, passes through
the^western part of the county, and falls into the Thames
at Brentford. It receives in its course the Gade, the Bul-
borne, and the Ver or Meuse. This river, in some parts
of its course, forms a part of the Grand Junction Canal
for several miles, and, afterwards separating from it, con¬
tinues its course in a parallel direction till it reaches its
mouth. Thirdly, the Ivel, a river composed of the inferior
streams of the Oughton, the Iliz, and the Pirral. These,
when united, pass into Bedfordshire, and at length reach
the German Ocean. The river formed by artificial means
to supply the metropolis with fresh water, and called the
New River, has its sources in various springs in the vici-
nity of Mare, and is rendered more copious by borrowing
water from the river Lea, whose course is parallel to it for
many miles. The New River enters Middlesex before it
reaches the reservoir, from which by means of pipes it is
distributed to the different houses of the metropolis. That
extraordinary work, the Grand Junction Canai, passes
through a great part of this county in its progress from
its union with the other canals to its termination in Lon¬
don.
In almost every part of this county the subsoil is calca¬
reous, consisting of two species, one a pure chalk, the other
of a softer kind, mixed with portions of whitish clay, and
provincially called marine. The superior soil does not
contain any great varieties of species. It is generally a
cmyey loam, in some parts highly tenacious, and retentive
of moisture ; on the higher grounds it is frequently mix¬
ed with many surface stones. There are some sandy
HER
loams intermixed with gravel, and others with clay. Some Hel
of the parts on the side of Essex are very wet, and require s |
expensive draining, as well as copious quantities of manure, ^ v
to render them fruitful. In the neighbourhood of North
Mims and Hatfield the soil is very sterile, mixed with
many springs of a sulphureous or ferruginous nature, and
only rendered productive by expensive improvements.
Near Baldock, Kitchen, and King’s Walden, the upper soil
is of a chalky nature, occasionally mingled with other
earths, but generally rather poor.
The greater part of Hertfordshire is a corn-bearing
country. The proportion of meadow land, or good pas¬
ture, is very small, if those parts are excepted which are
contiguous to the numerous gentlemen’s seats with which
the county abounds. I here are indeed some very rich
pastures on the banks of the river Stort, which extend
from Hertford to Hockeril, on the borders of the river
Lea, and near Rickmansworth, where they are watered by
the Colne. The whole of the meadow land is susceptible
of great improvement by irrigation; but the vicinity to
the metropolis makes the streams of water so valuable to
turn mills, that little of their contents can be afforded to
assist agriculture. The rotation of crops on the arable
lands is very various, as may be supposed where the soil
is so different. The most common course is turnips, bar¬
ley, clover, wheat, and oats. In the districts where the
soil is of a more tenacious consistence, fallows are very
generally used for a whole year, and followed by barley,
clover, wheat, and peas or beans. The average quantity of
wheat sown is two bushels and a half to the acre ; of bar¬
ley, from three and a half to four bushels; and of oats,
from four to five bushels. The average produce is, wheat
from twenty-three to twenty-five bushels, barley thirty-
two, and oats from thirty-eight to forty.
The drill husbandry is very partially introduced, and,
from the nature of the soil, does not appear very likely to
make any very rapid or extensive progress. It is found
beneficial for pulse crops; but its superiority for barley,
wheat, and oats, does not appear to be generally recog¬
nised. The ploughs now commonly used are small, and
have almost superseded the use of the great Hertford¬
shire ploughs, which required four strong horses to use
them with effect. In a great part of the country oxen
are used in the plough, and frequently in the waggons;
in the latter case they are shod with light iron shoes.
The principal cause of the productiveness of this county
arises from its vicinity to the metropolis, and the facility
with which abundance of the substances adapted to im¬
prove the soil can be furnished, by means of the water car¬
riage, which is extensive. On the land, below the surface,
chalk is everywhere found; and this, laid on at the rate
of a hundred cart-loads to the acre, improves the heavy
lands in a wonderful degree; but the manures brought as
back carriage by the barges from London are diffused and
applied in a very liberal manner. Soot is spread at the
rate of thirty or forty bushels to the acre, ashes from
fifty to one hundred bushels to the acre, and ground bones
from four to five chaldrons, on the same extent of land.
For the pastures, burnt bones are deemed preferable, but
for arable land they are merely boiled and crushed. Oil¬
cake, peat-ashes, hair, woollen rags, and other substances,
are much employed. In addition to these, the use of the
sheep-fold, and the application of farm-yard dung, are as
universal as in any part of the island.
In the south-west part of the county there are many
orchards of apples and of cherries; the former the most
considerable and the most profitable to the growers, from
being less expensive to gather, and bearing carriage to
London better than cherries. The cherry trees are in
full bearing after being planted ten years, and on an aver-
age yield about six hundred pounds of cherries annually.
H E R
h ord- They are usually inferior to those of Kent, and sell for
I ' e. much less in the markets. Each cherry tree is usually
^ ^ allowed nine square perches of ground. The size of the
orchards, whether for apples or cherries, is usually four
or five acres. . . .. ^
As this is a corn country, less attention is paid to the
breeds of cattle than in some others. The cows are either
of the Welsh, Devon, Suffolk, or Herefordshire races ;
the Suffolk breed is generally preferred. The sheep are
mostly breeding ewes of the South Down or W iltshire
kind ; the former are deemed the most profitable. Of late
a species of sheep, from crosses between those of Leices¬
tershire and those of the Cotswold Hills, has been exten¬
sively and beneficially propagated. Oil-cake is very ex¬
tensively used for feeding sheep. The horses commonly
employed for agricultural purposes are of the Suffolk kind ;
for their sustenance, as well as for that of sheep and cows,
great tracts of land are cultivated with both kinds of tares,
and with clover.
The landed property in Hertfordshire is so much divid¬
ed that there are few great proprietors, and none so large
as in many other counties; few rentals of individuals ex¬
ceed L.3000 per annum. A large portion of the county is
copyhold tenure, with fines in some instances fixed, and in
others, such as the lords of the manors and the copyholders
can agree upon. The farming buildings are generally neat,
convenient, and substantial.
Though principally an agricultural county, yet Hertford¬
shire has several manufactures which give employment to
the poor. In the western and northern part of the county
the making of thread-lace gives occupation to the females.
On the side towards Bedfordshire the plaiting of straw to
make hats employs considerable numbers both of women
and children. There are silk mills at St Albans, and mills
for spinning cotton at Rickmansworth. Some of the finest
writing paper is made at Two-waters by mills on the Colne
and the Bulborne. Great quantities of malt are made at
Ware, Hertford, Bishops Stortford, and other parts of the
country; and the makers of it, as well as the numerous
millers, have the advantage of water conveyance to the
metropolis. As little wood is used for firing, the barges
that convey malt and.flour to London bring back coals, or,
when they are not wanted, are loaded with manure. These
articles form the principal trade of the county.
A portion of the children of Christ Hospital, in London,
are sent to Hertford at an early period of their entrance on
that foundation. The building appropriated for this pur¬
pose forms three sides of a triangle, at the east end of the
town, and contains apartments for 500 children, their master,
and attendants.
This county abounds with many antiquities. Tim most
striking is the Abbey of St Albans, a most beautiful Gothic
pile, said to have been founded in honour of the first Bri¬
tish martyr, in the year 303, upon the site of the ancient
Verulam. The vicinity of this abbey was the theatre of
many bloody battles during the wars of the rival houses of
York and Lancaster. Lord Bacon was buried, not in the
abbey, but in St Michael’s Church, near it, where his monu¬
ment is still in good preservation. The ruins of Sopwell
Nunnery, near St Albans; the remains of Gorhambury
Abbey; the Roman Camp at Ravensborough; the Cross
at Waltham ; the church at Kings Langley ; and the castles
of Anstey, of Bennington, of Hertford, and Bishops Stort¬
ford, all invite and gratify the attention of the antiquary.
By the law of 1832 this county returns three members to
the House of Commons; the number of voters is about 4200;
and the polling places are Hertford, Stevenage, Bunting-
ford, Bishops Stortford, Hoddesdon, Hatfield, and Kernel
Hempstead. The two boroughs Hertford and St Albans
return, as before, two members each.
The principal towns and their population are, Hertford,
H E R 285
5247; St Albans, 4772; Kitchen, 5211; Ware, 4214; Hertha
Kernel Hempstead, 4759 ; Rickmansworth, 4574; Bishops II
Stortford, 3958; Watford, 2960; Berkhampsted, 2819;
Standon, 2272; Tring, 3488.
HERTHA, or Herthus, in Mythology, a deity worship¬
ped by the ancient Germans, and mentioned by Tacitus,
in his book De Moribus Germanorum (c. 40). Vossius
conjectures, that this goddess was Cybele ; but she was
more probably Terra, or the Earth, because the Germans
still use the word hert for the earth, whence also the Eng¬
lish word earth.
HERVEY, James, a divine of the church of England
in the eighteenth century, and a writer of great popularity
amongst a certain class of persons, was born at Harding-
stone in the year 1714. He was educated at the free
grammar school of Northampton, where he acquired a com¬
petent knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages ; and
in 1731 he was sent to the university of Oxford. The first
two or three years of his residence at that seminary were
spent, we are told, without serious application to study, and
therefore without making much improvement; but after¬
wards becoming acquainted with those who zealously studied
what they called primitive Christianity, and who were after¬
wards termed Methodists, he became strongly attached both
to piety and to learning. Independently of his other studies,
he learned anatomy from Dr Keil, and natural philosophy
from Dr Derham’s Physico and Astro-theology; and by
the perusal of Mr Spence’s essay on Popes Odyssey, he
improved his style. He attempted the Hebrew without a
teacher, but afterwards relinquished the study in despair ;
he resumed his labours, however, and in time became a
tolerable proficient in that language. In the year 1740 he
was appointed curate of Biddeford in Devonshire, where
he had only L.60 a year, including a stated collection
made by his friends. Upon the death of the rector he was
dismissed by the new incumbent, contrary to the earnest
expostulation of the parishioners, who offered to maintain
him independently of the rector. In 1743 he became cu¬
rate to his father, who held the living of W eston Favell in
Northamptonshire, and continued in that station till 1/50,
when his health was rapidly declining. Having been in¬
duced to repair to London tor change of air, he continued
about two years in the metropolis, when he was recalled
to Weston Favell to succeed his father. He obtained the
livings of Weston and Collingtree in the same neighbour¬
hood, and in 1752 took his degree of master of arts. He
attended to the duties of both parishes alternately with a cu¬
rate, in the discharge of which he was fervent and indefati¬
gable. So great were his exertions, indeed, that he brought
on a decline, accompanied with incessant cough and acute
pains, all which he supported, not only with fortitude, but
without a single expression of peevishness, and died without
a groan on the 25th of December 1758, at the age of about
forty-four. His piety was ardent and sincere, although in the
estimation of some judges he was rather enthusiastic. Fie
was a man of unblemished moral deportment; his temper was.
disinterested, and he was humble without the affectation of
humility. To society he was just and punctual, and candid
to people of every description. The L.700 which he receiv¬
ed for his Meditations were applied to the relief of the indi¬
gent and distressed. He was so rigid a Calvinist, that when¬
ever he spoke of imputed righteousness, he became almost
an Antinomian. His erudition wras respectable, but not
such as to place him amongst scholars of the first rank, al¬
though he seems to have been well acquainted with the
classics. Many persons have admired the style of his writ¬
ings ; but competent judges must pronounce it as by far
too flowery and diffuse to be termed elegant, and regard
it as equally destitute of vigour and simplicity. The writ¬
ings of Hervey are, 1. Meditations and Contemplations,
1746, 8vo; 2. Contemplations on the Night and Starry
286 H E S
Herzberg Heavens, 1747, in 8vo ; 3. Remarks on Lord Bolingbroke’s
,11 Letters on the Study of History, so far as they relate to the
._esiO-Us. History of the Old Testament, 1753, in 8vo; 4. Theron
and Aspasio, or a series of Dialogues on the most impor¬
tant Subjects, 1755, in three vols. 8vo ; 5. Sermons, 1759;
6. An Edition of Jeuk’s Meditations; 7. A Preface to
Burnham’s Pious Memorials., 1753, in 8vo; 8. Eleven
Letters to Wesley ; 9. Letters to Lady Francis Shirley,
1782, in 8vo. All these are included in the edition of his
works in six vols. 8vo, published by the Rivingtons ; but,
in 1811, there appeared, for the first time, what may be
considered as a seventh volume, consisting of Letters, il¬
lustrative of the author’s amiable character, and of many
circumstances in his early history.
HERZBERG, a town of the kingdom of Hanover, the
capital of a bailiwick of the same name, in the province
of Grubenhagen, on the river Sieben. It stands at the
foot of the Hartz Mountains, and contains 321 houses,
with 2720 inhabitants, employed in cotton and linen weav¬
ing, and in making paper.
HESBIN, a city of France, in the arrondissement of
Montreuil, and department of Calais. It stands at the
junction of the river Canche with the Ternaise, in a
marshy situation, and is strongly fortified. It contains
938 houses, and 4160 inhabitants, who produce hosiery
and cotton goods, and have some twist mills. Long. 2.
3. E. Lat. 50. 22. N.
HESIODUS of Ascra, a celebrated poet, the son of
Dius and Pycimede, of whose life and character history
has left us very few particulars on which dependence can
be placed. His father was a native of Cumae, in iEolis,
where he seems to have lived in the greatest indigence.
Anxious to improve his circumstances, he emigrated with
his son Perses to Ascra, a small village of Boeotia, at the
foot of Mount Helicon, and there it would appear that
Hesiod was born. The early years of the poet were spent
in the mountains of Bceotia, in the humble capacity of a
shepherd; and how he acquired the learning which he
displays in his poetry, we have no means of discovering.
On the death of his father, he engaged in a law-suit with
his brother respecting the property left by his father;
and he speaks with great contempt and bitterness of the
dishonest conduct pursued by the judges of Ascra. They
gave judgment against him, and in consequence of this he
left his native city. He probably retired to the country
of the Locri Ozolae, where, at last, he met with a tragi¬
cal end. It so happened that Demodes of Miletus, a
friend of Hesiod, ill treated Climene, the daughter of the
Locrian with whom Hesiod was residing; and as her bro¬
thers Amphiphanes and Ganyctor believed the poet to be
accessory to, if not an active partner in, the disgraceful
transaction, they put him to death on the spot where they
overtook him. Hesiod had been ordered by an oracle to
avoid Nemea, as likely to prove fatal to him, which the
poet naturally imagined to allude to the city of that name
in the Peloponnesus; but the true meaning of the oracle
was discovered by his being slain in the portico of the
temple of the Nemean Jupiter, near GSneon, within the
territory of Naupactus. His body had been thrown into
the sea, but being recovered in an extraordinary manner,
was buried within the precincts of the temple. It was
afterwards transferred to Orchomenos by order of an ora¬
cle, to avert a plague which afflicted the inhabitants of
that city.
Ihe period during which he flourished was a point dis¬
puted by the ancients, and we have no facts of a later
date which can enable us to come to a correct conclusion.
He is described by Herodotus as contemporary with Ho¬
mer; and this must have been the tradition followed by
the author of the contest between Hesiod and Homer, in
which the former is supposed to gain the victory. Vellei-
H E S
us Paterculus represents him as having lived more than He
a century after Homer, whilst others have endeavoured *
to prove that he preceded that poet. Hes L
Of the numerous works attributed to Hesiod only three dui1 C
have been preserved, and these not in the most perfect su
state. The Works and Days is considered as the most ^ J
valuable, not so much from its own intrinsic merit, as
from having suggested to Virgil the idea of the Georgies;
and to it also we are indebted for the description of the
five ages, and the fable of Pandora. It contains at the
beginning a collection of moral maxims and wise saws,
and then proceeds to give some superficial hints on agri¬
culture, on the proper season for each work, and on the
construction of vessels; it closes with many puerile ob¬
servations, and with an account of some superstitious prac¬
tices. This was the only work of Hesiod which the Boeo¬
tians allowed to be authentic, and it was regarded with
such veneration that they had it engraved on a leaden ta¬
blet, which they showed to Pausanias. The Theogonia is
a didactic poem on the generation of the gods, and is cu¬
rious as being the most ancient account of the Greek my¬
thology. lo it we probably owe the Metamorphoses of
Ovid. The Aspes of Hercules contains an account of a
battle between that hero and Cycnus, and derives its
title from the shield having been made by Vulcan. It is
ascribed to Hesiod by Athenasus, though probably with¬
out any sufficient reason. There are many other works
quoted by the ancients, but not even a fragment of them
has been preserved. Many editions of the works of He¬
siod have been published, but the best are those of Gais-
ford, Oxford, 1814-1820; Dindorf, Leipsic, 1825; and
Gottlingius, Gotha, 1831.
HESIONE, a daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy,
who was exposed to a sea monster which had been sent
by Neptune to ravage the coast of Troy, as a punishment
to the king for having defrauded the god of his stipulat¬
ed reward. Hercules, who was then accompanying the
Argonauts, delivered the princess, slew the monster, and
received as a reward six beautiful horses. Besides, He-
sione from gratitude agreed to follow him. He left the
princess and the horses with Laomedon till he should re¬
turn from the expedition. When Hercules sent his friend
Telamon to reclaim his property, Laomedon refused to
give them up. Incensed at this treachery, the hero laid
siege to Iroy, killed the perjured king, carried off Hesione,
and gave her in marriage to Telamon.
HESPER, Hesperus, in Astronomy, the evening star;
an appellation given to Venus when she follows or sets
after the sun. The word is formed from the Greek 'Effors-
fos, and is supposed to have been originally the proper name
of a man, brother of Atlas, and father of the Hesperides.
HESPERIDES, nymphs who possessed a garden, in
which grew the golden apples given by Jupiter to Juno
on the day of her marriage. They were iEgle, Erythia,
Vesta, and Arethusa. The garden was guarded by a dra¬
gon called Ladon, and is generally placed near Mount
Atlas in Africa. It was one of the labours of Hercules to
procure some of these apples. He persuaded Atlas to go
in search of them, whilst he sustained the burden of the
heavens on his shoulders. On his return with the apples,
Hercules expressed a wish to ease his head by placing
something on it, and when Atlas assisted him to remove
this inconvenience, Hercules artfully left the burden, and
seized the apples. According to others, Hercules slew
the dragon and gathered the apples himself, without the
assistance of Atlas. According to Diodorus, they were
the same as the Atlantides, being called Hesperides from
their mother Hesperis, the wife of Atlas; and they were
the keepers of flocks of sheep, the Greek word /u-jjXov sig¬
nifying either a sheep or an apple.
HESPERIDUM Insult, in Ancient Geography, islands
H E S
erus near the Hesperi Cornu ; but the accounts of them are so
much involved in fable, that nothing certain can be affirm-
se* ed respecting them.
HESPERUS, in fabulous history, son of Cephalus by
Aurora, was changed into a star, called Lucifer in the
morning, and Hesperus in the evening.
HESSE, a principality in Germany, commonly distin¬
guished by the name of Hesse-Cassel. It was formerly a
landgraviate, but, by the extinction of the Germanic em¬
pire, it lost that title, and the sovereign is now only called
the prince or crown prince {Kurfurst). It is comprehend¬
ed between long. 8. 26. and 9. 26. east, and lat. 49. 56.
and 52. 26. north. The boundaries are, on the north-west
the Prussian province of Westphalia; on the north-east
the kingdom of Hanover ; on the east the Prussian pro¬
vince of Saxony, the duchy of Saxe-Weimar, and the
kingdom of Bavaria; on the south-east Bavaria; on the
west Hesse-Darmstadt and the territory of Frankfort;
and on the south-west Darmstadt and Waldeck. It ex¬
tends over 4556 square miles, and has been recently di¬
vided into four provinces.
H E S
287
Provinces.
Lower Hesse.
Upper Hesse.
Fulda 
Hanau 
Extent in Square
Miles.
2156
902
904
594
4556
Population.
296,410
106,942
121,957
104,600
629,909
It contains 95 cities and towns, 1112 villages, and
95,666 houses. The largest cities and their populations
are as follows :—
Cassel 26,342
Hanau 13,792
Fulda   9,266
Marburg  7,640
Hersfeld  6,144
The reigning family profess the Reformed or Calvinistic
religion, and the greater part of the inhabitants adhere to
that sect. In 1812 they were found to be 330,000 Re¬
formed, 140,000 Lutherans, 90,000 Catholic, and the re¬
mainder Jews, Menonites, and Herrnhutters.
The institutions for education are inferior to those of
any other state in Germany. There is a university at
Marburg with no less than thirty-four professors, and only
200 students, and a lyceum at Cassel. There are gram¬
mar schools in some of the other cities, and a seminary
for educating Catholic priests at Fulda. The whole
of the territory is rather hilly, and towards the south may
almost be described as mountainous ; but it is watered by
abundant streams, which flow in plains, the descent to
which, from the hills, is very gradual, and thus forms ex¬
tensive and moderately fruitful valleys. The several
smaller rivers contribute their portion of waters to form
the greater rivers ; the Weser, which runs to the sea by
Bremen; and the Maine and the Lahn, which fall into the
Rhine.
The agriculture of the territory is far inferior to that
of the adjoining provinces of Hanover, Brunswick, and
Prussian Saxony. The number of cattle, and the conse¬
quent supply of manure, are in a low state, and recourse
is had to fallows every third year. Though almost the
whole population are occupied in cultivation, scarcely suf¬
ficient corn, though aided by potatoes, is grown for the
inhabitants. Some wine is made in the province of
Hanau, and in Isenburg. Hemp is raised in Hanau, and
flax in a greater or less degree in each of the provinces.
These two articles, with the wood from the forests, form Hesse-
the chief articles of export, which also in part consist of Darmstadt,
honey and wax. There are some mines of copper, in which
silver is found ; some productive mines of cobalt and iron
are also worked, and, by means of coal, which is likewise
at hand, supply the necessary demand for utensils. The
manufactures are very inconsiderable, except for domestic
uses. Coarse linens, called Hessens, were formerly sent
to England for packing cloths, but of late years that
trade has ceased. In Cassel and Hanau there are work¬
men in gold, silver, and jewellery; in cutlery, paper, snuff,
glass, pottery, and other branches of industry, but solely
for internal consumption.
The prince is the sole executive governor, and promul¬
gates the laws without the aid or assent of the states,
who meet rather for form than for business. The annual
revenues of Hesse-Cassel amount to L.450,000 sterling,
of which about L.65,000 arises from the patrimonial
estates of the sovereign. The expenditure is not accu¬
rately known, but it is estimated, including the interest
of the debt, to be somewhat beyond the income. The
amount of the national debt is about L.200,000, but the
several provinces have also their respective debts. There
is a sinking fund for the gradual discharge of the debts.
The standing army, formerly of 30,000 men, is reduced
to the following state: 7000 infantry, 1315 cavalry, 670
artillery, 200 invalids in garrisons. The contingent of the
state to the confederation is 5679 men. The accessions
to this state, since the peace of Luneville in 1801, have
amounted, after the cessions made in exchange, to 720
square miles; and it is now of nearly double the extent
which it contained when the house of Hesse was divided
into the two branches of Cassel and Darmstadt in 1567.
Hesse-Dahmstadt, a grand duchy of Germany. This
dominion is not compact, but consists ot two portions ol
nearly equal extent, and of several smaller detached parts,
and is on both sides the river Rhine. The southern por¬
tion is bounded on the north-west by Nassau, on the north
by Frankfort and Hesse-Cassel, on the north-east and east
by Bavaria, on the south by Baden, on the south-west by
Bavaria, and on the west by Prussia. The northern por¬
tion, some parts of which are separate from the others, is
enclosed in the territory of Waldeck and of Nassau, and
some are surrounded by Prussia, whilst others are in con¬
tact with Frankfort and with Hamburg. The whole
extent is 4070 square miles, and it is divided into the fol¬
lowing provinces, viz.
Provinces.
Starkenburg—
Rhenish Hesse.
Upper Hesse
Extent in
Square Miles.
1430
550
2090
4070
Population.
247,152
177,721
273,028
697,901
Capitals.
Darmstadt
Mayence.
Giessen.
According to the returns of 1826, the duchy contained
97 cities, 56 market-towns, and 2136 villages, with 99,203
houses. The religious denominations in 1822 were : Lu¬
therans 391,185, Catholics 157,792, Calvinists 108,255,
Jews 14,982, and Menonites 986. Although the popula¬
tion has greatly increased since that date, the proportion of
the several sects to each other is not supposed to have been
altered, the numbers of the clergy continuing the same,
viz. 686 Lutherans, 166 Catholics, and 126 Calvinists.
This is one of those states the territory of w hich has been
augmented by the events of the revolutionary wars, having
increased between the peace of Luneville in 1801 and the
year 1816, to more than double its former extent.
288
H E S
H E T
Hesse- The whole of the territory is rather mountainous.
Darmstadt. J^one 0f the elevations, however, exceeds 2000 feet; but
in the southern division, where the majestic Rhine breaks
through the land, there are on both its sides extensive
plains, rich and fertile, and in the northern part, near the
Maine, some moderately large valleys. It is generally a
well-watered country. Its streams empty themselves into
the sea by the Rhine and the Weser. The first of these
rivers receives the waters of the Pfrim, the Seize, the
Nahe, the Neckar, the Maine, and the Lahn; the latter
only the streams of the Altfell, the Schwalm, and the
Eber. Few districts of the same extent have a greater
variety of climate. In the neighbourhood of the Rhine
and the Maine it is mild and agreeable, the winter is short,
the summer warm, and the air generally dry. The hay
harvest begins early in June, the corn harvest in the mid¬
dle of July, and the vintage in the latter part of Septem¬
ber. On the Odenwald, on the other hand, the climate
is raw and cold, the spring begins later, and the fruits ri¬
pen several weeks later.
Considering that the ancient rotation of a fallow suc¬
ceeded by two corn crops is commonly adhered to, the
land is productive of corn ; but rye is the greatest crop in
extent, though some good wheat is grown. Fruit is very
abundant, but in general little selection is made of the
best kinds of each. Apples, pears, plums, almonds, and
chestnuts abound. Wine is, next to corn, the most im¬
portant production, and the annual value of what is
raised is estimated to amount to about half as much as
that of the grain. The breeds of cattle present nothing
remarkable; the cows are tolerable, the sheep not nume¬
rous, and the horses rather few ; no pains being taken to
improve the races. Wood is an important article, because
it can be easily conveyed from the forests by the Maine
and the Rhine to the great market for that commodity in
Holland.
The mineral wealth consists of the produce of some iron
and copper mines, in the latter of which cobalt is found;
but the quantity of these articles is insufficient for the con¬
sumption. The manufactures of Hesse-Darmstadt consist
chiefly in working up the raw materials of wool, flax, and
iron, into articles for internal consumption; and, besides
these, there are small establishments for making paper,
glass, copper, and iron ; whilst the people in the more bar¬
ren parts are industrious and ingenious in making a varie¬
ty of toys and wood utensils.
The chief articles of export are winter and summer
barley, wine, tobacco, rape oil, dried fruits, madder, clo¬
ver-seed, wood, honey, wax, and feathers. These are
given in exchange for colonial goods, generally conveyed
from the ports of Holland, and in articles of dress and
furniture, brought from France or from the Netherlands.
Education is well attended to. In the university of
Giessen there are 480 students; there is a medical school
at Mayence,and a gymnasium in Darmstadt, Mayence, and
Worms, and village schools in all parts, excepting on the
west bank of the Rhine, which was so long possessed by
the French.
The government is hereditary: the grand duke is ad¬
dressed as his Royal Highness, and till 1820 was an unli¬
mited sovereign. In that year a representation was intro¬
duced, divided into two chambers, who concur with the
sovereign in the formation of new laws.
The revenues of the state amount to L.587,600 sterling,
of which domains and royalties of the prince yield L. 150,000,
and the remainder is derived from direct and indirect taxes.
The expenses, including interest on the public debt, are
nearly equal to the income. The debt is about L.1,430,000,
and the interest on it is L.68,190. The army consists of
1380 cavalry, 5880 infantry, 650 artillery, and 660 gens-
d’armes, in all 8421. The contingent which Hesse-Darm¬
stadt is bound to furnish to the Germanic confederation is H(
6195 men. Hon
Hesse-Homburg, a small independent principality
in Germany, under the government of a prince of the fa-
mily of Hesse-Darmstadt. Towards the west it is bound-
ed by the territory of Nassau, but on all the other sides
by that of Hesse. It has, however, a part of its posses¬
sions to the west of the Rhine, surrounded by the pro¬
vinces of Prussia, of Bavaria, and of Lichtenburg. The
whole extent of both divisions is 170 square miles. It
contains three cities or towns, thirty villages, twenty-se¬
ven hamlets, with 3250 houses, and 20,400 inhabitants,
of whom 12,700 are Calvinists, 5500 Lutherans, 2050
Catholics, and a few Jews. It is divided into two pro¬
vinces, viz. Homburg on the east, and Meisenheim to the
west of the Rhine. The latter is the largest division.
They are both well cultivated, and yield a surplus of corn,
wool, flax, and wood; and Meisenheim grows some good
wine, and has coal-pits, by which it is enabled to carry on
some manufactures of glass and of ironmongery goods. The
revenues of the state amount to about L.18,000 sterling,
besides some estates of the sovereign, of L.3500, arising
from private estates in the Prussian province of Saxony.
The debt of the state is about L.45,000, which is gradual¬
ly lessening. Homburg furnishes a contingent of two
hundred men to the general confederation. Homburg,
the capital, and the residence of the prince, is situated on
the river Eschbach, and is overlooked by the palace, from
whence is a most extensive prospect. It contains a church
for each of the religious sects, and a synagogue for Jews,
with 388 houses, and 2964 inhabitants, who find occupa¬
tion in making flannels, linen goods, and hosiery, and in
supplying fruit to the market of Frankfort.
HESTON, a parish in the hundred of Islesvrorth, of the
county of Middlesex, ten miles from London, the chief
part of which consists of the town of Hounslow, through
which the great roads to the western counties pass. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1782, in 1811 to 2251,
in 1821 to 2810, and in 1831 to 3407.
HESYCH1US, the most celebrated of all the ancient
Greek grammarians whose works are now extant, was a
Christian; and, according to some, the same with Hesy-
chius, patriarch of Jerusalem, who died in the year 609.
He wrote a Greek lexicon, which, in the opinion of Ca-
saubon, is the most learned and useful work of that kind
produced by the ancients. Schrevelius published a good
edition of it in 1668, in 4to, with notes; but the best is
that of John Alberti, printed at Leyden in 1746, in two
vols. folio.
HETERIARCH, Hetjeriarcha, in Antiquity, an
officer in the Greek empire. There were two kinds of
heteriarchs ; the one simply so called, and the other deno¬
minated great heteriarch, who had the direction of the
former. The principal function of these officers was to
command the troops of the allies.
HETEROCLITE, in Grammar, an irregular or anoma¬
lous word, which, either in declension, conjugation, or re¬
gimen, deviates from the ordinary rules of grammar. The
word is Greek, grsgoxX/roi/, formed from sregos, alter, another,
different, and xX/i/w, I decline. Heteroclite is more pecu¬
liarly applied to nouns which vary or are irregular in point
of declension.
HETERODOX, in Polemical Theology, something
which is contrary to the faith or doctrine established in the
true church. The word stands in opposition to orthodox.
HETEROGENEITY, in Physics, the quality or dispo¬
sition which renders a thing heterogeneous. The word is
also used for the heterogeneous parts themselves; in
which sense the heterogeneities df a body are the same
thing with its impurities.
HETEROGENEOUS, or Heterogeneal, literally
it
j
H E V
imnorts something of a different nature, or which consists
of parts of different or dissimilar kinds ; in opposition to ho-
1 Heterogeneous Light was defined by Sir Isaac New-
IS' ton to be that which consists of rays of different degrees
of refrangibility. Thus the common light of the sun or
clouds is heterogeneous, being a mixture of all sorts of
rays
HEX
289
Heterogeneous Nouns, one of the three variations in
irregular nouns, or such as are of one gender in the sm-
2Ular number, and of another in the plural. Heteroge¬
neous nouns, under which are comprehended mixed
nouns, are sixfold: 1. Those which are of the masculine
irenderin the singular number, and neuter in the plural;
as hie Tartarus, hcec Tartara : 2. Those which are mascu¬
line in the singular number, but masculine and neuter
in the plural; as, hie locus, hi loci et heec loca : 3. Such as
are feminine in the singular number, but neuter in the
plural; as, hcec carhasus, et hcec carhasa: 4. Such nouns
as are neuter in the singular number, but masculine in the
plural; as, hoc ccelum, hi cceli: 5. Such as are neuter in
the singular, but neuter and masculine in the plural ; as,
hoc rastrum, hi rastri, et hcec rastra: And, 6. Such as are
neuter in the singular, but feminine in the plural num¬
ber ; as, hoc epulum, hce epulce.
Heterogeneous Quantities are those which are of
such different kind that one of them, taken any number
of times, never equals or exceeds the other.
Heterogeneous Surds are such as have different radi¬
cal signs: as */aa, and 3^/hb ; b\/9, and 7^/19.
HETEROSCII, in Geography, a term of relation, de¬
noting such inhabitants of the earth as have their sha¬
dows falling but one way.
HETRURIA. See Etruria, and Etruscans.
HETTOWRA, a town of Hindustan, in the Napaul ter¬
ritories, and the centre of all commerce carried on be¬
tween the Napaul dominions and those of Oude and the
Company. It is situated on the Rapti river, and is a mi¬
serable village, consisting only of about sixty houses.
Long. 85. 22. E. Lat. 27. 14. N.
HEUSDEN, a city of the Netherlands, in the province
of North Brabant. It is strongly fortified, commands the
navigation of the river Maas, and contains 280 houses,
with (in 1830) 1834 inhabitants.
HEVELIUS, or Hevelke, John, an eminent astro¬
nomer, was born at Dantzig on the 28th of January 1611.
He studied in Germany, England, and France, and every¬
where obtained the esteem of the learned. He was the
first who discovered a kind of libration of the moon, and
made several important observations on the other planets.
He also discovered several fixed stars, which he denomi¬
nated the Firmament of Sobieshi, in honour of John III.
king of Poland. His wife was also skilled in astronomy,
and made part of the observations published by her hus¬
band. In 1673 he published a description of the instru¬
ments with which he made his observations, under the
title of Machina Ccdestis, and in 1679 he published the
second part of this work; but in September the same
year, whilst he was at a seat in the country, he had the
misfortune to have his house at Dantzig burnt down. By
this calamity he is said to have sustained a loss of seve¬
ral thousand pounds; for not only were his observatory
and all his valuable instruments and apparatus destroyed,
but also a great number of copies of his Machina Ccdes¬
tis; an accident which has rendered the second part very
scarce, and consequently very dear. Hevelius died on
the 28th of January 1687, his birth-day, at the age of se¬
venty-six. He was a man greatly esteemed by his coun¬
trymen, not only on account of his skill and reputation in
astronomy, but as an excellent and worthy magistrate.
He was appointed a burgomaster of Dantzig; an office
VOL. XI.
which he executed with the utmost integrity and appro- Hewson
bation. He was also highly esteemed by foreigners, not 11
only by those who were skilled in astronomy and the Hexapla.
sciences, but by foreign princes and potentates; as ap- w'~v
pears from a collection of their letters to him, which was
printed at Dantzig in the year 1683. The printed works
of Hevelius are, l. Selenographia, Dantzig, in folio ; 2. Let¬
ters to Eichstadt on an Eclipse of the Moon, to Gassendi
and to Boulliau on an Eclipse of the Sun, 1649, and to Ric-
cioli on the Libration of the Moon; 3. Letter to Nuce-
rius on Eclipses, 1654; 4. De Nativa Saturni Facie,
1656; 5. Mercurius in Sole visus, 1662; 6. Historia mi-
rse Stelke in collo Ceti, 1662; 7. Prodromus Cometicus,
Descriptio Cometse, Mantissa Prodromi Cometici, 1665
and 1666, in folio; 8. Cometographia, 1668, in folio; 9.
Machina Ccelestis, pars prior, 1673; 10. Epistola de Co-
meta anni 1672, Id. anni 1677, in 4to; 11. Machina Cce¬
lestis, pars posterior, 1679 ; 12. Annus Climactericus sive
Observationum quadragesimus nonus, 1685. The posthu¬
mous works of Hevelius are, 1. Prodromus Astronomiae,
1690; 2. Uranographia seu Firmamentum Sobescianum,
1690; together with Excerpta ex Litteris illustrium et
clariss. Virorum ad Jo. Hevelium perscriptis, judicia de
rebus astronomicis ejusdemque scriptis exhibentia, Dant¬
zig, 1684, in 4to.
HEWSON, William, a very ingenious anatomist, was
born in 1739. He became assistant to Dr Hunter, and
afterwards entered into partnership with him ; but on
their disagreement, he read anatomical lectures at his own
house, in which he was seconded by Mr Falconer. He
wrote Inquiries into the Properties of the Blood, and the
Lymphatic System, 2 vols.; and disputed with Dr Monro
the discovery of the lymphatic system of vessels in ovi¬
parous animals. Hewson died in 1774.
HEXACHORD, in ancient music, a concord called by
the moderns a sixth.
HEXAGON, in Geometry, a figure of six sides and
angles; and if these sides and angles be respectively equal,
it is called a regular hexagon.
HEXAHEDRON, in Geometry, one of the five pla¬
tonic bodies, or regular solids, being the same with a
HEXAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verse
consisting of six feet, the first four of which may be indif¬
ferently either spondees or dactyles ; while the fifth is
generally a dactyle, and the sixth always a spondee.
HEXAPLA (formed from sg, six, and asrXow, I open, I
unfold), in Ecclesiastical History, a bible disposed in six
columns, containing the text, and different versions there¬
of, compiled and published by Origen, with a view to se¬
cure the sacred text from future corruptions, and to cor-
i*ect those which had been already introduced.
Eusebius relates that Origen, after his return from
Rome under Caracalla, applied himself to lea,'n H^bJew’
and began to collect the several versions which had been
made of the Sacred Writings, and from these to compose
his Tetrapla and Hexapla; others, however, are of opi¬
nion that he did not begin till the time of Alexander, after
he had retired into Palestine, about the year 231.
To understand what this Hexapla was, it must be ob¬
served that, besides the translation of the Sacred Writings,
called the Septuagint, made under Ptolemy Philadelphus,
about 280 years before Christ, the Scriptures were trans¬
lated into Greek by other interpreters. The first of these
versions, or, reckoning the Septuagint, the second, was
that of Aquila, a proselyte Jew, the first edition of which
he published in the twelfth year of the emperor Hadrian,
or about the year of Christ 128; the third was that of
Symmachus, published under Marcus Aurelius, or, at least,
under Septimius Severus, about the year 200; the fourth
was that of Theodotion, prior to the version of Symma-
2 o
290 HEY HEY
Hexastyle chus, which appeared under Commodus, or about the year nativity, and was assured that his stars had promised him u
II 175. These Greek versions, says Dr Kennicott, were great things. The duke also employed Heydon in some
Hey don. ma(ie by the Jews from their corrupted copies of the treasonable and seditious practices, for which he was sent K i
Hebrew, and were designed to stand in stead of that by to the Tower. The astrologer lost much of his reputa- ^ *
the Seventy, against which they were prejudiced, because tion by telling Richard Cromwell and Ihurloe, who went
it seemed to favour the Christians. The fifth was found to him disguised like cavaliers, that Oliver wmuld inf'al-
at Jericho, in the reign of Caracalla, about the year 217 ; libly be hanged by a certain time. This period, however,
the sixth was discovered at Nicopolis, in the reign of he outlived several years.
Alexander Severus; and Origen himself recovered part HEYLIN, Dr Peter, an English divine, was born at
of a seventh, containing only the Psalms. Burford, Oxfordshire, on the 29th of November 1600. He
Now Origen, who had held frequent disputations with studied at Oxford, where he took his degrees in arts and
the Jews, both in Egypt and in Palestine, having observed divinity, and became a geographer and an historian. He
that they always objected against those passages of Scrip- was appointed one of the chaplains in ordinary to King
ture quoted against them, and appealed to the Hebrew Charles I., was presented to the rectory of Hemingford
text; in order the better to vindicate those passages, and in Huntingdonshire, made a prebendary of Westminster,
to confound the Jews by showing that the Seventy had and presented with several other livings; but of these he
given the sense of the Hebrew, or rather to show by a was deprived by the parliament, who also sequestrated
number of different versions what the real sense of the his estate, by which means he and his family were re-
Hebrew was, he undertook to reduce all these several duced to want. On the restoration, however, he reco¬
versions into a body along with the Hebrew text, so that vered his spiritualities ; but never rose higher than sub-
they might easily be confronted, and thus afford a mutual dean of Westminster. He died in 1662, and was inter¬
illustration. red in St Peter’s Church in Westminster. His principal
He made the Hebrew text his standard; and allowing writings are, 1. Microcosmus, or a Description of the
that corruptions might have taken place, and that the old World, 1621 ; 2. Cosmograp/iia; 3. The history of St
Hebrew copies might and did read differently, he content- George of Cappadocia, 1631; 4. Ecclesia Vindicata, or
ed himself with marking such words or sentences as were the Church of England Justified ; 5. Historical and Mis-
not in the Hebrew text, nor in the later Greek versions, cellaneous Pieces.
and adding such words or sentences as were omitted in HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, an illustrious classical
the Seventy, prefixing an asterisk to the additions, and an scholar and archaeologist, was born on the 25th of Septem-
obelisk to the others. ber 1729, in a suburb of the city of Chemnitz, in Saxony,
With this view he made choice of eight columns, in the where his father, having been compelled by some religious
first of which he gave the Hebrew text in Hebrew cha- persecutions to abandon his native country of Silesia, had
racters ; in the second the same text in Greek characters ; settled, supporting his family in great poverty by exer-
whilst the rest were filled with the several versions above cising the trade of a weaver. It was only by the libera-
mentioned, all the columns answering verse for verse, and lity of his godfathers that Heyne was enabled to obtain
phrase for phrase; and in the Psalms there was a ninth his primary instruction in the elementary school of Chem-
column for the seventh version. nitz, and afterwards to prosecute his classical studies in
This work of Origen was called 'E^avXa, Hexapla, or the gymnasium of that city. In 1745 he entered the
work of six columns, as regarding only the first six Greek University of Leipsic. There he was so scantily support-
versions. But Epiphanius, taking into account the two ed by those on whose assistance he relied, that he was
columns of the text, calls the work Octapla. frequently in want even of the common necessaries of life,
This celebrated work, which, Montfaucon imagines, con- and was sometimes indebted for food to the generosity of
sisted of fifty large volumes, perished long ago, probably a maid-servant in the house where he lodged. In this
with the library at Caesarea, where it was preserved in the situation, without even the hope of future distinction, he
year 653; though several of the ancient writers have continued to struggle against every difficulty and disap-
preserved fragments of it, particularly St Chrysostom on pointment in the acquisition of knowledge. For six months
the Psalms, and Philoponus in his Hexameron. Some he is said to have allowed only two nights in the week to
modern writers have earnestly endeavoured to collect sleep, and was at the same time forced to endure the re¬
fragments of the Hexapla, particularly Flaminius Nobi- proaches which his godfather thought himself entitled to
lius, Drusius, and Montfaucon. inflict on him for negligence in the prosecution of his
HEXASTYLE, in Architecture, a building with six co- studies. His distress had almost amounted to despair,
lumns in front. when he procured the situation of preceptor in the fa-
HEXHAM, a market-town of the county of Northum- mily of a French merchant resident in Leipsic. He was
berland, in the ward of Tindal, 286 miles from London, thus enabled to continue his studies, though with much
It stands at the head of a beautiful valley, at the junction interruption; the emoluments of his appointment being
of the North with the South Tyne. The church, formerly sufficient to support him in what was at least comparative
a cathedral, is ancient and spacious, and the interior high- comfort. Under Ernesti, he was initiated into the criti-
ly ornamented ; and adjoining to it are some venerable ap- cism of the classical authors; from the prelections of the
pendages. The streets are narrow, but clean. It is not celebrated Bach he acquired a competent knowledge of
a place of much trade. The chief occupations are tan- the Roman jurisprudence; and through the instructions of
mng leather, and making shoes and gloves. It has well- Christius, who lectured on archaeology, and with whom
attended markets on Tuesday and Saturday. The popu- he was intimately acquainted, his attention was strongly
lation amounted in 1801 to 4565, in 1811 to 4846, in 1821 directed to the works of ancient art. Flaving finished his
to 5436, and in 1831 to 6042. studies at the university, he was exposed for many years
HEYDON, John, sometimes called Eugenius Theodi- to all the accumulated distresses of poverty and neglect.
dactus, wms a great pretender to skill in the Rosicrucian The first situation he was able to procure was that of copy-
philosophy and the celestial signs, in the reign of King ist in the library of Count de Bruhl, with a salary of only
Charles I., and wrote a number of chemical and astrolo- an hundred dollars, which he obtained in the year 1753.
gical works. This empiric was much consulted by the From the necessity of adding something to this scanty
Duke of Buckingham, who believed injudicial astrology, pittance, he was forced to employ himself in the drud-
He employed Heydon to calculate the king’s and his own gery of translation; and, besides some French novels, he
HEY
HEY
translated into German the Greek romance of Chariton.
J He published his first edition of Tibullus in 1755, and in
1756 his Epictetus. In 1756, his emoluments as copyist
were doubled, and the education of Prince Maurice de
Bruhl was intrusted to him, but without any additional
salary. The invasion of Saxony by the Prussians deprived
him of his appointment, and even destroyed the library on
which it depended. The period of the seven years’ war
was that in which he was chiefly exposed to the storms of
fortune; and his marriage with Theresa Weisse, a young
woman of distinguished genius, but equally poor with
himself, increased his misery. Having been obliged to
retire into Lausatia, he lived for some years as steward in
the family of the Baron de Leoben. He was enabled,
however, to return to Dresden in 1762, where he was in¬
trusted, by Lippert, with the care of writing the Latin
text of the third volume of his Dactyliotheca.
At length, in the commencement of the year 1763, his
merit met with its reward, and a new and illustrious ca¬
reer was opened to him. On the death of John Matthew
Gesner, in 1761, it became necessary for the curators of
the university of Gottingen to look around for a succes¬
sor capable of sustaining the reputation which the insti¬
tution had acquired by the learning and talents of that
distinguished scholar. The appointment was offered to
Ernesti, who, whilst he declined leaving the university of
Leipsic, proposed Ruhnkenius of Leyden or Saxius of
Utrecht for the situation. Ruhnken likewise refused the
appointment, but having been strongly impressed by the
taste and learning displayed by the editor of I ibullus and
Epictetus, he advised Munckhausen, the Hanoverian mi¬
nister and principal curator of the university of Gottingen,
to bestow the professorship on Heyne, whose merit, though
known to few, he ventured to promise would do honour to
the choice. The minister had the good sense to acquiesce
in the recommendation of this great scholar, and Heyne,
after some delay, became professor of eloquence in Got¬
tingen. Though his appointments were at first few, and
his emoluments inconsiderable, these were gradually aug¬
mented in proportion as his usefulness was approved, and
his growing celebrity rendered it an object witn the
other governments of Germany to secure for their lite¬
rary institutions the services of so distinguished a scholar.
He refused the most advantageous and honourable over¬
tures from Cassel, Berlin, and Dresden. In his different
capacities of professor, principal librarian, member of the
Royal Society, and chief editor of the Literary Ga¬
zette, and still more by his publications, he mainly contri¬
buted to raise the university of Gottingen to the distin¬
guished rank it holds among the academies of Europe.
After a long and useful career, graced with all the dis¬
tinctions which in Germany are conferred on literary
eminence, he died, full of years and honour, on the 14th
of July 1814.
In Greek literature he has given us editions of Homer s
Iliad, Pindar, Diodorus Siculus, Apollodorus, and Epic¬
tetus; and, in Latin, editions of Virgil and 1 ibullus; all
illustrated with copious commentaries. His Opuscula
Academica, in five volumes, contain a series of 116 aca¬
demical dissertations, of which the most valuable are those
respecting the antiquities of Etruscan art and history, and
the researches regarding the colonies of Greece. He has
left us also a great number of papers on almost every sub¬
ject of erudition, more especially on ancient mythology,
amongst the Commentationes Societatis Regies Gottingensis.
His Antiquarisehe Avfsdtze, in two volumes, comprise a
valuable collection of essays on different subjects con¬
nected with the history of ancient art. In the earlier
part of his life he translated, or rather wrote anew, a
great part of the Universal History.
After this notice of the chief events of his life, and of
his literary productions, it may be proper to say some¬
what in regard to the distinctive merit which has raised w
Heyne to so eminent a place amongst the promoters of
classical literature. And here it is chiefly as an inter¬
preter of the ancient poets, and as an original investiga¬
tor of the ancient mythology, that he must rest his claims
to the celebrity he has acquired. As a critic of the works
of art, his desert is great, but he has no pretentions to
original or peculiar discoveries.
The example of the great philologists of Holland, and
the more immediate influence of Ernesti and Gesner on
the taste and pursuits of their countrymen, had, before
the middle of the last century, awakened in Germany a
new zeal for the study of the ancient autnois, and had ad¬
vanced the criticism of classical literature to a rapid and
vigorous maturity. The great writers of antiquity ought
not, however, to be read with a regard limited merely to
their language ; they more especially deserve a close and
enthusiastic study, for the admirable means which they
afford of improving the understanding and of cultivating
the taste. From the year 1760, about which period the
Germans had begun to devote themselves, with an enthu¬
siasm as zealous as it was tardy, to the cultivation of theii
native language and literature, several intelligent philolo-
gers displayed a more refined and philosophical method in
their treatment of the different branches of classical learn¬
ing, and, without neglecting either the grammatical inves¬
tigation of the language, or the critical constitution of the
te'xt, no longer regarded a Greek or Roman writer as a
subject for the mere grammarian and critic, but, consider¬
ing the study of the ancients as a school for thought, for
feeling, and for taste, they initiated us into the great mys¬
tery of reading every thing in the same spirit in which it
had originally been written. They demonstrated, both by
doctrine and example, in what manner it was necessary
for us to enter into the thoughts of the writer, to pitch
ourselves in unison with his peculiar tone of conception
and expression, whether erroneous or correct, and in every
instance accurately to investigate the circumstances by
which the mind of the poet or philosopher was affected,
the motives by which he was animated, and the influences
which co-operated in giving the intensity and character
to his feelings. It was shown how generally the concep¬
tion of the reader was merely a veil thrown over the
thought of the original. It was no longer allowed to
combine modern with ancient ideas, to convert the deii-
vative with the original thought, or to translate it by a
new and factitious signification. At the head of this
school stands Heyne, both as its founder and principal or¬
nament ; and, however some of his disciples may have
exposed themselves to ridicule in their application of the
principles on which this system of interpretation rests, yet
it cannot be denied that'nothing has contributed so de¬
cisively to maintain and promote the study of classical li¬
terature, as the combination which Heyne has eflected of
philosophy with erudition, both in his commentaries on
the ancient authors, and in those works in which he has
illustrated various points of antiquity, or discussed the
habit of thinking and spirit of the ancient world.
The poverty of Germany in manuscripts has compelled
her scholars to rest satisfied in general with the critical
apparatus which the philosophers of other nations have
collected. What they necessarily wanted in the originali¬
ty of subsidiary stores, they have, however, endeavoured
to supply, by a sound and rational employment of those
already compiled; and the praise of useful diligence can¬
not certainly, with justice, be denied to their labours in
this department. Originality, however, was possible in
the higher criticism, which does not rest on the collection
of readings or the authority of manuscripts, and in the
mode of the illustration applied to the ancient writers; m
291
Hevne.
292 HEY
Heyne. these respects the later philologers of Germany have
earned a glory peculiar to themselves, and which must be
remembered as long as learning and ingenuity are respect¬
ed. How cogently have they reasoned on the authenti¬
city or spuriousness of particular writings, and how skil¬
fully have they applied the test to the interpolations of
later times; to what new conclusions are we now brought
in regard to Orpheus, Homer, Anacreon, Longinus, &c.
by the critical investigations of Schneider, Wolf, Fischer,
Hermann, Weiske, and others ; how differently has the
controversy in regard to the authenticity of certain ora¬
tions of Cicero been recently concluded by Wolf, compar¬
ed with the result of Markland’s and Gesner’s investiga¬
tions. In this department Heyne does not, however,
hold the same pre-eminence which he has attained as an
enlightened and popular interpreter; for though his dis¬
cussions in the higher criticism are both numerous and
valuable, he is as much surpassed in boldness and origi¬
nality by Wolf, as he is inferior to Hermann in the mi¬
nuteness and ingenuity of his reasoning.
There is, however, another department in which the
labours of Heyne are more original, and in which he merits
all the honour to which a discoverer is entitled. Until
the middle of the eighteenth century, mythology was no¬
thing else than the nomenclature of divinities, a collection
of the manifold and discordant legends of their several re¬
lations, actions, and destinies, and the delineation of their
forms from the works of the poets and artists, illustrated,
perhaps, by a mystical and allegorical commentary. About
this period some more profound thinkers began to regard
the mythical traditions in a higher view, as sources of hu¬
man history ; but, from too confined an acquaintance with
the circumstances and condition of the ancient world, they
took too high a standard for their explanations, and, through
a mystical and allegorical interpretation, thinking they had
discovered, under the veil of mythological narration, ideas
of the deepest wisdom, they confidently framed thereon
hypotheses for the history of mankind, for the arts, for
philosophy, and the other sciences, which threatened alto¬
gether to extinguish the glimmering light that was still
afforded us for the periods of remote antiquity.
Heyne opened a less ambitious but more certain path.
Following the observations which travellers had collected
in regard to new and uncivilized nations, he applied these
to the condition of the Greeks, who, as history informs us,
from a rude and sensual barbarism, gi’adually advanced to
a state of civilization and intellectual refinement. He thus
arrived at the simple conclusion, that the mythical tales
of antiquity contain the first attempts at reasoning, the
most ancient history, philosophy, and theology embodied
in a poor, unformed, and consequently figurative language;
and, therefore, that mythology is a system comprehending
partly the original form of representation through objects
of sense peculiar to a rude age, expressed in fables, cere¬
monies, and monuments, transplanted into later times;
partly a kind of poetical apparatus derived and formed from
this original mythology, and intended only by its authors
for the purposes of poetical effect. He hence justly con¬
cluded that it is impossible to attain any real insight into
the nature of mythical narration, unless the mythi of the
most ancient poets are carefully distinguished from the
abusive applications made of them in the poetry of after
times, and unless mythology be kept separate from the
philosophy conversant about mythology. In conformity
with these fundamental rules, Heyne has illustrated Apol-
lodorus ; and in the same spirit he has conducted those re¬
searches into the nature and tendency of the different
mythi of Greece, which he has published in the Transac¬
tions of the Royal Society of Gottingen. His views have
been almost universally admitted to be correct in princi¬
ple, and his applications to have been conducted with the
H I C
most profound learning and almost unequalled ingenuity. Hi J
A great number of followers have pursued the path he t
opened; and his theory has now attained the form and
stability of a system, through the labours of his disciples. ^ 1
Amongst these, the names of Martin Hermann (not the ^
philologer), of Voss, and of Manso, are especially to be
distinguished. The theologians of Germany have like¬
wise applied the same theory to the interpretation of the
Sacred Books; and the researches of Eichhorn, Bauer,
Ugen, Hartmann, Vater, De Wette, and a host of other
philosophical divines, into the pretended biblical mythi,
have been pursued with a learning and acuteness equalled
only by the impious audacity of their conclusions, (v. v.)
HEYTESBURY, a borough-town in the hundred of
that name, in the county of Wilts, ninety-three miles from
London. It stands on the river Whiley, and has on it
some mills for the cloth manufacture, which is extensively
carried on. It is an ancient burgage tenure borough,
and returned two members to the House of Commons,
till disfranchised in 1832. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 1072, in 1811 to 1023, in 1821 to 1329, and in
1831 to 1412.
HEYWOOD, John, an English dramatic poet, was
born at North Mims, near St Albans, in Hertfordshire,
and educated at Oxford. But the sprightliness of his
disposition not being well adapted to the sedentaryr and
plodding life of an academician, he retired to the place
of his nativity, where he had the good fortune to become
acquainted with Sir Thomas More. This patron of genius
introduced our poet to the Princess Mary, and afterwards
to her father Henry, who was much delighted with his wit
and skill in music. When Mary came to the crown, Hey-
wood became a favourite at court, and continued often to
entertain her majesty, exercising his fancy before her,
even till the time when she lay languishing on her death¬
bed. On the accession of Elizabeth, Hey wood, being a
zealous Catholic, thought fit to decamp, with other fa¬
vourites of her deceased majesty, and settled at Mechlin
in Flanders, where he died in the year 1565. Heywood
was a man of no great learning, nor were his poetical abi¬
lities by any means extraordinary; but he possessed ta¬
lents of more importance in the times in which he lived,
namely, the talents of a jester. He wrote several plays,
five hundred epigrams, A Dialogue in Verse concerning
English Proverbs., and The Spider and Fly, a Parable.
He left two sons, Ellis Heywood, who continued some
time at Florence under the patronage of Cardinal Polo,
became so good a master of the Italian tongue as to write
a treatise in that language, entitled II Moro, and died at
Louvain about the year 1572; and Jasper Heywood, who
was obliged to resign a fellowship at Oxford on account
of his immoralities. The latter translated three trage¬
dies of Seneca, wrote various poems and devices, and died
at Naples in 1597.
HIATUS properly signifies an opening, chasm, or
gap ; but it is particularly applied to those verses where
one word ends with a vowel, and the following word be¬
gins with one, thereby occasioning a disagreeable opening
of the mouth, and harshness of sound. The term hiatus
is also used in speaking of manuscripts, to denote their
defects, or the parts which have been lost or effaced.
HICVTAS of Syracuse, an ancient philosopher and as¬
tronomer, who taught that the sun and stars were mo¬
tionless, and that the earth revolved round them. This
is mentioned by Cicero, and probably afforded Coperni¬
cus the first hint of the true system of the world. He
flourished 344 b. c.
HICKES, George, an English divine of extraordinary
parts and learning, was born at Newsham in Yorkshire
on the 20th of June 1642. In 1681 he was made king’s
chaplain, and two years afterwards dean of Worcester.
HID
g6 But the death of Charles II. stopped his preferment; for
though his church principles were very high, he manifested
s- too much zeal against popery to be a favourite with James
II. At the Revolution, he, with many others, was de¬
prived for refusing to take the oaths to King William and
Queen Mary; and soon afterwards, Archbishop Sancroft
and his colleagues considering how to maintain episco¬
pal succession amongst those who adhered to them, Dr
Hickes carried over a list of the deprived clergy to King
James, and, with his sanction, a private consecration was
performed, at which, it is said, Lord Clarendon was pre¬
sent. On this occasion Dr Hickes was consecrated suf¬
fragan Bishop of Thetford, and died on the 15th of De¬
cember 1715. The principal works of Dr Hickes, who was
a man of almost universal learning, are the following, viz.
1. Institutiones Gramraaticae Anglo-Saxonicae et Mceso-
Gothicae; Grammatica Islandica Runolphi Jonae ; Cata-
logus librorum Septentrionalium ; acceditEduardi Bernar-
di Etymologicum Britannicum, Oxon. 1689, in 4to, in¬
scribed to Archbishop Sancroft: 2. Antiquae Literature
Septentrionalis libri duo; quorum primus .G. Hickesii,
S. T. P. Linguarum veterum Septentrionalium Thesau-
rum Grammatico-Criticum et Archaeologicum, ejusdem de
antique Literature Septentrionalis utilitate dissertaticV
nem Epistolarum, et Andree Fountaine equitis aurati
Numismata Saxonica et Dano-Saxonica, complectitur;
alter continet Humfredi Wanleii librorum veterum Sep¬
tentrionalium, qui in Anglie bibliothecis extant, catalo-
gum historico-criticum, necnon multorum veterum codi-
cum Septentrionalium alibi extantium notitiam, cum to-
tius operis sex Indicibus, Oxon. 1705, in three vols. folio :
3. Sermons, 1713, in 8vo: 4. Letter from beyond Seas to
the Ministers of the Nonconforming Party, 1674, reprint¬
ed in 1684: 5. Ravaillac Redivivus, being a narrative of
the trial of James Mitchell, for an attempt on the person
of Sharpe, Archbishop of St Andrews : 6. The Spirit of
Popery, 1679 : 7. Jovian, or an Answer to Julian the
Apostate, 1683, in 8vo: 8. Infant Baptism, 1685, in 4to:
9. Speculum beatce Virgirns, a discourse of the due praise
and honour of the Virgin, 1686 : with many other tracts
and pieces of a miscellaneous character.
HIDAGE (Hidagium) was an extraordinary tax pay¬
able to the kings of England for every hide of land. This tax
was levied not only in money, but in provision, armour, and
other articles ; and when the Danes landed in Sandwich in
994, King Ethelred taxed all his lands by hides, so that
every three hundred and ten hides found one ship furnish¬
ed, and every eight hides furnished one jack and one saddle,
to arm for the defence of the kingdom. Sometimes the
word hidage was used to signify being quit of that tax,
which was also called hidegild, and interpreted, from the
Saxon, a price or ransom paid to save one’s skin or hide
from beating.
HIDALGO, in modern history, a title given in Spain
to all who are of a noble family. See Spain.
HIDES, in a general sense, are the skins of beasts; but
the term more particularly denotes those of large cattle,
such as bullocks, horses, buffaloes, and the like. Hides are
called raw when in the state in which they were taken from
the carcass; and green when dressed with some of the
neutral salts, such as alum, to prevent them from putrefy¬
ing. When, by a process called tanning, they are impreg¬
nated with a vegetable principle, such as that in oak bark,
they are said to be cured or tanned. The reputation of
South American hides stands very high, and immense
quantities of them are annually imported into this country.
HIE 293
Great numbers of hides are also yearly brought to Great Hidjellee
Britain from the United States, from the Continent, and , 11
from various parts of Africa. In 1832 there was imported U»n:oc:ies-
into this country 186,982 cwt. 3 qrs. 3 lbs. weight of hides, of
which quantity South America alone yielded 89,320 cwt.
The duty levied upon the whole was L.25,412. 15s. lid.
HIDJELLEE, a town and district of Hindustan, in the
province of Bengal, situated upon the west bank of the
Hooghly river. It is the first town which is seen after en¬
tering the river. Here ships formerly used to anchor,
but they now run up to Kedjeree or Diamond Harbour.
There is here an extensive salt manufactory belonging to
government. This place is very unhealthy. It was to
Hidjellee that the English retreated in 1687, after escaping
from, the Hooghly. They fortified the island, and held pos¬
session of it for three months, against all the efforts of Au-
rungzebe, till peace was concluded. The vicinity abounds
with tigers, and the creeks with sharks and alligators. Long.
88. 10. E. Lat. 21. 50. N. The district is bounded on the
east by the Hooghly, and on the south by the sea. Some of
the land is good, and produces a great quantity of rice,
cocoa-nuts, the betel nut, and other things. It is princi¬
pally valuable on account of the lands which are overflowed
by the spring tides, and on which salt is made. Its chief
towns are Hidjellee and Contai.
HIERACITES, in Ecclesiastical History, Christian he¬
retics in the third century, so called from their leader Hie-
rax, a philosopher of Egypt, who taught that Melchizedek
was the Holy Ghost, denied the resurrection, and con¬
demned marriage.
HIERAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Phry¬
gia, abounding in hot springs, and so called from the num¬
ber of its temples. There are coins extant exhibiting
figures of various gods who had temples here. Of this
place Epictetus the Stoic philosopher was a native. It is
now called Pambouk ; and is situated near the Scamander,
on a portion of Mount Mesogis, distant six miles from Lao-
dicea.
HIERARCHY, amongst divines, denotes the subordi¬
nation of angels. Some of the Rabbin reckon four, others
ten, orders or ranks of angels, and give them different
names, according to their different degrees of power and
knowledge.
Hierarchy likewise denotes the subordination of the
clergy, ecclesiastical polity, or the constitution and govern¬
ment of the Christian church considered as a society.
HIERO I. and II. kings of Syracuse. See Syracuse.
HIEROCLES, a violent promoter of the persecution
of the Christians under Diocletian, flourished in the year
302. He wrote against the Christian religion some books,
in which he pretends to expose inconsistencies in the Holy
Scriptures, and compares the miracles of Apollonius ly-
anaeus with those of Jesus Christ. He was refuted by
Lactantius and Eusebius. The remains of his works were
collected into one volume octavo by Bishop Pearson, and
published in 1654, with a learned dissertation prefixed to
the work.
Hierocles, a Platonic philosopher of the fifth century,
who taught at Alexandria, and was admired for his elo¬
quence. He wrote seven books upon Providence and Fate,
and dedicated them to Olympiodorus, who by his embas¬
sies did the Romans good service under the emperors Ho-
norius and Theodosius the younger. But these books are
now lost, and we only know them by the extracts in Pho-
tius. He wrote also a Commentary, which is still extant,
upon the golden verses of Pythagoras.
294
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Definition. The term Hieroglyphics(TsgoyXup/xa, from/egos, sacred,
and yX-jcpu, to carve or engrave) literally denotes sacred
sculptures, or characters, and appears to have been ap¬
plied by the Greeks to that particular species of writing
which they found inscribed or engraven on the palaces,
temples, sepulchres, and other public monuments of Egypt.
The epithet sacred (hgog), which enters into the composi¬
tion of this term, is, however, apt to mislead those who have
not attended particularly to the subject. The hieroglyphics
were not so denominated as being exclusively appropriated
or confined to compositions connected with religion ; they,
in fact, constituted a real written language, applicable to
history and common life, as well as to subjects of a religi
ous or mythological kind. This opinion, which the saga¬
city of Warburton enabled him to form, long before the
true nature of these characters had been divined, is esta¬
blished as incontrovertible by the Greek inscription on the
stone of Rosetta, which speaks of the three divisions or
compartments of the pillar as containing different versions
of the same decree, one in the sacred characters, another
in the enchorial or vulgar, and a third in Greek, being a
translation of the other two; and that there is no fraud or
deception in this description, is at once made evident by
the coincidence of the numerals at the end of the hierogly-
phical text with the concluding words of the Greek inscrip¬
tion.1 Instead, therefore, of qualifying these characters or
sculptures as sacred, the Greeks, had they been aware of
their real nature, or of all purposes to which they were ap¬
plied, woidd have described them as monumental, and thus
distinguished them from the other forms of writing in use
amongst the Egyptians, by the circumstance which appears
to have almost invariably regulated their application. They
constituted the monumental writing of ancient Egypt; and
as such were distinguished from the intermediate form, call¬
ed the hieratic, which is for the most part confined to the
papyri, and still more from the enchorial or demotic, which
appears to have been employed for the ordinary purposes
of life. In common language, where nice distinctions are
seldom necessary, the term hieroglyphics is indifferently ap¬
plied to all the three forms of writing, monumental, hiera¬
tic, and enchorial; but, in a treatise like this, where the
object is to convey accurate information, we must be care¬
ful to avoid such confusion, and at the same time to im¬
press upon the mind of the reader the necessity^ of keeping
constantly in view the distinctions here traced, which will
afterwards be more fully unfolded and explained.
I. HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL VIEW OF THE OPINIONS EN- Hist<
TERTAINED RESPECTING HIEROGLYPHICS, AND OF THE ^y
ATTEMPTS MADE, AT DIFFERENT TIMES, TO DECIPHER
THEM.
All antiquity is agreed in representing the country of
the Pharaohs as the birthplace of science, learning, and
art, and as the theatre of the earliest form of civilization
of which any monument or even tradition has been pre¬
served. At a period when the soil of Greece and of Italy
was covered with primeval forests, affording shelter only to
wild beasts, or to roving barbarians hardly less savage, the
valley of the Nile was occupied by a people far advanced
in civil and social improvement, and who had already con¬
structed those Titanian monuments which still command
our wonder and admiration, after the lapse of more than
three thousand years, and the ravages of successive con¬
quests. Nor has this people been indebted for their high
celebrity either to the barbaric splendour of military achieve¬
ments, or to any of the ordinary elements which constitute
material grandeur. On the contrary, the circumstances
which have mainly contributed to ensure them an incon-
testible superiority over most other nations of the world are,
the antiquity of their civilization, the wisdom of their insti¬
tutions and laws, the extent and variety of their knowledge,
the singular character of their government and religion, and
the everlasting monuments on which they have engraved
their history, and inscribed the names and titles of their
gods and their kings. Long before any other country had
emerged out of barbarism ; when even antiquity, in the or¬
dinary estimate, had not begun ; Egypt enjoyed the benefit
of a regular government, and cultivated with equal ardour
and success those sciences and arts which the Greeks after¬
wards borrowed, but did not in every instance improve.2
As early as the days of Moses, who was himself instruct¬
ed in the wisdom of the Egyptians,3 that people, amongst
whom laws, institutions, learning, and the arts had already
attained an extraordinary development, appear to have
reached the maximum of improvement; they had, in fact,
completed their ascending movement, and were fixed on that
elevated position which nations generally occupy, for a
longer or shorter period, before they begin to descend, and
in which the genius of their civil, religious, and social sys¬
tem was eminently calculated to maintain them, for ages,
stationary. All the notices incidentally given by the sacred
historian, corroborated by the evidence of contemporary
1 This was first remarked by Mr Akerblad, who pointed out, at the close of the hieroglyphical inscription, the three first numerals,
indicated by 1. f I. and 111. where the Greek has “ the first and the second,” Ka< emrai t» ix.u.trrwi <!■»* ri irguTaiy km Stwrijafv
isaui], the end being broken off.
Etienne Quatremere, Rechcrches sur la Langue et la Literature de I'Egypte, p. 2. Paris, 1808, in 8vo.
3 “ Erat autem Moses eruditus in omni sapientia yEgyptiorum.” But Philo, in his life of the Jewish lawgiver, enters into de¬
tails respecting the education of Moses. “ Cum enim felicitate ingenii magistrorum, ex universa /Egypto convocatorum doctrinam
excederet, et simul multa ingeniose excogitaret; numeros quidem, et geometriam, musicam rhythmicam, harmonicam, metricam,
sive contemplatiyam accepit ab dEgyptiis doctoribus; maxime vero occultam philosophiam descriptam, ut vocant, Uteris hieroglyphicit,
hoc est, notis animalium quae ipsi venerantur pro numinibus.” Justin Martyr, in his Protrcpticon, denies that Moses studied geo¬
metry, but affirms that the Jewish leader was initiated in the mysteries of hieroglyphics. He states, “ Mosen, omisso studio omnium
mathematicarum, quae in yEgypto vulgares erant, et viles, adjecisse animum ad solas hieroglyphicas disciplinas, quae turn apud eos soke
in honore et pretio erant, et non quibuslibet, sed prcecipuis et probatissimis viris, et in abditis locis secreto traderentur. Has cum didicisset
Moses, nil tamen unquam secundum eas, aut dixit, aut fecit; quod contrarium esset unius veri Dei cultui.” In this last particular,
however, Clemens Alexandrinus is at variance with Justin; for, in the fifth book of his Stromata, he says, “ Moysen, Jwxte hanc kiero-
glyphiccc doctrince consuetudinem multa sub tropicis, ac mysticis animalium symbolis, vitce moralis prcecepta occulte tradidisse, solis divinae legis
amatoribus pervia ; qualia sunt ilia, neque porco, neque aquila, neque accipitre, aut corvo vescendum.”
HIEROGLYPHICS.
295
j} rj_ monuments, clearly indicate a people who had already ar-
^ rived at this grand limit, and who were in the full posses¬
sion and enjoyment of all the advantages derivable from
the peculiar forms of religion and government under which
they lived. Even in that remote age, the civilization of
the Egyptians had passed into a proverb ; nor is it by any
means improbable that the Jewish legislator, in framing a
code of laws for the people whom he was directed by his
high mission to deliver from bondage, and form into a na¬
tion, transfused into it somewhat of the practical or written
wisdom which he had learned in the country of his birth
and education.
From the era of Moses, by whom Egypt is connected
with the earliest traditions, no less than with the first his¬
torical monument of the human race, until that of the Per¬
sian conquest, when its glory and independence perished
together ; that is, during a long interval of about ten cen¬
turies ; a few detached and scanty notices, accidentally pre¬
served and often negligently recorded, comprehend all that
can be gleaned from the ancient authors respecting either
its internal condition or its external relations. It appears,
however, that, both before and after the Persian invasion,
the Greeks were in the habit of resorting to Egypt to be
initiated in the laws, customs, and institutions, as well as
science and learning, of the Egyptians ; that, notwithstand¬
ing all they have alleged as to the exclusion of strangers
or foreigners, access was freely afforded them to that know¬
ledge of which the ministers of religion were the sole de¬
positaries ; and that in proportion as the seminal principles
of civilization began to take root in the genial soil of
Greece, they crowded back to obtain fresh supplies from
the great storehouse whence the first portion of the good
seed had been derived. Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and
many others, were all instructed in the Egyptian school,
where they learned the elements of that science which
they afterwards taught to their countrymen J in Miletus,
in Samos, in Crotona, and in Athens, the disciples of the
hierogrammatists kindled the lamps which had been trim¬
med and supplied in Egypt; and, what is less known though
equally certain, the rudiments of that art, the originals of
those beautiful forms, which the fine natural genius of the
Greeks, improving on their models, carried to an almost
ideal perfection, may even now be discovered in the bas-
reliefs which cover the temples, palaces, and tombs scatter¬
ed along the valley of the Nile. The fanatical fire-wor¬
shippers of Iran, led by a ferocious conqueror, had, no doubt,
wreaked their utmost fury against the edifices consecrat¬
ed to the worship of the gods of Egypt. In their blind ha¬
tred of idolatry, they ravaged the country which they had
overrun, and deluged it in blood; but they were neither
able to destroy the monuments on which they had exhaust¬
ed their iconoclastic rage, nor to extirpate the learning
which they could not appreciate. Hence, when the for¬
tunes of a second conquest had placed kings of Greek de¬
scent upon the throne of the Pharaohs, Egypt, under their
enlightened sway, recovered a portion of its ancient splen¬
dour ; the treasures of that renowned seat of early civiliza¬
tion were placed within the reach of philosophic investiga¬
tion ; Greece repaid a portion of the debt wdiich she had
long before contracted; science and learning were culti¬
vated with ardour and success in the new capital to which
the Macedonian conqueror had bequeathed his name ; and History,
when, at length, the star of the Ptolemies set to rise no
more, and Egypt was degraded into a province of the Ro¬
man empire, the masters of the world came in their turn to
dispose of all that a third conquest had spared.
To the Greeks, therefore, who had so long been connect¬
ed with Egypt, and to the Romans, by whom the Greeks
were at length replaced, it was natural to look for the
most ample information respecting the institutions, man¬
ners, customs, arts, antiquities, science, and literature of
that interesting region. Nor, in regard to some of these
subjects, did the curious look altogether in vain. Hero¬
dotus has devoted a considerable portion of his history to
details connected with the laws, usages, manners, and to¬
pography of Egypt, which he studied on the spot; and
much useful information may likewise be collected from
the writings of Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and others, as
well as from those of the later Roman authors, in their in¬
cidental notices of that country. But there is one sub¬
ject, perhaps the most interesting of all, respecting which
they have supplied little or no intelligible information ; w^e
mean the literature of Egypt, including therein the diffe¬
rent methods of writing practised in that country from the
earliest times.
In Egypt, the arts of sculpture and painfmg w^ere at all
times subordinate to, and in reality branches of, the art of
writing; whilst the monuments scattered over its surface
were almost all covered externally with sculptures, or in¬
ternally with paintings, obviously employed as a species of
written language, and intended to serve as records of past
events, or of laws, usages, customs, and rites, which had
existed at the time when these memorials were originally
traced. Here was a circumstance apparently calculated
to stimulate the most sluggish curiosity, and to excite
even indifference itself to inquire and examine. For what
subject of greater interest could possibly be presented to
the human mind, than the pictured records ot the earliest
civilization, which, with a view to the perpetuity ot their
endurance, had been consigned to eternal monuments ?
But, from whatever cause, whether from that absurd pride
which led the Greeks and Romans to disdain studying
those forms of speech which they considered as barbarous,
or from the total want of philological talent, and an in¬
capacity for pursuing painful and laborious speculations,
the classical writers supply us with nothing beyond a tew
vague and imperfect notices, which it is often equally dif¬
ficult to understand or to reconcile; and, whilst they tell
us not only that Egypt was the parent of all arts and sci¬
ences, but that the hieroglyphical inscriptions on its pub¬
lic monuments contained a summary of the most impor¬
tant mysteries of nature and the most sublime inventions
of man, they at the same time pretend that the interpre¬
tation of these characters had been so studiously conceal¬
ed by the priests from the knowledge ot the vulgar, and
had indeed been so imperfectly understood by themselves,
that, in the days of the later Roman emperors, it was
wholly lost and forgotten. It is even alleged, though the
story seems to rest upon no authentic foundation, that a
reward was offered in vain, by one ot the first Gaesars, for
an interpretation of the inscription on an obelisk, then re¬
cently brought from Egypt to Rome.1 2 Modern ingenuity
1 “ Horum itaque admirandum studium,” says Kircher, “cum in Grsecia percrebuisset, Graecorum sapientissimi ejus gustandi
allecti desiderio, Solon videlicet, Thales, Plato, Eudoxus, Pythagoras, et Lycurgus in iEgyptum ad consuetudinem cum sacerdotibus
contrahendam sese contulerunt.” (Obelisci JEgyp. Interpret. Hierog. p. 144. Home, 1686, in folio.) The learning of the Egyptians
was exclusively in the hands of the priests, especially of those who were called h^'y^u.ppa.TiTs, or sacred scribes, and seems to have been
embodied in a great number of volumes, which also contained the annals of the nation, with whatever related to its laws and religion.
Diodorus Siculus, describing the palace of Osymandias, makes mention of a library ; and Manetho, cited by Jamblicus, states the
number of books attributed to Hermes or Thoth, or belonging to that celebrated personage, at thirty-six thousand five hundred
and twenty .five. (Zoega, De Grig, et Usu Obeliscorum, p. 502 ; and Wilkins, Dissert, de Lingua Coptica, at the end of the OratiO.Do-
tninica of Chamberlayne, p. 81.)
* Young, Account of some Recent Discoveries in Hierogtyphical Literature, p. 2.
2%
HIEROGLYPHICS.
History, is not therefore likely to derive much assistance from any
'~*~y-***/ thing which has been transmitted to us on this subject by
the Greek or the Roman writers. Their ignorance of the
hieroglyphic system in its details is either admitted or
evident; and even Clement of Alexandria, who certainly
understood the different methods of writing practised in
Egypt, has expressed himself with so much technical con¬
ciseness, not to say obscurity, that, with all the lights of
recent discovery to guide us, it is by no means an easy
task to interpret his meaning.
In the infancy of art and civilization, mankind appear
to have employed mimetic images, or portraits, to repre¬
sent individual objects, and give notice of events to those
at a distance. Thus, the Mexicans denoted the arrival of
the Spaniards by a rude delineation of a ship, and of a man
distinguished by the peculiarities of the European dress.
This is what may be called picture writing, or the natural
representation of objects or actions. But mere mimetic
images, which could convey no idea of time, nor indicate
any abstract quality or attribute, were totally insufficient
for the purposes of communicating information and record¬
ing events. Hence conventional signs, sometimes kuriologi-
cal and sometimes tropical,1 were chosen to serve as symbols
both of things and thoughts, of objects in nature and ideas
of the mind. But much time must have elapsed before
men learned to communicate with one another by means
of symbolical pictures or representations ; and no length of
time.'could possibly render such a method of communica¬
tion easy. The painter or sculptor, as it might be, would
probably, begin improvement by lessening the size and
abridging the number of his signs ; the language spoken
to the ear helping him to represent that which was to be
addressed to the eye. But, in the formation of language,
man invariably proceeds from particulars to generals;
classifying individuals according to their species, and ar¬
ranging qualities or attributes under their proper catego¬
ries. Thus, in inventing words for expressing his ideas,
he would also invent the means of limiting their number;
and, as oral preceded written language, the forms and
figures of speech would instruct the graphic artist how to
express his sentiments and abridge his symbols. The
metaphors which he employed in speaking would natural¬
ly suggest the images which he might use in writing. If,
when he spoke, he called a strong man a lion, when he
wrote he might draw the figure of that animal as the sym¬
bol of strength or force. But the inconvenience of repre¬
senting the entire image would be almost immediately
felt; and therefore necessity would teach the use of sy¬
necdoche, or putting a part for the whole, as when the
Mexicans represented the rabbit by its head, and the reed
by its flower. By another natural transition, or rather
advance, an action or event would be indicated by some
object necessary to its accomplishment, or the concomi¬
tant thereof, as when the Egyptians expressed the exist¬
ence of a siege by painting a scaling-ladder? Thus the
classifications which take place in all languages, but more
especially the tropes and figures which abound in all dia- Hist
lects spoken by nations not yet refined by the highest ci-
vilization, must have greatly facilitated both the invention
and the comprehension of hieroglyphics.3 In the progress
of improvement, then, we have two stages clearly defined;
first, picture-writing, which consists in the mere represen¬
tation of events, or of objects in a state of action with one
another; and, secondly, hieroglyphics, or symbolical writ¬
ing, which is sometimes kuriological, and sometimes tro¬
pical.
Nor is all this matter of hypothetical speculation. Hum¬
boldt, in treating of the graphic system of the Mexicans,
which he has commented on with great learning and in¬
genuity, shows that both the stages above described in
some measure co-existed amongst, them, and were occa¬
sionally combined, though never confounded. They had
picture-writing, in its simple and primitive form ; and they
had likewise a species of hieroglyphical representation, far
inferior indeed to that which is found in the Egyptian in¬
scriptions, but still to a certain extent constructed upon
the same, or at least similar principles. It appears that
the use of hieroglyphical paintings was common amongst
the Toltecks, the Aztecks, and other tribes inhabiting
the elevated plain of Anahuac, which extends northward
from Mexico, and is nearly the same with the territory
known by the name of New Spain. But no trace of alpha¬
betical characters was anywhere to be found. The ana¬
lysis of sounds, which leads to the most admirable, we
might say the most miraculous, of all inventions, an alpha¬
bet, had not been attained by any native of the American
continent; and it is even probable, as Humboldt conjec¬
tures, that the progressive perfection of symbolical writ¬
ing, and the facility with which objects were delineated,
prevented the introduction of letters. They have at least
done so, for a much longer time, with the Chinese, who
have contented themselves with fourscore thousand cha¬
racters, composed of two hundred and fourteen keys, or
radical hieroglyphics. The same learned traveller pro¬
ceeds to inform us, that the Azteck people had real hie-
roglyphical characters for water, earth, air, wind, day,
night, speech, motion ; that they had the same for num¬
bers, and for the days and months of the solar year; that
these signs, added to the painting of an event, marked the
time and other circumstances of the action ; that amongst
the Mexicans there were found vestiges of the hierogly¬
phics called phonetic, which indicate not relations with
things, but with the spoken language ; and that, upon the
whole, the Mexican paintings bear a great resemblance,
not so much to the hieroglyphical writings of the Egyp¬
tians, as to the rolls of papyrus found in the swat-hings of
the mummies, which, according to him, are all paintings
of a mixed kind, uniting symbolical characters with the
representation of an action.4 In a word, the Mexicans,
at the time when their country was overrun by the Spa¬
niards, appear to have made considerable progress in that
method of writing which had attained to so high a degree
Those hieroglyphics in which part of a material object is put for the whole, are here called kuriological; and those in which one
^ b ? rS !mt 10r an°ther, on account of some real or supposed analogy between them, are denominated tropical.
2 Horus Apollo, Hieroglyphica, lib. ii.
4 iirUmvnnnd’ ®rl£ines> or Remarks on tho Origin of several Empires, States, and Cities, book iv. chap. 9.
Humboldt, Researches concerning the Institutions and Monuments of the ancient Inhabitants of America, English translation. “ When
we examine the history of those nations to which the use of letters is unknown,” says this celebrated traveller, “ we find, in both
emisp eres, that men have attempted to paint the objects which struck their imagination; to represent things that were complex,
jy putting a part for the whole ; and thus to compose such pictures as would serve to perpetuate the memory of remarkable events. The
JJeiaware Indian, m scouring the forests, carves some lines on the bark of a tree, to mark the number of the enemy he has killed.
±>yen conventional signs are introduced; and a single stroke marks whether the scalp has been cut from the head of a man or a wo¬
man. ouch representations, however, are not to be confounded with hieroglyphics, which are essentially different from the mere re¬
presentation ot an event, or of objects in a state of action with one another.” He adds, “ The first missionaries who visited Ame¬
rica compared the Azteck paintings with the hieroglyphical writing of the Egyptians. Kircher, Warburton, and other learned
men, have contested the propriety of this comparison, not having been careful to distinguish the paintings of a mixed kind, in which
rta teroglyphics, sometimes kuriological, sometimes tropical, are added to the natural representation of an action."
HIEROGLYPHICS.
297
of perfection amongst the Egyptians; they had passed
V- J through the first stage in the career of improvement, and
were already entering upon the second, when the hierogly¬
phic, which is at first employed to modify, comes ultimate¬
ly to supersede picture-writing.
But although hieroglyphics were a great and manifest
improvement on mimetic images or picture-writing, still
this method of communication was found essentially de¬
fective ; its symbols were constantly liable to be misun¬
derstood, the art of painting or engraving them could only
be practised by a few, and there were some things which
could not in this way be expressed at all. Sensible of
these inconveniences, and impelled by the natural dispo¬
sition to abbreviate and simplify, the Egyptians appear,
at an early period of their history, to have made some ad¬
vances towards the introduction of a more compendious
and practicable method of expressing their thoughts, by
reference partly to the sounds, and partly to the syllabic
combinations, of their living speech ; in other words, to
have entered on that course of improvement which, if
pursued, would have ended in the formation of an alpha¬
bet. But, notwithstanding all that has been said to the
contrary, it is now pretty certain that they stopped short
at the threshold, and extended the use of phonetic sym¬
bols no further than appeared necessary to remedy the
more obvious defects of the hieroglyphic method of writ¬
ing.
Accordingly, Herodotus, after mentioning that the Egyp¬
tians wrote from right to left, contrary to the method in
use amongst the Greeks,1 proceeds to inform us that they
employed two kinds of characters ; the one denominated
sacred, hga, and the other popular, brnMonxa ■? but he states
nothing which could lead us to infer that the sacred and
popular characters had any affinity, or that the latter
were, through an intermediate form, derived from the
former. Diodorus Siculus repeats the statement of He¬
rodotus almost in the same words ; adding, however, that
the popular characters were taught to all, but that the
knowledge of the sacred characters was confined exclu¬
sively to the priests.3 This is undoubtedly concise enough;
but it nevertheless embraces all the information which
these writers, both of whom had visited Egypt, have
thought proper to communicate upon this interesting sub¬
ject. The statement of Herodotus and Diodorus, how¬
ever, is in perfect accordance with the inscription on the
Rosetta column, in regard to which it is impossible to sus¬
pect any error, seeing it bears to have been engraved under
the inspection of the priests themselves. That celebrat¬
ed monument, agreeing in this particular with the authors
just named, makes mention of only two kinds of charac¬
ters ; the one called enchorial, iy^uoia. j^apfiara, or “ cha¬
racters of the country,” evidently identical with the demo¬
tic or popular characters of Herodotus and Diodorus ; and
the other called sacred, kga. Thus far, then, the Rosetta
inscription and the Greek historians are agreed. But as
the latter gives us no information respecting the peculiar
nature of the sacred as contrasted with the demotic or en¬
chorial characters, nor conversely, we must turn to the History,
next ancient writer, who treats incidentally of the subject,
and endeavour to ascertain whether he has communicated
any thing calculated to extend our knowledge, or to supply
what is wanting in the statement of his predecessors.
In a well-known passage of the Stromata of Clemens
Alexandrinus, that learned father enumerates, with great
conciseness, but with a degree of precision to which mo¬
dern discovery has given a high interest, the different
kinds of writing in use amongst the Egyptians, and states
generally the peculiarities by which these are distinguished.
The passage in question, which has been frequently quot¬
ed, and often misunderstood or mistranslated, will be found
not only to supply the defects in the statement of the
Greek historians, but also to receive a singular confirma¬
tion from the discoveries of which it is the principal ob¬
ject of this article to give some account.
“ Those who are educated amongst the Egyptians,”
says Clemens, “ learn first of all the method of Egyptian
writing called epistolographic ; secondly, the hiera¬
tic, which the hierogrammatists (sacred scribes) employ;
and, lastly, the most complete method, the hieroglyphic.
The hieroglyphic [is of two kinds] ; the one kuriologic,
(or denoting objects in a direct manner) by means of the
primary letters of the alphabet; the other symbolical.
Of the symbolical [there are several sorts] ; one repre¬
sents objects directly by imitation; another expresses
them tropically (that, is, indirectly or liguratively) ; whilst
the third employs allegories, expressed by certain aenig-
mas. Thus, according to the method of representing ob¬
jects directly or properly by imitation, the Egyptians make
a circle when they wish to represent the sun, and trace a
luniform figure (or crescent) to denote the moon. Ac¬
cording to the tropical method, they represent objects by
means of certain, analogies, which they transfer into the
expression of those objects by various changes, transpo¬
sitions, and modifications, very frequently by complete
transformations. Thus, when they wish to transmit the
praises of their kings under the form of religious legends,
they employ anaglyphs (that is, transpositions or transfor¬
mations of the hieroglyphs). Of the third kind of sym¬
bolical writing, which is (enigmatical, let this serve as an
example : The Egyptians assimilate the oblique course
of the other [planetary] stars to the bodies of serpents,
but the sun they represent by the figure of a scaraboeus,”4
In this passage, it is evident that Clement of Alexan¬
dria admits three principal and distinct'methods or kinds
of the Egyptian writing : first, the epistolographic ; se¬
condly, the hieratic ; and thirdly, the hieroglyphic.
Of the first and second kinds he gives no detail or expla¬
nation whatever. The third, or hieroglyphic, which alone
occupies his attention, is divided into two sorts: one de¬
scribed as xvpio'hoyiXYi btcc tmv vgcorav croty^siuv, literally, kurio¬
logic by means of the first elements ; and the other denomi¬
nated tfu/AjSoXocjj, symbolic.5 Of the former sort Clemens says
nothing ; but he enters into details respecting the latter,
which he subdivides into three secondary species. The
1 This is the truth, but not the whole truth, as will appear more fully in the sequel. ..
2 AiQatnoim Ss ypauiiairi y'ffieovrai (AiyiiVTioi}, xcti nra. (/.it auruv nga, tcc St ^nfoonxa ..a’Ki.ra.i. t 1 • U- C )
3 Airrav yzo AlyvZ,*,; ret (tl> hftah ret l ^ xetXav^ct **p<t ftu rt,( Aeyo*ru.S (ttnv,
y‘^AvZ7/Tl}' A^llr,Ve»ro, fttv Alyuvrw U(t*yt*,ov<rt, r„v EH IX TO AO TP AO IKHN xxXevfti-
rex St, rl TEPATIKHN, * X(Z,T*,ci U^ypct^etruC iarctr^ St rtAtoretw I EPOC AT <1)1 KHN, * ft^erre luct
^.Xoy.U, b St curfoX^. T*; St erlrfoX^ b ^ ^oXoyuret, xetret b l r^,XaS y^'.r*,, „ St ctXX^urce,
T,v«f ctmyuovs. ' HXiov ytd, yp*4<*> (louXoftM, ku*Xo* vcuu*,, ertXw St *Zbftct ftmtuhs, xetret ro xv^XtyoUftw t,S,f. il *ctr o,**,*-
riirx fterlyt^ ptJr^Jrh, ret S’ t^X^rr.v.t,, ™ St fttret^ftecr^rt; ^cerre^, TovSy^ ret, (iet^et,
^ /t«t«S ‘TasjaS/Suvrtf, i^y^tver, S,« etyetyXu^,. Tea St etmyfttvs rpjre. „WfSt^« t,™ role ret ft* yet? ret, ctXXet, et^et,, ieu
rr,, ropsia, <rq, Xe?j)v otbiu, aetftettn tt.<rux.eitX,o,, ro, St 'HX;cv ret rov xet,6ct^ov, x. r.X. ( tromat. I • P* 0 er‘l j; .up nrfi;
‘ In this passage, the word, are understood of expressions proper to destgnate objeote accordmKto the ord,-
nary usage, and in opposition to figurative terms, or periphrases. Thus Longinus, or the author, whoever he wa ,
on the Sublime, savs, ovret? b •npitp^etfis oroXXetxi; vv/tQhyyirai rtl xvpoXeyi*. y
VOL. XI. ~ 1
HIEROGLYPHICS.
298
History, first of these (rj xugioXoy/xrj xura fii[iri<Siv) is indicated with
v,“*"Vw/ precision, as well by the words themselves, as by the two
examples given in illustration : it consists in representing
an object properly (xugioXoyi/ffdai) by imitating (xccra /xz/atj-
eiv) its form. The second, called the tropical or figurative,
is very obscurely defined, and the example is not much
clearer than the definition. It is difficult to discover what
the author means by the anaglyphs, which, he says, the
Egyptians employed to hand down the praises of their kings,
and which, if they consisted of transpositions merely, might
have been formed out of mimetic representations as well as
out of tropical symbols.1 From the classification, however,
it appears that, by anaglyphs he understands sculptured
figures employed as a species of writing. As to the third
species, namely, the (Enigmatical, there is no room either
for doubt or difficulty.
But instead of the three kinds of Egyptian writing here
described, Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus mention only
two, namely, the popular and the sacred characters ; a state¬
ment which is completely confirmed by the Rosetta in¬
scription, where two kinds only are spoken of, viz. the en¬
chorial, identical with the demotic, and those called sacred.
These authorities, however, may be satisfactorily reconcil¬
ed. All the difference between them consists in this, that
Clement of Alexandria mentions the hieratic writing, in
regard to which Herodotus, Diodorus, and the Rosetta in¬
scription are all perfectly silent. But the reason of this is
sufficiently evident. The historians and the inscription
include the hieratic amongst the sacred characters, whilst
Clement, having employed a more restricted term, found
it necessary to distinguish this intermediate form from the
hieroglyphic, of which, also, he alone makes mention. A
few observations will be sufficient to place this matter in
the clearest light.
It is agreed upon all hands that the epistolographic of
Clemens Alexandrinus is identical with the demotic of
Herodotus and Diodorus, and with, the enchorial of the
Rosetta inscription. But the hieratic was certainly a spe¬
cies of the sacred characters, inasmuch as it was the form
employed by the hierogrammatists, or sacred scribes; and Hi i
hence Clement has denominated it the sacerdotal writing, ^
from its having been employed by the priests in manu¬
scripts. The hieroglyphic, however, was, properly speak¬
ing, the monumental icriting, as is indeed expressed by the
term (bgo^Xup/xa), which literally signifies sacred characters
sculptured or engraved; whilst the hieratic might be
called the hieroglyphic writing, or sacred characters writ¬
ten. This distinction explains and reconciles every thing.
Herodotus and Diodorus do not employ the word iegoyXv-
cpixa ; the epithet they apply is iaga, sacred, which neces¬
sarily includes both kinds of sacred writing, the hieratic as
well as the other. But Clemens Alexandrinus speaks of
the hieroglyphic, an expression which is less generic, and
cannot inchule the hieratic, a kind of writing which was
not employed on the sculptured monuments (ysy^a/i/iava).
The learned father, therefore, differs from the others mere¬
ly in this; that they have only employed generic expres¬
sions, whereas he has entered into the detail of the species.
Discrepancy there is absolutely none. For the same rea¬
son, in the Rosetta monument, the monumental characters
are designated by the epithet /sga, instead of h^oy'hvtpixoL,
which might have appeared the term most proper to de¬
scribe the kind of characters engraved on that stone. But
the distinction was unnecessary. For, as the hieratic was
never employed in monumental inscriptions, and as the
question here related to the cutting or engraving of sacred
characters on the pillar, these characters could be nothing
but hieroglyphics ; and consequently the generic expression
/££«, sacred, was, in this case, altogether as precise as the
specific expression hpoyXvfixa would have been.
Having made these observations with a view to remove
ambiguity, and prevent the reader from suspecting the ex¬
istence of discrepancies, where, in reality, there are none,
we shall next exhibit a comparative scheme by means of
which the accordance of all the texts, and the different
kinds of Egyptian writing mentioned by the ancients, toge¬
ther with their respective relations and dependencies, may
be at once perceived and understood.
Egyptian writing is divided by
Herodotus, Diodorus, and
the inscription of Rosetta,
into two kinds of charac¬
ters, viz   ...
f Demotic and demodic by Herodotus and Diodorus.
I. Popular, called | Enchorial in the inscription of Rosetta
s luv in t
\ Epistolographic by Clemens Alexandrinus.
1st, Hieratic, or sacerdotal writing.
II. Sacred, divid¬
ed by Clemens
Alexandrinus
into 
I
2d, Hieroglyphic,
composed of...
Kuriologic, by means of the primary letters of
the alphabet.2
f 1. Kuriologic, by imitation.
J 2. Tropic, or figurative, includ¬
ing anaglypfdc.
3. Enigmatic.
Symbolic.
comprising j
Je voudrais, says M. Letronne, “ pouvoir definir ce que 1’auteur entend par des anaghjphes, qui servaient, comme on voit,
pour 1 expression tropique oafiguree : dans la rigeur, la premiere espece, comme la seconde, devait se composer de figures auxquelles
convenait egalement le nom d'amglyphes lorsqu’elles etaient sculptees sur les monumens. Pourquoi done Clement d’Alexandrie
oorne-t-ii les anagiyphes a I’e'criture symbolique figurde ? II faut qu’il entende par-la une espece particuliere de figures sculpttes, ser-
van on t ois comme ecriture.' (Examen du texte de Clement d'Jlexandric, relatif aux divers modes d'ecriture chez les Egyptiens, apud
, lampo ion, reels clu Syst. Hitrogl. p. 381.) The reader will also find some judicious observations on this subject, by Baron Sil-
' estre de Sacy, in the Journal des Savans for March 1825, p. 251, 252.
arispn” r?ga^ Tthe sPecies of hieroglyphic writing described by Clemens as W rrtuxuav, two questions have
as. ’ a w , is the word trratxeiuv to be understood ? and, secondly. What kind of modification does that word receive
J- , J0lnea Wlth the adjective ? Upon the fullest consideration, we have followed Letronne in translating
eppd v\u,rt^)rlmai^ U f1 IfierS' But to this translation there have been started a variety of objections, which we shall now pro¬
in Creek ° 'Y h C-* ^ 10 PrlnciPa^ these is, that o--a/^oa signifies elements, not alphabetical letters or characters, the name of which
know verv wen Dt 13 yilaWa,ra- (See Goulianoff, Questions Archlographiques, p. 8; Edinburgh Review, vol. xlv. p. 103.) Now, we
, !a signifies elements, and also that y^uy.y.a.Tu is the proper term for alphabetical letters ; but this does not prevent
technical ceneh^6 tw ^ Ut'e,-v’ as ln ’"he expression above quoted, and used in reference to writing, from having the same proper and
different meanine-o ieiW01(. in its radical sense, means a constituent element of things, and is consequently susceptible of very
tlie si, hi pci under ’ ^ t0 the words with which it is combined, or, when it is employed absolutely, according to the nature of
and water is fmmd ‘rf ^ \11S i which Plato first uses in the philosophical sense of natural element, as earth, air, fire,
of anv tliin.r and f . °i1 eia’ 1 ie ^°ph.lst’ amt hi twenty places of the Theaetetes, in its generic acceptation of constituent element
; e j’V J.h lei* ° ailiiua"e5 constituent element of words, that is, alphabetical letters, in as far as they represent the elementary
sounds of each syllable. In fact, is continually opposed by him to Thus, ^ XTOIXEiA ^v™, ™ ™ 2TAAA-
. yivos ywraiy—and ca fttv avkXccfa, Xoyov i^vm, -and Qtp h, evXXufcv Xiyo/zi, ra
HIEROGLYPHICS.
299
•V. Accustomed to a method of writing in which signs were
^ employed as the representatives of sounds only, the Greek
and Roman authors, who had either directly or indirectly
acquired any notion or idea of the graphic system ot the
Egyptians, and particularly of their monumental writing,
seem to have been chiefly struck with the figurative and
symbolic or ideographic characters which are so largely in¬
termixed therein ; and these, as being the most remote
from the nature of those signs with which alone they were
conversant, appear to have almost exclusively engaged
their attention. Hence they nowhere expressly mention
any other class or description of signs ; they nowhere ex¬
plicitly and distinctly intimate, what they could scarcely
have been altogether ignorant of, that the Egyptians, along
with the ideographic symbols, employed certain images
and characters as the representatives of simple or elemen¬
tary sounds. Even Clemens Alexandrinus, in the passage
above quoted and analysed, describes the phonetic hiero¬
glyphics in the most concise manner possible ; so concise,
indeed, that his statement (“ kuriologic, by means of the
primary elements” of words), from being unaccompanied
with any development or explanation, remained perfectly
unintelligible, until the ingenious investigations of Young,
Champollion, Letronne, and others, suggested the true in- History,
terpretation. To this circumstance, then, may perhaps
be ascribed the ineffectual efforts of the moderns to re¬
solve or elucidate the hieroglyphical inscriptions. Find¬
ing in the classical authors indications only of picture¬
writing and of symbols employed tropically or figura¬
tively, and never once suspecting the existence of charac¬
ters of a different kind, the learned men of the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries invariably proceed¬
ed upon the supposition that the hieroglyphic writing was
wholly ideographic, or, in other words, composed of cha¬
racters every one of which was either the natural or arbi¬
trary representative of a distinct idea.
On this assumed principle, indeed, they were all agreed ;
and, to say the truth, it seemed to receive confirmation
from the fact that the hieroglyphical symbols whose forms
and values had been indicated by Diodorus Siculus, Ho-
rus Apollo, Plutarch, Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius,
and others, were all of them without exception ideogra¬
phic. The number of these symbols, compared with the
immense variety of characters observable on the monu¬
ments, was no doubt exceedingly small; nor, from the
known characters, was it possible to deduce any general
and rntryHafficuv rtt trroixu* a**™ ava.yy.ti ra ptWovn arori yvarncQai trvXXafitiv, x. r. X. In these, and in other passages of the same kind,
CT' designates the sounds of the letters which form each syllable; and hence Plato, in another place speaks of r*
gr!)lVUa ri X.UI avXXafhai- In the mind of this author, e-ro/^s/sv is applied not only to the articulation,^but to the figure or character
(wxuiaa) which represents it; the one is the element of spoken language, the other is the element of written language. Aristotle
uses this word in the same manner when, speaking of the different parts of speech, he opposes to ™xx*/5„, the one being a
simple and the other a compound sound. The word then, without losing any thing of its general signification of constituent
element, became, when modified according to the subject to which it was applied, the'absolute expression, first, of the/o«r elements,
and secondly, of the letters of the alphabet, which are the elements of language {ry; xilia>s r* ^o,Xua wr, <ra uxoa.riaaa^ y^ppara,^
Diogenes Laertius observes). But the only grammatical distinction between and consists in this, that armxff de¬
signated the letter spoken, and y»^« the letter ■written ; the one was applied to the articulation itself, and the other to the visible sign
of character by which it was represented. The Greek grammarians are unanimous on this point; and the distinction is also very
well stated by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his treatise Dc Compositione Verborum: 'K^ai piv ow hat an, av^artvn, x*t iva^ov <pa,t,s,
a! wxir, hyowivut loa.ioiotv, he xa.XiZfi.tv 2TOIXEIA xa, FPAMMATA. T/tuppara ptv 'on y^appat, rta, aypatviruC arotXtta It or, Tara. Qcovnpv
yivtotv ix rovruv XapfSuvu xat <rr,v haXvatv it, ravra, (trroiXita.) vrotureu TiXtvratav. The Latin grammarians have made he same dis¬
tinction between elementum and litera, which correspond exactly to arotXuov and y^appa. fhus Suetonius calls the letter Djaarfa
elementorum litera ; and Ausonius speaks of elementorumprima signa, where signa ls put for hterw. But in Greek, as in Latin mage
a great measure effaced these distinctions, and the two words w'ere indifferently employed, the one for the other, as perfectly syno¬
nymous, each signifying properly and technically letters of the alphabet. „ ,, . .I A ,
This point being established, then, it remains to be seen what effect the word placed before can add to the idea. And,
at first, considering the principles which Champollion had unfolded in his Lcttre a M. Dacier, we were led to conclude that am
crotrua meant the first or initial letters of words; a conclusion which we stated, along with the grounds upon which it had been adopteci,
in the article Hieroglyphics which appeared in the Edinburgh Review (vol. xlv. p. 96, ef sc5?.). But further examination, a c more
particularly the light which M. Letronne has thrown off the subject in the second edition of Champollion s Precis du SyReme Hicro-
\lyphique (p. 376, £ seqq.), have induced us to abandon this idea as inadmissible, and to adopt a different interpretation. It, in fact, the
meaning of Clemens Alexandrinus had been what we then conceived it to be, he would not have said lanmm
rut uJrcv ivoparo,, or Xxarm, Xil**,, or^rotv aro,x^- “ A moins de supposer que 1 auteur n avail aucun sentiment de sa propre langue
ni 1’ombrede sens commun,” says M. Letronne, “ il est impossible de donner une signification aussi determmee a 1 expression
crotytta, qui, dans un sujet pareil, prise ainsi absolument, signifie en general les lettres de l alphabet, ou ne sigmfie nen de tout. 1 his,
we confess, appears to us to be quite decisive. The interpretation of first or initial elements of words, proposed m ihe Edinburgh Review,
and the more general one of iJial elements, suggested by M. de Goulianoff, and afterwards made the foundation of the acrostic system
of writing which M. de Klaproth calls Acrological Hieroglyphics, were equally adopted without percmving, that if the term etoenf be
not taken in a clear and determinate sense, or, in other words, be not construed with reference to a
sion as that employed by Clemens can have no meaning whatever. He who translates the words must be P ep
to show what initial elements are meant; and if he do not, or cannot, his version must go for nothing. Jt's impossible to draw any
conclusion from a vague generalit}r, which, like an identical proposition, fills the ear anc c lea s le ’ . i
other hand, it is absurd, in interpreting such terms, to attach to them a limitation which, besides being gratuitous and unwarranted,
is calcubted to annihilate their Character as general expressions. We conclude therefore, first, that fhe interpretation ot the
letters of words is inadmissible; and, secondly, that the word conformably to its
letters, or primitive sounds, considered in relation to others that are secondary or derivative. And here we observe, that this c y
be understood in two wa^s: Df, As a Greek addressing Greeks, Clement might employ an wbich was famil ar to he^
the formation of their own alphabet, which, according to the general tradition of Greece, was at firstcomosedonlyftle ^
or signs of sixteen sounds: Or, 2%, The word may be conceived as relating, notto fhe pnmitiveor 1 hcemcian^
to have been imported into Greece by Cadmus, but to primitive sounds in general; that is, to the most simple and elementary o 11.
In regard to thefonner hypothesis, it may he said that it accords with the nature of the Cad mean letters, which are more simp e and
elementary than the eigh^others subsequently added, and which, consequently, may be considered either &s the^
time, or the primary and elementary, with reference to the secondary and composite characters. But the latter is, upon the ,
that to which we incline. It is scarcely probable that Clemens Alexandrinus would attempt to explain the phonet c sy. tern of the
Egyptians by an example or illustration drawn from the obscure traditionary history of the Greek alphabet, whilst, on the other
hand, it cannot be doubted that, amongst all nations who have possessed signs of w«n*,thenumber of these signs was 1
to the principal sounds, and that others were successively added, in proportion as men found it necessary to decompose hesepr maiy
soundsf and to have certain shades of them represented by distinct characters. Lastly the passage which has o^pi^Goniuchof
our attention, is not the only one where express mention is made of an Egyptian alphabet. Hermias informs u , y ’
“ that Hermes was the inventor of letters in Egypt. Thus, to represent the first letter [of their alphabet], the fsypt^ figured an ibis
bird which belongs to Hermes.” It is impossible to express more clearly the nature of a phonetic hieroglyph, namely, a sound repre-
serded by the image of an object.
300
HIEROGLYPHICS,
History, principle by the assistance of which the unknown could
be ascertained or interpreted. But fanciful ingenuity soon
supplied all defects; and the learned, rather than con¬
fess their ignorance, drew largely on their imaginations.
Setting out with the preconceived notion that each hie-
roglyph stood as the representative of a distinct idea,
they thought only of discovering or imagining the esoteric
meaning which it was supposed to involve. It was never
for a moment doubted that the most profound myste¬
ries of nature and of art lay hidden in these monumental
sculptures. The simplest characters, employed perhaps
to represent phonetically a proper name, were conceived
to be types or symbols of ideas too lofty for ordinary com¬
prehension, and worthy of the eternal records to which
their preservation had been consigned. Thus, imagina¬
tion usurping the place of reason, and the wildest con¬
jectures being substituted for facts, the learned who had
undertaken to interpret the Egyptian monuments soon
became entangled in an inextricable labyrinth of incon¬
gruous fancies, and, like the spirits of Milton when puzzled
by their metaphysical speculations, “ found no end in
wandering mazes lost.” The farther they advanced the
thicker became the darkness, and the more inextricable
the perplexity.
Such appears generally to have been the method, if
method indeed it may be called, pursued by Pierius, and
more especially by Kircher, who imitated and improved
on the example of conjectural interpretation given by his
predecessor. “ The extensive learning of Pierius,” says
Mr Roscoe, “ is chiefly discoverable in his great work on
Hieroglyphics, in which he has undertaken to illustrate,
from Egyptian, Greek, and Roman symbols, almost every
branch of science and of art.” The work thus described
is entitled Hieroglyphica, sive de Sacris JEgyptiorum Li-
teris Commentarii, Basilim, 1556, in folio ; and, in the fifty-
eight Commentaries of which it consists, there is certainly
displayed a great deal of learning and ingenuity ; but, un¬
fortunately, the one is wholly misapplied, and the other
is of that anomalous description which constantly resolves
either into absurdity or extravagance. An idea of this sin¬
gular production, from which Kircher appears to have de¬
rived his peculiar inspiration, may be formed from the sum¬
mary contained in a brief address to the reader. “ IIa-
bes in hisce Commentariis non solum variarum historia-
rum, numismatum, veterumque inscriptionum explieatio-
nem, verumetiam praeter yEgyptiaca et alia pleraque mysti-
ca, turn locorum communium ingentem magna cum oblec-
tatione sylvam, turn sacrarum literarum, in quibus baud
et Christum ipsum, et Apostolos Prophetasque hujusmodi
locutionibus usos fuisse videmus exquisitam interpreta-
tionem ; ut sane vero non temere Pythagoram, Platonem,
aliosque summos vivos ad iEgyptios doctrinae gratia pro-
fectos intelligas ; quippe cum hieroglyphice loqui nihil aliud
sit, quam divinarum humanarumque rerum naturam ape-
rire.”
feuch is the account given of the perjucundum henefi-
cium per Pierium oblatum ; nor can it be denied that his
oblation is devoid of entertainment, fiowever small may be
the addition which it is calculated to make to our knowledge
of things human and divine. The author not unfrequent-
ly invents the symbol as well as the explanation, and of
course finds but little difficulty in making the one corre¬
spond with the other. He also takes metaphorical lan¬
guage adpedem literce ; translates it into a visible image or
symbol, which he describes with infinite minuteness of
detail; and then proposes a resolution or explanation, from His
which he deduces a long series of consequences, some of w
them ingeniously puerile or elaborately ludicrous. Nor,
in his interpretation of symbols actually employed in hie-
roglyphical legends and inscriptions is he less imaginative
or less entertaining. If right in the first instance, as, for
example, in regard to the figure of the lion, he generally
contrives to be absurd in the second; he introduces com¬
binations which were never before imagined, and stum¬
bles upon explanations which set sense and gravity equal¬
ly at defiance. He tells us truly that a lion is the natu¬
ral symbol of strength or force ; but nobody could conjec¬
ture or divine from this that the representation of a lion
devouring an ape means, according to Pierius, a remedy
for fever. “ Ego sane disciplinas yEgyptiorum in hujus¬
modi re secutus, compertum esse inquam, leonem f'ebri
correptum, vel si ad furorem usque exaestuet, unius pas-
tione simice liberari. Quapropter iEgyptii sacerdotes si
febricitantem hominem, et sibimet auxilia comparantem
significare vellent, leonis simiam vescentis hieroglyphi-
cum ponere soliti sunt; tanta enim indignatione simiam
fert leo, ut nullum animal avidius perdere desideret." (P. 8.)
The Egyptians, according to Clemens Alexandrinus, assi¬
milated the course of the sun to the body of a scaraboeus,
upon the same principle that they compared the oblique
course of the planetary stars to the bodies of serpents.
This statement is clear, and distinct, and intelligible; but
Pierius takes a different and much more curious view of
the matter, “ Cur enim quis dEgyptios sacerdotes irri-
deat,” he asks, “ quod mundi speciem ipsosque motus per
scarabceum significare tradiderint, si pilulas illas in quibus
seminium ex sese primum habuerint, ac in vermiculos pri-
mum, mox in certam effigiem conformati fuerint, ad mun¬
di ipsius imaginem et rationem fieri compertum est? Sca-
rabceus enim certo anni tempore bubulum excrementum
nactus, materiam earn sibi suscipit elaborandam, quod
primo statim Pacis suae versu mordet Aristophanes, a/g’
a/^s [j,a?av u; rayjera -/.avOaty. Quo loco mazam Poeta
pro excremento posuit utcunque primum ex ea pilulas
conficit, ut jam mundi ipsius formam imitatur, mox eas ab
exortu occasum versus posticis impellens pedibus, non in-
termissa ratione protrudit, ipse interim aversus ortum
spectat, quasi de industria id det operam, ut cceli ipsius ex¬
emplar intuendo, imaginem ejus exprimere conetur." (P. 60.)
This and the preceding example will serve as well as a
thousand to give the reader an idea of the “ great work
on Hieroglyphics” spoken of by Mr Roscoe ; a work in
which all sorts of animals, and parts of animals, vegetables,
implements, utensils, weapons, and other objects, artificial
as well as natural, are symbolised, sometimes individually,
sometimes in arbitrary or grotesque combinations, and in
which, from beginning to end, it is impossible to discover
the slightest approach towards a rational and sound me¬
thod of inquiry.1
Alter an interval of about a century, Pierius was suc¬
ceeded by Kircher, who, instead of confining himself to
the interpretation of detached symbols, boldly attacked
the Egyptian monuments themselves; and, by a strange
intermixture of cabbalistical science with the extravagant
fancies of a refined system of demonism, attempted to ex¬
pound the inscriptions with which they are covered. His
first published work was his Obeliscus Pamphilius, which
appeared at Rome in the year 1650 ; but the magnum opus
in which his whole system is most elaborately detailed,
we cannot say explained, is the (Edipus xEgyptiacus,
wi • u tL hT ^ ’th t t ;.c ^ook 13 amusing, on account of the perverse ingenuity it displays, and the never-failing facility with
W fl nf and exPounds hls symbols. For instance, a single crane, according to him, means custodia,
i bl^ds slgmfies democratia, though on what analogy, real or imaginary, we are not informed. From this in-
^ t vimei iHr,dedUCf f T7 sensibl? etymology: “ Sane quidem apud nostros consensus unioque partium in eandem
sentei turn aut lem, Latino vocabulo formam ab ipsis gnubus videtur accepisse, ut imje congrtjere pro convenire dicamus.” (P. 128.)
HIEROGLYPHICS.
301
vel Theatrum Hieroglyphicum, Rome, 1654, in four vols.
j folio; a work of profound research, infinite learning, and
unequalled absurdity. In the (Edipus JEgyptiacus, Kir-
cher professes to give a new and hitherto unattempted
interpretation of the obelisks and other hieroglyphical
monuments extant, whether in Egypt, at Rome, or in
the more celebrated museums ; and we shall immediate¬
ly submit to the reader a specimen or two illustrative of
the mode in which he has accomplished the task under¬
taken by him. A further exemplification of his system,
in all its mystical extravagance, will be found in the
Obelisci JEgyptiaci nuper inter Isaei Romani rudera effossi
Interpretation which appeared two years after the publi¬
cation of the (Edipus JEgyptiacus. These six folio vo¬
lumes contain some tolerably faithful, though inelegant,
representations of the principal monuments of Egyptian
art, which had been brought to Europe before the time of
the indefatigable Jesuit; and, as his system of interpreta¬
tion succeeded equally well whether he chanced to begin
at the beginning, the middle, or the end of an inscription,
he has never, in any instance, failed to subjoin an exposition
of what he conceived or imagined to be the import of the
characters or legends represented.
According to Kircher, the obelisks, the mummies, and
the amulets, all contain mysterious doctrines in religion
or metaphysics; and these he proceeds to unfold with as
much confidence as if he had been the mystagogus of an¬
cient Egypt, and had inherited all the esoteric learning for
which the priests of that country were so much celebrated.
No difficulty or obscurity ever for a moment impedes the
progress of Kircher; his system enables him to penetrate
at a glance the most recondite mysteries. Thus, in the
oval, cartouche, or ring, on the Pamphilian obelisk, which
contains the title AOTKPTP, Avraxgarag, Emperor, ex¬
pressed in phonetic characters, the learned Jesuit dis¬
covers the following luminous oracle : “ The author of
fecundity, and of all vegetation, is Osiris, wdiose genera¬
tive faculty is derived from heaven in his kingdom by the
holy Mophta.”1 In like manner, the cartouche or ring of
the same obelisk, which contains, in phonetic characters,
the words KH2P2 TMTIAN2 2B2T2, Ka/tfag Ao/i/r/avog
lejSaerog, Caesar Domitianus Augustus, signifies, according
to Kircher, “ Generationis beneficus presses, ccelesti do-
minio quadripotens, aerem per Mophta beneficum humo-
rem aereum committit Ammoni inferiora potentissimo, qui
per simulacrum et ceerimonias appropriatas, trahitur ad History,
potentiam exerendam.”2 3 4 Out of a proper name, written
phonetically, the laborious and imaginative Jesuit elabo¬
rates all this untranslateable and unintelligible gibberish.
Again, in his (Edipus JEgyptiacus, when treating De Si-
mulacris JEgyptiorum portatilibus, Kircher translates the
serpent, which is a homophone of the letter D, vitalis ;
the three upright lines representing the numeral three,
trium elementarium mundorum ; the broken line, which
represents N, humor; the extended arm, D or T, bene-
jicus; the ibis, A, Mercurium, qui; the vase and the
chain, NET, in aquam Niloticam, ope catenae numinum
aquaticorum ; the plough, denominated by him hieralpha,
and a phonetic homophone of M, Agaihodaemon humorem
naturae deducit; lastly, the sceptre and the bee, the ab¬
breviated Egyptian expression of SOUTEN, director or
governor J signify, according to Kircher, Ubi polymorphus
Daemon singulis distribute sua portione, hide necessariarum
rerum abundantiam confertJ These examples will, we
conceive, suffice to show that the learned Jesuit had con¬
sulted his imagination alone in devising interpretations so
absurd and unintelligible ; that all his labour and research
Avere expended in vain ; and that, so far from contributing
in any degree to elucidate the Egyptian inscriptions, he
was eminently successful in thickening the darkness in
which they were involved.
But extravagant and nonsensical as all this may appear,
and no doubt is, Kircher was nevertheless the founder of a
school. The recipient power of human credulity has no
limits when vanity or self-love is once conciliated ; and, as
it is at all times much easier to imagine than to examine, in¬
vestigate, or analyse, the admirers and disciples of the learn¬
ed Jesuit failed not, in some instances, to improve upon the
absurdities of their master. To men who had no light to
guide them, and no footing upon which to take their stand,
his mystical jargon appeared a sort of oracular language,
which, though nothing could be made of it, was believed to
contain every thing. From the operation of the principle,
omne ignotum pro magnifico, his day-dreams became a sort
of transcendentalism in Egyptian archaeology; and there
were not a few who devoutly believed that Kircher had
found out every thing contained, or rather concealed, in
the Egyptian inscriptions, if it were only possible to dis¬
cover his discoveries.5 But the strange fancies and cab-
balistical reveries which excited the stupid wonder of in-
1 Obeliscus Pamphilius, p. 557*
s Oldiscus Pamphilius, p. 559. In regard to the Pamphilian obelisk, Kircher has been doubly unfortunate. It is not genuine. Of .
the obelisk^ still in existence there are perhaps about thirty, larger and smaller, which may be considered as genuine. Several others
are decidedly spurious, having been chietiy sculptured at Home in imitation of the Egyptian style, but so negligently and unskilfully
as to exhibit a striking difference even in the character of the workmanship. Such are the Pamphilian, in explanation of which Kir¬
cher published the folio volume before us, consisting of near six hundred pages, and also the Barberinian or \ eranian obelisk. In
both of these the symbols are put together in a manner wholly arbitrary ; and when an attempt is made to imitate the appearance ot
a name, the characters are completely different at each repetition. Another very celebrated monument, the Isiac table, which Kir¬
cher also undertook to explain and illustrate, is equally incapable of supporting a minute investigation conducted on solid principles.
For the inscriptions neither bear any relation to the figures near which they are placed, nor form any. connected sense of their own;
and the whole is undoubtedly the work of a lioman sculptor, imitating only the general style and the separate delineations of the
Egyptian tablets, as indeed some of the most learned and acute of our antiquaries had already asserted, notwithstanding the contrary
opinion of several foreigners of the highest reputation for their intimate acquaintance with the works of Greek and Homan art.
(Young on Hieroglyphical Literature, pp. 27, 28.)
3 Rossellini, / Monumenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia, tom. i. partg prima, p. 114.
4 (Edipus JEgyptiacus, tom. iv. Synt. xvii. cap. 2, p. 494. _ .
* So late as the year 1821, there issued from the archiepiscopal press of Genoa a new translation of the hieroglypnics of the Pam¬
philian obelisk, a monument which (as we have already shown) is decidedly spurious, but which, according to the Italian CEdipus of
symbols, “ preserves the remembrance of the triumph over the ungodly, obtained by the worshippers of the thrice Holy irinity, and
of the Eternal Word, under the sway of the sixth and seventh kings of Egypt, in the sixth century after the Delugethat is, at a
period when neither the “ thrice Holy Trinity,” nor the “ Eternal Word,” had as yet been revealed to mankind. From the same in¬
comparable authority we learn, to the utter confusion of our chronology, that one of these pious monarchs was no other than Sesac or
Sheshak, who, according to the Old Testament, pillaged Jerusalem, carrying off as lawful spoil the treasures of the temple and of the
house of David. Pierius and Kircher, with all their fanciful extravagance, were men of real learning, scholars in the best sense
of the term; and though they failed to interpret the hieroglyphics, they were careful not to outrage history and chronology, which, in
fact, it was one of their great objects to illustrate and confirm. But this translator of an untransuiteable monument seems either to
have written his book in a calenture of the brain* or to have published it as an experiment (clumsy enough* in all conscience) upon
the credulity of mankind.
302
HIEROGLYPHICS.
History, ferior minds, failed to impose upon the strong sense and
the powerful intellect of Bishop Warburton. In his justly
celebrated work, The Divine Legation of Moses demon¬
strated, that learned prelate discussed, with consummate
scholarship, the different ancient texts relating to the me¬
thods of writing practised amongst the Egyptians ; distin¬
guished theoretically the several sorts of characters em¬
ployed by them ; and deduced, from his inquiries, the im¬
portant observation, now completely verified, that the sa¬
cred characters, or hieroglyphics, were not so denominat¬
ed, as being exclusively appropriated to sacred subjects, but
that, as stated at the commencement of this treatise, they
constituted a real written language, applicable to the pur¬
poses of history and common life, as well as to those of re¬
ligion and mythology. He was no doubt so far mistaken
in supposing that each of the three kinds of characters
constituted a distinct and independent system of writing.
But as he confined himself entirely to such inferences as
seemed logically deducible from the ancient authorities
examined and discussed by him, without attempting to
verify or correct his conclusions by a direct application to
the Egyptian monuments, his misconception in this par¬
ticular was perhaps unavoidable, and ought in no degree
to lessen our admiration of that sagacity which led him
to divine a truth which had never been suspected by any
one before him, and which the subsequent progress of
discovery completely demonstrated. If the profound re¬
mark of this learned prelate had been duly appreciated,
and prosecuted to its consequences, the qucestio vexata
of Egyptian hieroglyphics would probably have been,
in part at least, resolved half a century earlier. But
succeeding writers, haunted by the spirit of Kircher,
dreamed only of symbols ; the existence of phonetic signs,
or an alphabet, was never suspected by any one except
Zoega, who, unconscious of the value of his own ingenious
conjecture, abandoned it as soon as produced;1 it seemed,
in fact, to be tacitly agreed that letters were unknown in
the country where they are commonly supposed to have
been first invented ; and though hypotheses were multi¬
plied, the study was not in consequence advanced. Like
a temple hall buried in the sand drifted from the desert
during a long series of ages, Egyptian literature power¬
fully attracted the attention and excited the interest of
those who stopped to gaze on its mystic form and magnifi¬
cent proportions; but the entrance to the sacred edifice
had not yet been discovered and cleared out, consequent¬
ly the interior remained wholly unknown. The supersti¬
tion of antiquarianism still hovered round it, and the mys¬
tery of ages, in itself an object of strong interest to many,
remained inviolate. But the day of the shovel and the
spade was nevertheless fast approaching.
Amongst the first contributions to the study of hiero¬
glyphics in this country, may be mentioned two Essays
by Mr Alexander Gordon, a draughtsman and antiquary of
considerable eminence; the one having for its object to
explain the hieroglyphical figures upon the coffin of an an¬
cient mummy belonging to a Captain Lethieullier, and
the other, in like manner, to expound the hieroglyphical
figures upon an Egyptian mummy in the museum of Dr
Mead. Ihese Essays are accompanied with twenty-five
copperplates, in which, besides the different views of the
soroi or mummy cases, are delineated with tolerable fide-
lity the apices of several obelisks, some Egyptian antiqui¬
ties in the Ashmolean Museum, groups copied from mo¬
numents in other collections, amulets, figures of Isis and
Canopus, wooden images of the dead (‘xagaduy/xara vsxguv His
t'u'kiva), urns, and other ancient remains ; to which is added, ^
a table of the characters found on the Egyptian monuments
then in Britain, and amounting to 248 in number. The
plates, however, were published before the text with which
they are now accompanied; and, in fact, the Essays are only
designed to explain three out of the twenty-five, namely,
those in which are represented the figures on the mum¬
my-cases. Of the remainder an explanation is also pro¬
mised, but it does not appear that the author ever fulfill¬
ed his intention. Mr Gordon’s text is principally de¬
scriptive and critical ; and he displays equal learning and
good sense in his observations on the ancient authori¬
ties. But, like his predecessors, he thinks of nothing but
symbols, and, in no instance, makes even the slightest ap¬
proach towards the interpretation of a single character or
group which the ancient writers have not explained. The
concluding paragraph of the Essay on Lethieullier’s mum¬
my will be sufficient to convey to our readers an idea of
the whole, as well as to confirm the truth of the observa¬
tion, that our author was as far from the right course as
anj? of those who had preceded him. “ The whole, then,
on this mummy,” says he, “ seem chiefly to be so many
physical symbols, representing the different powers or pro¬
perties of their chief deity Osiris or the Sun, as acting in
and upon the different parts of nature ; and what is on the
back of the mummy, a combined figure of both Osiris and
Isis, symbolising universal nature. And what is curious
on this mummy, are the flagellum of Osiris, and the falx
messoria of Isis, exhibited near their mutual figures, being
the characteristical marks or rather trophies of their mu¬
tual inventions, namely, of the use of grain and agricul¬
ture ; the one instrument for reaping, the other for thresh¬
ing the corn ; inventions for which, among many others,
they were deified; inventions to which the world owes
the first bringing of mankind into society; inventions from
whence religion, arts, learning, and whatever else is va¬
luable among mankind, owe their origin.”2 The view
here referred to is not given in the plates; but we can
have little doubt that a lituus has been mistaken fora falx
messoria, and a shakal-headed sceptre for a flagellum.
The idea that the sacred characters might constitute a
written language seems never to have entered the mind
of this learned and intelligent antiquary.
We come now to consider one of the boldest and most
original attempts ever made to penetrate the inscriptions
on the Egyptian monuments, and the honour of. which is
due to M. de Guignes, the celebrated French orientalist.
The Abbe Barthelemy having read to the Academy of
Belles Lettres a memoir on the Phoenician Letters, M. de
Guignes, in examining it, happened to cast his eyes on
a dictionary in which the ancient Chinese characters were
represented, and observing a striking conformity between
these and the letters in question, he at once recollected
the opinion expressed by Huet, the celebrated bishop of
Avranches, as to the common origin of the Chinese and
Egyptians, and resolved to investigate the subject, not as
a curious speculation, but with a view to determine the
truth. The results of this investigation he communicated
to the Academy of Belles Lettres, on the 14th of Novem¬
ber 1758, and published the year following under the title
of Memoire dans lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont une
Colonie Egyptienne. In this memoir, M. de Guignes un¬
dertakes, not to explain the monuments of the Egyptians,
but to propose some reflections on their system of writ-
(See his great work, De Origine
. ,r ^ed satis est exemplorum classis aenigmaticae, superest quinta classes notarum Phoneticarum.'
et Usu Obehscorum, p. 454. Itome, 1797, in folio.)
LetMeuSer^bv Alexandpr^nr.fm!11^ Figures on the Coffin of the Ancient Mummy belonging to Captain William
exnlainintr the Ancient Uiern l Vk i London, 1737, in folio. To which is subjoined, by the same author, An Essay'towards
Majesty, same date. ^ ^ lca 1£ures 011 l^e Egyptian Mummy in the Museum of Dr Mead, Physician in ordinary to his
HIEROGLYPHICS.
303
in"-, to examine its progress, to compare it with that of
' the Chinese, and to show that both nations had originally
the same hieroglyphs. With the assistance of the Chinese
characters he attempts to penetrate those of the Egyptians,
to develope their composition, and to establish their re¬
lation to or identity with the Chinese hieroglyphics ; he
also explains several Egyptian characters ; and, lastly, he
compares the language and the hieroglyphics of Egypt
and of China with the languages and methods of writing
which obtained amongst the Hebrews, the Arabians, the
Syrians, and other nations of the East. We shall endea¬
vour to state as briefly as possible an outline of the inves¬
tigation which we have thus generally described.1
The hieroglyphical writing of the Egyptians and that of
the Chinese are equally composed of different figures re¬
presenting men, parts of the human body, animals, plants,
vases, instruments, celestial bodies, and so on. But the
Chinese writing, though composed of the same elements
with the Egyptian, is a kind of cursive writing, in which
all these figures are represented in the merest outline,
without distinguishing the parts which ought to be strong¬
ly brought out from those which ought to be less so; that
is, all the lines have the same force. In this consists the
chief difference between these two kinds of writing; for if
the Chinese were finished off like the Egyptian hierogly¬
phics, their identity, says M. de Guignes, would at once be
perceived. He further observes, that the Chinese group
and place beside one another several simple characters,
which form together a single compound character express¬
ing a word or an idea ; and that the same singular proceed¬
ing is found to have obtained in the Egyptian writing.
From the relations which have only for their object the
exterior form of the characters, he then passes to the com¬
position of these characters, that is, to the different parts
of which the group is formed ; and then proceeds to con¬
sider the question, whether those of the Egyptian hiero¬
glyphics of which Horus Apollo has preserved the signifi¬
cation, are composed of the same ideas or the same ele¬
ments with those of the Chinese. On the result of the
examination of this question depends the relation which
our author proposes to establish between China and Egypt.
The Chinese possess two hundred and fourteen elemen¬
tary characters, which the grammarians have called keys ;
and these keys are either employed alone, as characters
serving to express an idea, or variously combined one
with another, in which case they are only considered as
parts of the same character or group. Each of these parts
is the representation of an idea which, united to two or three
others, produces a word, or another idea resulting from
the combination of these simple elements; that is, they
form together a species of phrase which is “ comme la
definition d’une idee plus composee.” For example, the
Chinese character which expresses night is formed of
three of these keys,—of one which signifies obscurity, of
another which signifies the action of covering, and of a
third which indicates man; so that the phrase obscurity
covering men is the Chinese equivalent of the word night,
to which it exactly corresponds. In like manner, the
character which signifies music is composed of three parts
or keys, one representing wood, another a thread or cord
of silk, and a third sound; because the first instruments of
music were made of wood, or boards, upon which were ex- History-
tended silken cords. This phrase, therefore, when render-
ed literally', signifies sound produced by threads or cords of
silk extended on wood. Hence it may be concluded that these
two hundred and fourteen keys are the representatives of
as many simple and primitive ideas, which, by means of
different combinations, were employed to express new
ideas, in proportion as accident or necessity led to their
formation. But, according to M. de Guignes, the same
observations apply equally to the Egyptian hieroglyphics,
in which may be found simple characters corresponding
to the keys of the Chinese, and also groups or compound
characters. The number of the former is not considera¬
ble, being nearly the same as that of the Chinese keys,
and represented by the same figures, having the same
signification. If, then, with all these points of resem¬
blance, the Egyptian groups are composed of the same
ideas or the same elements, it may be concluded that these
two nations had at one time the same system of writing
and the same words; and that the Chinese characters,
especially when resolved into their elements, may assist
in enabling us to interpret those of the Egyptians.2
But in order to avoid every kind of conjecture, M. de
Guignes avails himself of the information communicated
by Horus Apollo, who has preserved the analysis and in¬
terpretation of several Egyptian hieroglyphs, and pro¬
poses to show that the Chinese characters, being compos¬
ed of the same elements as those of the Egyptians, have
also the same signification. According to Horus Apollo,
the Sun and the Moon grouped together form an Egyp¬
tian character, signifying the succession of time, or \Xwt first
principle. In Chinese, the same elements, the Sun and
the Moon, have exactly the same signification, and mean
the succession of time, revolutions, the principle of all things.
In Egypt, a horizontal line crossed by a perpendicular
line expressed the number ten. It is not a little remark¬
able that the Chinese employed the same character in the
same sense. “ Un caractere de cette espece ne tient point
a ces idees generales qui tombent dans 1’esprit de tous les
hommes.” In Egypt, the cynocephalus symbolically indi¬
cated sadness; in China, the same figure, accompanied with
the character for voice, signifies the same thing. To desig¬
nate education, and an ancient origin, the Egyptians carv¬
ed or painted a bundle of reeds. This symbol is founded
on ideas so singular that remote nations could scarcely
imagine it, much less agree as to its signification. Tet
the Chinese employ a bundle of reeds in the same sense
as the Egyptians, and, by using characters of this kind,
show that, originally, they had communication with that
people. Lastly, the Egyptians expressed science by the
dew which falls from heaven. This metaphor exists in
Chinese, and the character which signifies science, or a
learned man, is composed of three elements or keys, one
of which designates the rain or the dew, the other heaven,
and the third man; a phrase which can only signify the
man on whom descends the dew of heaven. In IDcuteiono-
my we have the entire formula of this hieroglyph. Con-
crescat ut pluvia doctrina mea, fluat ut ros elotjuium meum,
quasi imber super herbam et quasi stillcc super gramina.
The Egyptians compared science to the dew which falls
upon plants and causes them to fructify; and the same
1 Lettre de Pekin, sur le Genie de la Eangue Chinoise, et la Nature de leur Eeriture Synibolique, compartfe avee celle des An-
ciens Egyptiens, par un fere de la Campagnie de Jesus, Brussels, 1772- Journal des Savans for the same year. Lettre sur les Ca-
racteres Chinois, par le Reverend Pere * * * *, de la Compagnie de Jesus, Brussels, 1773- This letter, however, is dated at Pekin,
the 20th of October 1764.
2 A singular circumstance has recently transpired. Signor Rossellini, the associate of M. Champollion in the Egyptian expedition,
and author of the learned work entitled Monumenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia, already quoted, is in possession of a sort of smelling-
bottle, evidently of Chinese porcelain, and covered with characters to all appearance Chinese. This curious relic was found by Ros¬
sellini himself in a tomb, which, as far as could be ascertained, had not been opened since the days of the Pharaohs. {Quarterly Re¬
view, vol. liii. p. 130.)
HIEROGLYPHICS.
304
History, imagery was employed by the Hebrews, who had lived
' long in Egypt, and also by the Arabians and Syrians, the
neighbours of the Egyptians, and whose language natu¬
rally exhibited traces of their communication with that
people.1
From these hieroglyphics, the import of which we learn
from Horus Apollo, M. de Guignes, after showing that the
Chinese have characters composed of the same elements,
and bearing the same signification, concludes that those
found on the monuments, having exactly the same figure
and the same elements as the Chinese, must likewise have
the same signification, and consequently that the hierogly¬
phics of Egypt may be interpreted by means of dictiona¬
ries of the ancient Chinese characters. Nor did he stop
even here. Although these hieroglyphics may be explain¬
ed without knowing the sound or pronunciation which the
Egyptians assigned them, as happens in Chinese where the
pronunciation of a character has been lost or forgotten ; yet
he believed it possible to recover even the sound of the hie¬
roglyphics, that is, the spoken language of the Egyptians.
But into this part of the subject it would be foreign to our
present purpose to enter in detail. It may be sufficient to
state, that De Guignes considered all the elements of the
Egyptian and Chinese hieroglyphics as so many alphabe¬
tical letters, simple or syllabic, “ faisant repondre a une
seule lettre les hieroglyphes les plus simples, et a une ou
a deux syllabes ceux qui sont plus composesthat the
Chinese keys, though hieroglyphics, are at the same time
letters or syllables, the combination of which forms the
most composite terms that are found in all the oriental
languages with the same signification ; that the fixation of
these keys to a certain letter or syllable is invariable in all
circumstances ; that the oriental letters are significative,
and originated in hieroglyphics, most probably the same
with those of the Egyptians ; that this numerous alphabet,
composed of about two hundred and fourteen figures, is
identical with that which the Egyptians called hierogram-
matic or sacerdotal writing, into which a greater or smaller
number of hieroglyphic characters were inserted ; and that
the latter, whether kuriological or symbolical, were employ¬
ed in their natural or metaphorical sense, as the case might
be, the symbolic hieroglyphics being less a particular kind
of writing than a symbolic style or figurative mode of ex¬
pression.
Such is a rapid sketch of the highly ingenious and refined
speculation of M. de Guignes. It was successively attacked
by Pauw and Deshauterayes ;2 but neither of these writers
seems to have perceived the real fallacy upon which the
whole of this beautiful fabric is reared. The assumed iden¬
tity between the Chinese elementary characters or keys,
and the Egyptian hieroglyphics, is entirely imaginary ; as is
also the principle of combination, upon the Chinese system, Hist
extended to the latter. Nothing of this sort has as yet ^
been discovered on any Egyptian monument. Compound
ideas are expressed in the monumental writing by juxta¬
position alone ; nor is there the slightest evidence to show
that the Egyptians had characters representative of the
syllabic elements of words, or the constituent parts of ideas.
It may be true, therefore, that a certain conformity is dis¬
coverable between Egyptian and Chinese customs or doc¬
trines, and it may even be admitted that both nations had
a common origin; but neither of these points can ever be
considered as established by reasoning based on an erro¬
neous assumption, nor can the identity of their language
and history, opposed as it is by so many circumstances,
physical, political, civil, and religious, be deduced from a
few specious and plausible coincidences, such as ingenuity
may easily discover between any two nations of the earth,
however widely separated by time, place, and every dis¬
tinctive chai-acteristic or peculiarity. In a word, to use the
language of an able writer, “ on ne doit aujourd’hui regar-
der ce systeme que comme le reve d’un homme d’esprit,
qui est seduit par une idee plus brillante que solide.”3
“ Among the works of modern authors who have employ¬
ed themselves in the study of hieroglyphics,” says Dr
Young, “ it is difficult to say whether those were the more
discouraging which, like the productions of Father Kircher
and the Chevalier Palin, professed to contain explanations
of every thing, or which, like the ponderous volume of Zoega
On the Obelisks, confessed, after collecting all that was
really on record, that the sum and substance of the whole
amounted to nothing.”4 This was no doubt disheartening
enough ; and what added to the discouragement was, that
between these extremes there existed no middle term. But
the candid and honest avowal of the learned Dane ought
not to deprive him of the merit which is justly due to him
for the important services he has rendered to the cause of
Egyptian literature. His great work,5 if it contains no
discoveries, is at least valuable as a repository of authori¬
ties and facts, and presents, in an accessible form, a mass
of knowledge, which, as it cost the labour of a life to col¬
lect and arrange it, is greatly calculated to facilitate the
inquiries and investigations of all who devote themselves
to the study of Egyptian archaeology. It is divided into
five parts, which are again subdivided each into chapters
and sections. The first part exhibits the testimonies of the
ancients respecting the obelisks and <srrfKcu of the Egyp¬
tians ; the second contains an enumeration and descrip¬
tion of Egyptian obelisks, including such as have experien¬
ced fractures and other injuries, as well as those which still
remain entire; the third treats of the uses of the obelisks,
or the purposes for which they were erected, and records
1 Mr Needham, an Englishman who, in the year 1761, had visited Turin, and examined the Egyptian antiquities in the cabinet of
his majesty the king of Sardinia, appears to have come to nearly the same conclusions with M. de Guignes ; though, as his claim was
only put forward three years after the ingenious speculations of the Frenchman had been published, we have no means of determining
the question of priority, unless we hold the Ixttre sur les Caracteres Chinois as a decisive authority, which we are by no means inclined
to do. Having observed that the symbols, or hieroglyphic characters, on the Isis of Turin, were similar to several Chinese charac¬
ters found in the Dictionary entitled Tching-tsee-Tong, Mr Needham conjectured, That the Chinese characters might, in several
respects, be identical with the hieroglyphics of Egypt; and, 2dly, That the sense of the hieroglyphics might be discovered by compar-
ing with them the appropriate signification of the Chinese characters. “ Les nouvelles observations de Mr Needham,” says the author
of the Lettre above referred to, u font esperer quelque chose de plus heureux pour la gloire de notre siecle : il a compare les carac¬
teres Chinois avec les hieroglyphes d’Egypte, il y a trouve une ressemblance, du moins une analogic, qui lui fait croire qu’on pourra
enfin savoir le secret des mysteres de Memphis, et rompre la barriere de tenebres qui nous empeche de faire remonter nos connois-
sancesj usqu’au temps les plus voisins du Deluge.” The author adds, “ Quelle conquete pour la republiques des lettres, si elle a jamais
lieu." The conquest would, no doubt, have been great, if it had ever been made; and we know no other obstacle to its accomplish¬
ment except that the thing proposed is manifestly impossible. From all that we have been able to learn on this subject, it appears
that the road to Memphis does not pass by Pekin.
2 Deshauterayes, Doutes sur la Dissertation de M. de Guignes, qui a pour le titre, Memoire dans lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont
un colonie Egyptienne, proposees d MM. de VAcademic des Belles-Lettres, Paris, 1759, in l2mo. See also De Guignes, Rtponse aux
Doutes proposees par M. Deshauterayes, Paris, 1759, in 12mo.
3 Biographic Universelle, art. Guignes, Joseph de. * Young, Discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature, p. 2.
^ Oe Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, ad Pium Sextum Pontificem Maximum, auctore Georgio Zoega Dano. Rome, 1797, in large
HIEROGLYPHICS.
305
the different opinions which have been promulgated on this
J subject by Kircher, Goguet, the members of the Academy
of Inscriptions, Bruce, and many others, including Jablon-
ski, Mercatus, Bergaeus, and others ; the fourth is devoted
to the consideration of the origin of these monuments, and,
in particular, embraces the author’s views, or rather collec¬
tions, respecting the origin and use of letters amongst the
Egyptians; the fifth and last treats of the history of the
obelisks, and of their various epochs. As a digest of all the
learning and information on the subject which existed at
the time of its publication, this work is therefore of the
highest importance; and its value is greatly enhanced by
the beautiful and accurate engravings with which it is ac¬
companied. Zoega has indeed left little to be gleaned in
the field which he undertook to reap; he has gathered in¬
to one great storehouse, for the use of those who may suc¬
ceed him, a vast body of knowledge which previously lay
scattered over an immense surface, or concealed in nooks
and corners; and he has so arranged and methodized his
collection as to render its materials easily accessible to
every inquirer. Nor have the discoveries latterly made in
Egyptian literature superseded or antiquated the labours
of this indefatigable scholar. On the contrary, these have
acquired additional importance from the circumstance that,
whilst an entirely new direction has been given to learned
curiosity, the persons engaged in prosecuting those disco¬
veries have been spared the fatigue of much collateral re¬
search, and been placed in a much more favourable position
than they could possibly have occupied, if no such work as
this had been in their hands.
But whilst Zoega studied practical utility, or at least
sought to render knowledge more generally available, others
indulged only in speculation. But this now took a direc¬
tion somewhat different from that in which it had previous¬
ly flowed. The Abbe Pluche, for instance, in his account
of the symbolic writing of the ancient Egyptians, maintains
stoutly that the whole of it consists of emblems, expressive of
doctrines connected with the science of astronomy and the
division of time in the calendar; and his followers (for he
had not a few in this country, as well as on the Continent),
so far from being startled with the incoherence of his views
and the arbitrary violence of his explanations, came to the
conclusion that the innumerable inscriptions which cover
the Egyptian monuments are all referribletoa single science,
and in fact to one and the same order of ideas. With in¬
quirers of this class the only signs in favour were the signs
of the zodiac. In every legend, in every cartouche, they
discovered astronomical emblems expressive of astronomi¬
cal truths. According to their interpretations, indeed, the
whole business of life, in ancient Egypt, must have consist¬
ed in studying the heavens, and translating into obscure or
doubtful symbols the results of this continued celestial ob¬
servation. But the author of the work entitled De CEtude
des HieroglypheS) published at Paris in 1812, took a differ¬
ent, though not more irrational, view of the subject. Be¬
lieving it possible, by the aid of ancient traditions, and a
knowledge of the symbols and emblems employed by dif¬
ferent nations, to arrive at some general principle which
might serve as a key to the Egyptian inscriptions, he form¬
ed a collection of what he calls les symboles des peuples, or
popular symbols of Africa, Asia, and America ; and hav¬
ing applied it to the interpretation of the hieroglyphics of
Egypt, he had the singular happiness to discover, on the
portico of the great temple at Denderah, not a dedication
to Isis, but a translation of the hundredth psalm of Da¬
vid; one of the last compositions, certainly, which we
should have expected to find in such a place. Nor is this
the only discovery of the kind which we have to record.
The anonymous author of the Essai sur les Hieroglyphes History.
Egyptiens, not content with supposing that the hierogly-
phics express emblematically a series of ideas analogous to
those which are found in the Bible, maintains that they
are neither more nor less than simple letters, and that, con¬
sidered as such, they express words in the Hebrew lan¬
guage. But, as the number of distinct characters upon the
monuments falls little short of a thousand, he has not ex¬
plained how the Egyptians happened to have so copious
an alphabet, exceeding the Chinese elementary characters
or keys in the proportion of three to one; how this alpha¬
bet applied to Hebrew, a language, all the words of which
consist of various combinations of twenty-two elementary
sounds ; and how the Egyptians came to inscribe their mo¬
numents with a foreign language which they never spoke,
and most probably did not understand.
Theorists discover no difficulties, or, if they do so, disre¬
gard and overleap them. We have already seen thatKirch-
er’s method of interpretation succeeded equally well, whether
he happened to begin at the beginning or at the end of an
inscription; and the same thing might no doubt be predi¬
cated of that method which proceeds on the assumption that
all the hieroglyphics are letters expressive of words in the
Hebrew language. But the sagacity of this class of inter¬
preters has in some cases conducted them to very oppo¬
site results. The Chevalier Palin, for instance, beginning
by way of variety in the middle of the inscriptions, disco¬
vered that Hebrew translations of many of the Egyptian
rolls of consecrated papyrus are to be found in the Bible
under the name of the Psalms of David. The author of
the Essay above mentioned, and the ingenious chevalier,
therefore, though proceeding on nearly the same princi¬
ples, have arrived at very different results. According to
the one, the hieroglyphics are letters, and the language of
the Egyptian inscriptions is Hebrew; according to the
other, the Psalms of David are, in part at least, composed
of translations from the consecrated rolls of papyrus inscrib¬
ed with pure Egyptian. The one makes the Egyptians
borrow every thing from the Hebrews; the other makes
the Hebrews borrow a great deal from the Egyptians. But,
whatever may be thought of the judgment of these anti¬
quaries, their opinions are not particularly discreditable to
their talents and ingenuity. For, having once allowed
themselves to set out with the notion that it w as possible
to determine the sense of the hieroglyphics by internal
evidence, the imperfections of their superstructures were
the unavoidable consequences of the unsubstantial nature of
the foundations on which they were raised.1
It is not a little mortifying to the pride of human skill
and learning, that the key which had long been sought fox-
in vain was at length in some measure discovered in con¬
sequence of the accidental disinterment of a single block
of stone, which for ages had lain under ground. It is
well known that the French expedition to Egypt was accom¬
panied by a commission of the National Institute, most li¬
berally provided by the government of the day with the re¬
quisite means for investigating all that related to science
or to literature in that wonderful country. In the pro¬
ceedings of this body the general-in-chief, Napoleon, took
the greatest interest; he seemed to consider his glory as
not less concerned in the illustration than in the conquest
of Egypt; and, amidst all the cares and distractions of his
situation, he w as unremitting in his endeavours to promote
the objects for which the commission had been appointed.
The labours of this body were at length made public, with
all the elegance which the arts of printing and engraving
could communicate; and the splendid work entitled De¬
scription de VEgypte w ill be an enduring monument of re-
2q
VOL. XI.
i Young, Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphicul Literature^ p. 3.
306
HIEROGLYPHICS.
History, publican liberality and imperial magnificence. But al-
though much was thus effected in elucidation of the histo¬
ry, antiquities, religion, institutions, and arts of ancient
Egypt, not a single ray of new light was shed on the lan¬
guage and letters, the hieroglyphics and papyri, of that sin¬
gular country ; and the principal benefit which the learned
of Europe derived from the publication of this national
work consisted in the multiplication of hieroglyphic texts,
engraved, for the most part, with equal beauty and accura¬
cy. These, however, were unavailing for the advancement
of Egyptian literature, as long as the true method of inter¬
preting them, either in whole or in part, remained un¬
known ; and it must have been felt by the French as not
a little humiliating to their vanity, that an accident, which
occurred in the course of their military labours, and of
which the fortune of war afterwards denied them the be¬
nefit, should have conduced more towards the elucidation
of the monumental inscriptions of Egypt than all the la¬
bour, research, and ingenuity which had for ages been ex¬
pended on them. Whilst a division of the French troops
occupied the town of Rosetta, a party of workmen, em¬
ployed in digging for the foundations of Fort St Julian, dis¬
covered and disinterred a huge block or pillar of black ba¬
salt, exhibiting the remains of three distinct inscriptions;
but the French being soon afterwards dislodged by the
British, were prevented from removing this monument,
which consequently fell into the hands of the conquerors,
and was subsequently brought to England, amongst other
trophies of the Egyptian campaign, and deposited in the
British Museum.1
A cursory inspection of the Rosetta inscription was suffi¬
cient to establish the truth of the opinion which had been
expressed by Warburton, that the hieroglyphics constitut¬
ed a real written language. Of the three inscriptions sculp¬
tured on its sides, a considerable part of the first was un¬
fortunately wanting ; the beginning of the second and the
end of the third were also mutilated ; but the last, written
in Greek, concluded with the important information that
the decree inscribed on the monument, in honour of Pto¬
lemy Epiphanes,2 * had been ordered to be engraved in
three different characters, namely, the sacred or hierogly¬
phic, the enchorial or letters of the country, and the Greek.
Here, then, was an authentic specimen of the hieroglyphic
characters, expressly accompanied by a Greek translation?
But before any use could be made of the Greek version,
it was obviously necessary that it should be carefully exa¬
mined, and, as far as possible, restored. With this view
the Society of Antiquaries caused a correct copy of the
triple inscription to be engraved and circulated, and Per¬
son and Heyne, the two best scholars of the age, employ¬
ed themselves in completing and illustrating the Greek
text; a task, in the performance of which the superior in¬
dustry and vigilance of the German gave him a decided
advantage over the more active and irregular genius of the
English Hellenist. But no data had as yet been obtained,
by means of which a comparison might be instituted be- Histi
tween the Greek which Heyne had restored, and the hiero-
glyphical or enchorial texts, of which not a single character
was known. There existed indeed a traditional record of
the true value of a particular character, denoting life, which
had been handed down by the ecclesiastical writers, and
had been generally received as accurate by scholars and
antiquaries ; but beyond this nothing whatever was known,
whilst the explanations given by Horus Apollo in his Hie-
roglyphica, were somewhat hastily set down as mere pue¬
rilities. In these circumstances, there remained but one
course to be adopted; namely, to adjust the inscriptions,
so that they might as nearly as possible coincide, and, from
the situations of the proper names in the Greek inscription,
to endeavour attentively to ascertain their corresponding
positions in one or both of the other inscriptions. By this
means, if characters merely phonetic entered into the com¬
position of the hieroglyphic and enchorial texts, the true
value of some of them would be ascertained; but if these
texts were found to consist chiefly of characters not pho¬
netic, it was at least probable that the proper names would
be written alphabetically, and that, even from the compa¬
rison of these, some important inferences might be dedu¬
ced. It was, therefore, a matter of indifference whether
the comparison was first made between the Greek and
hieroglyphic, or between the Greek and enchorial text;
but as a notion happened to prevail that the enchorial was
altogether phonetic, the first attempt was made upon that
part of the triple inscription.
The Baron Silvestre de Sacy, justly celebrated for his
eminent attainments both as a scholar and as an antiquary,
had the honour of taking the lead in this investigation.
Having examined the portions of the enchorial text corre¬
sponding, by their relative situations, to two passages of the
Greek inscription, in which occur the proper names Alex¬
ander and Alexandria, he soon recognised two well-de¬
fined groups of characters nearly resembling each other,
and which, he conjectured, were the enchorial representa¬
tives of these names. He also made out satisfactorily the
locus or position of the proper name Ptolemy ; but be¬
yond this he found it impossible to advance a single step,
and ultimately abandoned the pursuit as hopeless. M. de
Sacy, however, had not laboured in vain. He had, in some
degree, determined the positions of three proper names;
and, what was far more important, he had shown that the
investigation, wdiich he gave up in despair, was not so im¬
practicable as he had imagined. Mr Akerblad,4 * * accord¬
ingly, resumed the inquiry at the point where it had been
abandoned by his predecessor, and completely demonstrat¬
ed the truth of what M. de Sacy had done little more
than conjecture, namely, that the enchorial text contained
Greek proper names written in Egyptian characters. Con¬
tinuing his comparative readings, Mr Akerblad subsequent¬
ly attempted from them to construct an alphabet; but, ex¬
cepting in as far as regarded the proper names, whence he
1 Young, Discoveries in Hicroylyphical Literature, p. 5.
It hence appears that the hieroglvphieal method of writing continued to be understood and employed in the time of Ptolemy
V.'fnes’ Ihyt is, two centuries before Christ. At what time it ceased to be so has not been ascertained.
ie concluding words or the Greek, as restored by Porson, are these : [Ta Se rouro avayga^ai iU <rrn\nv ftiXave; a-jrEjsaa Xilov,
ffrnXcu lv hcu.ora) rav m xoei Aa/» U(pp. Thus translated by Heyne:
ld0. Sanris. Pt. Patriis. Pfr. Htto-ric • of cfofnovo in imrvonooi'io of nrinriS Pt
t  n   1*0 XV.CFI/VJ* l
roisrt iitiois, Kuiiy^u^uns, xcu iXXnvixoi; ypay.y.u.ai'i' xeu arnXu.i Iv IjeaaTa rani rs xat SEarE^aJv heat Thus translated by Heyne:
inci ere haec in duro (Porsonus vult nigro) lapide, Sacris, et Patriis, et Graecis litteris; et statuere in unoquoque et prioris et
secundi ordims templo.” u i r
* A diplomatic gentleman then resident at Paris, but afterwards the Swedish charge7 d’affaires at Rome. Having resolved into
r s component parts the group representing Alexander, and ascertained that other groups signified Ptolemy, Arsinoe, Berenice,
and other proper names occurring in the Greek part of the triple inscription, Mr Akerblad published the alphabet which ha had col-
c.u • °m •t7-eSe na1me1s’ containing about fifteen well ascertained characters. He then applied himself to decipher the remainder
16 in.scrif lon, w ie hastily took it for granted, consisted of Coptic words expressed in alphabetical characters; but in this
a empt he was completely unsuccessful. The greater part of the characters which he met with in the inscription were not such as
ia occurred in the proper names ; nor could he obtain a series of Coptic words by assigning to the new characters any powers that
jrAthink J°r aPPe.ars nevey to have suspected that the words of the inscription could be any other than Coptic,
1 ,,ia , .iefe wor s 0011 f be represented otherwise than phonetically. (See an excellent paper on the Enchorial Language of Egypt,
in the third number of the Dublin University Review, p. 4.) b j
HIEROGLYPHICS.
His y. deduced about fifteen characters, the attempt proved a
failure, partly because he had imbibed the notion that the
whole inscription was alphabetical, and partly, too, from
expecting to find in the Egyptian writing all the vowels
which the same words contain in the Coptic texts still ex¬
tant ; an error which a due consideration of the practice ob¬
served in the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Arabic, and other written
oriental languages might have enabled him to avoid. Mr
Akerblad contributed nothing towards the elucidation of
the first or hieroglyphic inscription on the Rosetta monu¬
ment, if we except a detached but acute observation re¬
specting the three numerals at the end; and it is even al¬
leged that he was disposed to acquiesce in the correctness
of Palin’s interpretation, which proceeds upon the suppo¬
sition that parts of the first lines of the hieroglyphics still
remain on the pillar.1 Be this as it may, however, to M.
de Sacy and to Mr Akerblad, particularly tlie latter, belongs
the distinction of having made the first advances in the
right direction. The progress of discovery is for the most
part gradual, and it requires successive efforts to clear much
ground in a domain where there are no landmarks to guide
the explorer, and where, in puzzling his way through the
wrecks of ages, his ovrn natural sagacity is at every instant
liable to be bewildered by the fancies, errors, or exagge¬
rations of those who have preceded him. But if there be
any truth in the observation, ce riest que le premier pas qui
coute, the merit due to these distinguished individuals will
never cease to be fully acknowledged by the historians of
hieroglyphical discovery.
Matters were in this state when Dr Young commenced
his investigations. Little or nothing had as yet been done
to interpret the sacred characters, or hieroglyphics; but the
germ of all the succeeding discoveries may be said to have
been found, when the idea had once been suggested of fix¬
ing the positions of the proper names, and considering the
corresponding groups of figures as representing their con¬
stituent sounds. Having been induced, as he informs us,
to offer to the conductors of a periodical publication an ar¬
ticle containing an abstract of the Mithridates of Adelung,
a work then recently received from the Continent, his cu¬
riosity was forcibly excited by a note, in which the editor,
Professor Vater, asserted that the unknown language of the
Rosetta inscription, and of the bandages often found with
the mummies, was capable of being analysed into an alpha¬
bet consisting of little more than thirty letters ; but having
retained merely a general impression of this bold and strik¬
ing assertion, he thought no more of these inscriptions un¬
til early in 1814<, when they were recalled to his attention
by the examination of some fragments of papyrus which
had been recently brought to England by Sir W. R. Bough-
ton, and on which, after a hasty inspection of Mr Aker-
blad’s pamphlet, he communicated some anonymous re¬
marks to the Society of Antiquaries. His interest in the
subject being thus awakened and stimulated, he, in the
summer of the same year, applied his mind first to the en¬
chorial, and afterwards to the hieroglyphic inscription ; and,
by a methodical comparison of the different parts with each
other, he was able, in the course of a few months, to send
to the Archceologia a “ conjectural translation” of each of
these inscriptions, distinguishing the contents of the differ¬
ent lines with as much precision as his materials then ena¬
bled him to attain. He was obliged, however, to leave
many important passages still subject to doubt; but he
hoped to acquire additional information before attempting
to determine their signification ; and having fairly broken
ground, he flattered himself that he would soon be in a con-
307
dition to advance with facility and rapidity. In the mean- History,
while, he endeavoured to make himself familiar with the
Memphitic and Thebaic versions of the Scriptures. Aware,
from the researches of Quatremere, that the remains of the
ancient Egyptian language are preserved in these versions,
he hoped, with the aid of this knowledge, to read the en¬
chorial inscription, at least, into a kindred dialect; and al¬
though he felt himself gradually compelled to abandon this
expectation, he soon afterwards published anew, in the
Museum Criticum of Cambridge, his conjectural transla¬
tion, with considerable additions and corrections. Lastly, in
the article Egypt, printed in the fourth volume of the Sup¬
plement to the former editions of the present work, he digest¬
ed in a methodical form the results of his researches, and,
in particular, inserted a Vocabulary containing upwards of
two hundred names, words, or epithets, wdiich he had suc¬
ceeded in deciphering in the hieroglyphical and enchorial
texts, with some additions derived from his readings in the
Egyptian manuscripts. This article, forming altogether an
astonishing effort both of scholarship and ingenuity, was pub¬
lished in December 1819, and almost immediately attract¬
ed the attention of the learned throughout the whole of
Europe. With the exception of the slight aids afforded by
the researches of De Sacy and Akerblad, neither of whom
had been able to decipher a single character of the hiero¬
glyphical inscription, it had the merit of complete origina¬
lity f and hence it was not only received with admiration
by all who were capable of appreciating its merits, but it
produced a general rush to the study of hieroglyphical li¬
terature, and mainly contributed towards those further dis¬
coveries, of which it will be our business to render some
account in a succeeding section of this article.
Although much has been done for the elucidation of the
Egyptian texts, monumental as well as enchorial, since Dr
Young published this record of his investigations; although
some errors have been corrected, many additions made, and
the whole reduced into a systematic form; yet we should
consider ourselves as unjust to the memory of that most
ingenious man, and as even guilty of removing one of the
great landmarks of learning, were we, in this new and im¬
proved edition of the Encyclopaedia, either to withhold or
to alter a production which, in fact, constitutes an epoch
in the annals of letters. For this reason all that part of the
article above mentioned which was devoted to the subject of
hieroglyphics, is republished entire in the third, fourth, and
fifth sections of this general treatise ; accompanied only with
a few explanatory and corrective notes, intended to keep in
view what has been effected by others, and also to prepare
the reader for the expositions which follow. We have only
further to add, upon this head, that the historical and cri¬
tical view of the progress of opinion and discovery on the
subject of hieroglyphics, which we have here brought down
to the period at which the researches of Dr Young were
given to the world in a somewhat matured form, will be
continued in the explanation of the various systems which
have since been promulgated by those who have endea¬
voured either to extend or to overthrow the principles upon
which Dr Young conducted his investigations. But, in
the meanwhile, we shall so far interrupt the development
of our general plan as, in the next section, to submit to our
readers an abstract of the facts and arguments by which
the substantial identity of the different dialects of Coptic
with the language of ancient Egypt has, in our opinion,
been completely established, and an obstacle which might
have impeded the future progress of investigation thus
cleared away.
1 This supposition is contrary to the fact. As already stated, the commencement of the hieroglyphic inscription is wanting.
* “ Dr Young,” says Mr Salt, “ seems to me to stand alone with regard to the progress he has made in the enchorial, as well as
for his having led the may to the true knowledge of hieroglyphics.” {Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, p. 1.)
HIEROGLYPHICS.
308
Coptic. II. IDENTITY OF THE COPTIC DIALECTS WITH THE AN-
CIENT LANGUAGE OF EGYPT.
Language is, after all, the most durable of human monu¬
ments. Conquerors may overthrow empires and states,
earthquakes may swallow up cities, time may confound all
things besides; but the winged words in which man gives
utterance to his feelings and thoughts often outlast all these
ravages, and preserve the memory of nations long after
they have ceased to exist. That which seems the most fra¬
gile, the most variable, the most evanescent of human at¬
tributes or possessions, becomes in reality the most per¬
manent, the most indestructible. If no longer able to sup¬
port an independent existence, it clings to and coalesces
with some more recent and robust dialect; if lost in one
form, it is almost certain to re-appear in another, exhibit¬
ing, amidst all changes and disfigurations, incontestible
traces of its origin. This law of decay and reproduction,
of fluctuation yet permanence, is so general, we might al¬
most say universal, that it is principally from analytical
inquiries into the origin, composition, and affinities of lan¬
guage, that we derive what knowledge we possess of the
early history and fortunes of nations. It is impossible,
therefore, to believe that the form of speech which long
prevailed in ancient Egypt can have utterly perished, or
that remains of it may not still be discovered in one or other
of the dialects in which it appears to have merged. The
Persian, the Macedonian, the Roman, the Arabian, and
the Ottoman conquests, have successively discharged their
fury upon that devoted country; and even those monu¬
ments which seemed destined to receive the epitaph of
Time itself, are mouldering and crumbling into ruin ; but,
unlike the temples, palaces, and piles stupendous, which
once adorned the valley of the Nile, the language of the
Pharaohs, though greatly mutilated, has been arrested in
its decline, and all of it that remains has long since been
placed beyond the reach of further injury.
If the case, however, were different from what is here
stated ; if the language of ancient Egypt had perished as
completely as the dialects spoken before the Flood; still
it would not be impossible to obtain some knowledge of
those inscriptions which have so much occupied the at¬
tention of the learned both in ancient and in modem
times. With the aid of such monuments as those of Ro¬
setta and Philae, in which the hieroglyphical texts are
rendered into a known language, we should still be able,
if not to read those texts into the language which they
originally represented, at least to determine inductively
the values of the principal characters, or groups of cha¬
racters, of which they are composed ; and we should thus,
to a certain extent, be provided with the means of attempt¬
ing empirical explanations of texts unaccompanied with
versions. Nevertheless it is undoubted that such an an¬
cient language, even if it had ceased to exist indepen¬
dently, and if its remains were only to be found mixed up
in another dialect, perhaps blended with heterogeneous
elements, would, on being separated from all extraneous
forms, prove eminently serviceable in facilitating inquiries,
having it for their object to explain the monumental in¬
scriptions and other Egyptian texts. The value of such
an auxiliary, indeed, can only be fully appreciated by those
who have devoted themselves to these laborious and dif¬
ficult investigations; but, from the explanations and de¬
tails which are contained in the succeeding sections of
this treatise, even the general reader will be enabled to
form a tolerably just idea of its importance. In the mean¬
while, that no branch of this subject may be left unex¬
plained, we shall endeavour to state, as briefly as possible, Copti
the grounds upon which we hold it to be demonstratively
certain that the Coptic and the ancient Egyptian are sub¬
stantially identical.
There can be no doubt that the Egyptian language and
characters subsisted under the Ptolemies. If the Greek
alone was in use at the court of these princes, and in the
city of Alexandria, the capital of their empire, it cannot
be disputed that in the more remote towns, and particu¬
larly in the Thebaid, the Egyptian language continued to
be understood and spoken as formerly. This fact, attest¬
ed by the Rosetta inscription, is confirmed by a passage
of Plutarch, in which he relates that Cleopatra, the fa¬
vourite of Caesar and of Antony, replied, without the inter¬
vention of an interpreter, to the Ethiopians, the Troglo¬
dytes, the Hebrews, the Arabians, the Syrians, the Medes,
and the Parthians, and that she also understood the lan¬
guages of many other nations; whilst the kings, her pre¬
decessors, had scarcely given themselves the trouble to
learn the Egyptian, and some of them had even neglected
the Macedonian.1 That a barbarous people may adopt the
laws, and even the language, of their conquerors, is what
may easily be believed ; but it is altogether incredible that
a civilized people like the Egyptians, strongly attached
to their own usages, and proverbially averse to those of
strangers, should have abandoned or corrupted their lan¬
guage, in which a great number of works had been com¬
posed ; more especially as the Greek princes who govern¬
ed Egypt after the death of Alexander do not appear to
have, in any respect, interfered with or opposed the pre¬
judices or inclinations of their subjects in favour of their
vernacular idiom. If, during the lapse of a certain period,
little is to be found respecting either the existence or the
condition of the Egyptian language, it should be recollect¬
ed that the history of Egypt during this period is very lit¬
tle known, and that the greater part of the works which
would have thrown light on the reign of the Ptolemies
have unfortunately perished.
But it is nevertheless certain that, under the dominion
of the Romans, the Egyptian continued to be the lan¬
guage of the people. Origen, in his treatise against Cel-
sus, observes, that “ if a Greek desired to teach any use¬
ful doctrine to the Egyptians and Syrians, he would pre¬
fer learning the barbarous languages of those nations, to
being wholly unintelligible by addressing them in Greek.”
The same father, in another place, asks why the fables
which the Greeks derive from the subject of their gods,
should be regarded as more worthy of credit than those
of the Egyptians which have sprung from a similar source,
or what rational ground there is for preferring Mnemosyne
mother of the Muses, Themis mother of the Hours, Eu-
rynome mother of the Graces, and other Greek names, to
those which have been consecrated by the mythology of an¬
cient Egypt. Nor are these the only proofs that the Egyp¬
tian language still continued to be understood. The Em¬
peror Severus caused all the books which treated of the
occult sciences to be removed from the temples of Egypt,
and placed in the tomb of Alexander, that no one might
in future either see the body of that prince, or read what
had been written in those books. We learn from Capitoli-
nus that the Roman soldiers raised a tomb to Gordian, on
which they engraved an inscription in Greek, Latin, Per¬
sian, Hebrew, and Egyptian characters, in order that it
might be read by all the world. The Emperor Diocle¬
tian, irritated at the Egyptians on account of their revolt,
caused all the books on chemistry composed by their
learned men in ancient times to be searched out and con-
1 Twy ■ugo eturn; fiariXtav riSs t»iv ’Aiyvunuii avarvoutiut vripiXuliiiv SixXixrov. tviuv Js xai rc MaziboviZuv iXiTovrvv. (Plutarch in Vita An-
tonii, tom. i. p. 913, ed. Ruald.)
HIEROGLYPHICS.
309
Cop
signed to the flames, from an absurd apprehension that
the people might acquire riches by means of this art, and
be again in a condition to rise against their oppressors.
Lastly, from the first ages of Christianity, the books of the
Old and New Testament had been translated into the
Egyptian language.
The greater part of the learned, Lelong, Renaudot,
Wilkins, Mimter, Woide, and Georgi, are of opinion that
this version existed in the second century; and Woide
even attempts to prove that the composition of the fa¬
mous Sahidic manuscript of Dr Askew, entitled TIII2TH
SO^IA,1 Sapientia Fidelis, containing the philosophy
of the Gnostics, is to be referred to the same epoch.
Picques thinks that the Coptic translation of the New
Testament, which we now possess, was executed in the
fifth century, when those who desired to be considered
learned, or had connections with Alexandria, cultivated
an acquaintance with the Greek or Latin, although the
greater number spoke nothing but Egyptian. Paul the
hermit, according to St Jerome, was equally conversant
with the Egyptian and the Greek tongues. St Antony
knew only Egyptian, in which language he addressed to
different monasteries several letters, of which Mingarelli
has published two fragments written in the Sahidic dia¬
lect. The author of the acts of St John and St Simeon,
who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, informs us that
he wrote his history with his own hand, and then caused
it to be translated into Egyptian by a copyist called Me¬
nas. Palladius and Rufinus were equally skilled in Greek,
Latin, and Egyptian literature; and the former mentions
that the abbot Apollo selected three men possessing the
same accomplishments (l/icrs/gous rjjsxa; 'Vu/idi-
xa; ’A/yiwmaxTjs (WAsxrou). Joseph of Ihmuis un¬
derstood thoroughly, not only the Egyptian, but also the
Greek. Jerome informs us that, in the Egyptian, the
word Psontom-phanec signified Saviour of the world, and
that, in the native idiom, Egypt was still denominated
Ham. Pachomius, in his infancy, was taught Egyptian
by his parents, and never knew any other language, as ap¬
pears by the history of his life. To those of the breth¬
ren who understood not Egyptian, Theodorus acted as in¬
terpreter, and explained the discourses of Pachomius ; he
also translated into Egyptian the letter addressed to him
by St Athanasius. In the Coptic acts of the martyrdom
of St Apater, it is stated that the governor of the Thebaid
addressed a communication to that saint in the Egyptian
language. The Syriac author of the life of St Ephrem
mentions that this saint, having undertaken a journey to
Egypt, went to visit St Bischo'i, but as they understood
only each his mother tongue, it would have been impos¬
sible for them to converse together, if God had not grant¬
ed to Bischoi the gift of speaking Syriac, and to St Eph¬
rem that of explaining himself in Egyptian. Dioscorus,
patriarch of Alexandria, in his eulogium on the bishop of
Tk6ou,with whom he travelled to the council of Chalcedon,
states expressly that the latter knew only Egyptian. “ As
I understood not his conversation, the deacon Peter,” says
he, “ acted as our interpreter.” He adds, “ The deacon
Theopistos said to me, What shall we do with this mute,
athrof, who has embarked with us? Are the heretics
Egyptians, that he should have been sent to dispute with
them ?” Lastly, the author of an Arabic note inserted
in a Coptic manuscript, preserved in the King’s Library
at Paris, informs us that, before the invasion of the Mos-
lemins, it was the custom in Egypt, in the celebration of
the offices, to read in Greek the lessons of Scripture, and
to explain them in Coptic ; and it appears from a fragment
published by Georgi, that the inhabitants of Upper Egypt
recited in both languages litanies, and other parts of the
liturgy.
These authorities, and others which might be produ¬
ced, leave no doubt whatever as to the preservation of the
Egyptian language down till the period referred to in the
last of them; it had in fact survived all casualties, and
it co-existed with the Greek, even in the service of reli¬
gion, without being displaced or abrogated by that polish¬
ed idiom. But it is nevertheless true that the Coptic pre¬
sents us with a multitude of Greek words, and that the
actual alphabet of the language is almost entirely Greek,
having retained only a small number of Egyptian charac¬
ters, which it appears to have borrowed from the encho¬
rial or current writing of ancient times. Are we then to
conclude that this language is only a corruption or oft-set
of the Greek ? It would be quite as reasonable to main¬
tain, with Kircher, that Greek is derived from the Egyp¬
tian, or to pretend that the Persian language is only a dia¬
lect of the Arabic. Foreign terms introduced into a lan¬
guage change not either its nature or its form, any more
than the food introduced into the body, though composed
of the most diversified ingredients, makes any change in
the personality or identity of the individual who receives
it. Of this the English is a living and remarkable proof.
The intermixture of Greek words in the Egyptian lan¬
guage is attributable to several causes. In the first place,
a new form of government having been established in
Egypt, first under the Ptolemies, and then under the Ro¬
mans, the Egyptians were under the necessity of borrow¬
ing from the language the names t>f dignities, and all the
terms which had reference to the administration. Se¬
condly, the Christian religion having early penetrated in¬
to Egypt, introduced into that country a multitude ol
ideas altogether new and strange to the inhabitants, and
which, consequently, could not be expressed by the words
of their language ; besides, several terms had been con¬
secrated by religion, and a reasonable apprehension was
entertained lest they should lose their true and proper sig¬
nification by being translated into another idiom. It was
necessary, therefore, to have recourse to the Greek, which
was the language of the first preachers of the Gospel,
and in which indeed wTere contained all the fundamental
books of the Christian faith. Thirdly, some of those who
translated Greek works into Egyptian, found it no doubt
convenient, when they either happened not to understand
a word, or could not readily find a Coptic equivalent, to
leave it as it stood in the original; whilst others, to dis¬
play their knowledge of both languages, employed indif¬
ferently Greek or Egyptian words. It must not, however,
be supposed that all the Coptic books which we possess
contain an equal number of Greek expressions : these are
sometimes of more and sometimes of less frequent occur¬
rence : but, in general, it may be observed that compara¬
tively few can be cited, the equivalents of which were to
be found in the Egyptian, a circumstance which M. Qua-
tremere had frequent occasion to verify.
But a question here arises, namely, at what period the
Egyptians renounced their ancient mode of writing, whe¬
ther phonetic or other, to adopt the Greek alphabet, aug¬
mented by some letters borrowed from the enchorial cha¬
racters. On this subject the learned are much divided.
Some, as Lacroze and Father Georgi, carry the change as
far back as the reign of Psammeticus; but this hypothe¬
sis is refuted by the date of the inscription of Rosetta,
namely, the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes, when the an¬
cient methods of writing were still employed. Bonjour
fixes it at the epoch of the conquest of Egypt by Alexan¬
der ; Montfaucon, Jablonski, and Valperga, are of opi-
Coptic.
1 The want of Coptic characters renders it necessary in this, and will oblige us, in other instances, to employ the Greek letters.
HIEROGLYPHICS,
310
Coptic, mon that it took place under the Ptolemies ; Schow thinks
"'y-''*-' that the introduction of the Coptic alphabet was consider¬
ably anterior to our era 51 whilst Zoega, founding on a
passage of Aristides relative to the word Kuvwfiog, con¬
cludes that the Greek characters were not adopted in
Egypt before the third century ; an opinion which is con¬
firmed by the passage of Capitolinus already referred to,
where that author speaks of the inscription engraved upon
the tomb of the Emperor Gordian, “ Grsecis, et Latinis,
et Persicis, et Judaicis, et JEgyptiacis Uteris? By the
Egyptian characters here mentioned cannot be under¬
stood the Greek letters, which are expressly distinguished;
nor can the sacred characters, or hieroglyphics, be meant,
because, even supposing that this kind of writing was
known and understood in Egypt at the period referred to,
it must have been within the reach of too small a num¬
ber of persons to be employed in an inscription intended
to be read by all the world (ut ab omnibus legeretur.) It
appears, then, that the Egyptian letters here mentioned
are the demotic or enchorial characters, and that these re¬
mained in use amongst the people of Egypt at the time
of Gordian’s death, which, according to the calculation of
Tillemont, took place in the year 244, or about the middle
of the third century of the Christian era.
The Egyptian language was divided into three dialects :
the Coptic of Misr, which is the same with the Sahidic;
the Bahiric, so called from the province of Bahirah; and
the Bashmouric, which was at one time in use in the pro¬
vince of Bashmour. But the only forms now in use are the
Bahiric and the Sahidic, both of which dialects are derived
from one and the same radical language. The Bahiric,
also denominated the Memphitic, is easily distinguishable
from the Sahidic, the differences which exist between
them being known ; and the former was the language of
Lower Egypt, whilst the latter was that of the Thebaid
or Said. But of these two dialects, which is the more an¬
cient? This is a question which it is exceedingly difficult
to resolve, as the historical monuments throw no light on
the subject, and we are consequently reduced to mere con¬
jecture. Macrizy, Renaudot, Lacroze, and Jablonski, re¬
gard the Sahidic dialect as the more ancient; but Georgi
has contended for the priority of the Memphitic, and his
opinion is also that of Valperga and of Miinter. Mipga-
relli, however, has not ventured to decide the question
either one way or other; but it may not unreasonably be
supposed that the Thebaic or Sahidic dialect, in which
are written the most ancient monuments extant in the
Coptic language, and of which mention is made in the
life of Pachomius, and perhaps also the Bashmouric, ex¬
isted primitively in the Egyptian language, at the same
time with the Memphitic. If, as Georgi has demonstrat¬
ed, the Egyptian words, transmitted to us by the ancient
authors, appear to have been for the most part borrowed
from the last of these dialects, this circumstance ought to
excite no surprise ; for, as neither the Greeks nor Latins
had many occasions to penetrate into the Thebaid, which
was remote from the court and the centre of administra¬
tion, the language of that province must have been less .
known to them than the dialect of Lower Egypt, which
they were accustomed to hear spoken. Besides, the The¬
baic dialect, which is a less cultivated form than the
Memphitic, was not perhaps in use at this time, except¬
ing in the villages, or in towns of the smallest class. But
that the Memphitic dialect was in reality richer than the CW:
Sahidic remains to be proved; in fact, the latter, besides
a sufficiently large number of words which properly be¬
longed to it, had the distinctive peculiarity of readily
adopting, with a slight change, all the Memphitic words.
If the Thebaic manuscripts, then, appear to exhibit a
greater number of Greek expressions, this intermixture,
which is no doubt attributable to the caprice of the wri¬
ters, and to the operation of the other causes already spe¬
cified as affecting the Coptic generally, does not appear to
have had much influence on the usage of the language;
otherwise they would not have taken the precaution, in
the Sahidic lexicons, of explaining the Greek words by
native terms, a practice which, as far as we have observed,
has not been followed in any of the Memphitic vocabula¬
ries.
But it has been objected, that, if the Coptic language
represents, or is substantially the same with, the ancient
Egyptian, we ought to discover in it the roots or original
forms of all the Egyptian words which have been trans¬
mitted to us by the Greek or Latin authors ; whereas it is
not denied that the etymologies proposed by the learned
who have occupied themselves with such researches are
very far indeed from being all equally fortunate or suc¬
cessful.9 In answer to this objection, which appears plau¬
sible and embarrassing, we have to observe that we ad¬
mit the premises, but dispute the validity of the conclu¬
sion deduced from them. ls£, The search for etymologies
is of itself extremely hazardous and conjectural. If Varro
the most learned of the Romans, Servius the commentator
of the iEneid, and the other Latin grammarians, were
mistaken as to the origin of many words in their own lan¬
guage ; if, in the French language, there exists a great
number of terms, the etymology of which cannot now be
discovered; and if Menage, notwithstanding his vast erudi¬
tion, has fallen into a multitude of errors on this subject;
can it be wondered that the same thing should occur in
the case of a foreign language which has been dead for
centuries, and of which but few monuments have been
preserved ? 2dly, All the terms of the ancient Egyptian
with which we are acquainted have been transmitted to
us by the Greeks or the Romans, who, for the most part,
were absolutely ignorant of that language ; consequently,
part of the explanations which they have given was pro¬
bably conjectural, and, when they furnish no interpreta¬
tion at all, the difficulty is still greater. Before attempting
to trace these words, we would require to be certain as to
the true readings ; but how can such certainty be attain¬
ed in regard to terms collected by foreigners, disfigured
by a vicious pronunciation, and afterwards altered by the
negligence of the copyists ? It appears, also, from the
contradictory explanations which the ancients have left
of the names of Osiris and other divinities, that the Egyp¬
tians themselves had no very definite ideas as to the ori¬
gin of many words in their language ; and that their ety¬
mology, every authentic trace of which has now disap¬
peared, was sometimes abundantly arbitrary. Sdly, It is
possible that several of the Egyptian words which the
ancients have transmitted to us belonged to the sacred
language, the knowledge of which was confined to the
priests, whilst the terms were employed in a sense differ¬
ent from that which was attached to them by the vulgar.
&thly, If, as has already been observed, the Christian re-
■ Ujut he. adds. a qualification : “ Tempos autem quo haec unio alphabeti Graeco-Aigyptii cum antique vEgyptio facta fuerit, defi-
cie”t® °mm auctontate histonca, adcurate definiri nequit.” (Schow, Charta Papyracea, p. 118. Home, 1788!)
, peut etre surpns,” says M. Akerblad, “ que les savans comme Lacroze, Jablonski, et autres, qui ne connoissoient qu’une
parue aes ouvrages coptes que nous possedons aujourd’hui, se soient imagine' qu’avec ces foibles moyens ils pourroient retrouver dans
1 Lgyptien moderne les etymologies de tous les noms des divinites Egyptiennes : aussi pas une seule des etymologies qu’ils ont pro-
posees relativement aux noms des divinites dont il est fait mention dans le monument de Rosette, ne se trouve confirmde par ce
monument. [Lettre sur l Inscription de Rosette, p. 51.)
HIEROGLYPHICS.
311
ligion introduced a great number of Greek words into the
j Egyptian language, it must at the same time have abolished
and caused to disappear all the terms which relate to the
ancient mythology.1 bihly, We have already seen that the
language of Egypt was divided into three dialects; the
Memphitic or Bahiric, the Thebaic or Sahidic, and the
Bashmouric. But, of these three dialects, the first is that
of which we have the most information, though our know¬
ledge of it is very far from being complete. The Sahidic
we possess in a very imperfect state, whilst the monu¬
ments written in that dialect, and known in Europe, are
still but few in number. The Bashmouric is so completely
unknown, that M. Quatremere, with all his research, suc¬
ceeded in procuring only a single word of this dialect,2
which M. Champollion, nevertheless, quotes with confi¬
dence as an existing form of the Coptic.
But a revolution equally rapid and complete suddenly
changed the political condition of Egypt. The Arabians,
whom Mahommed had inspired at once with fanaticism
and the spirit of conquest, abandoned their arid deserts,
destroyed the monarchy of the Persians, and seized on the
finest provinces of the Greek empire. In the twentieth
year of the hejira, Amru-ben-el-As, general of Omar, one of
the successors of the Prophet, entered Egypt at the head
of a body of Moslemins ; and as that country was then dis¬
tracted by the religious dissensions of the orthodox Greeks
(Melkites), who adhered to the council of Chalcedon, and
of the native Egyptians (Jacobites), who were its impla¬
cable enemies, he found little difficulty in uniting it to the
empire of the Arabians. Amru, equally politic and brave,
whilst he waged an exterminating war against the Greeks,
endeavoured by every means to conciliate the good-will
of the Egyptian Jacobites ; and, with this view, having re¬
called their patriarch Benjamin, who, under the reign of
Heraclius, had been driven from his see, and forced to
take refuge in the Thebaid, he authorized that prelate to
resume the exercise of his functions. About the same time,
the Christians of Egypt began to be denominated Copts ;
a name supposed by some to have been derived trom that
of an ancient king called Kobt, and by others to have origi¬
nated from the Greek city of Coptos, whilst a third class
contend that the Christians of Egypt were called Ktwrro/ by
the Greeks, in consequence of their adhering to the rite of
circumcision, and a fourth, that the word Copt is only a
corruption of the word ’A/yu^r/os. (See the article Egypt,
sub initio.)
But be this as it may, whilst it continued to be for the
interest of the conquerors to pursue a conciliating line of
policy towards the native population, or, in other words, to
strengthen themselves by fomenting divisions and animo¬
sities in regard to disputed points in religion, the Egyp¬
tian language flourished, at least no obstacle was opposed
to its cultivation. In a short time, however, the Copts
as well as the Greeks began to be oppressed by their
cruel and avaricious conquerors ; the tyranny, which at
first was only partial, became general; and the native
population, being reduced to abject poverty, soon fell
into a state of profound ignorance. Forced to learn the
language of their masters, they neglected their ancient
tongue, which daily became less useful; those of them
who held the situations of moubascher, that is, of secreta¬
ries or intendants under the princes and grandees, had no
other interest but to speak and write Arabic with purity;
and thus the knowledge of Coptic began to decline, and
was at length altogether lost in Egypt. But at what pre- Coptic,
cise epoch the ancient language ceased to be spoken and ■Mis¬
understood, is a question which, considering the silence
of the historical monuments, it is by no means easy to re¬
solve. It appears, however, from a passage in the preface
to the History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria by Severus,
bishop of Ashmounei'n, that in the tenth century of our era
the Coptic was no longer spoken in Egypt; but it is never¬
theless certain that, long after this period, persons of con¬
sideration who desired to distinguish themselves by their
acquirements studied Coptic, and that this language was
as generally understood in Egypt as the Latin language
is at present in Europe. There are still extant Coptic
works composed long subsequently to the epoch fixed by
Renaudot as that when the ancient language fell into total
desuetude amongst the Egyptian Christians, namely, the
century after the Mahommedan invasion ; and, as Macrizy
mentions the Coptic in several parts of his Description of
Egypt, it would appear that, at the period when he wrote,
that is, about the commencement of the fifteenth century,
the language was not entirely lost. But for further details
on this subject we must refer the reader to the learned and
satisfactory work ofM. Quatremere.
Having thus traced a rapid outline of the history of
the Egyptian or Coptic under the Ptolemies, the Romans,
and the Arabians, marking its different epochs, and indi¬
cating generally the changes it experienced, we shall now
proceed to give a short account of the efforts which the
learned of Europe have at different times made, some¬
times with greater, sometimes with less success, to rescue
that ancient idiom from oblivion, and, if we may so ex¬
press ourselves, to impart to it a new existence.
Scaliger is commonly considered as the first who con¬
templated such an undertaking ; but, if he really meditat¬
ed the design which is attributed to him, it seems^ pretty
certain that he was not in a condition to carry it into ef¬
fect ; for, as he makes a great parade ot his acquaintance
with Arabic, it may be presumed that he would not have
been silent on the subject of Egyptian, if he had really
known any thing of that language; and it is not a little
remarkable, that in announcing his project of publishing a
polyglot psalter in six languages, which he enumerates, he
says not a word of Egyptian, nor is that language includ¬
ed in the number. Leonard Abela, who died at Rome in
1605, having been created bishop of Sidon, and sent to the
East as apostolic nuncio by Gregory XIII., visited Syria,
Mesopotamia, and Egypt, and during his travels made him¬
self well acquainted with the oriental languagesAncluding
Egyptian; but whether he brought home any Coptic ma¬
nuscripts, or imported only the knowledge he had acquir¬
ed, has not been ascertained. John Baptist Remondi in¬
tended to publish the Bible in ten languages, namely, in
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic, Arabic, Egyptian, Ethi¬
opian, Armenian, Syriac, and Persian ; and, besides the
texts, and the different Latin versions, this collection was
to contain grammars and lexicons of all these languages.
But unfortunately his enterprise proved abortive, and the
Egyptian remained completely unknown until the en¬
lightened exertions of Peiresc procured for the learned of
Europe the means of studying that language.
This illustrious man, to whom letters are under lasting
obligations, spared neither pains nor expense to procure
Coptic manuscripts. Of these he obtained several from
Egypt, comprehending the gospels, epistles, and psalms,
■ “ II ne faut do™ pas s'attendre a en trouver aucune trace dans lea livres Egyptiens que nous possddoni ^
an genre ecclesiastique, et dont plusieurs, tels que les Actes des Martyrs presentent une grande umforimte, tant pour le style que
pour les faits.” (Quatremere, Recherches sur la Langue et la Litteraiure de l Egypte, ^. ■) n.mtromprp thinks er-
■ The fragment of St Paul, published by Georgi and Munter, has been reterred to this dialect, but, 33 M~ Sj-gS"
roneously. (See Recherches, ubi supra; also Georgi, Prtefat. in fragment. Evangel. 0. Johan, p. 54, et seqq., and Mu t
indole Versionis Sahidicce Novi Testament^ p. 75, et seqq. Copenhagen, 17^-)
312
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Coptic, the Coptic ritual, and the liturgies of St Basil, St Gregory,
and St Cyril; and he also expected the prophets in Cop¬
tic, as well as a psalter in seven languages, viz. Hebrew,
Syriac, Greek, Coptic, Ethiopian, Persian, and Armenian,
together with other curious manuscripts ; but all of them
were seized and carried off by pirates. Afflicted but not
discouraged, Peiresc, having learned that the pirates had
sailed for Tripoli, wrote to the pasha of that town, receiv¬
ed a favourable answer, and not long afterwards was pre¬
sented with a package wrapt up with great care, and said
to have been transmitted from Tripoli. Peiresc, rejoiced
at recovering the lost treasure, liberally rewarded the
unknown persons by whom, as he supposed, it had been
brought back to him. He was very disagreeably surprised,
however, on opening the package, to find that it contained
nothing but the Arabic dictionary of Raphelengius. But
his zeal to promote the study of Coptic was in no degree
cooled by the fraud thus practised on him; and having
with a view to this engaged Samuel Petit and Salmasius
to cultivate that new bfanch of literature, he communi¬
cated to them all the manuscripts which he had in his
possession. Petit, however, appears to have made but
little progress in this study; but Salmasius applied to it
with great vigour, and had the merit not only of entering
a new path without any guide, but also of inducing the
learned to follow his example. In his different works may
be seen the use which he made of the Coptic in explain¬
ing a number of Egyptian words; and his letter to Go-
lius is particularly deserving of attention.
About this time Pietro della Valle returned from his
travels in the East, bringing with him several Coptic ma¬
nuscripts, and amongst others an extensive Copto-Arabic
lexicon, accompanied with grammars. These he placed
in the hands of Thomas Obicini, who had long resided in
the Levant, for the purpose of being translated into La¬
tin. The work was successfully commenced ; and the con¬
gregation of the Propaganda had already caused to be
cut the Coptic characters, which served to print the Al-
phabetum Coptum seu JEgyptiacum, a work which appear¬
ed in 1629. But the affairs of Obicini having fallen into
confusion, the undertaking languished, and was at length
totally interrupted by the death of the translator, amongst
whose papers scarcely anything was found relative to the
work. Peiresc, however, having heard of the manuscript,
and being extremely desirous for its publication, pressed
Pietro della Valle to lend it him for the purpose of hav¬
ing it translated by Salmasius. The Italian, it seems, re¬
fused, but consented to communicate it to Kircher, who
was then at Rome, and had acquired a great reputation ;
or, at all events, he preferred that the translation should
be executed under his own eye. Salmasius was in despair
on finding that the credit of such a work was to be reap¬
ed by another; and in a letter on the subject which he
addressed to Peiresc he evinces a bitter feeling of disap¬
pointment.
Kircher, with the assistance of the manuscripts of Pie¬
tro della Valle, and those of the library of the Vatican,
published, first, his Prodromus JEgyptiacus, Rome, 1636,
and then his Lingua JEgyptiaca Pestituta, Rome, 1644.
The first of these works contains several preliminary dis¬
sertations, some of them perfectly foreign to its object,
with an essay on Coptic grammar ; the second, which, with
all its errors, is an useful and meritorious work, contains
a grammar and a Copto-Arabic vocabulary. The nume¬
rous faults committed by Kircher would deserve indul- Cont
gence, and due allowance would be made for the difficul- wi-
ties incident to the task undertaken by him, were it not
for his unpardonable arrogance, and the bad faith with
which he has inserted in his work words which are not
to be found in the original; as, for instance, MENDJES
hircus, which Jablonski suspected to be supposititious, and
which Quatremere was unable to discover in the manuscript
of Pietro della Valle. Hence, the enthusiasm which Kir-
cher’s work at first excited soon cooled, and the author in¬
curred severe censure for his extravagance and dishonesty.
Bochart and Ludolf refuted his assertion that the Greek
is derived from the Egyptian ; Wagenseil analysed his ex¬
planation of an inscription engraved on Mount Sinai, and
proved its falsehood ; Picques alleged that, besides his
mother tongue, Kircher knew only a little Latin, and al¬
most no Greek ; and Renaudot, who has entered into ex¬
tensive details respecting the works of the Jesuit, pro¬
nounces upon them a severe judgment, which is confirmed
by Wilkins, Blumberg, Lacroze, Jablonski, Barthelemy,
Tromler, and Schmidt. So great, indeed, was the distrust
excited by the exposure of his malpractices, that, at one
time, his Lingua JEgyptiaca Pestituta was believed to be
a literary fraud; but this opinion is entirely inadmissible,
now that the original manuscript has been recovered.1
Kircher also translated into Latin an Egyptian manuscript
containing the ceremonies used amongst the Copts in ordi¬
nations.
Amongst the manuscripts of Samuel Petit, deposited in
the King's Library at Paris, M. Quatremere found a Cop¬
tic alphabet, with observations written in Latin, and also
two French letters addressed to Petit from Tours, the
author of which appears to have been profoundly conver¬
sant with the oriental languages. It is now known that
these letters are the production of Gilles de Loche, a ca¬
puchin, who, according to Gassendi, returned from his
travels in Egypt about the year 1633. Gessner, in his
Mithridates, collected the Egyptian words which the an¬
cients have transmitted to us ; Bochart published a great¬
er number ; and Menage, in illustrating the three dialects,
collected and explained all the foreign words, Egyptian,
Lybian, Persian, Macedonian, and others contained in the
Greek and Latin authors. Tromler mentions a confes¬
sion of faith in Latin and Coptic, printed at Rome in the
year 1668; and Lelong indicates a dissertation of Erasmus
Vinding, De Linguae Grcccce JEgyptiacce Affinitate, Copen¬
hagen, 1660. Hottinger, in his Bibliotheca Orientals,
has given some details respecting the Egyptian language.
Theodore Petraeus, who had resided long in Egypt, stu¬
died Coptic, collected manuscripts in that language, and
on his return published the first psalm in Coptic, with an
Arabic translation and a Latin version. He also translated
into Latin, from the Coptic text, the epistle of St Paul to
the Ephesians. Huntington, during his stay in Syria and
Egypt, employed himself in collecting oriental manu¬
scripts, particularly in Coptic, and his rich collection was
afterwards deposited in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
Marshal, celebrated for his labours on the Anglo-Saxon,
was also profoundly acquainted with the oriental lan¬
guages, and particularly with Coptic. Not satisfied with
having collated the Coptic version of the gospels with the
Greek text, and collected the various readings, he under¬
took to publish the New Testament in the same language;
but after every thing had been prepared, this useful enter-
HIEROGLYPHICS.
313
Con prise failed in consequence of the premature death of the
r J editor, who only lived to print a single sheet, containing
the first three chapters of St Mathew’s gospel, accompa¬
nied with a Latin version, and notes.
The study of Coptic was much encouraged at Oxford
by the liberal patronage of the bishop, Dr Fell, who had
caused Coptic types to be cast at his own expense for the
intended work of Marshal, and who afterwards assisted
Thomas Edward in his researches. Edward Bernard,
having studied Coptic, left in manuscript an Egyptian lexi¬
con in which he explains many points concerning Egyp¬
tian antiquities. In 1686, Witsen, burgomaster of Amster¬
dam, presented to the university of Oxford the Ethiopian
and Coptic punches, which he had sent to Edward Ber¬
nard. Bonjour, an Augustin friar of Toulouse, published
Exercitalio in Monumenta Coptica sen JEgyptiaca Biblio¬
theca Vaticance, Borne, 1699, in 4to; a work which is
highly commended by Lacroze, and which displays a pro¬
found acquaintance with the Coptic language. 1 his learn¬
ed friar died in China in 1714, leaving several manuscript
works, the most important of which is a History of the
Dynasties of Egypt, cited by Cuper and by Georgi. Cop¬
tic literature owes much to Pope Clement XL, who, in the
early part of the eighteenth century, sent three missions
to Egypt in quest of manuscripts, and enriched the libia-
ry of the Vatican with that beautiful and precious collec¬
tion, which the treaty of Tolentino transferred to Pans,
but which was afterwards restored on the downfall of Xa-
poleon. Nor were the learned of Germany neglectful of
the study of Coptic. Pfeiffer applied himself to the cul¬
tivation of that language, in which he wrote some indiffe¬
rent verses. Andreev Muller studied Coptic, and applied
it to the explanation of some words in the Bibl®. Acolu-
thus, a minister of the gospel at Breslau in Silesia, also
devoted himself to this pursuit, and published a work en¬
titled Lingua JEgyptiaca Restituta, 'm which he pretended
that the ancient Egyptian had nothing in common with the
Coptic, but might be detected in the modern Armenian.
Acoluthus wras a man of learning ; but with all his erudi¬
tion he was unable to give any colour of probability to
this chimerical hypothesis. In the year 1716, Blumberg
published a short Coptic grammar entitled Fundamenta
Lingua Coptica, of which Lacroze has pronounced a veiy
favourable opinion. Blumberg also promised a Copto-
Latin and Latino-Coptic dictionary ; but domestic mis¬
fortunes and a premature death prevented him from cariy-
ing his design into execution.
In France, Coptic literature was enriched by a great num¬
ber of Coptic manuscripts brought from Egypt by V ans-
leb, and deposited in the library of the king. Louis Picques,
doctor of the Sorbonne, who had distinguished himself as
an orientalist, also applied with ardour to the study of
Coptic, and was the first who recognised the variety of dia¬
lects. Besides the various readings of the Coptic and
Armenian versions of the New Testament, we are indebt¬
ed to him for ingenious etymologies of some Egyptian
words, and amongst others of the famous name of Joseph,
which has exercised the sagacity of several modern writ¬
ers. This name, which the seventy-tw o write Itovdofitpun^,
is, according to Picques, composed of the Coptic words
II20T-ME<t>ENH, solus mundi, the “safety of the world;”1
which appears to be the only true etymology. He also
made a great number of corrections on the lexicon of
Kircher, and, in the few works which he published, display¬
ed an erudition which justifies the commendations bestow¬
ed on them hy his contemporaries. But all the orien¬
talists who had yet appeared were eclipsed by the Abbe
Renaudot, whose name will ever be dear to the lovers of
eastern literature. In 1716, he published his Collection v
of the Oriental Liturgies, three of which (those of St Ba¬
sil, St Gregory, and St Cyril) were translated from the
Coptic; but the want of the characters prevented him
from printing the original texts. lo this translation are
subjoined commentaries full of erudition, and several dis¬
sertations, particularly one entitled De Copticarum Alex-
andrinorum Liturgiis, and another, De Lingua Coptica.
Scarcely had this work appeared, when it was attacked^
with the greatest asperity by Lacroze, under the pretext of
avenging the memory of Ludolf, who had been severely
handled both in the History of the Patriarchs of Alexan¬
dria, and also in the Collection of Liturgies. Lacroze was
no doubt a formidable adversary, and he certainly detect¬
ed some faults in the Collection of the learned Abbe,
such as Bibite vos omnes omnes for Bibite omnes, which he
denounces as an important falsification. But these errors
were not of sufficient magnitude to justify the fierce ebul¬
lition of literary wrath displayed by Lacroze upon this oc¬
casion ; and it is not a little amusing to find that, whilst
exaggerating the oversights of his opponent, he is himself
betrayed into some very serious inaccuracies. “ En effet,”
says M. Quatremere, “ si 1’Abbe Renaudot n’avoit pas
dans le Copte des connoissances tres etendues, il est cer¬
tain qu’il possedoit parfaitement 1’Arabe et le Syriaque.
This Lacroze is himself forced to admit.
As yet, however, the progress of the Egyptian language
had been but slow and imperfect. All the Coptic monu¬
ments were still in manuscript, and the learned had no
guide except the lexicon of Kircher, which, besides the er¬
rors with which it teems, and the omission of a great num¬
ber of words, has the serious inconvenience of not being
arranged in alphabetical order. But these obstacles were
nowr about to be removed ; and the first wdio contributed to
facilitate the acquisition of Coptic was David Wilkius, a
Prussian by birth, who, during his residence in England,
changed his name into that of Wilkins, by which alone he
is known. Wilkins applied with ardour to the study of Cop¬
tic, and after having examined every work connected with
that language in the Bodleian Library, he travelled through
France and Italy, occupying himself in copying or collat¬
ing all the manuscripts he could find. In 1715, he pub¬
lished, in Chamberlayne’s collection, the Lord’s Prayer in
Coptic, with a grammatical analysis, and a dissertation De
Lingua Coptica. In 1716, he published, at the expense of
the university of Oxford, the New Testament in Coptic,
accompanied with a Latin translation. Lacroze, who ex¬
amined this wwk with great care, discovered a multitude of
errors both in the text and in the translation, and thence
conceived a most unfavourable opinion of the talents of
Wilkins, whom he taxes with gross ignorance of Coptic,
and even places in this respect below Kircher. But this
censure must appear somewhat too severe, when we reflect
on the difficulties Wilkins had to surmount in the study ol
a dead language, which he had learned without a guide, and
without having either a grammar or a dictionary to assist
him. He redeemed his character, however, by his Coptic
Pentateuch, which appeared in 1731, and in which, accord¬
ing to Jablonski, he greatly surpassed any thing he had
previously done. Wilkins also proposed to publish a Coptic
grammar and dictionary ; but finding no encouragement,
the enterprise was at length abandoned. The manuscript
of his History of the Church of Alexandria was unfortunate¬
ly lost immediately after his death, and all the exertions of
Woide to recover it proved fruitless.
Lacroze, who about the same time occupied himself with
Coptic.
‘ The Egyptian name of Joseph, expressed in Elebrew characters, is Zaphnathpaneah which, as we have seen above is written
Ptonthomphmlh in the Septuagint version; but there can be little doubt, we think, that both were formed from the Egyptian words
Ptot-mephcneh, as Picques has most ingeniously supposed.
VOL. XI. ^ R
314 HIEROGLYPHICS.
Coptic, the study of Coptic, left far behind him all those who had
entered on the same career. He communicated his acquisi¬
tions on this subject to the celebrated Paul-Ernest Jablon-
ski, so well known by his great erudition, and his labours
connected with Egyptian antiquities ; and Jablonski hav¬
ing, during his travels, copied, in whole or in part, several
Coptic manuscripts, at Paris, at Leyden, and at Oxford,
communicated these copies to Lacroze, who, with their assis¬
tance, and that furnished by the manuscripts of the libra¬
ry of Berlin, composed a very exact dictionary of the Cop¬
tic language. This work was that of all his manuscripts
upon which the author set the greatest value ; but not hav¬
ing the means of publishing it, he contented himself with
printing the preface, which appeared in the Bibliotheca
Historico-Philologica Bremensis (tom. v. p. 744). To his
dictionary Lacroze annexed a list of words in the Sahidic
dialect, in regard to which Picques and Renaudot had but
confused notions, whilst all the other men learned in Cop¬
tic, including Wilkins, were absolutely ignorant of its’ ex¬
istence. The reputation of Lacroze’s lexicon having spread
throughout Europe, Wilkins, who had also composed a
Coptic dictionary, proposed to Lacroze to cast both works
into one, and to print it under their joint names, either at
London or at Berlin ; but the latter, who knew the merit of
his own work, and felt no desire whatever to amalgamate
it with that of Wilkins, declined the proposal. After the
death of Lacroze, his Coptic dictionary passed with his
other manuscripts into the hands of Jordan, his biographer ;
and, when the latter died, his brother sold the Coptic and
Armenian dictionaries to the university of Leyden. In the
Royal Library at Paris there is a copy of the Coptic diction¬
ary in the handwriting of Lacroze.
Jablonski, in his Pantheon Mythicum, and in his disser¬
tations on the god Rempha, the land of Goshen, Memnon,
and other kindred subjects, made frequent use and showed
a profound knowledge of Coptic. He had also laboured
for many years on an Egyptian glossary, in which he col¬
lected, arranged in alphabetical order, and, with the assist¬
ance of the Coptic, explained, all the Egyptian words which
are found dispersed in the Greek and Latin authors, and
even in the Hebrew text of the Bible. He had also written
a multitude of notes and corrections on the New Testa¬
ment and Coptic Pentateuch of Wilkins. At his death
these annotations, as well as the copies he had made of
Memphitic and Sahidic manuscripts, were sold by his son
to Dr Radcliff of Oxford; whilst another part of his papers,
containing the glossary already mentioned, with a number
of dissertations, discourses, and other productions, some
of them still inedited, were sent to Leyden to the learn¬
ed Ruhnkenius. Sensible of the value of these papers,
Ruhnkenius placed them in the hands of Henry Albert
Schultens, who readily undertook to arrange them for pub¬
lication ; Schultens, however, died soon afterwards ; and, at
the solicitation of Ruhnkenius, Tewater, professor of theo¬
logy in the university of Leyden, consented to take charge
of the publication, which accordingly appeared at Leyden
in 1804, under the title of Jablonshii Opuscula. The Egyp¬
tian glossary forms the first volume of this collection, and,
from the great erudition displayed in it, is calculated to add
new lustre to the reputation of its celebrated author.
Amongst those who cultivated some acquaintance with
Coptic may be mentioned Bayer, who studied it in the
works of Lacroze ; Richard Cumberland, bishop of Peter¬
borough, who, having received a copy of Wilkins’ Coptic
New 1 estament, commenced the study of the language in
his eighty-fourth year ; George Whiston, who copied and
translated into Latin the Pentateuch, and also composed a
Coptic lexicon ; Wasse and Gagnier, the latter of whom
copied for Lacroze the Acts of the Apostles in the Sa¬
hidic dialect, from a manuscript in the Bodleian Library ;
Henselius, who gave some details on the Coptic in his
Synopsis Universce Philologice, et Harmonia Linguarum (v
totius Orbis, Nuremberg, 1741; the Abbe Barthelemy, who, W
in his Reflexions Generates sur les Rapports des Langues
Egyptienne, Phenicienne, et Greque, inserted in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Belles-Lettres, evinced a consi¬
derable acquaintance with Coptic; Kocher of Berne, the au¬
thor of a very learned dissertation Be Etymo nominum Cm-
phis, aliorumque adflnium, ex JEgypto repetundo, praised
by Jablonski and Reiske; and Schmidt of the same place,
who devoted himself exclusively to Egyptian studies, made
frequent use of the Coptic to explain Egyptian words, parti¬
cularly in his able dissertation Sur une Colonie Egyptienne
etablie aux Indes, and even composed a Coptic dictionary.
Raphael Tuki, who was a Copt by birth, and bishop of Arsi-
noe, printed at Rome the liturgic works of his nation, in
Coptic and in Arabic. He published the missal in 1736, the
psalter in 1744, the diurnal in 1750, the first part of the
pontifical in 1761, the second in 1762, the ritual in 1763,
and, lastly, the office of the Virgin in 1764. Tuki also com¬
posed a Coptic grammar, which was published at Rome in
1778, by the congregation of the Propaganda, but which,
like all the works of the orientals on the subject of gram¬
mar, is defective in method, and devoid of critical accura¬
cy. Assemanni also published at Rome various liturgic
pieces in Coptic and Arabic, with a Latin version. Last¬
ly, Christopher Muller, in a work entitled Satura Observa-
tionum Philologicarum, Leyden, 1752, made some use of
the Coptic, which he had learned with the help of Lacroze’s
dictionary, communicated to him by Dithmar Hakman, mi¬
nister at Wassenaer.
Scholtz, preacher to the king of Prussia at Berlin, occu¬
pied himself with ardour in the study of Coptic. In 1748, he
obtained permission from the university of Leyden to take a
copy of Lacroze’s lexicon ; and this was accordingly done by
Woide, a Pole, then a student in that university, who also
took a copy of the dictionary for himself. Before this, Scholtz,
being brother-in-law to Jablonski, had been assisted in his
Coptic studies by that celebrated scholar, who communi¬
cated to him copies of his manuscripts; and having also at
his disposal all the treasures of the library of Berlin, with
the inedited remarks of Lacroze, he had composed a gram¬
mar of the Memphitic and Sahidic dialects, and a disserta¬
tion on the Coptic language. Afterwards, becoming possessor
of the lexicon of Lacroze, and conceiving that the size of
the work would be an obstacle to its publication, he made
an abridgment of it, in which he carefully preserved all the
wmrds and significations, contenting himself with retrench¬
ing only the passages which in the original had been cited
at length. This work had been completed, when, in 1765,
Woide, passing through Berlin on his way to England, was
intrusted by Scholtz with the abridgment of the dictionary,
the grammar, and the dissertation, in order that he might
endeavour to get them published. Woide, on his arrival
in this country, applied to Dr Durell, vice-chancellor of Ox¬
ford, and, after a negotiation of more than two years, it w as
at length decided that the lexicon, grammar, and dissertation
should be published at the expense of the university of Ox¬
ford. It was judged proper to print the dictionary first, as
being the most important work. Woide, however, being dis¬
satisfied with the abridgment of Scholtz, would have prefer¬
red publishing the lexicon as Lacroze had left it, with the
passages cited at length ; but although it would have been
easy to verify the citations from the New Testament and the
Pentateuch by the printed copies, it became almost impos¬
sible to refer to the passages from the psalms, liturgies, and
other inedited works, of which there existed at most only
two or three copies, in each of which the pagination was
different. On the other hand, Lacroze, in composing his dic¬
tionary, had possessed but few aids ; the works which he put
under contribution being the New Testament, the psalms,
the liturgies of St Basil, St Gregory, and St Cyril, and some
HIEROGLYPHICS.
extracts from the Pentateuch, Daniel, and the office of pas-
J sion week. Sensible of the imperfection of this work, Woide,
having collected a great number of additions from the Pen¬
tateuch, a volume of Coptic prayers, and other sources, soli¬
cited and obtained permission to insert these additions in the
text of the dictionary. But the impression being already
considerably advanced, and Scholtz, who wished the diction¬
ary to be as short as possible, having desired the additions
to be made at the end, Woide, after printing a small num¬
ber in the body of the dictionary, where they appear in
parentheses, resolved to publish a supplement in a separate
form; and, in fact, he composed a very extensive Sahidic
dictionary, though he was prevented by circumstances from
completing his whole design.
The dictionary of Lacroze appeared in the year 1775,
and the printing of the grammar was next commenced.
But as this work, from its great length and want of me¬
thod, seemed rather calculated to repel than to encourage
students, it was resolved to print only an extract, and to
deposit the original in the Bodleian Library. Scholtz con¬
sented to this arrangement, and Woide undertook to exe¬
cute an abridgment of the work, which appeared in 1778.
Woide performed his task with equal judgment and abi¬
lity; he changed the plan adopted by Scholtz, who had
separated the elements of the Sahidic dialect from those of
the Memphitic; he recast both grammars into one, con¬
tenting himself with indicating, after each rule of the Mem¬
phitic dialect, the relations or the differences presented by
the Sahidic; he expunged whatever seemed superfluous or
useless, and inserted new observations, the fruit of a pro¬
found study of the language, with a multitude of passages
and examples drawn from the Memphitic and Sahidic ma¬
nuscripts which he had copied. His next undertaking was
to collect and to publish all the fragments extant of the
Sahidic version of the New Testament; and the impres¬
sion was already far advanced, when death put a period to
his laborious and useful career. But the work was conti¬
nued by Ford, professor of Arabic at Oxford, and appear¬
ed in 1799, in one volume folio. Woide left numerous
copies of Coptic and Sahidic manuscripts, a dissertation in
English on the Coptic language, and the supplement to the
lexicon of Lacroze.
With the aid of this dictionary, which Woide had lent
him, J. Reinhold Foster applied to the study of Coptic, in
which he made great pi*oficiency, as appears by his letters
to Michaelis, and by his work t)e Bysso Antiquorum. In
1767, Tromler published at Leipsig a small volume entitled
Bibliothecce Copto-Jacobiticce Specimen, containing an enu¬
meration of the works which had appeared on the language,
history, and religion of the Copts, and preceded by a dis¬
sertation de Fatis Linguae Copticce. At Rome, the cele¬
brated Cardinal Borgia, distinguished as a zealous and mu¬
nificent patron of letters, engaged Georgi, who, in his Al-
phabetum Tibetanum, had evinced an intimate acquaintance
with Coptic, to publish an ancient Sahidic fragment in his
cabinet containing part of the Acts of St Coluthus. This
work appeared at Rome in 1781, with a translation and
notes by Georgi, and accompanied with a curious preface,
in which the learned cardinal himself relates all that is
known of the history and worship of St Coluthus. Georgi
then occupied himself in translating and commenting on a
very ancient fragment in the same cabinet, containing
the Greek text and the Sahidic version of a portion of St
John. This work appeared in 1789. In 1793, he publish¬
ed a second edition of the Acts of St Coluthus, with new
additions, numerous notes, and a variety of Sahidic frag¬
ments from the cabinet of Cardinal Borgia. In the pre¬
face he has inserted extracts from several acts of martyrs,
written in the Memphitic dialect, which the cardinal had
caused to be copied by Tuki, from a manuscript in the
Vatican Library; but the careless Copt had done his
work very negligently, for the copy made by him is full
of errors.
Whilst the works of Georgi thus contributed to advance
the study of Coptic in the south, several learned men of the
north of Europe directed their attention to that language.
Adler, already distinguished by his acquirements as an orien¬
talist, having learned Coptic during his residence at Rome,
proceeded to examine the Sahidic manuscripts of Cardinal
Borgia, after which he copied the book of Job and the frag¬
ments of the New Testament; he also employed the Coptic
language to explain several Egyptian words. Munter,
whom Cardinal Borgia had induced to study Coptic, caus¬
ed to be printed at Rome, in 1786, the ninth chapter ot
Daniel, in the two dialects, with a translation and notes.
On his return to Copenhagen he also published an excel¬
lent dissertation on the Sahidic version of the New Testa¬
ment, to which he subjoined fragments of the epistles of
St Paul to Timothy. Munter afterwards undertook, in
conjunction with Adler, to publish the prophecy of Da¬
niel in the Memphitic dialect, the book of Job, the greater
part of the book of Proverbs, and fragments of the New
Testament, in the Sahidic dialect.
Mingarelli, who at an advanced age studied Coptic, pub¬
lished at Bologna in 1785, several Sahidic fragments from
the collection of the Chevalier Nani at Venice, with a
Latin translation and notes. Zoega, of whom we have al¬
ready spoken, made frequent use of the Coptic in his learn¬
ed works on Egyptian coins, and also in that on the origin
and use of the obelisks. It was he whom Cardinal Borgia
selected to prepare a detailed catalogue of the Coptic and
Sahidic manuscripts of his collection. Father Simeon a
Magistris, in his edition of Daniel according to the Sep-
tuagint, and Bernard de Rossi in his dissertation Bella Lin¬
gua propria di Cristo, have given some details respecting
the Coptic language. In the year 1785, Thomas Valperga,
abbot of Caluso, published at Parma a grammar of the
Coptic language, under the assumed name of Didymus of
Turin. Baron Silvestre de Sacy, one of the most learned
orientalists of modern times, has made use of the Coptic
language for explaining several Egyptian words, in his Ob¬
servations on the name of the Pyramids, and also in his
Letter on the triple inscription of Rosetta. Mr Akerblad,
a learned Swede, applied with indefatigable ardour to the
study of Coptic during his residence at Paris and at Rome ;
and his Letter on the inscription of Rosetta, in which he
displayed equal erudition and sagacity, entitled him to rank
amongst the small number of those who have thoroughly
understood Coptic. In this class a distinguished place must
be allotted to the accomplished author of the Recherches sur
la Langue et la Litterature de VEgypte ; a work which is
not more remarkable for profound research and extensive
erudition, than for sound criticism and the happy union of
conciseness and perspicuity. Nor is the celebrated author
of Asia Polyglotta inferior to any of his predecessors or
contemporaries in the knowledge of Coptic. This he has
made sufficiently evident by his Letters on Acrological
Hieroglyphics, and still more by his Examen Critique des
Travaux defeu M. Champollion sur les Hieroglyphes, Paris,
1832, a work of disproportionate severity, but of great
learning and extreme critical acuteness.
Without a knowledge of Coptic it is next to impossible^
to make any advance worth mentioning in the study of
hieroglyphics. This is too obvious to require almost any
illustration. If the Coptic be essentially identical with the
ancient Egyptian, that is, if the remains of the latter be in¬
corporated in the different dialects of the former, it is evi¬
dent that the phonetic alphabet can never be applied to any
good purpose except by those who are in a condition to dis¬
tinguish and to understand something of the language in
which the inscriptions are written. A person ignorant of
Coptic may indeed decipher, by means of this alphabet, the
315
Coptic.
316
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Rosetta foreign proper names contained in the ovals or rings ; but frequently in the enchorial inscription than in the Greek, tto$
Inscription.beyond this he cannot advance a single step; to him a le- which often substitutes for it country only, or omits it’lnscri t
gend or a text must be as inaccessible as if nothing had entirely. Having thus obtained a sufficient number of^
been done on the subject of hieroglyphics since the days common points of subdivision, we may next proceed to
of Pierius and of Kircher. Accordingly, all those who have write the Greek text over the enchorial, in such a man-
recently treated of the subject evince, by their writings, ner that the passages ascertained may all coincide as near-
that they have been at pains to acquire in a greater or ly as possible ; and it is obvious that the intermediate
less degree this indispensable preliminary qualification, parts of each inscription will then stand very near to the
See, in particular, Rosellini, I Monumenti dell' Egitto e corresponding passages of the other.
della Nubia, Pisa, 1832, 1833, 1834; and Wilkinson, ilfa- In this process, it'will be necessary to observe that the
teria Hierogh/phica, Malta, 1828 ; also Topography of lines of the enchorial inscription are written from right to
Thebes, and General View of Egypt, London, 1835.1 left, as, Herodotus tells us, was the custom of the Egyp¬
tians ; the division of several words and phrases plainly in¬
dicating the direction in which they are to be read. It
III. DR young’s analysis of the triple inscription is well known that the distinct hieroglyphical inscriptions,
of rosetta. engraved on different monuments, differ in the direction
of the corresponding characters. They always face the
The block or pillar of black basalt, found by the French right or the left of the spectator, according as the prin-
in digging up some ground at Rosetta, and now placed in cipal personages of the tablets to which they belong are
the British Museum, exhibits the remains of three dis- looking in the one or the other direction ; but vvhere
tinct inscriptions ; and the last, which is in Greek, ends there are no tablets, they almost always look towards
with the information, that the decree which it contains the right; and it is easily demonstrable that they must
was ordered to be engraved in three different characters, uniformly have been read beginning from the front and
the sacred letters, the letters of the country, and the proceeding to the rear of each rank. But the Egyptians
Greek. Unfortunately a considerable part of the first seem never to have written alternately backwards and
inscription is wanting; the beginning of the second, and forwards, as the most ancient Greeks occasionally did. In
the end of the third, are also mutilated; we have, there- both cases, however, the whole of the characters thus
fore, no precise points of coincidence from which we can employed were completely reversed in the two different
set out, in our attempts to decipher the unknown charac- modes of using them, as if they were seen in a glass, or
ters. The second inscription, which it will be safest to printed off like the impression of a seal,
distinguish by the Greek name enchorial, signifying mere- By pursuing the comparison of the inscriptions thus
ly the characters of the country, notwithstanding its de- arranged, we ultimately discover the signification of the
ficiencies near the beginning, is still sufficiently perfect to greater part of the individual enchorial words ; and the
allow .us to compare its different parts with each other, result of the investigation leads us to observe some slight
and with the Greek, by the same method which we should differences in the form and order of some parts of the dif-
employ it it were entire. Thus, if we examine the parts ferent inscriptions, which are indicated in the conjectural
corresponding, in their relative situation, to two passages translation published in the Archceologia and in the Mu-
of the Greek inscription in which the proper names Alex- seum Criticum. The degree of evidence in favour of the
ander and Alexandria occur, we soon recognise two well- supposed signification of each assemblage of characters
marked groups of characters resembling each other, which may be most conveniently appreciated, by arranging them
we may therefore consider as representing these names ; in a lexicographical form, according to the words°of the
a remark which was first made by M. de Sacy, in his let- translation, the enchorial words themselves not readily
ter relating to this inscription. A small group of charac- admitting a similar arrangement; but the subject is not
ters, occurring very often in almost every line, might be of sufficient interest for the public to make it necessary
either ^ome termination, or some very common particle; that this little lexicon should be engraved at length,
it must, therefore, be reserved till it be found in some de- It might naturally have been expected that the final
cisive situation, after other words have been identified, characters of the enchorial inscription, of which the sense
and it will then be.easily shown to mean and. The next is thus determined with tolerable certainty, although the
remarkable collection of characters is repeated twenty- corresponding part of the Greek is wanting, would have
nine or thirty times in the enchorial inscription; and we immediately led us to a knowledge of the concluding
find nothing which occurs so often in the Greek, except phrase of the distinct hieroglyphical characters, which
the word king, with its compounds, which is found about remains unimpaired. But the agreement between the
111 ^"®even Bmes. A fourth assemblage of characters is two conclusions is by no means precise ; and the difficulty
ounu foui teen times in the enchorial inscription, agreeing can only be removed by supposing the king to be express-
sufnciently well in frequency with the name of Ptolemy, ly named in the one, whilst he is only designated by his
which occurs eleven times in the Greek, and generally in titles in the other. With this slight variation, and with
passages corresponding to those of the enchorial text in the knowledge of the singular accident, that the name of
their relative situation ; and, by a similar comparison, the Ptolemy occurs three times in a passage of the enchorial
name of Egypt \s identified, although it occurs much more inscription, where the Greek has it but twice, we pro-
fn lure. Vruroi Wc • fi remains or a very interesting period, ne proceeds thus : “ Another object worthy of the attention of
mid 4mhtr ' 18 ^ ancient library of a Copt convent at the Natron Lakes, where, besides many other manuscripts, is a Coptic
of Oalipt-ib 'V10?’ t^?iUg1 ^ cannot be purchased, might he copied, on a proper application for that purpose to the patriarch
Fn-vnf denoml ontiroi n( ,^S ^ le stu! ^ of hieroglyphics, and our future insight into the long-lost language and early history of
/i-rrivhii of Tttrhp? Ac ? \ Q possession of a similar work, it would at the present moment be an inestimable acquisition.” , (Topo-
tn pqtimRfP - f we have known or learned of oriental lexicographers or grammarians, we are not in-
, i.r, “ t- J r ' 1 Ik’1'son has here done, the advantages likely to result from the acquisition of this lexicon ; but,
the dictionary more esneebdi^^f Wlth him tlnljking that “ proper” means should immediately be employed to obtain a copy of
tain ner mission to rnnv it ^ te aPPears ^ *)e so highly prized by the Copts. Mr Wilkinson informs us that his own efforts to ob-
would most nrohahSv^fm 1 it °Ve 1LUlless- J!ut 11 the viceroy were induced to signify his pleasure on the subject, the patriarch
would most probably find it convenient not to withhold his assent. 1 J 1
HIEROGLYPHICS.
jto. -a ceed to identify this name amongst the sacred characters,
[nscrjiou-in a form sufficiently conspicuous to have been recognis-
^ ^ ed upon the most superficial examination of the inscrip¬
tions, if this total disagreement of the frequency of occur¬
rence had not imposed the condition of a long and labo¬
rious investigation, as an indispensable requisite for the
solution of so much of the enigma. This step, however,
being made good, we obtain from it a tolerably correct
scale for the comparative extent of the sacred characters,
of which it now appears that almost half of the lines are
entirely wanting, whilst those that remain are also much
mutilated. Such a scale may also be obtained, in a differ¬
ent manner, by marking, on a straight ruler, the places in
which the most characteristic words, such as god, king,
priest, and shrine occur, in the latter parts of the other in¬
scriptions, at distances proportional to the actual distances
from the end ; and then trying to find corresponding cha¬
racters amongst the hieroglyphics of the first inscription,
by varying the obliquity of the ruler, so as to correspond
to all possible lengths which that inscription can be sup¬
posed to have occupied, allowing always a certain latitude
for the variations of the comparative lengths of the differ¬
ent phrases and expressions. By these steps it is not very
difficult to assure ourselves, that a shrine and a priest are
denoted by representations which must have been intend¬
ed for pictures of objects denoted by them ; and this ap¬
pears to be the precise point of the investigation at which
it becomes completely demonstrative, and promises a
substantial foundation for further inferences. The other
terms, god and king, are still more easily ascertained, from
their situation near the name of Ptolemy.
The most material points of the three inscriptions hav¬
ing been thus identified, they may all be written side by
side; and the sense of the respective characters may be
still further investigated, by a minute comparison of the
different parts with each other. The last line of the sa¬
cred characters, with the corresponding parts of the other
inscriptions, which the reader will find represented under
the head Specimens of Phrases, will serve as an illustra¬
tion of the result which has been obtained from these ope¬
rations.
In thus comparing the enchorial with the sacred cha¬
racters, we find many coincidences in their forms, by far
too accurate to be compatible with the supposition that
the enchorial could be of a nature purely alphabetical.
It is evident, for example, that the enchorial characters
for a diadem, an asp, and overliving, are immediately bor¬
rowed from the sacred. But this coincidence cannot
certainly be traced throughout the inscriptions; and it
seemed natural to suppose, that alphabetical characters
might be interspersed with hieroglyphics, in the same way
that the astronomers and chemists of modern times have
often employed arbitrary marks, as compendious expres¬
sions of the objects which were most frequently to be
mentioned in their respective sciences. But no effort,
however determined and persevering, had been able to
discover any alphabet which could fairly be said to ren¬
der the inscription, in general, at all like what was requir¬
ed to make its language intelligible Egyptian, although
most of the proper names seemed to exhibit a tolerable
agreement with the forms of letters indicated by Mr Aker-
blad ; a coincidence, indeed, which might be found in the
Chinese, or in any other character not alphabetical, if
they employed words of the simplest sounds for writing
compound proper names.
The question, however, respecting the nature of the
enchorial character, appears to be satisfactorily decided by
a comparison with each other, of various manuscripts or
papyri still extant. Several of these, published in the De¬
scription de I'Egypte, have always been considered as spe¬
cimens of the alphabetical writing of the Egyptians, and
317
certainly have as little appearance of being imitations of Rosetta
visible objects, as any of the characters of this inscription, ^nscrT^on*
or as the old Arabic or Syriac characters, to which they
bear, at first sight, a considerable resemblance. But they
are generally accompanied by tablets, or delineations of
certain scenes, consisting of a few visible objects, either
detached, or placed in certain intelligible relations to each
other; and we may generally discover traces of some of
these objects amongst the characters of the text that ac¬
companies them. A similar correspondence between the
text and the tablets is still more readily observable in
other manuscripts, written in distinct hieroglyphics, slight¬
ly yet not inelegantly traced, in a hand which appears to
have been denoted by the term hieratic ; and b}^ compar¬
ing with each other such parts of the text of these manu¬
scripts as stand under tablets of the same kind, we dis¬
cover, upon a very minute examination, that every cha¬
racter of the distinct hieroglyphics has its corresponding
trace in the running hand ; sometimes a mere dash or line,
but often perfectly distinguishable, as a coarse copy of
the original delineation, and always alike when it answers
to the same character. The particular passages which
establish this identity extend to a series of above ten
thousand characters ; they have been copied in adjoining
lines, and carefully collated with each other; and their
number has been increased, by a comparison with some
yet unpublished rolls of papyrus. A few specimens from
different manuscripts, sufficient to show the forms through
which the original representation has passed, in its de¬
gradation from the sacred character, through the hieratic,
into the epistolographic, or common running hand of the
country, will be found under the head of Comparison of
Manuscripts.
It seems at first sight incomprehensible that this coin¬
cidence, or rather correspondence, should not be equally
observable in the two inscriptions of the Rosetta stone,
which, if the enchorial character is merely a degradation
of the sacred, must naturally be supposed to be as much
alike as those of the different manuscripts in question ;
whilst, in reality, we can but seldom trace any very strik¬
ing analogy between them. But the enchorial character,
having long been used in rapid writing, and for the ordi¬
nary purposes of life, appears to have become so indis¬
tinct in its forms, that it was often necessary to add to it
some epithet or synonym, serving to mark the object more
distinctly; just as, in speaking Chinese, when the words
are translated from written characters into a more limit¬
ed number of sounds, it is often necessary, on account ot
the imperfection of the oral language, to add a generic
word, in order to determine the signification, and to read,
for example, a goose bird, when a goose only is written, in
order to distinguish it from some other idea implied by a
similar sound ; and just as in English we might sometimes
be obliged to say a yew tree, ip order to distinguish it from
a ewe sheep, or you yourself, or the letter u. Ihe enchorial
character, therefore, though drawn from the same source,
can scarcely, in this form, be called the same language
with the sacred hieroglyphics, which had probably remain¬
ed unaltered from the earliest ages, whilst the running
hand admitted all the variations of the popular dialects,
and bore but a faint resemblance to its original prototype.
Indeed, if it had been completely identical, there could
have been no propriety in repeating the inscription with
so slight a change of form.
The rituals and hymns contained in the manuscripts
which have been mentioned, are probably either of higher
antiquity than the inscription of Rosetta, or had preserved
a greater purity of character, as having been continually
copied from older originals. It is also remarkable, that in
one of these rolls of papyrus, engraved by Denon, the in¬
troduction is in the sacred character, and some of the
318
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Vocabu- phrases contained in it may be observed to be repeated in
lary. the subsequent part qf the manuscript, which is in a kind
of running hand, though somewhat less degraded than in
most other instances.
It was not unnatural to hope, that the comparison of
these different manuscripts would have assisted us very
materially in tracing back all the enchorial characters to
the corresponding hieroglyphics, as far as the parts of the
respective inscriptions remain entire, and even in filling up
the deficiencies of the sacred characters where they are
wanting ; and something has certainly been gained from it
with respect to the names of several of the deities ; but, on
account of the differences which had crept in between the
forms of the language, expressed by the sacred and the
cursive characters, the advantage has hitherto been ex¬
tremely limited. It seems, indeed, to have been a condi¬
tion inseparable from the whole of this investigation, that
its steps should be intricate and laborious, beyond all that
could have been imagined from our previous knowledge of
the subject; and that, whilst a number of speculative rea-
soners have persuaded themselves, at different times, that
they were able to read through a hieroglyphical inscription
in the most satisfactory manner, beginning at either end,
as it might happen, the only monument which has afforded
us any real foundations for reasoning on the subject, is
more calculated to repress than to encourage our hopes of
ever becoming complete masters of the ancient literature
of Egypt; although it is unquestionably capable of serving
as a key to much important information with respect to
its history and mythology. Nor is it by any means impos¬
sible, that a careful consideration of other monuments al¬
ready known, or of such as are now discovered from day to
day, may enable us to detect a number of unknown cha¬
racters, so situated with respect to others which are al¬
ready understood, as to carry with them their own inter¬
pretation, supported by a degree of evidence far exceed¬
ing mere conjecture.
IV. RUDIMENTS OF AN HIEROGLYPHICAL VOCABULARY.
fully justified by the testimony of Plutarch, that “ the Vocal
figures of judges were represented without hands.” iarT
2. A Goddess is denoted by the hatchet or sitting figure, '’“’V
with the addition of the female characteristic, generally as
a termination ; but sometimes the simple character is ap¬
plied to gods and goddesses indifferently.
GODDESS. f '4 »
twort o y, o <1 41
The semicircle and oblique oval, distinguishing the fe¬
minine gender, are observable in almost all well-marked
names of females found in different tablets; and the crook¬
ed line, which corresponds to them, in the enchorial cha¬
racter of the stone of Rosetta, may be distinguished at the
end of each of the five names of females that occur in the
inscription. Occasionally the characteristic is prefixed,
and this position agrees better with the Coptic ti, which
distinguishes a female. Nor must we omit to observe, that
a semicircle seems to answer to the x in some other cases,
and is always expressed in the running hand by the cha¬
racter which Mr Akerblad calls x or d, and which is also
exactly the Syriac x. The asp or basilisk standing erect
is a symbol of divinity, which occurs on the green sarco¬
phagus called the tomb of Alexander, and elsewhere, in¬
stead of the more ordinary character. In a few instances,
the semicircle is found without the oblique oval. The
plural, Gods,
GODS.
CiJVJVorf
T
□
D
is formed by repeating the character three times, or by
placing three dashes after, or sometimes before it. In the
enchorial inscription, the dashes are united into a crooked
line, and are placed in this instance both before and after
the principal character; but, in general, the second line is
straighter than the first. The dual is expressed by a dou¬
ble character only.
3. A winged globe, sometimes flattened as if intended for
an egg, but often coloured red, is very commonly repre¬
sented as hovering over a hero, and generally occupies
the lintel of some of the doors of a temple.
1. Deities.
1. The word God is always represented in the inscription
of Rosetta, and often in many others, by a character resem¬
bling a particular kind of hatchet, which is delineated re¬
peatedly at Medinet-Habou as a weapon in the hands of
warriors, and is even found amongst the modern weapons
engraved by Denon.1
GOD powerful.
XOTT
r
G OD judge.
r, ffo it
£,f(£ f.itk
This character is frequently exchanged, in parallel pas¬
sages of different manuscripts, or of the same, for a figure
sitting or standing without distinct arms or feet, either
with a human head or a hawk’s head; or sometimes, by a
deviation from the correct nature of an abstract or general
term, with the heads of different animals, according to the
character of the deity to whom it is applied. But in the
inscription of Rosetta this symbol appears to be exclusive¬
ly appropriated to the gods in their judicial capacity; and
R occurs several tunes in the term meaning lawful, which
will be afterwards explained. This interpretation is also
Agathodaemon.
JAvorqi ?
A globe nearly similar is also sometimes connected with
the head and tail of a serpent, bearing the symbol of life,
which is the common characteristic of a deity. There can,
therefore, be no objection to considering these representa¬
tions as belonging to the Agathodaemon, or Chnuphis of
the Greek authors; and the same symbol is sometimes
found in the text of an inscription, in the neighbourhood
of the pictural representation. Its sense may therefore be
considered as tolerably well ascertained; but the evidence
being somewhat indirect, the name is inserted in smaller
characters, the same distinction being also observed in
other instances. Mr Bruce informs us, in his letter to Mr
M ood, that in some parts of the Tunisian dominions, ser¬
pents are still regarded as a kind of good angels. The
Chnubis, or Chnumis, of the amulets, is generally repre¬
sented as a serpent with a human head, or with that of a
lion ; and the former combination is not uncommon in the
tablets of the manuscripts; but the hieroglyphic denoting
it is a long undulated line, totally distinct from this cha¬
racter.
4. The symbol, often called the Hieralpha, or sacred a,
corresponds, in the inscription of Rosetta, to Phthah, or
Vulcan, one of the principal deities of the Egyptians.
See plate xcv. of Denon’s work. In the figures inserted in the text
and in the enchorial characters of the Rosetta inscription.
representation is for the most part given in the sacred
HIEROGLYPHICS.
319
• rnwiAir. « ^ •
/lTS.g 9 j
J A multitude of other sculptures sufficiently prove, that
the object intended to be delineated was a plough or hoe ;
and we are informed by Eusebius, from Plato, that the
Egyptian Vulcan was considered as the inventor of instru¬
ments of war and of husbandry. In many other inscrip¬
tions, the pedestal or pulley is used indifferently for the
plough. Horus Apollo tells us, that Vulcan was denoted by
a beetle; and the Monticcelion obelisk of Kircher has the
plough on three sides and the beetle on the fourth. Ho¬
rus Apollo, however, is seldom perfectly correct; and the
names of different divinities are frequently exchanged on
the banners of the same obelisk; nor is there any clear in¬
stance of such an exchange of the plough for the beetle as
occurs perpetually in the case of the pedestal. The beetle
is frequently used for the name of a deity whose head ei¬
ther bears a beetle, or is itself in the form of a beetle ; and
in other instances the beetle has clearly a reference to ge¬
neration or reproduction, which is a sense attributed to
this symbol by all antiquity; so that it may possibly some¬
times have been used as a synonym for Phthah, as the fa¬
ther of the gods. The plough is very rarely found as the
name of a personage actually represented; and it is diffi¬
cult to say under what form the Egyptian Vulcan was
chiefly worshipped; but on the tablet of a Horus of bad
workmanship, belonging to the Borgian Museum, he is ex¬
hibited with a hawk’s head, holding a spear; whilst in the
great ritual of the Description de VEgypte (Antiq. ii. pi.
72, col. 104), he seems to be represented by a figure with
a human head; an exchange, however, which is very com¬
mon in some other cases, with respect to these two per¬
sonifications, though it does not extend to the substitution
of the heads of different animals for each other.
5. Ammon, the Egyptian Jupiter, is sufficiently identified
by a combination of evidence of various kinds, although no
single link of the chain extends very far. A figure with a
ram’s head is denoted, both on the green sarcophagus and
on the temple at Elephantine, by a water jar, sometimes,
but not always, accompanied by a bird.
AMMON.
their masters in Egypt; since it is not very probable that Vocabu-
both should have employed a point in the centre of the cir- lai7*
cle, without some communication with each other, the cir-
cle alone having been mentioned by some of the Greek au¬
thors, who say that it was the symbol of the sun.
PURE. _ ^ n ^ S S
II JUS foo fo
r>
qjpM
The deity Ra, Re, or Pure, is indicated by this character
followed by an upright bar; and the circle is often enve¬
loped in the coil of the body of a serpent, whilst an oval
and an arm also frequently follow the circle. The encho¬
rial name of the sun is extremely like that which corre¬
sponds in the manuscripts to this hieroglyphic. And a
similar circle, with rays diverging from it, though seldom
exactly in straight lines, is used in the sense of “ enlight¬
ening,” or “ rendering illustriousand it has also been
observed by some of the French, who have been in Egypt,
to stand in several inscriptions with a manifest reference
to light. The circle occurs also as a part of the terms month
and day. In the great Hieratic Ritual, and in some other
manuscripts, this name of Phre occurs very frequently un¬
der or near the tablet which contains a representation of
the sun shining, as well as under the next to it, which ex¬
hibits a head rising out of a lotus, an emblem mentioned by
Plutarch as relating to the sun, which here is made to spring
from the pedestal, as the sun is said to have been the off¬
spring of Phthah. Whatever plant that called the lotus
may have been, it certainly does not much resemble the
nelumbo of the East, which some imagine to have been the
original emblem of fertility. The name Phre is almost the
only intelligible combination of letters that ever occurs on
the Abraxas2 or amulets ; and the monster to which it re¬
lates has generally radiations from its head, and is sur¬
rounded by six stars. The tablets of the sun in the ma¬
nuscripts exhibit also little genii worshipping him, each of
which is always marked “ star god.”
7. The name of Rhea may, without impropriety, be as¬
signed to a female personage very commonly accompanying
the sun, and distinguished by many of his attributes, thus :
RHEA. ^ Q v ^
t$e
O
a
^ -A.
Now, a water jar of this form is constantly converted, in
the running hand of the manuscripts, into a character like
a z; and this character, in the enchorial text of Rosetta, is
made to express the name of Jupiter ; a fact which con¬
firms the testimony of the Greek authors, who considered
the Egyptian Jupiter as having been represented with a
ram’s head. A similar figure is found at Edfou (Apol-
linopohs Magna), and at Esneh (Latopolis). The temple
at Edfou seems to have been dedicated by Amenophis or
Memnon ; and he appears to be called “ lover of Ammon,”
that is, Miamun,1 which is not unlike the name Memnon.
6. The common astronomical diagram for the sun, 0,
seems to have been adopted by the Latin astrologers from
although the evidence would have been somewhat more
conclusive if the name had been found attached to the
figure of the mother in the tablet of the birth of Isis. On
the coffins of the mummies, this personage is generally re¬
presented with outstretched wings, and in other tablets
without wings ; but she carries in both cases a circle on her
head, emblematic of the sun. If we considered the ana¬
logy of the hieroglyphical name only, vre should be disposed
to interpret it as meaning the wife or sister of Ammon.
8. Ioh, the moon, is not a deity of very frequent occur¬
rence ; but the character is easily interpreted, both from
its form, and from its being found in a different position, as
a part of the word month. /
1 Or rather Meiamun, which is more like Memnon, and may also mean “ beloved of Ammon. .• , f Gr«eCo
2 The word Abraxas or A bra sax-, which Michaelis supposes, with reason, to be older than the days o^
Egyptian origin, may nevertheless be considered as the principal and ordinary name o le asi u ’S ’ F nt- ^ Cnien(w
that the whole superstition of the Gnostic or Basilidian school of heretics was founded upon the ^ ^ptl,ph“ e a ’
Abraxas or Abrasax being composed of the six Greek letters which represent the number of days in the Egyptian year. Ihus,
. 2
.100
. 1
.200
. 1
. 60
365
oou
Abraxas being composed of the very same letters transposed, would of course give precisely the same result. (Vide Auct. apud Mont-
feucon, p. 355 et secjcp ; Jablonskij Dissert* de Nom* Abraxas^ § 12. Ojpusc* tcuu. iv. p. JO et secppj
320
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Vocabu¬
lary.
IOH.
AIDS
€
$
At Denderah this character is accompanied by the epithet
God, and without any female termination, as well as in se¬
veral passages of an epistolographic manuscript sent home
by Mr Bankes ; a circumstance which is favourable to the
opinion that loh was considered as masculine in mythology
as well as in grammar, just as men or lunus was sometimes
made masculine by the Greeks and Romans. The fact,
however, is not absolutely decisive of this question, since
the character is not accompanied by the delineation of any
personification of the deity.
9. The historical description of the god Thoth, or Her¬
mes, as the scribe or secretary of Osiris, and the inventor of
writing, sufficiently identifies him with the person who is
perpetually represented standing before Osiris, and writ¬
ing with a quill or a style on a square or oblong tablet. He
has always the head of an ibis, and this bird, standing on a
perch, constitutes his hieroglyphical name, as the ibis is
known to have been the emblem of Thoth. The hierogly¬
phic for letters is also frequently found amongst his titles;
and all these circumstances abundantly confirm the opinion
of his true character, which Zoega and others had already
advanced from conjecture only.
THOTH. E3T3 c-
eojoro shsJkL
m @ «\/'unC±
The enchorial name is very much disfigured, but the manu¬
scripts exhibit a character which may serve to supply the
connecting link, and another abridgment of the name
which deviates still more widely from the original, being
simply the common substitute for a feather, which here
seems to stand for the whole bird, or perhaps merely for a
feather which is often found projecting from the end of the
perch. Next to Osiris, we find that Thoth is of more fre¬
quent occurrence than any other deity in the great ritual;
and it is probable that the mummies of the ibis, which are
so commonly found, were preserved in honour of him. The
semicircle with two oblique dashes, under the perch, seems
to correspond to the epithet “ great and great” of the Ro¬
setta inscription ; this character being generally significa¬
tive of a dual. The scale, with eight dashes, and two other
characters, is also very frequently employed as an epithet,
and sometimes as a synonym of Thoth; it seems to mean
“ Dispenser of the eight treasures, or laws, of the country,”
for Diodorus informs us that the principal laws of Egypt
wfere contained in eight books.
10. The name of Osiris is found, with the epithet “di¬
vine,” in a great majority of all the mythological inscriptions
that have yet been discovered; so that this circumstance
alone is sufficient to show that it must have been that of the
principal deity of Egypt.
OSIRIS.
ognpj
I he enchorial character of the inscription of Rosetta is
readily identified, and it agrees perfectly well with that of
the manuscripts, answering to the eye and the throne ; so
that the manuscripts here completely supply the want of
that part of the stone which contained the name in the sa¬
cred characters. I his name is also universally annexed to
the great figure which is found at the end of almost all the
manuscripts, and on the coffins of mummies, holding a hook
and a whip or fan, and of which the small detached images
are also extremely common. ^ In the sculptured inscrip¬
tions, the eye generally precedes the throne; in the run-
ning hand of the manuscripts, and on the coffins of some
mummies, apparently of later date, the eye sometimes fol¬
lows. Plutarch had perhaps been rightly informed respect- Vcc,
ing this character; but by a mistake, which was easily com- lar
mitted from a want of perfect recollection, he has called it ''■'V
“ an eye and a sceptre ;” and this combination has not been
recognised as the name of a deity, though a symbol some¬
thing like it occurs in some of the tablets. The pictured
delineation of Osiris has indifferently a human head or that
of a hawk, but never that of any other animal. The tear
seems also sometimes to have been used as an emblem of
Osiris, as well as of Apis and Mneuis, who were considered
as representations of him. The name is found perpetually
on monuments of all kinds as an epithet of a departed
person; and this is one great reason of the frequency of
its occurrence.
ARUERIS.
3‘k
11. This divinity, the Apollo of the Egyptian mythology,
is sufficiently identified by the comparison of various inscrip¬
tions with the fragment of Hermapion, preserved by Am-
mianus Marcellinus, as the translation of the inscription on
a particular obelisk, with which, however, it does not ex¬
actly agree, although its style completely resembles that of
the Egyptian inscriptions in general, and the beginning
corresponds perfectly well to the beginning of almost all
the obelisks in existence, supposing only the hawk to be
part of the name of Arueris; which is, besides, an infe¬
rence extremely probable, from the tablets of several of
the obelisks, representing a deity characterised by a hawk
with two bars, and styled the son of another personage who
seems to be the sun, as Apollo is called by Hermapion, and
Arueris by Plutarch. Mr Hamilton has also given us a
Greek inscription at Ombos, in which Arueris is made sy¬
nonymous with Apollo; although the hieroglyphics which
have been copied from this temple afford us no assistance
in the inquiry. The sort of ladder, which occurs as a se¬
cond name of Arueris, is found prefixed to the hawk in its
usual form, on the obelisk at Wanstead figured by Gordon,
and on the frize of Montagu and Ficoroni {Hieroglyphics
of the Egyptian Society, 7 Eo p; 9 Lk); and the same
figure follows it on a statue of Pococke (vol. i. p. 212).
Arueris is commonly represented either with a human
head, or with that of a hawk, bearing a disc, as that of
the sun is also generally depicted; and in one of Denon’s
plates, the two deities seem in some measure confounded.
The Egyptian name may be interpreted “ evening sun,**
as emblematic of the repose of victory ; er ruhi re.
12. Isis, the sister and wife of Osiris, is very naturally
denoted by the throne with the female termination, thus:
ISIS.
kc/, eeu ?
oil
and in more than one instance, the female figures, which
Rave long been recognised as representations of Isis by
other attributes, are distinguished by bearing the throne
on the head, which is a common mode of characterising
the different personages of the tablets. The manuscripts,
again, enable us to discover the connecting link between
the sacred and enchorial characters, and to supply the
defects of the monument of Rosetta; though the resem¬
blance is somewhat too imperfect to have satisfied us without
their assistance. The goddess, thus distinguished, is very
generally represented as standing at the head or feet of
a corpse, with another female figure opposite to her; and
we find the same personages at the opposite ends of seve¬
ral of the sarcophagi; so that the analogy of Isis to Pro¬
serpine, and her character as the guardian of the remains
of the dead, are sufficiently consistent with these repre¬
sentations. On a scarabceus brought from Egypt by Mr
Legh, and in a hieroglyphical inscription at Philae, she ap-
HIEROGLYPHICS.
321
foe i- pears to be called the offspring of Phthah. Isis often
lai bears in her hand a sceptre forked at the foot, with a lo-
^ tus for its head, whilst Osiris has more commonly a simi¬
lar sceptre with the head of an animal; but these attri¬
butes are sometimes assigned to other deities. In one of
the boats on the green sarcophagus, and on Letheuillier's
mummy, both in the British Museum, she is personified
as a basilisk. Mr Hamilton has published some Greek
inscriptions from Philae, and from the small temple at
Denderah, which show that Isis was the principal deity
of these temples; and the hieroglyphics, as far as they
have been copied, are precisely of the same import. The
great temple at Karnak seems also to have been dedicat¬
ed to Isis, and probably the small southern temple. On
a medal, of Greek workmanship, in the Borgian Museum,
we have a figure of Isis, with the word thesi, which may
probably have been intended for tiesi, the Egyptian name
with the feminine article.
13. The constant companion of Isis can be no other than
Nephthe.
NEPHTHE.
Her name somewhat resembles that of Isis, with a scale
or basin annexed to it; but the square surrounding the
throne is completed, while the scale is sometimes detached
from it, with a circle interposed; and, in this form, the
name comprehends one of the characters denoting a tem¬
ple. It seems also to be a head of Nephthe that is found
at Denderah and elsewhere, supporting a little temple or
shrine, in the place of the capital of a column; nor is it
improbable that the temple at Denderah was dedicated
to Nephthe; for the Greek inscription has Aphrodite,
which is mentioned by Plutarch as a synonym of Nephthe.
It is true that the birth of Isis is represented on one of
the ceilings ; but it does not therefore follow that Isis was
the principal goddess of the temple. A head bearing a
shrine is not an uncommon ornament of a sistrum; and
this agrees perfectly with the remark of Plutarch, that
the head of Nephthe, as well as that of Isis, was some¬
times represented on these instruments.
BUTO.
o o
14). The emblem of a bird in a cage, which is often found in
the manuscripts accompanied by the figure of a child, seems
to indicate the character of a nurse, and may without
inconvenience be interpreted as relating to the goddess
Buto, the nurse of Horus and Bubastis ; though it would
perhaps have been more correct to engrave the name in
smaller letters, as denoting some degree of uncertainty.
On the sarcophagus called the Lover’s Fountain, in the
British Museum, she is delineated with a hawk’s head; and
in the western temple at Philae she has a human head with
a horned head-dress, and she sits near Isis and Horus; a
circumstance which strongly confirms the propriety of the
denomination.
15. The enchorial name of Horus seems to be derived from
the figure of a hawk followed by the character denoting
Isis; an arrangement which agrees very well with the
supposition that his usual denomination was horsiesi.
HORUS.
ewpcwcj?
The figure of the infant, the chain, and the knot, clearly
form a part of the name on a Horus engraved by Mont-
faucon \Antiq. EotpLiq. tom. ii. p. 302), and on an obelisk
from Bose in the Supplement of the same work. In some
cases a feather, following the infant, seems to supply the
place of the bird, as in Caylus (JRecueil, tom. iv. pi. 13).
VOL. XI.
PAAMYLES.
Vocabu-
16. Paamyles, mentioned by several authors as the Pri-
apus of Egypt, is sufficiently distinguishable by his usual
attributes. He is often figured with one hand only, which
is elevated towards the angle of a kind of whip or fan sus¬
pended above him. At Edfou he is once denoted in an
inscription by a figure like that of the tablets ; and in ano¬
ther place by a distinct name, much resembling that of a
female deity, found on some of the cases of the mummies,
and who might consequently be called Paamylia.
NILUS. .
17. The Nile seems to have been reckoned amongst the
deities of Egypt, and the character which appears to be
appropriate to a river is found occasionally in the tablets,
followed by a vessel and a spiral, which seem indeed to
make a part of the name, and are accompanied by epithets
of respect. This character has already been considered by
Kircher and others as representing a nilometer; and the
deity in question can only be distinguished by the name
Nilus.
18. The sacred characters denoting Apis are pretty
clearly determined by the triple inscription ; the enchorial
name is perfectly so.
APIS.
If, however, any doubt remained on the subject, it would
be removed by an examination of the inscriptions on four
vases, found by Paul Lucas ( Voyage dans la Turquie,xo\. i.
p. 346, Amsterdam, 1720, in 2 vols. 12mo) at Abousir, the
Busiris of the ancients ; that is, the be oshiri, or sepulchre
of Osiris, as Diodorus very properly translates it. There is
a received tradition that Apis was worshipped and buried
here; and Lucas established its truth by finding the mummy
of a bullock in the catacombs. Now, all the inscriptions on
the vases end with a bullock preceded by this character,
though the angles are turned in a different direction from
those of the inscription of Rosetta; so that the two forms
of the character seem to have been used indifferently.
With this latitude, we have no difficulty in identifying
the name as it occurs in almost every line of the inscrip¬
tions upon the great sarcophagus of granite, called the
Lover’s Fountain, formerly at Cairo, and now in the British
Museum. There is some reason to suppose, from the fre¬
quency of this name, that it may have been intended for
receiving a mummy of the bull Apis ; although it must be
confessed, that in several other monuments the names of
the deities are introduced in a manner somewhat similar,
with an evident relation to the designation of some human
being, whom they are intended to commemorate.
MNEUIS.
io>
19. The enchorial name of Mneuis is very completely as¬
certained by the inscription of Rosetta; and from a com¬
parison of different passages in the manuscripts, there is
reason to infer that it was intended as an imperfect repre¬
sentation of a basilisk and a tear ; emblems which are re¬
peatedly found in the great ritual, connected with the
figure of a bullock. The sacred cow, in the manuscripts
sent home by Mr Bankes, is denoted by a serpentine line
with two dots, followed by the term goddess. We may
venture to distinguish her by the temporary name Dama-
lis. That of lo would imply too great identity with the
Greek mythology.
2 s
322
Vocabu¬
lary.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
HYPERION. J
lo
CTERISTES.
□
TETRARCHA.
ANUBIS.
MACE DO.
□
31
HIERACION.
21. Under the bier on which a mummy lies, ahd in many
other situations near the person of the deceased, we find
representations of four deities who seem to be concerned
in the operation of embalming, and who might even be
supposed to preside over the different condiments employ¬
ed, their heads frequently serving as covers for four jars,
of the kind sometimes called Canopi. They may also
very properly be considered as attendants of Isis, who
seems to be a still more important personage on such oc¬
casions. The first of the four has generally a human
head, and may be called Tetrarcha ; his name contains
a sort of forceps, and a broken*line. The second and third
have respectively the heads of a dog or baboon, and of a
wolf; and they agree very satisfactorily with the well-
known character of Anubis, and with that of Macedo
his companion, mentioned by Diodorus as having a wolfs
head, and whose name may possibly have some relation
to manchat, a wvrker in silver, as that of Anubis has to
nub, gold. The hieroglyphic name of Anubis differs from
that of Apis only in having the angles directed immedi¬
ately upwards, a circumstance which is not so indifferent
to the signification as it at first appeared; that of Mace¬
do has a vulture with a star, and sometimes an arm in¬
stead of the vulture. The fourth of these deities is re¬
presented with the head of a hawk, and may therefore be
called Hieracion. He is denoted by a water jar, with
three plants somewhat resembling leeks or onions.
CEREXOCHUS.
BIOXIPHUS.
PLATYPTERUS.
5S
JzSelt
mi
MASTIGIAS.
SORAEA.
larv.
20. In the tablets representing the judgment of the de¬
ceased, we generally find two personages standing by the
balance, and apparently weighing his merits ; one with the
head of a hawk, the other with that of a wolf, and seem¬
ing to officiate as the good and evil genius of the person.
The former, denoted by a hawk with a bar, and some¬
times also a spear, appears, from various monuments, to
have some relation to the Sun or to Horus, and may there¬
fore be called Hyperion ; the latter is often observed to
be employed in the preparation of a mummy, and may be
called from this occupation Cteristes, or the embalmer.
He is also frequently represented on the coffins of mum¬
mies, and elsewhere, under the form of a wolf sitting on
a kind of altar; and he seems to be an immediate minis¬
ter of Osiris. His hieroglyphical name is a feather, a
wavy line, and a block ; or a hatchet under a sort of arch.
C
22. Amongst the many hundreds of deities who are re¬
presented in various inscriptions and sculptures, some of
the most remarkable are two personages with the heads of
wolves, the first characterised by a sort of raised frame or
banner, and a pair of horns, which may be expressed bj-
the pseudonymous or temporary term Cerexochus, and
the second by a half bow, and a sword or knife, whence
he may be called Bioxiphus ; a figure with a human head,
generally wearing a feather on it, and denoted by a broad
feather reversed, which is implied in the name Platyp-
terus ; another wearing a cap with a whip in it, who may
be called Mastigias ; and a fifth in the form of a female,
distinguished by a bier, who, at Edfou, bears a tear on
her head, and who may be called Soraea.
2. Kings.
THOTHMOSIS.
MESPHRES.
MISPHRAGMUTHOSIS.
1. We are informed by Pliny, that the Alexandrian
obelisk was erected by Mesphres or Mestires, the reading
of the different manuscripts being different; and since
no king of the name Mestires is mentioned by other au¬
thors, we may consider Mesphres as the Mephres or
Mesphris who succeeded his mother Amersis about 1700
b. c. or perhaps a century or two later. The hieroglyphi¬
cal name of his father contains that of the god Thoth, and
may therefore possibly have been intended for the Thoth-
mosis of the chronologers, who is said to have been the
grandfather of Mesphres. The obelisk at Alexandria,
now called Cleopatra’s Needle, like almost all others
which contain three lines on each side, exhibits different
names in the middle and the outer lines. From this cir¬
cumstance, as well as from the greater depth of the sculp¬
tures, which is generally observable in the middle line,
there is reason to suppose that this line stood at first
alone, and that the two on each side were added by a
later monarch. The Lateran obelisk, however, is remark¬
able for exhibiting the name of Mesphres on all the lines
of the different sides. The Constantinopolitan obelisk
has only one line on each side, with the name of Mes¬
phres the son of Thothmosis. The same name is also
found on the gateway of the fifth catacomb, at Biban-el-
Molouk; on a pillar of the palace at Karnak, and in a
splendidly-coloured bas-relief on one of the interior archi¬
traves of the gallery; as well as on a seal of Denon, and
on some others which were brought from Egypt by Mr
Legh. The Isean obelisk of Kircher has a “ son of Mes¬
phres, favoured by Phthahwe must therefore distin¬
guish this king by the name Misphragmuthosis, who is
recorded as the son and successor of Mesphres.
TITHOUS.
EGA.
>roca
lan
HIEROGLYPHICS.
323
MEMNON.
2. A multitude of ancient Greek inscriptions identify
the statue of Memnon, celebrated by all antiquity for its
musical powers, which, Strabo says, he heard exemplified,
though he could not very positively decide whether the
sound proceeded from the statue or from some of the by¬
standers. In one of the inscriptions we find the word
Phamenoth, not as a date, but as a synonym of Memnon,
which must be considered as identical with the Phamenoph
given by Pausanias as his Egyptian name, and with the
Ammenoph or Amenophis of Manetho or others, which
differs from it only as wanting the article. There is,
however, some doubt to which Amenophis this statue
properly belongs. Manetho makes Memnon the eighth
king of the eighteenth dynasty, who may be called Ame¬
nophis the Second ; but Marsham brings him down to the
Ammenephthes of Manetho, or Amenophis the Fourth,
principally because he thinks that only a successor of
Sesostris could have been well known in Asia; and he
even supposes him to have been later than Homer, who,
he says, never mentions him, though Hesiod calls him the
son of Tithonus and Aurora. But, in fact, the name of
Memnon does occur in the Odyssey, where Ulysses al¬
ludes to his beauty in a conversation with the shade of
Achilles; and Hesiod could scarcely have mentioned a
king as descended from a deity, that was not considerably
earlier than his own time; so that the tradition of Ma¬
netho seems to be preferable to the mere conjecture of
Marsham. At the same time, we cannot well call him
Memnon the son of Thothmosis, the name of the father
not agreeing with that of this king; and there is another
circumstance which seems to lead us to the third Ame¬
nophis, intermediate between these two extremes, who was
the son of Ramesses Meiamun, or Ramesses the lover of
Ammon; namely, that Amenophis himself appears to have
built a temple to Ammon in the isle of Elephantine, and
is called Meiamun in several of the hieroglyphical in¬
scriptions still existing there. It appears, then, that the
name Memnon must have been derived from Meiamun.
Besides the different statues of the Memnonium, we find
monuments of the same personage in almost every part of
Egypt, though they are much more frequent at Thebes
and in its neighbourhood. The name is marked on all
the lion-headed goddesses of black granite which are now
in the British Museum, and on some others which were in
the possession of Mr Bankes. The first of this series hav¬
ing been purchased, as Bruce informs us, for a large price,
by Donati, for the king of Sardinia, the inhabitants were
induced to take some pains in digging the others out of
the sand. The building called by the French the tomb
of Osymandyas bears also the name of Memnon ; and it
is remarked by Strabo, that Memnon and Ismendes may
probably have been the same person. The name is also
found in the grottos at Biban-el-Molouk, on some statues
representing Osiris, and in some inscriptions at Ombos,
as well as on a seal of Denon. Mr Bullock presented to
the British Museum a scarabceus of very hard stone, on
which we find the name of Memnon, together with that
of his father and mother, whom we may call, in order to
preserve the mythological analogy, Tithous and Eoa, al¬
though without asserting that this Tithous was the builder
of the Labyrinth, which some authors have attributed to
a king named Tithoes, and others to Ismendes. The mo¬
ther’s name occurs also alone, as “ the goddess mother,”
on the back of a beetle in Gordon’s Mummies (plate xxii.),
a circumstance which removes the doubt that might other- Vocabu-
wise arise from the want of the female termination in the by¬
name ; the father’s is found upon a square seal in the pos-
session of Mr Legh. There is another copy of the inscrip¬
tion of Mr Bullock’s scarahoeus, on a scarabceus belong¬
ing to Mr Palin, which had long been used by a Greek
priest at Athens for stamping the paschal bread (Dubois,
Pierres Gravies^ Paris, 1817, pi. v. N. 5). The beautiful
head brought from the Memnonium to the British Mu¬
seum has only a part of the father’s name remaining,
which does not appear to be that of the father of Mem¬
non, though the first three characters are the same; but
the fourth is the pedestal representing Phthah ; and a si¬
milar name is found on some other colossal statues and
obelisks remaining in Egypt, as well as on a smaller figure
of red granite brought by Mr Hamilton from Elephantine.
In the principal name upon the obelisk at Karnak, the
final scale of the name of Memnon is exchanged for a
pair of arms stretched upwards; a variation which may
be expressed by calling it Amenuses or Amenses, from
shesh, a pair. The father’s name is also a little like
that of Tithous ; but, that the difference is constant, may
be inferred from its separate occurrence on a seal brought
home by Mr Legh, a lion’s head making a part of it in
both instances. The true name and date of this person¬
age must be considered as wholly unknown ; though the
resemblance of the name to Memnon makes it conve¬
nient to place them together. In Mr Boughton’s minute
golden image, engraved in the Archceologia, the name ap¬
pears to be the same, but with the synonymous substitu¬
tion of the hatchet for the judge.
remesses.
3. The obelisk at Heliopolis has every mark of consi¬
derable antiquity, and the shortness and simplicity of its
inscription is appropriate to a remote period. Pliny says
that Mitres or Mestires first erected obelisks at Heliopo¬
lis ; he also mentions Sothis, and apparently Ramesses,
as having left similar monuments of their magnificence
in the same place. The principal name upon the obelisk
now remaining at Matareah may also be observed in se¬
veral other inscriptions, but with the substitution of two
other names for that of the father, so that the name of the
son must probably have belonged to many different
individuals. This circumstance, as well as the sounds
belonging to the different characters, agrees very well
with Ramesses ; for we have re, the sun, and mes, a birth,
and shesh, a pair, so that we may venture to call it
Remesses ; and we may take Heron for the father of the
first Remesses, from Hermapion, though it is possible that
he may be the Armais of Manetho ; but we have scarcely
sufficient evidence to appropriate to him that name. Ano¬
ther Ramesses seems to have been a son of Sesostris ; a
third Ramesses follows Ammenephthes in Manetho, and
agrees with the Rhampsinitus of Herodotus, and the
Remphis of Diodorus, who is mentioned as the successor
of Proteus; and this may, perhaps, have been the Ra¬
messes of the frizes of Montagu and Ficoroni {Hierogly¬
phics, 7 Ou. 9 If), who seems, from the resemblance of
the different parts of the work, to have been nearly con¬
temporary with Sesostris. {Hieroglyphics, 7 H. I.) There
is also on the Lions at the fountain of Aqua Felice, near
the baths of Diocletian at Rome, another Ramesses, the
name of whose father is a little like the name supposed
to belong to Arsinoe.
324
HIEROGLYPHICS.
4. The obelisk erected by Augustus in the Campus
Martius is said, by Pliny, to have been the work of Sesos-
tris ; and there are sufficient documents of its identity with
that which had long remained buried near the Monte Ci-
torio, and of which figures have been given by Zoega
and others. The inscription was supposed, in the time
of Pliny, to contain a compendium of the physical and
philosophical learning of the Egyptians; but, in order to
make this opinion credible, it would be necessary to ad¬
mit that the princes of earlier days entertained very dif¬
ferent ideas from those which have since been prevalent
respecting the comparative importance of the abstract
sciences, and of national prosperity and martial glory. If
Sesostris was the son of Amenophis, he cannot have been
the reigning king mentioned in this obelisk. But it may
safely be attributed to Pheron the son of Sesostris, who,
according to Herodotus, erected two obelisks; and the
occurrence of the name of Sesostris as the father may
be considered as sufficiently conformable to the testimony
of Pliny. The same names are found, with a slight vari¬
ation, on a small statue of basalt, very highly finished,
now standing in the British Museum; and Denon has
copied them from an inscription in the Memnonium.
PROTEUS.
5. Nuncoreus, according to Diodorus, was another son
of Sesostris; his name occurs also in Pliny, and we may
consider him as the son of Sesostris mentioned in Mon¬
tagu’s frizes. The name is also found at Philae, and,
with a slight variation, on an altar of basalt figured by
Caylus (Recueil, tom. i. plate xix.), now in the King’s Li¬
brary at Paris. The remains of the same name may also
be observed on a block, apparently of white sandstone, in
the British Museum, which is figured by Norden, in its
old situation, as a part of the foundations of Pompey’s
Pillar at Alexandria; and it occurs on a fragment of a
statue brought by Mr Hamilton from Thebes. The name
of Proteus, or Certus, otherwise Ammenephthes, is only
known as the predecessor of one of the kings named Ha¬
rnesses ; and we may safely employ it for the father of
the Harnesses of the frizes of Montagu and Ficoroni, the
whole of which are remarkable for the excellence of their
workmanship.
AMENOPHTHES.
6. Until we obtain evidence of a more positive nature, we
may give to the two kings mentioned on the sarcophagus
of green breccia the names of Amenophthes and Anysis,
supposing them to have lived about the time of Ammeneph¬
thes, or Amenophis the Fifth, and his successor Osorchon.
The father s name might, without difficulty, be read Me-
nephthah, supposing some titles to follow it. There are
also two obelisks of the same king, brought from Cairo,
w'hich stand near the sarcophagus in the British Museum ;
and the style of the workmanship somewhat resembles that
of the times of Sesostris and his immediate successors. It Vocat,
has been observed that neither of the names can well be larv.
Alexander’s, since that of the father is repeated much
more frequently than that of the son, which could not have
happened if it had been meant for Philip ; and Alexander
had no son who could have been mentioned on his sarco¬
phagus. Nor is it at all probable that Alexander should
have erected any obelisks at Memphis or in its neighbour¬
hood. The god Ammon is nowhere mentioned amongst
the titles of the king, and holds only an inferior rank
among the innumerable deities represented in the tablets.
We find both the names, without any addition, on a dove¬
tail of copper (engraved in Lord Valentia’s Travels), which
was found at Behbeit, the Atarbechis or Aphroditopolis of
the ancients, situated on the branch of the Nile that runs
to Damietta.
PSAMMETIUS.
NECHAO.
PSAMMIS.
7. We learn from Pliny that the Flaminian obelisk now
standing near the Porta del Popolo at Rome, which was
the smaller of the two formerly in the Circus Maximus,
where they were placed by Augustus, and used as the gno¬
mon of a dial, was the work of Senneserteus or Semnesyr-
taeus, who reigned in Egypt at the time when Pythagoras
visited it. This king seems to have been the same with
Psamuthis or Psammis ; and the authority of the evidence
is so much the stronger, as the period in question is not
extremely remote. The father of Psammis, according to
Herodotus, was Necos or Nechao. The two names occur
on all the middle lines of the obelisk; and that of the fa¬
ther on the pillar of a colossal Isis in the Supplement of
Montfaucon. The Sallustian obelisk, which seems to have
been partly copied from the Flaminian, has them both. In
the middle lines of both the obelisks at Luxor wre find a
name much resembling that of Psammis, which we may
therefore call Psammetius, conjecturing that it may have
belonged to Psammetichus, who reigned a little earlier.
The father’s name is not unlike in its import to that of
Nechao, both implying approved by Phthah ; and it is re¬
markable, that in Manetho’s series, the predecessor of
Psammetichus is also Nechao.
MENEPHTHES.
AMASIS.
8. Amongst the most common of all the names of the
kings of Egypt, on a great variety of monuments, are those
which were mistaken by Kircher for a sort of amulets or
charms, v/hich he denominated the Mophthomendesian ta¬
blets. They occur alone on three small obelisks only, the
Medicean, the Mahutean, and the Monticoelian of Kircher;
but they are found in the external lines of the Alexandri¬
an, the tw-o at Luxor, the Flaminian, and the Sallustian,
whilst none are ever found exterior to them. They must,
therefore, necessarily be attributed to one of the latest
kings of Egypt; and there is none so likely to have made
such a display as Amasis, a man of considerable magnifi¬
cence, and at the same time of a cautious and artful cha¬
racter. Indeed we have no alternative left but to choose
between him and some of the kings who revolted against
the Persians, and who do not appear so likely to have had
ocab
lary
HIEROGLYPHICS.
325
leisure or finances for public works of splendour. His fa-
ther's name, like that of Nechao, contains the character
denoting Vulcan, and it may be called Menephthes ; but
he was not the son of a king. Both the names are found
in one of the middle lines of the Flaminian obelisk; and
on that side the king is represented in the tablet as doing
homage to his predecessor, who occupies the place of ho¬
nour on the other side. The father’s name seems to occur
on the belt of a colossal statue in the palace at Karnak.
On a fragment of stone in the British Museum the names
are repeated in various directions, as if it had belonged to
a floor or a ceiling. They also occur on a statue, consider¬
ably mutilated, in the attitude of kneeling; and in Mont-
faucon’s Supplement, on the back of a colossal Isis, which
seems also to have been begun by Psammis. On the east¬
ern colossus at Luxor there is a name which might be ta¬
ken either for that of Amasis or for that of the pseudony¬
mous Psammetius ; but the sitting figure is somewhat dif¬
ferent. The victor in the naval combat at Medinet-Ha-
bou, who appears also frequently at Ombos, considerably
resembles them both. Lord Mountnorris has a rough seal
with the name of Amasis only, the epithet God being pre¬
fixed in a smaller character. The names also occur on a
small obelisk lying at Tsan, the ancient Tanis, of which a
sketch was brought home by Dr Merion.
PTOLEBERIUS.
DISCOZYGUS.
9. We find at Karnak the name of a king somewhat like
Psammis, that of his father resembling a compound of
Ptolemy and Berenice. Perhaps they are not very cor¬
rectly copied, but they may stand, under the temporary
names of Discozygus and Ptoleberius, as specimens,
somewhat singular, of a mixture of different dynasties ; and
in this point of view they may be placed between the old
Egyptian kings and their Grecian conquerors.
ALEXANDER.
8.>.e|XNApoc
10. The name of Alexander has not yet been identi¬
fied in the sacred characters ;x but it will appear hereafter
that a knowledge of the enchorial form may possibly con¬
tribute very materially, at some future time, to assist us in
determining it.
PTOLEMY.
jfroTkeaeoc
SOTERES. fAsHJ
11. There can be no doubt whatever respecting the sig¬
nification of the name of Ptolemy, as it occurs on the
pillar of Rosetta ; but it is not quite so easy to determine
its identity in some other cases, where it may possibly have
been modified by contraction, mutilation, or combination. Vocabu-
In this and a few other proper names, it is extremely inte- lal7-
resting to trace some of the steps by which alphabetical
writing seems to have arisen out of hieroglyphical; a pro¬
cess which may indeed be in some measure illustrated by
the manner in which the modern Chinese express a foreign
combination of sounds, the characters being rendered sim¬
ply phonetic by an appropriate mark, instead of retaining
their natural signification, and this mark, in some modern
printed books, approaching very near to the ring surround¬
ing the hieroglyphic names. The enchorial name of Pto¬
lemy appears at first sight to be extremely different from
the hieroglyphical; and it would have been impossible to
deduce the one from the other, without a knowledge of the
epistolographic forms of the separate characters, as ascer¬
tained by a comparison of the manuscripts. The begin¬
ning and end are obviously parts of the ring, which, in the
sacred character, surrounds every proper name, except
those of the deities. The square block and the semicircle
answer invariably in all the manuscripts to characters re¬
sembling the P and t of Akerblad, which are found at the
beginning of the enchorial name. The next character,
which seems to be a kind of knot, is not essentially neces¬
sary,2 being often omitted in the sacred characters, and
always in the enchorial. The lion corresponds to the lo
of Akerblad, a lion being always expressed by a similar
character in the manuscripts; an oblique line crossed
standing for the body, and an erect line for the tail. This
was probably read, not lo, but ole ;3 although, in more mo¬
dern Coptic, oili is translated a ram ; we have also eiul,
a stag ; and the figure of the stag becomes, in the running
hand, something like this of the lion. The next charac¬
ter is known to have some reference to place, in Coptic
ma ; and it seems to have been read either ma, or simply
m.4 This character is always expressed in the running
hand by the m of Akerblad’s alphabet. The two feathers,
whatever their natural meaning may have been, answer to
the three parallel lines of the enchorial text, and they seem
in more than one instance to have been read i or e ;5 the
bent line probably signified great, and was read osh or os
for the Coptic shei seems to have been nearly equivalent
to the Greek sigma. Putting all these elements together,
we have precisely Ptolemaios, the Greek name ; or per¬
haps Ptolemeos, as it wmuld more naturally be called in
Coptic.7 The slight variations of the word in different
parts of the enchorial text may be considered as express¬
ing something like aspirations or accentuations. The ap¬
pellation Soteres, as a dual, is well marked in the inscrip¬
tion of Rosetta, and the character, thus determined, ex¬
plains a long name in the temple at Edfou, which must mean
a two saviour gods,” with various titles of honour, such
as “ the agents of Phthah, the emblems of triumph, the
approved of Phre, the favoured of the Nile, the venerable
consorts in empire.”
BERENICE. IKr
* The name of Alexander has now been several times identified in the sacred characters or hieroglyphics,
of Karnak, where it is written AAK2ANTPS and AAK2NPOY. (Champollion, Prens du Syst. /Aer^ p St . ans im. We also
learn from Mr Salt, that, besides the granite sanctuary at Karnak, the name of Aiexander, preceded ^by mystic tides^is foun ^ ^
the granite propylon in the island of Elephantine. _ In these titles the word Amun is c ear y^ g ' nn-Phre ” (Essay on
another place, where it is preceded by a ring containing in hieroglyphic symbols the legenc, ' [
the Phonet. Syst. of Hierogl.xm. 15 and 16.) We say nothing of Alek-Amun, though probably a contraction of the same name.
2 This character is put down in Champollion’s phonetic alphabet as one of the homophones of O, and as sometimes represent g
^ In'iht'Uftroglvphicr,-phonetic alphabet the lion represents, not LO or OLE, but the letter L sitnplj, and is one of the best as-
Ce'tls\lal\hed„t"riSe..er M. • Chatnpollion reads the feathers I, E, AI, in the srtcred characters.
6 The bent staff, in the sacred characters, is now held to be one of the homophones oi S. Grrmle
7 Champollion, after quoting this passage, observes, “ Et moi, qui ai considere chaque caractere hierfiglyphique une .jmple
lettre, et non pas comme pouvant reprdsenter chacun une ou deux syllabes, je n ai pu et du obtenir que i , 1
liotn Grec XlroXtyouo;." {Precis, p. 23.)
326
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Vocabu- 12. The wife of Ptolemy Soter, and mother of Philadel-
lary- phus, was Berenice, whose name is found on a ceiling at
Karnak, in the phrase, “ Ptolemy and .. Berenice, the sa¬
viour gods.” In this name we appear to have another spe¬
cimen of syllabic and alphabetic writing combined, in a
manner not extremely unlike the ludicrous mixtures of
words and things with which children are sometimes
amused; for, however Warburton’s indignation might be
excited by such a comparison, it is perfectly true that,
occasionally, the sublime differs from the ridiculous by a
single step only. The first character of the hieroglyphic
name is precisely of the same form with a basket repre¬
sented at Biban-el-Molouk, and called, in the description,
panier a anses ; and a basket, in Coptic, is bir.1 The oval,
which resembles an eye without the pupil, means elsewhere
to, which in Coptic is e ;2 the waved line is of, and must
be rendered n ; the feathers i; the little footstool seems
to be superfluous ;3 the goose is ke, or ken.4 Kircher
gives us kenesou for a goose, but the Esoii means grega¬
rious, probably in contradistinction to the Egyptian shel¬
drake, and the simple etymon approaches to the name of
a goose in many other languages. We have, therefore, li¬
terally Birenice ; or, if the n must be inserted, the accu¬
sative Birenicen, which may easily have been confound¬
ed by the Egyptians with the nominative.5 The final cha¬
racters are merely the feminine termination. The encho¬
rial text affords us a remarkable instance of the diversity
which was allowed in the mode of representing the same
name. The first character has not the least resemblance
to the basket; but the first and second together are very
commonly used in the manuscripts, as a coarse representa¬
tion of a boat, which was called bari, or possibly bere ;
for it is doubtful whether Kircher had any other authority
than that of Diodorus for bari, and the word berezouts
is used for another vehicle. The enchorial N may possibly
have been derived from a horizontal line, turned up at one
end. We have then the three dashes for the i, and the
two angles seem to have answered to the ke, for a bird is
not uncommonly scribbled in some such manner ; so that
we have either Barinice or Berenice, by a combination
somewhat different from the former.6
PHIEADELPHUS.
UMCOJV
ARSINOE.
euergetes.
mD? kiomtAxi
PHILOPATOR.
a&jjcoT , $ fkJL'fe
EPIPHANES.
PHILOMETOR.
CCA/jU&Y
Cleopatrides.
Vocal
lar;
13. The temple at Ombos was dedicated, as we find
from the Greek inscription copied by Mr Hamilton, “ in
the name of the divine Ptolemy Philometor and Cleopatra
and their children, to Arueris Apollo, and the other gods
of the temple, by the infantry and cavalry of the nome.”
We may therefore expect to find in it the names of these
sovereigns, together with those of some or all of the earlier
Ptolemies ; and, accordingly, we are able to determine,
without difficulty, some epithets which seem to be charac¬
teristic of this and the two preceding reigns ; but hitherto
nothing has been observed that can be considered as so
clearly denoting either Philadelphus and his queen Arsinoe,
or Euergetes and his Berenice, although some assistance
might have been derived, in identifying them, from the
enchorial text of Rosetta. W e have, however, in the same
temple, a name, evidently compound, in which a basilisk is
followed by two feathers and a bent line; and to judge
from a comparison of the enchorial text with the manu¬
scripts, a basilisk ought to be the emblem of Euergetes.
I he part of the name preceding it is, however, not Bere¬
nice, and must, therefore, in all probability, be Arsinoe,
the daughter of Euergetes. But it seems impossible to at¬
tempt to compare the characters employed with the sounds;
since they sometimes occur in an inverted order, which
the sounds could not do. Indeed, the name seems to be
very often repeated in situations where its most essential
parts seem to be a quadrant of a circle, two feathers, and
a bent or broken line; in other places, as at Denderah,
the bird, the hand, and the oval, are added ; and it is not
impossible that the quadrant may have been meant as a
representation of a lentil, which in Coptic is arshin, and
which alone may have been sufficient to identify the name.
It occurs in the celebrated zodiac of Denderah, and very
frequently at Philae, and it may possibly, hereafter, lead us
very readily to discover the hieroglyphical name of Phila¬
delphus. That of Philopator is satisfactorily ascertain¬
ed by the assistance of the character employed for father
in the Rosetta stone, though that character is much muti¬
lated, and could not have been positively determined with¬
out this coincidence. The name is found in the temple at
Edfou still more distinctly than at Ombos, and it occurs
several times at Karnak. Epiphanes is never distinguish¬
ed in any other inscription by the characters appropriated
to him in that of Rosetta; but we continually find a
synonymous emblem, which is employed in the Rosetta
stone to signify enlightening, where the Greek translation
has Epiphanes ; and this character, placed between two
hatchets facing each other, can only have meant the il¬
lustrious deity, or deities. In this form the name occurs
very frequently at Philae, and in the temple at Edfou,
where it seems to be the latest name. For the Philo-
metores we have a character which occurs in some other
monuments, and means apparently mother, the name con¬
taining it being found several times in the temple at Om¬
bos. At Kous, or Apollinopolis Parva, there is another
Greek inscription of the Philometores and their children;
but in the hieroglyphics copied by Denon, the names of
- i h^,chara(;ter is now considered as one of the homophones of the letter B.
3 ("hhr!311!?0 ll0n.S fPhabet’ the ovab or “ mouth” as he calls it, is set down as R.
4 -pi mP0 K>n sets down “ the little footstool” as a phonetic symbol of the letter K.
5 A 6 Sr°Se fS ascertained t0 ,)e a phonetic representative of the letter S.
NIKEN^aTnr the hieroglyphical name of Queen Berenice is written BPNHKE, and not BIPENIKE or BIPE-
. U r 1Jr Young had supposed. (See Pricis, p. 32.)
phonetioues^’ifavait^vmilii ", eSt le *eul sur jequel M. le Docteur Young ait essaye d’appliquer les valeurs
phinues en si rrrande ahnndnnr- uir‘r son analyse du nom hieroglyphique de Ptolmfe. Tous les autres noms propres hidrogly-
p iques, en si grande abundance sur les monumens Egyptiens, ont absolument resiste a cette application.” (Precis, ubi supra.)
ocat the sovereigns seem to be wanting, and that of a young
lary prince only remains, a colossal statue of whom is figured
"Y ' by Montfaucon in his Supplement, having the same name
in the belt, with the addition of the son of King Ptolemy ;
it will, therefore, be justifiable to distinguish this person¬
age by calling him Cleopatrides. The divine honours which
are so often attributed in these inscriptions to the reigning
sovereigns, afford us an explanation of the Greek inscrip¬
tions to the Synthromus gods of Egypt, which repeatedly
occur; and of the description Fraternal gods, as, indeed,
Philadelphus and his queen are called in the Greek inscrip¬
tion of Rosetta.
3. Private Persons.
We find the names of six individuals expressed in the
enchorial text of the inscription of Rosetta, though they
are wanting in the distinct hieroglyphics ; but, as they are
clearly ascertained by the context, they are of considerable
value in tracing the approach of the hieroglyphic to alpha¬
betic writing. These are, Aetus, Philinus, Diogenes,
Pyrhha, Areia, and Irene.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
AETUS.
PHILINUS.
DIOGENES.
PYRRHA.
AREIA.
IRENE.
Ramuneus.
>JO/n<**V»C
4. Animals.
1. A MAN.
fXOUJ
2. HIM.
q.ttuoq
3. bullock.
ege
V 7
«<■>
4. RAM.
co/hr
5. ANTELOPE.
6. TORTOISE.
e$oof
7. crocodile.
8. BASILISK.
OTpO
In Diogenes and Areia we discover no traces of the ring
which is the usual characteristic of proper names ; and, on
the other hand, we find occasionally, in some of the manu¬
scripts, the parts of the ring applied to a title of Osiris,
which is more regularly written without any such distinc¬
tion. A name of a private individual is inserted from a
sarcophagus in the British Museum, engraved by Alexan¬
der, in his Egyptian Monuments. Its form is not that of a
parallelepiped, but more accommodated to the shape of the
body. The pseudonymous appellation Ramuneus has been
derived from the elementary characters already observed
in the names of Re and Amun.
1. EGYPT.
XHHU
2. MEMPHIS.
acqt
3. RIVER.
j&po./op
4. GREEK.
oyc/n/n
5. COUNTRY.
JOgf.KM
6. LAND.
K&e/
5. Inanimate Objects.
□
Xmh
Innnr
327
Vocabu¬
lary.
1. A figure sitting on the ground, and stretching out one
hand, seems to imply simply a man or person, which is cer¬
tainly the sense of the enchorial character that commonly
answers to it in the manuscripts ; but in composition the
figure often appears to lose this sense.
2. The horned snake, creeping along, is clearly meant,
in some parts of the inscription of Rosetta, for him, or it;
although it has other senses in composition. It is very re¬
markable, that the enchorial character, and that of the ma¬
nuscripts, resembling a Y, approaches extremely near to
the Coptic f, which also means him ; and hof, or hfo, is
the Coptic term for a snake ; so that this coincidence seems
to afford us another trace of the origin of the alphabet.
3-7. The bullock, the ram, the antelope, and the tortoise,
are proved to be sometimes representations of the things
which they resemble, by their occurrence in inscriptions
accompanied by tablets; though some of them have pro¬
bably elsewhere a metaphorical sense. The ram is often
represented with two pairs of horns; the one natural,
the other imaginary. The crocodile is identified by a very
distinct drawing in a manuscript sent home by Mr Bankes,
and is repeatedly designated in the text by a figure repre¬
senting it. The deity with a crocodile’s head is a separate
personage, and is denoted by a figure of the same animal
with the tail turned under it.
8. The asp or basilisk is so coarsely represented in the
stone of Rosetta, that the object intended by it could not
have been conjectured without a comparison with other in¬
scriptions ; the context was, however, sufficient to determine
its meaning from the examination of this monument alone.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
328
Vocabu- 7. star.
Iar7- CIOT
8. TEMPLE.
ep$er
is
o,n Caihz 4
h in Uvr
26. GOLD.
N0Y3
27. SILVER.
sssc
(LJ o
-o •
28. OFFERINGS.
9. SHRINE.
10. HABITATION.
HI
11. THRONE.
eeaci
12. COLUMN.
'iSMpl.HOYOt
13. DIADEM.
XAOtt
14. ORNAMENTS.
ceXccSh
k
15. SHIP.
Ul/ftUt jfc <vf
16. SPEAR. (i
N&3/(aepq>
17. BOW.
18. ARROW.
cooAeq ^ ■zs
19. CENSER.
a&jp
20. BIER.
Ok
&
21. TEAR.
fpUH
22. IMAGE.
caor.aojVK
23. STATUE.
W/P^KOYI?
24. LETTERS.
C^AJ
25. WEIGHT. ^
we £
1. The essential parts of the name of Egypt seem to be
the square and the wheel, signifying splendid land. In
addition to these, or their rudiments, the enchorial word
has at the beginning a character which generally answers
to an arm holding a feather, or to the flame of a lamp, an
emblem which seems also to relate to Egypt in one of the
lines of the inscription of Rosetta. A flame and a heart
are mentioned by Horus Apollo and by Plutarch as em¬
ployed in the name of Egypt; but a word occurring so
frequently is very likely to have been expressed in a varie¬
ty of ways. The exact combination of characters general¬
ly used on the stone has not been observed in any other
inscription.
2. The name of Memphis cannot be determined with¬
out some uncertainty ; the line of hieroglyphics in which
it is contained being in several respects obscure.1
3. The character supposed to denote the Nile, as a deity,
must also sometimes be understood as merely meaning a
river; and there is reason to think that the Nile itself was
generally called by the Egyptians the river only. The encho¬
rial character used to denote both the Nile and a river, or
canal, sufficiently resembles the hieroglyphic to favour this
interpretation ; and it is in some degree confirmed by the
occurrence of the character alone on a water jar of Pieresc,
delineated in Kircher’s CEdipus, and, together with other
characters, on the five vases found by Paul Lucas at Abou-
sir. By accident, Kircher appears, in this single instance,
to have been right in one of his conjectures ; for he calls
this character a Nilometer, and considers it as emblematic
of the Nile.
4. The word Greek, in Coptic uinin or oueinin, in The¬
baic oueeienin, supposed to have been derived from Ionian,
seems to exhibit in its form something like an imitation of
the sound. The curve on a stem is sometimes exchanged
for the term divine, and appears to mean glory, in Coptic
oou or oii, which is nearly the sound attributed by Aker-
blad to the enchorial character, a little like the Hebrew u.
The feather, as in Ptolemy and Berenice, may be read I
or ei, having the three dashes to express them, as usual,
in the enchorial text; the serpent is eneh, ever ; and the
hat, which looks a little like a plough, is equivalent to the
waved line, and must be read n ; so that we have very ac¬
curately ouienehn, which seems to be near enough to
ouienin to justify us in considering these characters as
phonetic.
5. The ladder is well marked as meaning country. It
may perhaps be intended to represent a field with its divi¬
sions ; but it is uncertain whether or not it is the same
symbol which enters into one of the names of Arueris, the
sculptures of the Rosetta stone being by no means highly
finished.
6. It is remarkable that the wheel, signifying land, had
been noticed by the Jesuits as resembling the old Chinese
character for the word Jield ; but this is the only one of a
multitude of similar conjectures which has been justified by
more complete evidence. {Phil. Trans. 1769, pi. xxviii.)
or UmZ Se6 of Phthahl*™h\^emphe appears t ° be a Greek abbreviation of the hieroglyphical name MA-M-PHTHAH, the temple
London 183 n Cas also’m-nhnhl a^or^xnS to T)r Young {Rudiments of an Egyptian Dictionary, in the ancient Enchorial Character, pref.
Memphis seems To be HMSRN^ 1 ^ ^ The ph°netic Value of the ^oglyphics here placed opposite the word
MISR, with the mark o^lmwlity, N^ubjoined?^1^’ th°Ugh ^ d°Ubt “ m SeVGral refTects obscure,” maybe resolved into HA-
HIEROGLYPHICS.
roca . 7. The star is shown by inscriptions accompanying the
lar zodiacs, to relate to a real star. It has also elsewhere a
J figurative sense, meaning an attendant or ministering spirit.
8. The open square is found in both the combinations of
characters which are most commonly used for expressing
a temple; the feather signifies ornament or consecration,
and the oblong figure either the sacred inclosure or a sa¬
cred seat, the character for a god being sometimes placed
within it. The feather is occasionally converted into an
inclined oval, the square being at the same time a little al¬
tered ; a difference which may be observed in other inscrip¬
tions as well as in the Rosetta stone.
9. The character representing a shrine so much resem¬
bles the object which it denotes, that it was the most rea¬
dily identified of all which were found on the stone of Ro¬
setta. The character signifying a priest was the second ;
and the combination of both afforded a full confirmation of
the truth of the explanation. The enchorial character for
a shrine is derived from the sitting statue which always ac¬
companies it.
10. The open square, occurring in habitation as well as
in temple, must probably have meant house or building, or
possibly stone only.
11. The throne, or chair of state, occurs in a great varie¬
ty of tablets. It evidently bears its most natural significa¬
tion in the character denoting statue (No. 23), and in some
other instances; but it appears to bear, in some inscrip¬
tions, the metaphorical sense of a residence or habitation.
12. The column, or pillar, is too much like the object it
denotes to allow us to doubt respecting its meaning, con¬
sidering the sense of that part of the inscription of Rosetta
in which it occurs.
13. The characters denoting a diadem are sufficiently
determined by the first inscription of the stone ; and they
so much resemble the corresponding passages of the en¬
chorial text, that we can scarcely hesitate to admit the in¬
timate connection of the two modes of writing without
seeking for any further proofs.
14. The sacred ornaments are expressed by three fea¬
thers fixed to a bar, which appears to be held by two arms.
The remaining part of the character occurs very frequent¬
ly as a sort of termination, and seems to answer to ments.
15-20. The boat or ship, the spear, the bow, the arrow,
the censer, and the bier, are sufficiently identified by the
comparison of various tablets with their inscriptions. The
ship occurs frequently as denoting the sacred boats, in
which the representations of the deities are conveyed,
though they are not always accompanied by water. But
it has been observed, that the Egyptians attributed ships
rather than chariots to the sun and moon as gliding smooth¬
ly through the skies. The first part of the enchorial word,
which has been supposed to be a b, is evidently identical
with the character always found in the manuscripts writ¬
ten in the running hieroglyphics as the first part of the
delineation of a ship. It is remarkable, that in the inscrip¬
tion at Esneh, as copied by the French, the point of the
arrow is turned towards the back of the bowman, instead
of being directed towards the enemy.
21. The tear, in some of its representations, is very clear¬
ly expressive of the thing intended ; and this resemblance,
together with its frequent attendance on a corpse and a
bier, is sufficient to explain its sense. It occurs also some¬
times within a border as a peculiar deity ; but it seems to
be much more commonly emblematical of Osiris, of Apis,
or of Mneuis. It is not unfrequently found as a detached
figure, in a kind of pottery, with a green glazing, and may
perhaps have been worn, instead of a mourning ring, as a
memorial of a departed friend. It has most commonly
been called the equi sectio, and supposed to represent a
329
horse’s head, or the rostrum of a ship, whilst the ingenious Vocabu-
Kircher has made it a phallus oculutus. Amongst the an- lary.
tiquities collected by Lord Mountnorris in Egypt is an eye ''V'—'
seen in front, and apparently shedding a tear.
22. The character for an image seems to mean a wrought
man ; for the hands, connected with an eye, appear to be
holding an oar as an emblem of labour. The same charac¬
ter, w ith a slight variation in the form of the eye, means a
rower.
23. The sitting statue has no character to imply wrought;
but it is followed by a bent line, which seems to be a term
of respect, and may possibly answer to osh, great. The
same bent line occurs on the great sarcophagus of green
breccia as a personification of one of the qualities of Osiris,
probably his magnificence. It is often exchanged in the
manuscripts for the divided staff'; and both are represent¬
ed in the running hand by a figure like a 9 or a 4. In
the enchorial text this character seems sometimes to be
expressed by a single line, either straight, or bent sideways
into an angle like part of a K. A similar divine statue is
decreed to “ King Nuncoreus, the son of Sesostris,” on Mr
Montagu’s frize. (See Hieroglyphics, 7 S 1.)
24. Letters are denoted by a character which seems to
represent some of the materials employed in writing, and
which is indeed not extremely unlike an inkstand figured
in Caylus’s Recueil, and consisting of two parallel tubes at
some distance from each other, with a cover connected
by a chain instead of a hinge. Besides the very well
marked passage in the Rosetta stone, the character occurs
in many manuscripts near the representation of a Thoth
employed in writing; and the enchorial character corre¬
sponding to it is also found in the term hierogrammatists
or sacred scribes at the beginning of the inscription.
25. In the numerical tablet of the great French wmrk,
believed to have been found at Karnak, a character may
be observed which frequently precedes a numeral, and
which resembles a weight with its handle. Hence we
may conjecture, with considerable probability, that it re¬
presents some weight of unknown value.
26. The enchorial character for gold is perfectly well
determined ; and its resemblance to a little vase under a
sort of arch is so strong that we may safely attribute the
same sense to this hieroglyphic, although it appears to be
wanting in one or two passages of the sacred inscription
of Rosetta, where it ought to be found. In the great ri¬
tual we observe this character immediately preceding a
shrine, as if a golden shrine were intended; and, in seve¬
ral other places, it is connected with a number, as if it
meant pieces of gold; for instance, in the green sarcopha¬
gus, with the number 360. Sometimes, also, it appears
to be used in a metaphorical sense as a complimentary
epithet of a monarch, or perhaps in allusion to his riches.
Thus, on the black frize of Nuncoreus, we have over the
king’s figure the characters, “ Joy, Life, Stability, Power,
Riches, Like the Sun, for ever.” (Hieroglyphics, 7 p.)
27. Near to the character for gold, in the margin of the
great ritual, is a sort of open box, supported on a flagstaff;
and a similar box, with a semicircle under it, seems to
mean silver, at least it considerably resembles the encho¬
rial character for silver, which is perfectly well ascer¬
tained.
28. We find, in several inscriptions, representations of
objects which are also observable in the tablets accompa¬
nying them, although it is difficult to say for what they
are intended. Two of these are copied from the frize of
Ficoroni and Montagu (Hieroglyphics, 9 okl, Rskl, 7 LMq).
The former seems to be a sort of cloak, with a fringe at
the bottom; and the latter is a little like a pear; but this
character does not occur so clearly in the inscription.
2 r
VOL. XI.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
3::o
Yocahu - 6. Attributes and Actions.
larv.
w(See Plate CCLXXIV.)
1. The crux ansata, sometimes called the key of the
Nile, is usually employed as a symbol of divinity; but its
correct meaning is life, as Lacroze rightly conjectured,
although his opinion respecting the origin of the charac¬
ter is inconsistent with the form of its oldest and most
accurate delineations; and there is no one instance in
which it is so represented as to stand in any relation to a
sluice or a watercock. According to Socrates and Rufi-
nus, the Egyptian priests declared to their Christian con¬
querors under Theodosius, who were going to destroy the
Serapeion at Alexandria, that the cross, so often sculptur¬
ed on their temples, was an emblem of the life to come.
This passage has been understood by some authors as re¬
lating rather to the cross without a handle, which is ob¬
servable in some rare instances, and indeed twice on the
stone of Rosetta; but this symbol appears rather to de¬
note a protecting power than an immortal existence. It
happens, perhaps altogether accidentally, that one of the
contractions for the word god, which are commonly used
in Coptic, approaches very near to this character, except
that the arms of the cross are within the circle.
2. Eternity is represented simply by a serpent rising
in an oblique arch, and without horns; the serpent de¬
vouring its tail, and forming a ring, is never found as an
Egyptian emblem. Horus Apollo says that eternity was
denoted by a serpent having its tail hidden under its body,
and that such serpents were called uraei, meaning in Greek
basilisks, which agrees very well with the sense of the Cop¬
tic uro, king ; but this description answers better to the
asp of the inscription of Rosetta, which has also some rela¬
tion to the representations of the deities, though it does
not exactly mean immortality.
3. The cross with the serpent is a very common epithet
in the sense of everliving, or immortal, or ^onobios ; the
waved line is in general a preposition, or a termination,
meaning of, to, or for ; and it appears to be synonymous
with the hat or head-dress. Almost all authors have very
hastily taken it for granted that this character must re¬
late immediately to water wherever it occurs, although we
find it repeatedly in every line of the inscription of Ro¬
setta, where water is not once mentioned. The fact, how¬
ever, is, that its prototype seems to have been a stream of
water, or of any other liquid, flowing from a vessel, and
poured on some other object; and that the idea of the li¬
quid was completely dropped in the general employment
of the character, whilst that of the connection only was re¬
tained ; the hat or cap being also similarly forgotten, whilst
its connection with the head of the wearer only was sug¬
gested by its figure. In this compound character we have
two particles nearly alike, the semicircle and the line; for
that they cannot be very different is shown by the occa¬
sional substitution of two semicircles for the combination.
One of them seems to serve for the connection between
life and eternity, “ life for ever ;” and the other to make
the new compound an adjective, “ Wving for ever.”
4. The triangle or pyramid occurs very commonly
amongst other emblems of prosperity and happiness ; and
it is found in the frize of Montagu and Ficoroni in the
decided sense of an offering or a present in general, whilst
in another place it is made an offering in its own form ;
so that we can only interpret it as signifyingyb?/, or plea¬
sure, or prosperity. {Hieroglyphics, 7 Mqr. Uqr; 9 Re,
R1 ; 7 Uq, Urs.)
5. Power appears to be indicated by a sceptre having
the head of an animal, which is often placed in the hands
of the deities, and often stands with the cross, the pyra¬
mid, and the altar, as an emblem of the blessings atten¬
dant on the favourites of the gods. It is seldom used in
the text of inscriptions, but it occurs once in that of Ro- Vocabt
setta. larv.
6, 7. Stability is denoted, on the Rosetta stone and else- '^Y>
where, by the altar, which seems to have been fixed in
the ground as a column. When repeated it forms the
verb establish ; but it often occurs singly, and not uncom¬
monly as an unconnected emblem, accompanied by other
characters of similar import; and it is sometimes found as
a detached figure formed of glazed porcelain. The two
altars are very conspicuous objects in some of the episto-
lographic manuscripts, and are very useful in comparing
them with the hieratic ; but the word employed in the en¬
chorial inscription of Rosetta seems to be derived from a
different origin.
8. A drop or club over a basin, followed by a bent line,
seems to mean great strength, though it is difficult to say
what the character is meant to depict. In some other
places it seems to resemble somewhat a kind of head¬
dress.
9. The bullock and the arm, which generally occur at
the beginning of the inscriptions on the obelisks, agree
very well with the epithet mighty in the translation of
Hermapion. The arm is, in many other instances, used
in compound characters.
10. Victory is denoted by a branch, perhaps by a palm
branch, with a semicircle and a circle, sometimes preced¬
ed by a waved line.
11. The character signifying fortune somewhat resem¬
bles that which denotes gold ; but instead of the arch we
have an angular line, which seems to be intended for a
pair of arms grasping the vase. The whole assemblage
approaches also a little to the form of a pocket, or purse,
as it is frequently delineated.
12. The open square, bent inwards, clearly means splen¬
dour or glory, though it is uncertain what object it is in¬
tended to represent. In some cases a crescent seems to
be substituted for it, as if it bore some relation to the sun,
and the moon afforded a parallel sense.
13. 14. Illustrious is expressed, in the inscription of
Rosetta, by the open square, for splendour, the oval, wffiich
signifies addition or respect, making it a kind of superla¬
tive, and the pair of legs, which very naturally convey the
idea of bearing, or possessing ; so that the whole forms the
epithet Epiphanes. This assemblage is, in some of the
manuscripts, very commonly followed by a bird, or its
equivalent, a half arch, apparently serving as an intensive.
15-17. The feather, when alone, seems to va\f[y honour,
as well as when accompanied by a man stretching out his
arm, or by a bird. The bird also frequently stands alone
in similar passages, and must be translated respect, or re¬
spectable. The block with the bird has also manifestly
the same sense in the great ritual, and the vase with the
bowl is so nearly synonymous with it that we can only
translate it venerable ; and these characters are frequent¬
ly exchanged for a sort of bench, with a dash under it, a
symbol which, however, may possibly have been deduced
from some difterent origin. The sense of the feather is
peculiarly illustrated by its occurrence with a drop or
club, a serpent, and a line, at the beginning of a great
variety of inscriptions, apparently signifying immortal ho¬
nour to.
18. The eye, either with or without the pupil, and either
preceded or followed by the undulated line, has a sense
somewhat similar to all these, and is often employed at
the beginning of the honorary inscriptions. On the Ro¬
setta stone it means distinctly rite or adoration. I he
enchorial character corresponding to it expresses simply
doing ; and in Greek the same word signifies to do and to
sacrifice,
19. Worship, or the Greek therapeia, is denoted by a
very unintelligible character, resembling a kind of cap-
HIEROGLYPHICS.
ab stan, which is frequently delineated in the boats of the
'’in'’ tablets, if it is not intended for some emblematical figure
erected in the boats. On the great green sarcophagus,
the long bent line is a snake, and the point projecting up¬
wards from the middle is a sword. But these resemblances
afford us little or no assistance in tracing the connection
between the whole emblem and its sense.
20, 21. The character denoting father is found in some
of the inscriptions of the Ptolemies in such circumstances
that it might as easily be supposed to mean mother; but,
by means of Mr Bullock’s scarabceus, compared with some
other monuments, another character having been deter¬
mined for mother, it became easy to identify the symbol
for father on the Rosetta stone, where it had been a little
injured, and imperfectly copied in the engravings.
22. The frequent occurrence of the Egyptian goose or
sheldrake, with a circle over it, between two proper names,
sufficiently points out the meaning of these characters,
which can only relate to the connection between them,
and which must naturally mean son. The circle may per¬
haps be intended for an egg; but in the painted sculp¬
tures the disc is red and the circumference light. The
enchorial character nearly resembles the form in which
some kinds of birds are usually expressed in the manu¬
scripts. Mr Bailey also observed the occurrence of the
bird between two proper names, and identified it with
the chenalopex mentioned by Horus Apollo as employ¬
ed to signify son, on account of its courage in defending
its offspring. This quality might rather have been ex¬
pected to lead to its adoption as a symbol for a parent;
but its existence in the bird in question is confirmed by
the observations of modern naturalists respecting the shel¬
drake (the tadorne of Buffbn), which has generally been
considered as the chenalopex, and resembles very accu¬
rately the best of the hieroglyphical delineations of the
bird, although the colours, as exhibited in the Descrip¬
tion de VEgypte, are not correctly natural.
23. The same bird, with a leg or a dash instead of a
circle, seems to mean a minister or attendant, especially
in several parts of the inscriptions on the Lover’s Foun¬
tain. There are also some other characters which seem
to be nearly synonymous with these ; one ot them may
possibly be meant for a tail, implying a follower, as sat
and sa are nearly alike in Coptic; another is sometimes
worn as a collar, perhaps implying subjection, and mean¬
ing servant.
24, 25. Instead of the usual character for son, we some¬
times find, between two names, a serpent with a globe
substituted for the bird, and an oval for the circle ; and
the context seems to require that the 'meaning of these
symbols should be a daughter, but probably with some
particular character of royalty or divinity. At Philae we
find a dual, meaning sons or descendants, as a son and a
daughter, expressed apparently by two circles only.
26. A child, or infant, is represented by a figure bent as
if sitting, and putting his finger on his lip. ihis is suffi¬
ciently established by the triple inscription; but it is still
further confirmed by a plate of the Description de VEgypte
(Antiq. tom. ii. pi. Ixxxvi. f. 1), in which a figure of this kind
is represented as immediately derived from the father,
who seems to be inspired by a beetle entering his mouth.
The manuscripts afford us here some valuable steps by
which the enchorial character is connected with the dis¬
tinct hieroglyphics. Another figure, which is elsewhere
used as corresponding to a beetle, is also found in the en¬
chorial text in the sense of son or offspring.
27, 28. A circle, with an arm holding an angular line,
means a director. The angular line is intended for part
of a rudder ; and the same character, with the addition of
the figure of a boat, denotes the pilot or helmsman, as is
obvious from many parts of the green sarcophagus. The
circle and arm are also found in the character denoting V
dedicate. ,
29. A pair of arms holding an oar, and connected by a
sort of sector, signifies a rower, and possibly also a labour¬
er, or workman in general, as in image.
30. A stem of a plant, perhaps a reed, followed by an
insect like a wasp or ichneumon, but probably intended
for a bee, and by two semicircles, is the complete em¬
blem for a king ; but the reed is often used alone in the
same sense, and the insect sometimes occurs without the
reed. Plutarch says that a king was denoted by a leaf,
thrion ; and Horus Apollo tells us that a bee signified a
people obedient to a king; hence this symbol might be
interpreted king of men. Ammianus Marcellinus, how-'
ever, asserts, more simply, that a king was denoted by a
bee. It appears from the manuscripts that the beginning
of the enchorial character, which Mr Akerblad read phu,
is derived from the elementary traces representing the reed,
the semicircle, a waved line, and a sitting deity, mean¬
ing the divine king; an assemblage which often occurs
on the green sarcophagus, and elsewhere, as applied to a
royal person. The remainder of the enchorial character
seems to represent a termination consisting of a semicircle
and a vessel, which is often added to a name, apparently as
a demonstration of respect, like the vessel and the spiral in
the case of the god Nilus.
31. Condition, or subjection, is denoted by a character
which somewhat resembles an altar with an offering of
flowers, but which might also be intended for the cup of a
flower with an insect hovering over it.
32. In the term kingdom, the crown is figuratively em¬
ployed for its wearer; a metaphor common in many mo¬
dern languages.
33. The character denoting a libation is very indistinct¬
ly traced in the sacred inscription of Rosetta, so that it
would have been impossible to explain its original form
without the assistance of any hieroglyphical monuments.
The long water jar, out of which the kneeling figure is
pouring a divided stream, somewhat resembles those which
a modern Egyptian woman is seen carrying in a plate ot
Mr Legh’s second edition.
34. 35. The vase with the stream, which frequently oc¬
curs in the character for priest, is sometimes found alone,
and must therefore probably relate to some particular cere¬
mony performed by the priests, approaching to the nature
of a libation. On the monument of Rosetta the line is a
simple curve, not waved; nor is the vase more distinctly
represented. Instead ot the sitting figure, a foot is some¬
times substituted, as in the word attendant; and the en¬
chorial character is a more tolerable approximation to this
form than to the complete figure.
36. Priesthood is simply the condition of a priest; the
character prefixed answering to the Coptic prefix met, and
to the Greek termination eia.
37. The ornaments of the head are very generally used
as indicating the person by whom they are worn ; and
flowers, probably those of the lotus, are frequently found
on the heads of the priests, as well as in the inscriptions
which accompany them. In the inscription of Rosetta the
sense sacerdotal agrees very well with the context where
this character occurs, though it cannot be deduced with
absolute certainty from the comparison with the Greek.
38. It is by no means easy to explain why the figure like
a buckle should clearly mean an assembly. Perhaps, how¬
ever, the upper part may originally have been a crescent,
implying monthly; and the scale or basin below is occa¬
sionally found supporting some offerings, which are set up¬
right in it; so that the whole may have meant a monthly
exhibition.
39. The character god is made an adjective by the addi¬
tion of the waved line, and of the long drop, which seem
332
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Yocabu-
larv.
simply to convert it into the term sacred; or, if the drop
has any other meaning, it can only relate to worshipping
or honouring, as the character prefixed to the enchorial
text, which is equivalent to the scale or basin, is elsewhere
employed to signify honour or attention. In some other
instances, a circle and a waved line seem to be employed
in a similar manner, for connecting one character with an¬
other like substantive and adjective.
40. An epithet implying consecrated or dedicated is com¬
posed of a trident, or triple branch or root, followed by a
bent line. It occurs very commonly near the beginning
of inscriptions, on obelisks, and elsewhere.
41. A little oblique cross, over an arm with a feather,
seems to mean to give, and perhaps to fight and to de¬
fend, as, in Coptic, the word ti has both these senses. It is
often preceded by a circle and a semicircle.
42. The hand bearing the triangle or pyramid manifest¬
ly means, in the frize of Montagu and Ficoroni, to offer,
as an oblation to a deity.
43. In the inscription of Rosetta, we find the word dedi¬
cate expressed by a bent line and a sitting figure, with the
circle, and the arm holding the rudder. The character al¬
ready interpreted consecrated precedes, but it is not abso¬
lutely certain that it belongs to, the same phrase.
44. The term lawful is naturally enough derived from
a deity in his judicial capacity ; the figure is preceded by
a bird, placed between two semicircles, which must here
mean according to, answering to the termination/W. Some¬
times a curved line, supported by a stem, is substituted as
a synonym for the figure of the judge.
45-47. The character representing good strongly resem¬
bles the figure of a lute, depicted in the chamber of the
harps, amongst the catacombs, and may have alluded to the
pleasing sound of music. The plural, with the scale or
basin, which implies bestowing, makes the epithet eucha-
ristos, which in Greek is somewhat ambiguous, meaning
either grateful or munificent. The latter, however, must
be its sense in this inscription, because good gifts or de¬
lights may be plural, but gratitude not so easily. The lute
is also found denoting good in other parts of the inscrip¬
tion. The enchorial character for the scale could scarcely
have been suspected to be derived from it, without the as¬
sistance of the manuscripts, which constantly exhibit an in¬
termediate form, intended, perhaps, to comprehend one of
the lines supporting the scale.
48. The semicircle, with two oblique dashes, seems to
mean great in the name of Thoth, who is called, in the
Greek inscription of Rosetta, Hermes the great and great;
whilst, in other places, this character seems almost always
to convey the sense of a dual. The enchorial epithet of
I hoth is a little like the crown with two semicircles, which
is most frequently found amongst the titles of Osiris, espe¬
cially when he sits in judgment. The two kinds of hats,
worn by the different deities, seem to be intended by the
characters of the Rosetta stone, which express the upper
and lower regions or countries. These two characters are
also found together in the green sarcophagus as the names
of two goddesses; and they occur together in one or two
passages of some of the manuscripts, and in an inscription
at Philae, so that, although the representation is very in¬
distinct in the particular case of the Rosetta stone, there is
little doubt that the cap of Osiris meant, in this case, supe¬
rior, and that of Hyperion and other personages inferior.
49. A circle and a semicircle stand, in several passages
of the inscription of Rosetta, for others, or remaining.
50. Possibly the bowl and the bird together mean say
or call, and the figure of a man may serve to make the pas¬
sive called.
51. I he second bowl, substituted for the bird, does not
appear very essentially to alter the sense, which is still a
thing said or proclaimed, a declaration, or a decree.
52. The characters denoting manifest seem to have V0c.
some analogy to called, though their derivation is obscure, hr
The first character may either be intended for the country,'
or for a kind of flag or banner.
53. The ring, which implies a name, and which elsewhere
distinguishes proper names, seems to be an imitation of the
label, called a phylactery in the Greek inscription of Rosetta,
on which the name of a figure was usually distinguished. *
54. A disc, with rays descending from it, is one of the
few characters in which the form gives us some assistance
towards determining the sense, which is found to be en¬
lightening ; though the Egyptians do not seem to have been
very correct in their delineation of the motion of light,
which they make to diverge in curved lines, like those de¬
scribed by a common projectile.
55. The square block, the semicircle, and the chain, are
employed very clearly in the sense of loving or beloved; in
Coptic mai. In the enchorial character the square and se¬
micircle seem to be sometimes transposed, and sometimes
changed into an oval.
56. Preserver, or saviour, is represented by a sort of tre¬
foil, with a long stem, which answers to a cross or obelisk
in the enchorial text; but, in other passages, the character
takes the form of a still simpler club ; and in others, again,
it has something like a bulbous root.
57. 58. A frame like a ladder, supported by a stem, oc¬
curs sometimes as a part of a head dress, but it is difficult
to say if it represents any other object. Followed by an
arm, and a pair of legs, it signifies set up, and this combi¬
nation of characters is of very frequent occurrence; some¬
times also the bent line or divided shaft forms a part of it.
In Coptic, set up is expressed by set on foot, which seems
to retain the analogy of the hieroglyphical character. The
substitution of a pair of feathers for the legs, however, does
not appear materially to alter the sense; the context, where
it occurs, requiring the word prepare or construct.
7. Relations.
1. IN ORDER THAT.
2- WHEREVER.
3. AND.
0Y02
4. ALSO, WITH.
NBA*.
5. MOREOVER.
JV 20T0
.n/i&jpjfr
7. IN.
^EJV, E2DTJV
■a
8. UPON, AT.
e/,E2pK/
9* OVER, ON.
EXIU
10. FOR.
o §
□ □
1 ‘12‘W
ow a
l£
<5
HIEROGLYPHICS.
333
Voi u-
In
11. BY THESE.
vKS-Ti^YTE?
12. OF, TO.
JVTE,N-
2.<J If)
; «=-9^?9^«aa
can only mean of or for. It is often substituted, in pas- Vocabu-
sages which are frequently repeated, for the waved line, lary-
each being probably equivalent to the Coptic nte, or ra- ''—'v'*-
ther n ; which also sometimes makes an adjective of a sub¬
stantive, as nnub, golden, from nub, gold.
1. Two ovals, with a semicircle and an arm, very clearly
signify in order that. The ovals seem to mean to or
for, and the arm action or doing ; as our own that seems
to be allied to the German that, which means deed. The
same combination of characters appears to denote, in ano¬
ther passage, to add to ; and one of the ovals is sometimes
omitted. The Coptic may be either hina or ethbe.
2. The symbols employed in the sense wherever, seem
to mean separately, at, in, one, or in, place, one ; and, trans¬
posing the two last, we may make a very good Coptic
word E-U-MA.
3. 4. The arm and chain signify and or also; and the
oval sometimes takes place of the arm, without much va¬
riation of the sense. This combination is also found in the
sense of with, or together with. The elementary ideas seem
to be put, ivith, or add, with. Between the names of Pto¬
lemy and Berenice at Karnak, the arm and chain are se¬
parate.
5. The half arch, or the fork, which is perfectly equiva¬
lent to it, followed by two curls and two semicircles, mean
moreover ; the reduplication probably resembling that of
many of the Coptic verbs, which generally imply a con¬
tinued action.
6. The combination of the loop or sling, with two semi¬
circles and three ovals, means very clearly likewise. The
loop seems to represent a bucket, intended for one of
a pair, to be carried on a pole, as they are frequently de¬
lineated in the tablets, so that it must mean a companion ;
and accordingly we find it in a very common epithet of a
king, on obelisks and elsewhere, with a circle and a bar,
denoting the companion of the sun, or simply resembling the
sun. In the enchorial character for likewise, the symbols
seem to be transposed, and the loop is doubled.
7. An owl, signifying in, seems to be nearly synonymous
with the half arch, which is also sometimes to be under¬
stood in the sense of all. Both these characters occur also
in many instances where they can only be considered as
marks of respect, and not very essential to the sense ; and
in this they resemble the Coptic prefix m, which is a par¬
ticle not very distinctly intelligible, nor capable of being
translated. It is also not a little remarkable, that the m of
Akerblad’s alphabet is the enchorial character which an¬
swers to both of these symbols.
8. 9. A hare over two waved lines is employed, either
alone, or together with a head, dash, circle, and dash, which
have separately a similar sense, for upon, over, or at;
and it is remarkable, that a similar relation exists in Cop¬
tic between ehrei and ejo, jo, or dcho, also meaning a
head. The enchorial character, in some*of its forms, is ma¬
nifestly a coarse imitation of an animal. The head is al¬
ways represented in the manuscripts by a character near¬
ly like a Greek 2; and this may possibly have been the
origin of the Coptic letter janjia, if it was derived from a
hieroglyphic ; but it is equally probable that it may have
been intended for a combination of a delta and a chi.
10. A semicircle and an oval signify for, and have a
relation to time.
11. A ball, with two short appendages, one narrower
than the other, occurs several times on the Rosetta stone,
and seems to have been intended for a head seen in profile,
which is often found on other monuments. This character,
together with a dash, seems to signify by the, or each ; for
instance every year, or every month.
12. The hat, interposed between an image and the king,
8. Time.
1. DAY.
ecooY. M.upj
2. MONTH.
M-tn:
3. YEAR.
pojmrt/
4. THOUTH.
etc OYT
5. MECHIR.
JUeEDC/p
6- MESORE.
AAECOUpjf
7. FIRST DAY.
COY^/
8. THIRTIETH.
COY JUl&JA
1. A day seems to be very naturally expressed by splen¬
dour of the sun, or sunshine.
2. A crescent turned downwards, with a star and the
sun, makes up the character signifying a month ; to which
a semicircle and a scale or basin are sometimes added.
Horus Apollo says that a month is denoted by a palm
branch, or by an inverted crescent; but the crescent is too
indistinct on the monument of Rosetta to have allow’ed us
to recognise it without the assistance of the collateral in¬
scriptions.
3. A year is denoted by a bent line with a little pro¬
jection from the middle, which seems to represent a plant
with an annual shoot or bud ; it is commonly followed by
a semicircle and a block or dash.
4. There is some little uncertainty respecting the exact
limits of the characters denoting the first month, Thouth.
The name seems to have some relation to gathering the
harvest, and the emblem is probably intended for a field of
corn ; and, perhaps, as the year is said to have begun origi¬
nally with the dogdays, the appropriation of this character
to the first month may have been contemporaneous with
the origin of the calendar.
5. 6. The sixth month, Mechir, is remarkable for hav¬
ing half as many crescents as the twelfth, Mesore. This
relation would without doubt be further illustrated if we
could discover any thing like a calendar among the im¬
mense mass of Egyptian literature which is still in exist¬
ence. The manuscript which Montfaucon calls a calendar,
merely because it is divided into twelve columns, has no
pretensions to the name.
7, 8. The symbol for the sun seems to be employed in the
designation both of the first day of the month, the neo-
menia of the Greek inscription, and of the last, or thirtieth
day. Of the characters following the sun, the one seems
to mean good, or rather new, as in Thouth, the month of
the new year ; the other old or last. This character might
be taken for a serpent, or for a branch of a tree; but it
334
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Vocabu- seems more probable that it is intended for the tail of an
lary. animal, since it occurs in several passages of the manu-
scripts as representing a tail; and the tail of the month is
sufficiently expressive of the sense.
1. ONE.
OT<5Li, O VJ
2. FIRST.
eor/T
9. Numbers.
(
0
fd-i
3. TWO. D D
CWSXCJVOYt
4. SECOND.
5. THREE.
«JOMT
>0©
□ D
□ 0 □
n
h
6. THIRD.
JUU.2 iaOJiXT (J □ □
7. THRICE. 0 □ 0
'jj ohxt
8. FOUR.
QTO
9. FIVE.
T/DY
10. SEVEN.
11. EIGHTH.
12. TEN.
J0UTT,Wfd'
13. SEVENTEEN.
Jtf.ETi9.WyQ
14. THIRTY.
15. FORTY-TWO.
s-aecjv&.Y
i
16. A HUNDRED.
J0C
D □ □ □
D D □ □ D
□ □ □ □
ODD
n ,0
Ul|
n
»**T
1-f
0,0
jn
nod
UC D C U 11 9DD D 0
ODD
yO
D D
17. A THOUSAND.
J0O
18. MCDXXVIII. | 9
i0O QTO 10EXtOT^ ^
i0tfXOYJV CDDcfl
DBIIDO
19. SEVERAL. D
2&Y, ..OY/ MOD, oV V 11,22
are dennted by short lines, like the Roman
1 erblad first noticed the first three numerals in th
last hne of the sacred characters of Rosetta, where th
Greek text is deficient, and the words “ first and second
on y remain; and this observation alone was sufficient t
prove that the hieroglyphical characters related to a re;
language, and were not simply ornamental decorations, s
some persons have imagined.
2-11. The twisted line distinguishing the ordinal num- V0
hers answers to the Coptic mah, which is prefixed to the 1:
cardinals in the same sense ; in the enchorial text the cor-
responding character follows the number. The three points
are more commonly employed, when they follow a word,
to make it plural; but when they signify a numeral, they
are generally placed immediately above some other charac¬
ter ; and, in the enchorial inscription, this numeral is dis¬
tinguished by making the lines oblique, and joining them.
12. For the number ten we have a Greek pi, either
square or rounded, not only in the inscription of Rosetta,
but in many other places.
13. We find the number seventeen occurring twice as a
date in the inscription of Rosetta; the Greek text, in an¬
other part, alluding to the same period, has eighteen ; and
the enchorial words are too indistinctly marked to allow us
to judge of the identity or diversity of the two numbers;
but the difference of a day is of no consequence, since the
festival of the “ assumption of the kingdom” may easily
have begun on the 17th of Mechir, and continued till the
next day, which is the date of the decree.
14. 15. The enchorial character for thirty, when applied
to years, seems to be the same as is elsewhere used in the
sense of the thirtieth day ; but the numbers are almost al¬
ways confused in the running hand, and exhibit several
deviations from the regular system of the sacred charac¬
ters. The number forty, for example, in the remarkable
passage relating to the forty-two assessors of Osiris, seems
to be denoted by a single line with a dash on it.
16-18. The curve, like the figure 9, meaning a hundred,
and the notched circle, supported by a cross, denoting a
thousand, occur, in several inscriptions, so combined with
units and tens, as to leave no doubt respecting the num¬
bers which they represent. This is particularly evident from
the consideration of an inscription “ believed to have been
found at Karnak.” {Description de I'Egypte, Antiq. tom.
iii. pi. xxxviii. F. 26. . 30.)
19. Plurals are distinguished by writing a character
three times, or by putting three dashes after it, and some¬
times, perhaps, though very rarely, before it; occasionally
also by repeating a part of a collection of symbols once
only. In the manuscripts, the three dashes are generally
joined into a crooked stroke, which, in the enchorial in¬
scription, sometimes both precedes and follows the word ;
whilst, in other cases, the second stroke is converted into
a single vertical line, which serves to limit the extent of
the characters meant to be made plural; the representa¬
tion being so imperfect, that this assistance is more requir¬
ed than in the sacred characters. And it may be observed,
that this second mark is never wanting in the enchorial
inscription, as it must frequently have been if the charac¬
ter had been alphabetical; since many of the Egyptian
plurals end precisely as their singulars do, and even when
they differ from them, it is not by the addition of any one
uniform termination.
Jl
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10. Sounds.
U
Aepe
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02 DC
HIEROGLYPHICS.
iens. The phonetic characters, according to the traces which
may be discovered in the words Berenice, Ptolemy, Greek,
and some others, will afford something like a hieroglyphic
alphabet, which, however, is merely collected as a specimen
of the mode of expressing sounds in some particular cases,
and not as having been universally employed where sounds
were required. The Supposed Enchorial Alphabet
subjoined is applicable to most of the proper names in the
inscription of Rosetta, and probably also to some other
symbols which have been the prototypes of the characters.
It is taken from the alphabet of Akerblad, but is consider¬
ably modified by the conjectures which have been pub¬
lished in the Museum Criticum} M. Champollion pre¬
tends that his labours on the demotic text of the Rosetta
inscription had also led him to increase, and in certain
points to rectify, the alphabet of Mr Akerblad; and that
the comparison of the hieratic manuscripts with a, large
hieroglyphical papyrus had enabled him to ascertain that
the hieratic was a simple tachygraphy of the hieroglyphic
writing. In this last point, however, he seems to have
been anticipated by Tyschen of Gottingen, who, as early
as the year 1816, announced to the world, in the Magasin
Encyclopedique, that the hieratic was merely an abridged
or simplified form of the hieroglyphical method of writing.
R A
r,fC(T *c
E
H
/
SSL
JY
t
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y
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a
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r
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3*35
Specimens.
11. Specimens of Phrases.
The last line of the inscription of Rosetta will serve as
a specimen of the way in which the hieroglyphical cha¬
racters wrere combined, so as to form a language; and
will show at the same time the relation between the sa¬
cred and the enchorial texts.
Illililiir.
.. 2.TEpe<2YAtO©VT© ?rTE.5Ep^irKAl EYXn PAOiX KA» EAAKNiKo) ST PAMN
111 11
of q| % q /Jf tn
TJey #
|l 18 www# ni^Ufftr w . ^iBi   CT*"rl
1 ? fl f/A /y, i ]3 ^+/ A r. 1
n PXl'm.N KA?AE\-rEPAM ..
«if g? psiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiy #
pH
At the beginning of the line we find some obscurity,
and a want of perfect correspondence in the two inscrip¬
tions ; but it is clear that the fork or ladder, the arm and
the feathers, mean to prepare or procure; then follows a
column; the wavy line, of; the semicircle and two dashes,
with the arm, probably strong or hard ; the block or square
below, with its semicircle, stone ; the loop or knot wrought
or engraven ; the half arch in or with, the instrument or
case, writing, or letters; the wavy line, the hatchet, and
drop, with the three dashes making a plural, appropriate
■ We republish this Supposed Enchorial Alphabet, as it originally appeared in ^ ‘^J^the
the former editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, notwithstanding one compara ne y J - £ . j, nroffress and under
RudimcnU of an Egyptian Dictionary in the ancient Enchorial Character, a work comp eted KE and saga-
the pressure of his last illness. But u-e confess we were anxious to preserve “‘s
city, to show precisely what had been achieved by the first successful labourer in ^ J°. ai ‘lbseaUently made
to draw a marked line of distinction between the discoveries of Dr Young, an e at 1 i ' t; hieroglyphics which
by Champollion and others. In the general alphabet, subjoined to this article, wilh be found
have as yet been determined with any degree of certainty. But for an alphabetical cla s^
which have been ascertained, either by Dr Young himself, or by others w citefTcontaining his last contribution towards
which he so ably commenced, we must refer the reader to the interesting wo.a , k
the advancement of Egyptian literature.
336
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Specimens, to the gods, that is, sacred ; the case again, letters ; the hat,
'***-Y**~/ of; the ladder, arm, and feathers, the country ; the serpent
and bent line, approaching to the sense of perpetuity and
greatness, seem to be a mark of respect to the country,
though it is barely possible that they may be substituted
for the repetition of the instrument or case, and may
mean the language, and belong to the following curve on
the stem, the feathers, the serpent, and the hat, which
signify Greek. The head-dress of flowers meaning pro¬
bably a priest, the following curve with the dashes proba¬
bly ornamental or honorary, or perhaps collective, and the
two bowls, with the man in the plural, a publication;—
the whole of these symbols must express the honorary
decree of the priests, or the decree of the assembled priests ;
but the enchorial text seems to include the symbol for
honour. The oval, with the semicircle and arm, implies
in order that, or in order to; the fork with cross bars,
the arm, the legs, and the snake, set it up; the bird, in;
the three broad feathers over as many open squares, the
temples, as a plural; the half arch and oval with the plural
dashes, all, or of all hinds ; the open square, wheel, scale,
head, dash, and ring, Egypt; the figure with a vase on
his head, subjection ov power ; making the whole, belong¬
ing to Egypt, or throughout Egypt. The fork and dash
are in, or in all; the knots or chains, followed by the
numbers, of the first, the second, and the third order ; the
oval, half arch, and dash, wherever, or in which, leaving
out “ shall be \ the tool and standing figure, with the in¬
tervening characters, the image ; the hat, of; and the reed
and bee, with the semicircles, king. The square, semi¬
circle, lion, half arch, two feathers, and bent line, Ptole¬
my; the handled cross and serpent with the two semi¬
circles, the everliving; the square block, semicircle, and
chain, dear to ; the hieralpha and two feathers, Phthah,
or Vulcan; all this being included within the ring or
phylactery, together with the name. The open square,
the oval, and the pair of legs after the ring, illustrious or
Epiphanes ; and the scale and the three lutes, munificent;
the conjunctions being often omitted, as they also are very (W
commonly in Coptic, and even in Greek. son
The enchorial text in many parts agrees extremely well WY
with the hieroglyphics, according to the general style of
imitation which has already been explained and exempli-
fied, although in some passages there is a greater differ¬
ence than might have been expected. The beginning of
the enchorial line seems to contain the word decree, which
cannot be found in this part of the hieroglyphics; the
character for letters occurs three times in it, as if the
sacred character used in the third place meant language;
the sacerdotal decree of the sacred characters is omitted
in the corresponding part of the enchorial; the word
temples is repeated before each numeral; the term when,
ever is amplified ; the image is a very coarse imitation,
and is followed by the character for a deity, meaning
sacred or divine; and, lastly, the name of Ptolemy is
omitted, the word king being only followed by “ whose
life shall be for ever,” or a phrase of similar import.
12. Comparison of Manuscripts.
The subjoined specimens of a comparison of the differ¬
ent manuscripts, which deviate more or less from the
form of distinct hieroglyphics, with others in which those
characters are preserved almost entire, though slightly
traced, will serve to show the complete identity of the
different systems in their original form; the first and
fourth lines being taken from the great hieratic manu¬
script of Strasburg, and the rest from other copies of the
same text, which are universally considered as written in
the epistolographic character. We cannot discover the
entire connected sense of the whole passages, but we may
easily observe the symbols for gods, established, Osiris,
Isis, Nephthe, Hieracion, to set up, four, priests, and child
or prince. (Description de VEgypte,Antiq. tom. ii. plate
Ixxiv. col. 106 ; lx. col. 3; Ixii. col. 2 ; plate Ixxii. col. 38;
Ixvii. col. 2.)
sf\.
H
fH £§L .ffr
^^r, jjjb tO
V. DR young’s OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENERAL CHA¬
RACTER OF THE EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS.
By means of the knowledge of the hieroglyphic cha¬
racters which has already been obtained, we are fully
competent to form a general idea of the nature of the in¬
scriptions on the principal Egyptian monuments which
are extant. Numerous as they are, there is scarcely one
of them which we are not able to refer to the class either
of sepulchral or of votive inscriptions ; astronomical and
chronological there seem to be none, since the numerical
characters, which have been perfectly ascertained, have
not yet been found to occur in such a form as they neces¬
sarily must have assumed in the records of this descrip¬
tion. Of an historical nature, we can only find the tri¬
umphal, which are often sufficiently distinguishable, but
they also may always be referred to the votive; since
whoever related his own exploits thought it wisest to at¬
tribute the glory of them to some deity, and whoever re¬
corded those of another was generally disposed to inter¬
mix divine honours with his panegyric. It has, indeed,
been asserted that the Egyptians were not in the habit
of deifying any mortal persons; but the inscription of Ro¬
setta is by no means the only one in which the sovereigns
of Egypt are inserted in the number of its deities. The
custom is observable in monuments of a much earlier
age ; indeed, in such a country it might be considered as
a kind of dilemma of degradation, whether it was most ri¬
diculous to be made a divinity, or to be excluded from so
plebeian an assemblage ; but flattery is more prone to err
HIEROGLYPHICS.
337
by commission than by omission, and consequently we find
W s. the terms king and god very generally inseparable. The
^ ^ sepulchral inscriptions, from the attention which was paid
in Egypt to the obsequies of the dead, appear, upon the
whole, to constitute the most considerable part of the
Egyptian literature which remains; and they afford us,
upon a comparative examination, some very remarkable pe¬
culiarities. The general tenor of all these inscriptions ap¬
pears to be, as might have been expected from the testi¬
mony of Herodotus, the identification of the deceased with
the god Osiris, and probably, if a female, with Isis ; and the
subject of the most usual representations seems to be the
reception of this new personage by the principal deities,
to whom he now stands in a relation expressed in the re¬
spective inscriptions ; the honour of an apotheosis, reserv¬
ed by the ancient Romans for emperors, and by the mo¬
dern for saints, having been apparently extended by the
old Egyptians to private individuals of all descriptions. It
required an extensive comparison of these inscriptions to
recognise their precise nature, since they seldom contain
a name surrounded by a ring in its usual form. Some¬
times, however, as on the green sarcophagus of the Bri¬
tish Museum, a distinct name is very often repeated, and
preceded by that of Osiris; whilst, in most other in¬
stances, there is a certain combination of characters,
bearing evident relation to the personage delineated,
which occurs, after the symbols of Osiris, instead of the
name; so that either the ring was simply omitted on this
occasion, or a new and perhaps a mysterious name was
employed, consisting frequently of the appellations of se¬
veral distinct deities, and probably analogous to the real
name. That the characteristic phrase, so repeated, must
have had some relation to the deceased, is proved by its
scarcely ever being alike in any two monuments which
have been compared; whilst almost every other part of
the manuscripts and inscriptions is the same in many dif¬
ferent instances, and some of them in almost all; and this
same phrase may be observed, in Lord Mountnorris’s
and Mr Bankes’s manuscripts, placed over the head of
the person who is brought up between the two
goddesses, to make his appearance before Osi¬
ris, in his own person, and in his judicial ca¬
pacity, with his counsellors about him, and
the balance of justice before him. {Hiero¬
glyphics, 5 E F G e f.) In this instance the
phrase consists of the names of Hyperion and
the Sun, preceded by a block and an arm
with an offering; and it may be interpreted,
without any violence, “ the votary of Hype¬
rion and of Phre.” In a small manuscript, en¬
graved by Denon, the part which resembles
the characteristic phrase of other manuscripts
is followed by the name of a king, which is
nearly identical with that of the father of the
Pseudomemnon in the British Museum ; the
one having the hieralpha laid flat, the other
the traces of the pedestal, which are equivalent
to it.
ft
€p'
0
The tablet of the last judgment, which is so well illus¬
trated by the testimony of Diodorus concerning the fune¬
rals of the Egyptians, is found near the end of almost all
VOL. XI.
the manuscripts upon papyrus, which are so frequently
discovered in the coffins of the mummies, and, amongst
ethers, in Lord Mountnorris’s hieratic manuscript, printed
in the Collection of the Egyptian Society. The great
deity sits on the left, holding the hook and the whip or
fan; his name and titles are generally placed over him;
but this part of the present manuscript is a little injured.
Before him is a kind of mace, supporting something like
the skin of a leopard; then a female Cerberus, and on a
shelf over her head the tetrad of Termini, which have
already been distinguished by the names Tetrarcha, Anu-
bis, Macedo, and Hieracion, each having had his appro¬
priate denomination written over his head. Behind the
Cerberus stands Thoth, with his style and tablet, having
just begun to write. Over his head, in two columns, we
find his name and titles, including his designation as a
scribe. The balance follows, with a little baboon as a
kind of genius sitting on it. Under the beam stand Cte-
ristes and Hyperion, who are employed in adjusting the
equipoise ; but their names in this manuscript are omitted.
The five columns over the balance are only remarkable as
containing, in this instance, the characteristic phrase, or
the name of the deceased, intermixed with other charac¬
ters. Beyond the balance stands a female, holding the
sceptre of Isis, who seems to be called Rhea, the wife of
the sun. She is looking back at the personage who holds
up his hand as a mark of respect, and who is identified
as the deceased by the name simply placed over him,
without any exordium. He is followed by a second god¬
dess, who is also holding up her hands in token of respect,
and whose name looks like a personification of honour or
glory, unless it is simply intended to signify “ a divine
priestess” belonging to the order of the Pterophori men¬
tioned on the Rosetta monument. The forty-two asses¬
sors are wanting in this tablet; and, in many other ma¬
nuscripts, their number is curtailed, to make room for
other subjects; but, in several of those which are en¬
graved in the Description de VEgypte, they are all repre¬
sented, sometimes as sitting figures, and sometimes stand¬
ing as Termini, with their feet united.
The principal part of the text of all these manuscripts
appears to consist of a collection of hymns, or rather ho¬
mages, to certain deities, generally expressed in the name
of the deceased, with his title of Osiris, although the true
Osiris is not excluded from the groups which are intro¬
duced. The upper part of each manuscript is occupied
by a series of pictural tablets; and under them are verti¬
cal columns of distinct hieroglyphics, or, in the epistolo-
graphic manuscripts, pages of the text, which are com¬
monly divided into paragraphs, with a tablet at the head
of each, the first words being constantly written with red
ink, made of a kind of ochre, as the black is of a carbo¬
naceous substance. The beginning of the manuscript is
seldom entire, being always at the outside of the roll; as
the umbilicus of the Romans was synonymous with the
end. Not far from the beginning, we always find a large
tablet, occupying the whole depth of the paper, represent¬
ing the sun adored by his ministering spirits. In the large
hieratic manuscript, which occupies four plates of the De¬
scription de VEgypte, and which may be considered as a
fine specimen of the most highly finished copies, there are
at present only four columns remaining before this tablet.
It is followed by a short section, with a rubric,
which is not very distinctly expressed; after
this are thirty-five others, beginning with a long
rubric, which is usually followed by the name
of a divinity, represented in a neighbouring part
of the margin, and which may be supposed to
mean something like “ Respect and reverence
be paid to each of the sacred powers.” The next
ten sections begin with the rubric of a feather,
2 u
^ m
338
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Monu¬
ments.
and a sitting figure raising his hand to his head,
JO fi as if holding a vase on it, meaning probably
y “ Honour is due,” or belonging to; then follow
the name and titles of Thoth or Hermes, and
the phrase describing the deceased in the character of Osi¬
ris ; and afterwards the names of each of a group of deities,
which is represented in the corresponding tablet with an
altar and a suppliant before them. These groups are dif¬
ferent in the different sections, but they correspond pretty
accurately with each other in the various manuscripts ; and
this hermetic decade is the most constant part of the ma¬
nuscripts found with the mummies, though a little more
extended in some than it is in others. (Hieroglyphics, 4.)
_JT After these, we find thirty-five sections, begin-
I ning with a drop, a feather, a serpent, and a line ;
1 P Q the rubric being immediately followed by the dei-
fied name peculiar to the manuscript. This ex¬
ordium, from the analogy of the term sacred, we can have
no hesitation in understanding as a derivative of the fea¬
ther, signifying honour or ornament, and the serpent sig¬
nifying perpetuity, and in translating it, “ Eternal honour”
or respect. A similar sense seems, in other places, to be
expressed by the open square or the pyramid instead of
the feather; and not uncommonly the hat is substituted for
the line, without any variation of the meaning.
After these thirty-five sections, we have two others, of
which the rubrics are less intelligible, followed by forty-
two short ones, which evidently contain the names and
titles of as many separate deities, whose figures are com¬
monly represented in the great tablet, near that of Osiris.
We may generally observe, amongst the epithets of each,
the term illustrious ; and each section has a second para¬
graph, beginning with a pair of arms extended, a charac¬
ter which seems occasionally to be used in reference to
the equal scales of justice, though on the stone of Rosetta
it appears to signify a kind of temple, so that it may pos¬
sibly relate to the honours to be paid to these divine
judges. With a few additional columns, and with the
great tablet of the judgment, the manuscript concludes.
It does not contain the figure of the sacred cow, which is
the termination of most other manuscripts; nor the agricul¬
tural representations, which are frequently found in many
of them, especially in that of Lord Mountnorris (Hiero¬
glyphics, 3), with the three deities sitting in a grotto un¬
der it. The last of these, according to the inscriptions
over the two boats, is meant for Arueris, the second ap¬
parently for the mother of the sun, and the first for Osiris;
and one of the boats carries the steps, which seem to be
emblematic of the solar power; the other, the throne or
chair of state, which is universally appropriated to Osiris.
The coffins of the mummies, and the large sarcophagi
of stone, are generally covered with representations ex¬
tremely similar to some of those which are found in the
manuscripts.' The judicial tablet is frequently delineated
on the middle of the coffins ; above it are Isis and Nephthe
at the sides, and in the middle apparently Rhea with out- Mom
spread wings. The space below is chiefly occupied by ment
figures of from twenty to thirty of the principal deities, to
whom the deceased, in his mystical character, is doing
homage; each of them being probably designated by the
relationship in which he stands to the new representative
of Osiris. In the sculptures, the figures are generally less
numerous; the same deities are commonly represented as
on the painted coffins, but without the repetition of the
suppliant, and in an order subject to some little variation.
The large sarcophagus of granite, in the British Museum,
which was brought from Cairo, and formerly called the
Lover’s Fountain, has the name of Apis, as a part of the
characteristic denomination. This circumstance, at first
sight, seemed to make it evident that it must have been
intended to contain the mummy of an Apis, for which its
magnitude renders it well calculated; but when the sym¬
bols of other deities were found in the mystic names upon
various other monuments, this inference could no longer
be considered as absolutely conclusive.
Of the votive or dedicatory inscriptions, we find an inte¬
resting example on a small scale, in the engraving on the
bottom of a scaraboeus, very neatly sculptured in a softish
steatite, or lapis ollaris, brought from Egypt by Mr Legh.
It is remarkable for its simplicity, and
for affording an intelligible sense in all
its parts. The chain, the semicircle,
and the square block, mean clearly [ Jb]
the beloved; the loop supporting a wreath
or crown, and the imperfect sitting fi¬
gure, resemble some of the titles often
given to Osiris, and, with the following
oval, pretty certainly signify of the great
god; the throne, the semicircle, and the
oval, Isis; the sitting figure, the goddess; the looped
wreath, perhaps the great; the bird and circle, offspring
of; the hieralpha or plough, and the two feathers, Phthah;
the pillar, perhaps the powerful, but it is not distinctly
formed; the beetle seems to be here a synonym or epithet
of Phthah, as if the father of all; the handled cross, the liv¬
ing ; the lute, the good; the pyramid, the prosperous or
glorious ; the ring with the handle seems to be nearly sy¬
nonymous with the chain, and may be rendered, in con¬
junction with the line and the hieralpha, the approved of
Phthah, an epithet found in the inscription of Rosetta; the
hatchet is the deity; the ring and handle, with the two
lutes, approaches near to the symbol for munificent, and
may be called delighting in good gifts; and the concluding
ring and staff or hatchet may either mean, this is dedicated,
or may, with rather more probability, be considered as a
reduplication of the beginning of the line, in an inverted
position. It may be remarked, that all the inscriptions on
the scaraboei run from right to left, as is most commonly
observed wherever the direction was indifferent; so that if
they were used as seals, the impression must have assumed
the form which is somewhat less usual in other cases.
We have a most valuable example of a dedicatory in¬
scription on a larger scale in the decree preserved on the
monument of Rosetta, which, besides its utility in affording
the only existing clue for deciphering the hieroglyphical
characters, gives us also a very complete idea of the ge¬
neral style of the records of the Egyptian hierarchy.1 Of
1 In another place, Dr Young, after remarking that the French expedition to Egypt was most liberally provided, by the govern¬
ment of the day, with a select body of antiquaries, architects, surveyors, naturalists, and draughtsmen, whose business it ’.vas to inves¬
tigate all that was interesting to science or to literature in that singular country, and, further, that their labours have been made
public with all the advantage of chalcographical and typographical elegance in the splendid collection entitled Description de I'Egyptei
proceeds to observe i “ But it is scarcely too much to say, that the only real benefit conferred on Egyptian literature by that expedi¬
tion, was the discovery of a huge broken block of black stone, in digging for the foundations of Fort St Julian, near Rosetta, which
the British army had afterwards the honour of bringing to this country as a proud trophy of their gallantry and success. It is not
to a want of ability, nor of industry, nor of accuracy, nor of fidelity, in the Egyptian Commission, that so total a failure is to be at-
HIEROGLYPHICS.
lf0 • the triumphal monuments, the most magnificent are the
met obelisks, which are reported by Pliny to have been dedi-
^ J cated to the sun; and there is every reason to suppose
that the translation of one of these inscriptions, preserved
by Ammianus Marcellinus, after Hermapion, contains a
true representation of a part of its contents, more espe¬
cially as “ the mighty Apollo” of Plermapion agrees com¬
pletely with the hawk, the bull, and the arm, which usual-
•ly occupy the beginning of each inscription. These sym¬
bols are generally followed by a number of pompous titles,
not always very intimately connected with each other,
and amongst' them we often discover that of “ Lord of the
asp-bearing diadems,” with some other epithets immediate¬
ly preceding the name and parentage of the sovereign who
is the principal subject of the inscription. The obelisk at
Heliopolis is without the bull; and the whole inscription
may be supposed to have signified something of this kind:
“ This Apollinean trophy is consecrated to the honour of
King Ramesses, crowned with an asp-bearing diadem ; it
is consecrated to the honour of the son of Heron, the or¬
nament of his country, beloved by Phthah, living for ever;
it is consecrated to the honour of the revered and benefi¬
cent deity Ramesses, great in glory, superior to his ene¬
mies; by the decree of an assembly, to the powerful and
flourishing, whose life shall be without end.” It is true
that some parts of this interpretation are in a great mea¬
sure conjectural; but none of it is altogether arbitrary, or
unsupported by some probable analogy ; and the spirit and
tenor of the inscription are probably unimpaired by the al¬
terations which this approximation to the sense may un¬
avoidably have introduced.
Of the obelisks still in existence, there are perhaps
about thirty larger and smaller, which may be considered
as genuine. Several others are decidedly spurious, hav¬
ing been chiefly sculptured at Rome in imitation of the
Egyptian style, but so negligently and unskilfully as to
exhibit a striking difference even in the character of the
workmanship. Such are the Pamphilian, in explanation
of which the laborious Kircher has published a folio vo¬
lume, and the Barberinian or Veranian. In both of these
the emblems are put together in a manner wholly arbi¬
trary ; and where an attempt is made to imitate the ap¬
pearance of a name, the characters are completely differ¬
ent at each repetition. The Sallustian obelisk has also
been broken, and joined inaccurately, and some modern
restitutions have been very awkwardly introduced, as be¬
comes evident upon comparing with each other the figures
of Kircher and of Zoega. Another very celebrated mo¬
nument, the Isiac table, which has been the subject of
much profound discussion, and has given birth to many
refined mythological speculations, is equally incapable of
supporting a minute examination upon solid grounds; for
the inscriptions neither bear any relation to the figures
near which they are placed, nor form any connected sense
of their own ; and the whole is undoubtedly the wrork of
a Roman sculptor, imitating only the general style and
the separate delineations of the Egyptian tablets; as
indeed some of the most learned and acute of our criti¬
cal antiquaries had already asserted, notwithstanding the
339
contrary opinions of several foreigners, of the highest re- Manu-
putation for their intimate acquaintance with the works scripts,
of Greek and Roman art. We may hope, however, that
in future these unprofitable discussions and disputes will
become less and less frequent, and that our knowledge of
the antiquities of Egypt will gain as much in the solidity
and sufficiency of its evidence, as it may probably lose in
its hypothetical symmetry and its imaginary extent; and
whilst we allow every latitude to legitimate reasoning and
cautious conjecture in the search after historical truth,
we must peremptorily exclude from our investigations an
attachment to fanciful systems and presupposed analogies
on the one hand, and a too implicit deference to tradi¬
tional authority on the other.
VI. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS OF DR YOUNG ; CASATI
AND TURIN MANUSCRIPTS.
The Egyptian investigations of Dr Young had been as
laborious as they were unremitting; but, at this stage,
they had, in his own estimation, “ been so little enliven¬
ed by any fortunate coincidences or unexpected facilities,”
that, having occasion to adopt a motto, he chose the words
Fortunam ex aliis as appropriate to his own history. But
the result showed that, in giving way to this fretful and
complaining humour, he did injustice to fortune, which
had in reserve for him a most “ fortunate coincidence,”
the occurrence of which forms an epoch in the history of
these investigations. We allude to the marvellous acci¬
dent of the existence of a Greek manuscript, in perfect
preservation, which, upon examination, proved to be a
translation of an unique Egyptian manuscript, that had
been purchased by the king of France. A little previous
detail is necessary to put the reader in full possession of
the facts.
In 1820 or 1821, an individual of the name of Casati
arrived at Paris, bringing with him a parcel of Egyptian
manuscripts, amongst which M. Champollion discovered
one the preamble of which bore a considerable resemblance
to the enchorial text of the Rosetta inscription. This ob¬
servation naturally excited considerable interest, from its
immediate connection with a subject which then engrossed
the attention of the learned ; and accordingly, Dr Young,
having procured a transcript of the papyrus in question,
immediately proceeded, with his accustomed ardour, to
decipher and translate it. But whilst he was engaged in
this difficult and laborious undertaking, in which, by his own
unaided exertions, he had made considerable progress,
Mr, afterwards Sir George Francis Grey, returned from
his travels in the East, bringing with him several fine spe¬
cimens of writing and drawing on papyrus, which he
had purchased from an Arab at Thebes in January 1820.
Fortunately for the cause of Egyptian literature, Mr Grey
instantly put these manuscripts into the hands of Dr
Young, at the same time calling his attention to two of
them in particular, which were in a high state of preser¬
vation, and contained some Greek characters, apparently
written in a pretty legible hand. Upon a closer inspection,
ributed; but partly to the real difficulty of the subject, and still more to the preconceived opinion, which was very generally en-
ertained by their men of letters, of the exorbitant antiquity of the Egyptian works of art, which caused them to neglect the lights
that might have been derived from a comparison of Greek and Roman inscriptions, with the hieroglyphics in their neighbourhood;
and to suppose, that whatever bore the date of less than thirty or forty centuries, must necessarily be an interpolation, unconnected
with the original architecture and decorations of the edifice to which it belonged.” (Account of some Recent Discoveries in Hierogly-
phical Literature, pp. 4, 5.) We shall hereafter find that this opinion was not confined to the members of the Egyptian Commis¬
sion. Others have entertained the same extravagant notion of the antiquity of the Egyptian monuments, and, what has proved even
more prejudicial, have lost sight of the important fact that, by the aid of translations alone, can we ever hope to attain the means
of interpreting the inscriptions with which they are covered. It is only by pursuing analytical processes analogous to that of which
Dr Young gave the first example,—by making repeated trials and comparisons with translations to guide and direct us,—by fol¬
lowing the method of exhaustion, and at each step narrowing the limits of error,—that the truth will ultimately be attained, and a
sure foundation be laid for constructing a system of interpretation alike certain in its principles and universal in its application.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
340
Manu- however, it was found that one of these, being the ad¬
scripts. graph of an Egyptian deed or conveyance, was altogether
in Greek; whilst in the other, and in two more of the same
kind, the registry was in Greek, and the agreement, or body
of the deed, in the enchorial character.
Without losing a moment, Dr Young proceeded to ex¬
amine that which v/as in Greek only, and, to his inexpres¬
sible surprise and delight, discovered that it was a trans¬
lation of the enchorial manuscript of Casati. “ I could
scarcely believe,” says he, “ that I was awake, and in my
sober senses, when I observed, among the names of the
witnesses, Antimachus, Antigenes, and, a few lines further
back, Portis Apollonii, although the last word could not
have been deciphered without the assistance of the con¬
jecture which immediately occurred to me, that this ma¬
nuscript might perhaps be a translation of the enchorial
manuscript of Casati. I found that its beginning was, A
Copy of an Egyptian Writing ; and I proceeded to ascer¬
tain that there were the same number of names interven¬
ing between the Greek and Egyptian signatures which I
had identified, and that the same number followed the
last of them ; and the whole number of witnesses appear¬
ed to be sixteen in each. The last paragraph in the
Greek began with the words, Copy of the Registry ; for
such must be the signification of the word IITHMAT02
employed in this papyrus, though it does not appear to
occur anywhere else in a similar signification. I could
not therefore but conclude, that a very extraordinary
chance had brought into my possession a document, which
was not very likely, in the first place, ever to have exist¬
ed, still less to have been preserved uninjured, through a
period of near two thousand years ; but that this very ex¬
traordinary translation should have been brought safely
to Europe, to England, and to me, at the very moment
when it was most of all desirable to me to possess it, as
the illustration of an original which I was then studying,
but without any reasonable hope of being able fully to
comprehend it—this combination would, in other times,
have been considered as affording ample evidence of my
having become an Egyptian sorcerer.”1
But a still more extraordinary coincidence, connected
with the revival of Egyptian literature, remains to be men¬
tioned. Exclusively of the Greek antigraph, which relates
to the sale of part of the offerings made from time to time
on account of a certain number of mummies, Mr Grey’s
collection contained a second papyrus of considerably
greater magnitude, upon which were engrossed three other
deeds or conveyances, with separate registries upon the Tvjar
margin written in very’ legible Greek. In the hope of scvt'
making some further progress in the study of Egyptian, W-y
Dr Young had resumed the examination of these encho¬
rial conveyances, and, amongst other things, had observ¬
ed the agreement of the numbers in the registries and
in the Egyptian text; but whilst he was thus occupied,
M. Peyron’s account and translation of an Egyptian papy¬
rus in the Royal Library at Turin made its appearance,2
and proved to be the record of a law-suit, in which refer¬
ence is made to three distinct title-deeds or conveyances.
The following is an abstract of the contents of this singu¬
lar instrument.3
The record begins with a date: “ In the year liv. the
22d of Athyr, at Diospolis. Before Heraclides, one of
the captains of the body-guard, the commander of the
Perithebaic nome, and chief officer of the customs ; in the
presence also of Polemo, a captain of the guard; Hera¬
clides, of the same rank, and gymnasiarch; Apollonius,
the son of Apollonius, and Hermogenes, his friends; Pan¬
crates, a lieutenant; Comanus, a general, son of Ammo-
nius a colonist, and several others ; there appeared Her-
mias, the son of Ptolemy, of the Ombitic nome, as plain¬
tiff, against the Cholchytae4 of the place, Horus, and Psen-
chonsis, and Chonapres, and their family.” A memorial
which had been addressed to Hermias, strategus, or com¬
mander-in-chief, and governor of the nome, was then read;
in which the plaintiff, Hermias, accuses the Cholchytas,
and mentions a former memorial addressed to Demetrius,
the epistrategus or high commander in the preceding
year, and which had been referred by Hermias, the stra¬
tegus, to the judgment of Heraclides. The cause having
been pleaded by Philocles for Hermias, and by Dinon for
the Cholchytae, Heraclides summed up the evidence, dis¬
cussed the arguments on both sides, and finally gave judg¬
ment for the defendants.
The claim of Hermias seems to have been founded on
an alleged right of property, supported only by an admis¬
sion on the part of Lobais or Lubais, one of the vendors
of the house, that she had never had any right or title to
the tenement in question. He had maintained in the
memorial that his ancestors had held possessions in Dios¬
polis during their lives respectively ; that the defendants,
whose proper habitation was confined to the Memnonia,
where their ancestors had resided, knowing that he had
been induced by the troubles of the times to change his resi¬
dence, had seized upon his house, which was situated in the
1 See Discoveries in Hierogl. Literature (pp. 57, 58), where the reader will find translations (pp. 69-83) of the Greek antiaraph, of
the Egyptian original of the Casati manuscript, and of the three other deeds of Mr Grey.
f Memorie di Torino, xxxi. 1826. Amadeus Peyron, the ingenious translator of this papyrus, is known to civilians as the learned
editor of Fragments of the Theodosian Code, deciphered from a palimpsest or rescribed manuscript in the Athemeum of the Royal
Library at Turin, and also as professor of oriental languages in the university of that place.
3 This abstract is taken from Dr Young’s Letter to Count Potion, 1826.
4 The Cholchytce were probably so called “ ab involvendo cadavere and hence the name is supposed by Dr Youmr to be a deriva¬
tive of the Egyptian word DCHOLH or JOLH, to dress, to put on, or to swathe. M. Peyron indeed dissents from the opinion that
they were “ dressers,” observing that “ i Colchiti non sono piu dressers, sacri paratori delle divinita, come sospettb il Y.” He
con esses, however, that u etymon tamen acute vidit,” and adds, that u dicti sunt ab involvendo cadavere,” conformably to the Coptic
etymology suggested by Dr Young. But the author of an Essay on the Enchorial Language of Egypt, published at Dublin, 1833, ridi¬
cules as groundless and absurd the etymology proposed by the English and approved by the Italian scholar. “ The name of this
profession,^ x^Z^fis," says he, “ is not to be found in any Greek lexicon ; it is, however, analogically formed, and conveys a clear
meaning, t e pourer out of libations.’ Dr Young read the word xoX%uTr;s, and supposed it to be derived from a Coptic word signi-
rymg to dress, as if the mummies, after being buried, were every now and then taken up to be dressed. The mistake is a palpable
one. We think it is, but only on the part of the Dublin critic. For, in the first place, if the name of this profession be not found
in any ureek .Lexicon, Dr Young and M. Peyron had surely as good a right to call it as the writer in question had to call
, secon y, the word read in the manuscripts is not xoe6XUTV1h hut ail(l in such a matter their authority must
6rr!u t? a mere ullsuPP°rted conjecture; thirdly, from the terms of the record contained in the Turin manuscript, it
ft wa3the easiness of persons belonging to this profession, not to “ pour out libations,” but to “ dress” or “ swathe”
ueau Domes alter these had been embalmed ; and, lastly, although Egyptian mummies were unquestionably “ dressed ” or “ swathed ”
tw tifmg eflbalmed\1,: 18 worse than ridiculous to allege that the existence of such a profession as that of the Colchytm would imply
mat these mummies, after being buried, were, every now and then, taken up to be dressed." If, then, “ the Colchvtie have
n™fter ^ manJ -Reviews and Encyclopaedias,” it is probably because an ascertained reading, supported by collateral evidence,
ing im^sisteiU wfilTtb^truth ^ ' ^ma^nar-v word” fike which, though “ analogically formed,” would convey a meaa-
HIEROGLYPHIC S. 341
Wan south-western part of Diospolis, to the north of the course
Icript or parade leading to the canal of the great goddess Juno,
if ' and to the south of the course leading to the temple of
Ceres, the walls of which were left standing ; that when
they had repaired it they continued to occupy it, and, not
content with simple occupation, they had received into it
dead bodies, not considering the penalties to which they
became liable from their proximity to the courses or
parades of the great goddesses Juno and Ceres, which
would be equally polluted by the corpses and those who
had charge of them.
The Cholchytae, on the other hand, alleged, first, that
Hermias had already been nonsuited in a similar action
brought on the same grounds ; and, secondly, that they
had been in possession of the house for many generations,
an averment in support of which they produced their
Egyptian title-deeds translated into Greek. One of these
was dated in the month of Pachon, the xxviiith of Philo-
metor, in which Teephibis, the father of Psenchonsis, one
of the defendants, and of Chonopres, bought of Elecis and
Lobais, and Ibaeais, and Senerieus, and Erieus, and Seno-
sorphibis, and Sisois otherwise called Erieus (in all seven
vendors), oikopedic or house cubits of the southern
part of “ ten cubits” of unproductive ground which they
possessed. By the second deed, Asos, the father of the
defendants Nechutes and Asos, and a younger Nechutes,
and their sister Nechuthis, bought of the same persons
2^ cubits in the same year and month. A third deed, of
thexxxvth year of the same Philometor, and in the month
Mesore, attests the sale of a fourth part of the said house,
being 3^- cubits, to Pechytes, the father of the others,
Panas, and Patus, and Pasemis, and Arpchemis, and Se-
namunis, by Ammonius and Zbendetis, to whom it belong¬
ed. The duties on these transactions had also been paid
into the office for the purchase of the tribute; and the
parties had held undisturbed possession for thirty-seven
years. Some passages of the Benevolent Edict are also
cited, in which it is provided that such persons as have
for a length of time been in possession of property shall
be continued therein even though they be unable to pro¬
duce the titles by which it wras originally acquired. It
was added by Dinon, on the part of the defendants, that,
since the plaintiff’s father left Diospolis at the time of the
troubles under Epiphanes, his departure must have taken
place eighty-eight years1 before the institution of the suit;
that this period was much too remote to allow of the pre¬
sent controversy; that Hermias had produced no docu¬
ment in support of his claim, except a fraudulent decree
obtained in collusion with Lobais, who had no interest in
defending the action ; that with respect to the removal
of the embalmers to the Memnonia, the subject was
wholly foreign to the question, as Horus and his col¬
leagues were not embalmers, but dressers (Cholchytee) ;
that, on popular festivals and other sacred days, it was
their business to bring sand or ashes, and to strew there¬
with the temple of Ammon and that of Juno ; and that,
besides, in the annual processions, when Ammon passes
over to the Memnonia, it was their privilege to be the
leaders of the ceremonj', to act as Cholchytse, and to be
rewarded accordingly.
Such is an abstract of this extraordinary document,
which, besides its general interest, embodies the most curi¬
ous details illustrative of the notions entertained respecting
property, and also of the mode in which justice was ad¬
ministered, amongst the Egyptians. But the most remark¬
able circumstance connected with it yet remains to be
mentioned. For, if the reader turn to the three convey- Champol-
ances of Sir George Grey, as translated by Dr Young,2 he bon, &c.
will find, to his astonishment, that they are the actual title-
deeds founded on in the abridgment of the record which
we have here placed before him. M. Peyron, indeed, has
only identified two of them, the purchasers mentioned in
the registry of the third being Ammonius and Psenamu-
nis instead of Ammonius and Zbendetis or Zthenaetis;
but it is probable that Zbendetis or Zthenaetis had two
names, as well as Sisois or Spois, who is also called Erieus ;
for the date of the deed coincides perfectly with the re¬
cord, and the same thing may be said of all the rest of
the names, as well as the measures, in which there is the
most entire agreement. It would almost seem, therefore,
that the age of miracles has not yet passed away. Whilst
Dr Young was occupied in studying the enchorial papyrus
of Casati, the Greek manuscript of Sir George Grey, being
the antigraph of an Egyptian deed, arrived as if by conju¬
ration, and proved to be a translation of the document be¬
fore him ; and, next, when the same learned and ingenious
person had been accidentally led to resume consideration
of the Egyptian deeds of Sir George Grey, the record of
a lawsuit founded upon, and expressly referring to, these
very deeds, arrived unexpectedly from Turin, and afforded
a precise confirmation of the date which, from the Egyp¬
tian text, he had previously assigned to thedeed, to¬
gether with an exact description of the precise spots of
ground to which all the three conveyances relate. Here,
then, we have a series of “ fortunate coincidences,” such
as have seldom concurred in confirmation of a new disco¬
very, and which, happening" at the propitious instant of
time, when their great importance could not fail to be at
once perceived, contributed materially, not only to esta¬
blish what had been previously done, but also to facilitate
the prosecution of future researches in the same field of
inquiry.
VII. INVESTIGATIONS AND DISCOVERIES OF CHAMPOLLION
AND OTHERS.
Although for a number of years it has been the custom
to speak with enthusiasm of the discovery of the phonetic
alphabet made by M. Champollion, few persons appear to
have a distinct idea, either of wdiat it really is, or ol the
results which have been obtained by means of it. That
Dr Young was the original author of this discovery has
already been shown in the preceding sections, and may be
proved, independently of all that has yet been stated, by
evidence of the most incontrovertible kind. As early as
the year 1818, he had ascertained the alphabetical value
of the greater part of the hieroglyphical signs which com¬
pose the names of Ptolemy and Berenice-, amongst which
he had very exactly determined seven corresponding with
the results obtained by M. Champollion, viz. the phonetic
signs of B, F, I, M, N, P, and T. But although the de¬
termination of these seven letters must be regarded as
the basis on which M. Champollion founded his phonetic
alphabet, the sagacity of the English scholar, signally
displayed in the discovery itself, did not foresee the con¬
sequences to which it might lead; and it was reserved for
his French competitor to reap the glory which justly at¬
taches to the development and illustration of a principle,
fertile in results of the very highest interest and import¬
ance. Dr Young had adopted the notion that the cha¬
racters employed by the Egyptians were essentially ideo¬
graphic or symbolical, and were only used phonetically in
_ 1 This is chronologically exact; for, adding to the 24 years of Epiphanes, 35 of Philometor, and 29 of Euergetes, we have the pre¬
cise number stated in the text. Thus, Epiphanes 24, Philometor 35, Euergetes 29 ; in all 88.
2 Discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature, pp. 76-83.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
342
Champol- representing /orei^w combinations of sound ; but this idea,
lion, &c. though it led him to neglect the prosecution of his own
discovery, did not prevent him from laying the foundation
of the hieroglyphico-phonetic alphabet, afterwards im¬
proved and extended by M. Champollion, and from pre¬
senting an enchorial alphabet comparatively so complete
that but few additions of any importance have since been
made to it by his successors. In short, to use the words
of Mr Salt, Dr Young seems to us to stand alone with re¬
gard to the progress made by him in the enchorial, as well
as for having led the way to the true knowledge of hiero¬
glyphics.1
A considerable time previous to the date of this dico-
very, however, M. Champollion had applied himself to the
interpretation of hieroglyphics ; indeed, from the period
of his quitting the Lyceum, he had begun to devote him¬
self with ardour to this study. Jablonski, Zoega, and the
authors of the Description de VEgypte, then exercised a
sort of dominion over the different branches of Egyptian
antiquities. The mythology of Egypt was exclusively ex¬
plained by relative passages in the ancient writers, and
vain theories, which could never lead to any positive re¬
sults, were applied to the hieroglyphical inscriptions. M.
Champollion devoted himself entirely to the examination
and study of every monument of this kind to which he
could obtain access. Of these he made numerous copies,
and, as it were, engraved on his memory all that be could
find either in public or private collections ; he also exer¬
cised himself in reproducing texts from recollection, and
in this acquired astonishing dexterity. But, during many
long years, the hieroglyphichl inscriptions remained as
great a mystery to him as to the rest of the learned. He
pored over them without intermission, and he attempted a
hundred systems of interpretation ; but the time had not
yet arrived when the secret of ancient Egypt was to be
revealed. Nevertheless, more accurate notions as to the
true nature of hieroglyphical writing had already begun
to be entertained.
Zoega had suspected that several of the hieroglyphics
might have been employed as signs of sounds, and for that
reason he had denominated them phonetic. This conjec¬
ture, however, had at first made no impression upon those
persons who were occupied with the study of the ancient
Egyptian writings. On the contrary, in all their labours
they followed the ancient system, regarding the mass of
the hieroglyphics as composed of ideographic or symbolic
signs ; nor was it until some time after the discovery of
the Rosetta inscription that the only method by which the
Egyptians could possibly have expressed either foreign or Chai
national proper names, that is, by means of phonetic signs, lion
forced itself on the attention of the learned. In this in- >
scription everybody at once recognised the position of
the name of Ptolemy, when Dr Young had, by a happy ar¬
tifice of collocation, pointed it out; and on other monu¬
ments the ovals or scrolls containing the names of Bere¬
nice and Arsinoe, as well as those of several kings belonging
to the old Egyptian dynasties, were likewise indicated
with tolerable certainty. At this period, the current or
enchorial writing engaged the attention of several learned
and ingenious men, such as Baron de Sacy and Mr Aker-
blad in France, and Dr Young in England, and consider¬
able progress was made, particularly by the latter, not
only in determining the equivalents of groups, but even
in ascertaining the values of individual characters. M.
Champollion, however, continued to labour in a different
direction, the idea that the hieroglyphics might contain a
portion of characters purely alphabetical not having taken
root in his mind. This is established beyond dispute by
a passage in his work entitled De VEcriture Hieratique
des Anciens Egyptiens, published at Grenoble in 1821,
little more than a year before the appearance of his Lettre
a M. Dacier. In this production, after stating that “ long
study, and, above all, an attentive comparison of the hie¬
roglyphic texts with those of the second order, regarded
as alphabetical, had conducted him to a contrary conclu¬
sion,” he proceeds to lay down the following general prin¬
ciples, viz. Is#, That the writing of the Egyptian manu¬
scripts of the second order is not alphabetical; ‘idly, That
this second system is only a simple modification of the
hieroglyphical system, from which it differs merely in the
form of the signs ; Sdly, That this second species of writ¬
ing is the hieratic of the Greek authors, and may be re¬
garded as a hieroglyphic tachygraphy, or abbreviated
mode of writing; kthly, That the hieratic characters, and
consequently those also from which they are derived,
namely, the hieroglyphic, are signs of things, and not signs
of sounds (“ sont des signes de choses, et non des signes
de sons’). It follows, then, that in 1821, M. Champollion
did not believe in the existence of alphabetical signs
amongst the hieroglyphics; although Dr Young had com¬
municated his discovery to the learned of Europe in a me¬
moir printed in 1818, and incorporated it in the article
Egypt, published the following year in the Supplement
to the former editions of the present wmrk, and although
the ingenious conjecture of Zoega had been partially ve¬
rified both by M. de Sacy and by Mr Akerblad.2
1 Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, p. ], note. London, 1825, in 8vo.
2 Klaproth, Examen Critique des Travattx de feu M. Champollion sur les Hicroglyphes, p. 3, et seqq. In the preface to the French
translation of two articles on Hieroglyphics, which appeared in the Edinburgh Review (vol. xlv. pp. 96 and 528), some curious
particulars are mentioned respecting the treatise De VEcriture HVeraliquc des Anciens Egyptiens, referred to in the text. This little
work, which is in folio, has now become extremely scarce. “ L’auteur a fait tout son possible pour soustraire cet ouvrage aux yeux du
public, en retirant du commerce et des mains de ses amis le peu d’exemplaires qu’il avoit d’abord rdpandus. La raison qu’on a mise
en avant etoit, ‘ la craintg de blesser les scrupules de quelques personnes pieuses mais il ne se trouve dans le livre absolument rien qui ait
trait a la haute antiquitd de I’empire des Pharaons, et il est permis de penser que le veritable motif qui a determine M. Champollion
a supprimer ce livre, a e'td de ne pas donner une mdsure trop precise des progres qu’il avait fait jusqu’en 1821, un an avant
sa fameuse Lettre d M. Dacier. Cette mesure existe dans Passertion ‘ que les signes hieroglyphcs sont des signes de choses, et non des
signes de sons.’ Certes, celui qui, depuis dix ans, avoit travaille sur les hieroglyphes sans les ddchiffrer, et qui faisoit, en 1821, im-
primer un axiome pared, avoit grand besoin d’etre guide dans ses nouvelles recherches de 1822, par les ddcouvertes de M. Young,
publie'es en 1819, dans le Supplement de PEncyclopedic Britanniquc. On ne doit done plus douter, que la pre'tendue de'couverte de M-
Champollion ne soit ente'e sur cede du Docteur Young, auquel appartient le mdrite d’avoir le premier ddmontre qu’on s’est servi, en
Egypte, de signes hieroglyphes pour exprimer alphabetiquement les sons des noms propres. Disputdr a ce savant la priorite de cette
decouverte, seroit aussi absurde que de vouloir soutenir, que celui qui le premier mela du salpetre avec du soufre et du charbon, n’a pas
ete 1 inventeur de la poudre, mais bien celui qui s’est servi pour la premiere fois de ce mdlange comme moteur pour les projectiles.”
(AperfitS' sur les Hieroglyphes d'Egypte, et les Progres faits jusqu'd present dans leur Dichiffremcnt, par M. Browne, Paris, 1827, in 8vo.)
rhe disingenuousness and want of fairness which marked the commencement of M. Champollion’s career as a claimant for the honour
of discovery continued to distinguish it throughout. Of this we have an instance connected with the subject now under consideration.
A pretended translation of the first of the two articles on hieroglyphical literature, which appeared in the Edinburgh Review, was in¬
serted in the 22d^ number of the Revue Britannique (April 1827), then published at Paris. This translation, which was generally
attributed to M. Champollion, scarcely represents the half of the original, although it is passed off" on the public as complete. Seve¬
ral important passages are expunged, especially from the historical part of the article; others are altered so as to suit the views of the
-ranslator ; and notes are added which clearly indicate the source whence they emanated. “ Ces suppressions et ces additions, n'ont
evidemment d'autre but, que defaire prendre le change au plus grand nombre des lecteurs, sur la nature et le veritable importance de cet article,
HIEROGLYPHICS.
343
ILm [. jt is no doubt true that M. Champollion afterwards at-
ton, • tempted to give currency to a different story, and to lay
J claim to the merit of independent discovery. Having, on
a frivolous pretence, endeavoured to suppress the work to
which we just referred, by calling in all the copies in the
hands of the booksellers, “ de ne pas donner une mesure
trop precise des progres qu’il avait fait jusqu’en 1821,”
he ventured to assert that, without having any knowledge
of the opinions of Dr Young, he had, about the same pe¬
riod, arrived at very nearly similar results. “ Je dois
dire,” says he, “ qu’ a la mime epoque, et sans avoir aucnne
connaissance des opinions de M. le docteur Young, je croyais
fare parvenu, d’une maniere assez sure, d des resultats d-
peu-pres semblables."1 But there are several circumstances
which render it impossible to give credit to this statement.
In the first place, it is wholly irreconcilable with the doc¬
trine laid down in his work on the Hieratic Writing of the
ancient Egyptians, published in 1821, in which it is for¬
mally stated that both the hieratic and hieroglyphic cha¬
racters are signs of things, and signs of sounds. Second¬
ly, it is contradicted by the direct testimony of Dr Young.
“ At the beginning of my Egyptian researches,” says he,
“ I had accidentally received a letter from Mr Champol¬
lion, which accompanied a copy of his work on the state
of Egypt under the Pharaohs, sent as a present to the
Royal Society; and as he requested some particular in¬
formation respecting several parts of the enchorial inscrip¬
tion of Rosetta, which were imperfectly represented in the
engraved copies, I readily answered his inquiries, from a
reference to the original monument in the British Mu¬
seum, and a short time afterwards sent him a copy of my
conjectural translation of the inscriptions, as it was inserted
in the Archceologia? Dr Young then adds, that with re¬
gard to the enchorial inscription, M. Champollion appear¬
ed to him to have at that time done but little, and that
the few references he made to it seemed to depend entirely
on the investigations of Mr Akerblad, whose conclusions
he had tacitly adopted. It is not easy to imagine how M.
Champollion, with the knowledge of these facts in his
mind, could venture to affirm that he had commenced his
hieroglyphical researches at the same time with Dr Young;
and that, without any knowledge of the opinions of the
latter, he had arrived at nearly the same results. Third¬
ly, it is evident from the respective dates of M. Champol-
lion’s publications, that nearly six years must have elapsed
between the date of the above communication and that of
his Lettre d M. Dacier ; and it also appears, that when Dr
Young published his “ conjectural translation” in 1815,
M. Champollion had done nothing beyond tacitly adopt¬
ing the conclusions of Mr Akerblad. The priority of pub¬
lication cannot, therefore, be disputed. But as M. Cham¬
pollion has not contradicted the statement of Dr Young
regarding the communication above mentioned, and as it is
undeniable that he saw the article Egypt nearly two ymars
before he published his Lettre d M. Dacier, containing
the first statement of his discoveries in hieroglyphics, it is
evident that he was in the full knowledge of Dr Young’s
“ opinions” at every stageof his progress, and that the ques¬
tion of originality may be as easily settled as that of prio¬
rity of publication. A sense of justice alone compels us to
make these remarks, impeaching, as they do, the literary
honesty of M. Champollion; and although it may appear an
ungracious office, now that he is no more, to detract from
his fame, yet flattery as well as obloquy should be silent Champol-
over his grave. The merits of Champollion will not be the lion, &e.
less fully appreciated if they are fairly estimated : it is ex- '—'-y-w
aggeration alone that can inflict any permanent injury on
his reputation.
We have seen that, in 1821, M. Champollion did not
believe in the existence of alphabetic signs amongst the
hieroglyphics, although Dr Young had published his dis¬
covery nearly three years before. At this period, how¬
ever, Mr Bankes made known a Greek inscription which
he had discovered upon an obelisk in the island of Philae,
and which mentioned the erection of a monument in ho¬
nour of King Ptolemy. The discovery of the English
traveller attracted the attention of scholars, and M. Le-
tronne, in some learned observations on the text of the
inscription, stated it as his opinion that the monument in
question would be found to contain, in hieroglyphical
characters, the same sense as the Greek inscription, or, in
other words, that the one would prove to he a version of
the other. Mr Bankes, having learned the opinion express¬
ed by this distinguished scholar, and being anxious to af¬
ford every means in his power for verifying its accuracy",
transmitted to the Academy of Inscriptions, in the month
of January 1822, a lithographed copy of the hieroglyphics
covering the four faces of the obelisk of Philae, upon the
base of which he had discovered the Greek inscription al¬
ready mentioned. And it was this lithograph which, hav¬
ing been communicated to M. Champollion, enabled him
to make those observations and comparisons the results of
which he published in his Lettre d M. Dacier, dated the
22d of September 1822. Then, indeed, but not before,
did he recognise the name of Cleopatra, and the use of
alphabetical characters amongst the hieroglyphics ; then
only it was that he abandoned the notions which he had
hitherto entertained respecting the nature of the Egyp¬
tian writing, and which, as already shown, had at first led
him to reject the discoveries of Dr Young.2
Having entered upon this new career, M. Champollion
pushed on with irrepressible boldness, and devoted himself
with more ardour than ever to the study of the Egyptian
monuments. He applied his alphabet to deciphering the
names of the Roman emperors and those of the Greek and
Egyptian kings ; and finding his observations not only mul¬
tiply, but likewise extend to objects which had not been
touched on in his Lettre d M. Dacier, he embodied the re¬
sults, modified in some points and verified in others, into
a more extended work, which appeared at Paris in 1824,
under the title of Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des
Anciens Egyptiens. We must, however, guard the reader
against the misconception which this title is calculated to
produce respecting the extent and results of M. Cham-
pollion’s labours. From it he may perhaps expect to find
the exposition of a “ system,’ and a summary of the prin¬
ciples by means of which the hieroglyphic texts can be read
and interpreted; whilst, in reality", the book only contains
a more ample and extensive application of the ideas ex¬
plained in the Lettre d M. Do,der. It embraces a great
number of proper names belonging to persons of all ranks,
accompanied with observations and conjectures as to the
meaning of certain concomitant signs, to which the author
attributes a grammatical value, but without having suffi¬
ciently established the point by induction. This, however,
did not prevent him from proceeding to generalise ; and,
et d’accrcditcr davantage les erreurs rtpundues en France sur les premieres tentatives faites pour dechiffrer les hieroglyphes Lgyptiens.
(Aperpus sur les Hieroglyphes. pref. p. viii.) But by this unceremonious and dishonest proceeding the translator overshot his mark, i he
garbled and mutilated translation was soon followed by one of the principal article, “ rdtabli dans son integrite, and the claims of
•hr Young were thus brought fully and fairly before the literary public of France.
1 Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des Anciens Egyptiens, p. 18. Paris, 1828, in 8vo, 2d edition. _
* Nevertheless he appears to have been of opinion at this period, that the employment of alphabetical characters was confined to
the transcription of Greek and Roman proper names, and that the greater part of the other hieroglyphics were ideographic; one more
proof how closely he had followed the footsteps of Dr Young.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
344
Champol- as he had formerly maintained that the greater part, if
lion, &c. not the whole, of the hieroglyphic texts were ideographic,
so now he passed to the opposite extreme, and concluded
that alphabetical signs predominated in the monumental
inscriptions, all of which might, in a great measure, be
interpreted by means of the phonetic method. Such a
conclusion, if it had been sufficiently established, would
no doubt have proved of the highest importance ; but, in¬
stead of applying his new system to the inscription of Ro¬
setta, of which the import was known from the accom¬
panying Greek version, or to other texts of still more
considerable extent, M. Champollion confined himself to
the interpretation of detached phrases, which of them¬
selves were not sufficient to establish the certainty of his
system ; and hence his work, important and interesting
as it unquestionably is, has still left much to be desired
by the friends of archaeological science.
But although the ardour of his mind had, at first, hur¬
ried him away, M. Champollion appears soon to have be¬
come sensible that he had advanced too rapidly; indeed he
could not but feel an urgent necessity for augmenting the
mass of materials at his disposal, and multiplying more and
more the points of comparison indispensable to the progress
of his studies. Accordingly he undertook a journey to Italy
to explore the treasures contained in the rich collections
of that country, and spent much time in the museum of
Turin, then recently enriched with the noble collection of
Drovetti, containing a great number of papyri, pillars,
and inscriptions of every kind. From this museum were
written the Lettres addressed to the Due de Blacas, in
which the author began to make more numerous applica¬
tions of his system, particularly to all that concerned the
ancient Egyptian dynasties; and he even hazarded more
extensive interpretations, comprehending not only simple
proper names, but names preceded or followed by titles,
or by certain portions of phrases. These readings, however,
were not accompanied with the requisite explanatory de¬
tails, which alone could give them authority; and, with
reference to the Egyptian system of writing, the Lettres
d M. de Blacas seem not to have produced any change
of importance in the theory of the author. When, on
his return from Italy, he published a second edition of his
Precis du Systems Hieroglyphique, Paris, 1828, he accord¬
ingly introduced but few modifications of the statements
contained in the first, and saw no reason to alter the opi¬
nion which he had therein expressed as to the phonetic
value of the great mass of the hieroglyphics. On the
contrary, he formally repeated his fundamental proposi¬
tion, “ That the figurative and symbolical characters are
employed in the Egyptian texts in a smaller proportion
than the phonetic characters; that the latter are the
true alphabetical signs which express the sounds of words
m the spoken language of ancient Egypt; and that every
phonetic hieroglyph is the image of a physical object, the
name of which, in the spoken language of Egypt, com¬
menced with the sound or articulation which the sign it¬
self is employed to express.”
Such were the general views entertained by M. Cham¬
pollion before setting out for Egypt with the intention of
examining the monuments themselves, and of seeking on
the spot the confirmation of his discoveries. In his Pan-
i qoT ^yPtien\ ^ie publication of which commenced in
4, he had given representations of the Egyptian divi¬
nities, accompanied with hieroglyphic legends, to which
explanatory notices were subjoined ; and he had made Chai
frequent use of notions borrowed from the Greek and the lion '
Latin authors, and already classed in the Egyptian Pan- ^ i
theon of Jablonski. Yet he laid it down as a principle,
“ que e’etait de preference dans les monumens Egyptiens
qu’il fallait chercher les noms d’une foule de divinites et
de personages mythologiques, qu’on chercherait en vain
dans les auteurs classiques ;” a proposition which, accord¬
ing to Klaproth, is only admissible upon the supposition
that we have already arrived at a complete intelligence
of the graphic monuments of Egypt; and until such know¬
ledge has been attained, no one has any right to found
new theories on their alleged contents. The proposition,
however, is admissible upon a much more limited supposi¬
tion, namely, that we have attained the means of deci¬
phering with tolerable certainty names, titles, and le¬
gends ; and the result has accordingly been, that “ the
names of a crowd of divinities and mythological person¬
ages, which would be sought for in vain in the classical
authors,” have been ascertained by Wilkinson, Rosellini,
Burton, Felix, and others, not to mention M. Champol¬
lion himself. We ought to add also, that, at the period
of his departure for Egypt, M. Champollion held as de¬
monstrated the existence of a considerable number of
signs employed phonetically, that is, used to represent
the sounds of the Egyptian language, each sign standing
for the initial sound of the name of the physical or other
object of which it was the image or picture 51 and that,
entertaining this view, he departed from the common opi¬
nion, which attached a symbolical value to the greater
number of the hieroglyphics. Such being the doctrine
maintained by him, we shall now proceed to place before
the reader a short abstract of the investigations and dis¬
coveries of M. Champollion, reserving for the conclusion
of this section some general observations and criticisms
of his labours.
The conditions of the problem which M. Champollion un¬
dertook to resolve may be very briefly explained. Every
body has seen Egyptian monuments, and every body knows
in a general way the form and disposition of the characters
called hieroglyphics; but few persons, perhaps, have re¬
flected on the nature of these characters, and still fewer
know wherein consists the real difficulty of interpreting
them. The passages of ancient authors being for the most
part vague and incoherent, afforded no explanation of this
system of writing; even the celebrated text of Clemens
Alexandrinus, so far from serving as a guide to direct in¬
quiry, has only received an approximate interpretation by
means of knowledge otherwise acquired of the subject to
which it relates ; and we cannot be absolutely certain that
all the difficulties which this passage presents have as yet
been overcome. But the main point for determination was,
whether the hieroglyphics were destined to represent ideas
directly, or by the intervention of the sounds of the spoken
language ; whether they were the symbols of things, or the
signs of vocal articulations; whether, in short, they were
to be considered as ideographic or as phonetic. In the one
case, that is, supposing the signs ideographic, it must be
evident that we could never hope, by any effort, to attain
a complete intelligence of such characters; because, to
attempt to divine the sense of ancient symbols is to expose
ourselves at every step to fall into the very errors which
now appear so ludicrous or extravagant in Pierius, Kircher,
Palin, and Pluche. But, on the other hand, supposing the
regarded t,hLs as altogether fallacious. “ Mr Champollion,” says he, “ has
cal power of its symbol • but the letters , ■ 'n)'Ptian name of an object, to infer the phonetic interpretation, that is, the alphabeti-
that he thought capable’of beinrr atmlierl tn thf lren asce^talIle<,, ,ie has ransacked his memory or his dictionary for some name
prefer, for instance the word hpfp? o // t 6 S'Vm ^0 ’ an! nT°>t a wa-vs’ as 11 appears to me, in the most natural manner. I should
koman or erman.” (Discoveries in ^ p0mesranate' which’ il seems> was sometimes called
Iham
(on,
HIEROGLYPHICS.
345
■ hieroglyphics were regarded as in a great measure compos-
• ed of phonetic signs, the interpretation of these characters
J would, on such a supposition, be not only possible, but, un¬
der certain conditions and in certain circumstances, might
be easy. This accordingly was the doctrine espoused by
M. Champollion in its utmost latitude. The analysis given
by Dr Young of the names of Ptolemy and Berenice had
proved beyond dispute that these were expressed phoneti¬
cally ; but as it was not unreasonable to conclude that the
method employed in representing graphically two proper
names might be applied to all, or perhaps even extended
to common words and phrases in the language, M. Cham¬
pollion was led to conceive, that if an alphabet of phonetic
characters could be constructed, it w ould probably furnish a
key to hieroglyphical writing in general, and produce new
and unexpected results of the utmost importance to his¬
tory. The first and great object, therefore, was, if possible,
to obtain an alphabet; and to the accomplishment of this
M. Champollion primarily directed his attention.
But the task which he had to perform was, compara¬
tively speaking, an easy one. Dr Young, as we have al¬
ready seen, had not only demonstrated the practicability
of constructing such an alphabet, but, by his analysis of
the names Ptolemy and Berenice, he had assigned phone¬
tic values to nine distinct characters, the greater number
of which corresponded with the results which were after¬
wards obtained by M. Champollion. The first step had
therefore been made, and it only required perseverance
and good fortune to ensure success. We say “ good for¬
tune,” because Dr Young had already done all that was
possible with his materials. If the hieroglyphical inscrip¬
tion of Rosetta had come to Europe entire, a tolerably
complete alphabet of phonetic hieroglyphics would in all
probability have been formed before M. Champollion was
heard of as a labourer in this interesting field of inquiry.
But unfortunately the pillar contains only the last four¬
teen lines of the hieroglyphic text, and even these are so
much mutilated, that the name of Ptolemy, enclosed in an
oval or cartouche, is the only one of all those mentioned
in the Greek text which has escaped destruction. This
name is represented by eight hieroglyphic characters, one
of them (the feather, E) being repeated; but, as the
Greek name, TITOAEMAI02, consists of ten letters, it
was of course impossible, without further materials, to fix
with certainty the relation between the seven or eight
hieroglyphical signs and the ten letters of the Greek name.
But the discovery of a new monument (and in this con¬
sisted M. Champollion’s good fortune) at length removed
all uncertainty in this respect, and led directly and easily
to the formation of the alphabet required. The obelisk
discovered by Mr Bankes in the island of Philae was found
to contain the hieroglyphic name of one of the Ptolemies,
expressed by the same characters which occur in the in¬
scription of Rosetta, surrounded by a ring or border; and
this was followed by a second ring or scroll which obvious¬
ly contained the proper name of a woman, and a queen of
the family of the Lagidae, inasmuch as the group was ter¬
minated by the hieroglyphics expressive of the feminine
gender, which had been previously determined by Dr
Young. The obelisk in question was fixed on a basis or
pedestal containing a Greek inscription, which proved to
be a petition of the priests of Isis, addressed to King Pto¬
lemy, to Cleopatra his sister, and to Cleopatra his wife.
But if, as M. Letronne ingeniously conjectured, this obe¬
lisk, and the hieroglyphical inscription engraved upon it,
were the result of this petition, which in fact adverts to
the consecration of a monument of the kind, the border
with the feminine proper name could only be that of one
of the Cleopatras mentioned in the petition. This name,
therefore, and that of Ptolemy, which in the Greek have
several letters in common, were capable of being employed
VOL. XI.
for a comparison of the hieroglyphical characters compos- Champol-
ing them; and if the similar characters in these names hon, &c.
were found to express in both the same sounds, it would
follow demonstratively that the nature of these characters
must be entirely phonetic.
The course of investigation here indicated appears suf¬
ficiently simple and conclusive; but as the development
of a hieroglyphical alphabet has been mainly effected by
a comparison of the characters which enter respectively
into the composition of the names Ptolemy Cleopatra,
we shall endeavour to exemplify the process by means of
which the phonetic values of individual signs were deter¬
mined.
No. 3.
No. 1.
No. 2.
glyphically, each of them enclosed within an elliptical
ring or cartouche, viz. the name of Ptolemy, No. 1, taken
from the hieroglyphical branch of the triple inscription of
Rosetta; that of Berenice, No. 2, copied from a ceiling of
the great temple at Karnak; and that of Cleopatra, No. 3,
as furnished by the obelisk of Philae. Of the first and
second, viz. Ptolemy and Berenice-, the reader has already
seen Dr Young’s analysis, deduced with singular ingenuity
from the enchorial text of the Rosetta inscription. At pre¬
sent, however, we have only to do with the first and third,
or with the names -of Ptolemy and Clexjpatra. And, on
referring to the ovals or rings, Nos. 1 and 3, containing
these names, the reader will at once perceive that, in the
scroll of Ptolemy, IITOAMH2, the fourth, sixth, third, and
first characters are identical with the second, third, fourth,
and fifth characters in the scroll of Cleopatra, and that
these characters must therefore correspond respectively
to the Greek letters A, E or H, O, and IT. Their relative
positions remove all doubt as to their respective values;
and the evidence afforded by this comparison is strength¬
ened by the circumstance that, contrary to the common
usage, the name of Cleopatra is spelled fully out, leaving
none of the vowels to be supplied. Here, then, we have
the values of four characters (the lion, the feather, the
flower with the recurved stem, and the square) determin¬
ed by a sort of instantia crucis, and at the same time a
striking confirmation of the soundness of the original hy¬
pothesis, wdiich, of course, becomes absolute certainty by
the repetition of such comparisons. But the same pro¬
cess which enables us to ascertain the values of the cha¬
racters common to both names, equally enables us to in¬
fer the values of those in which they differ. The name
KAEOHATPA, for instance, is spelled hieroglyphically by
nine phonetic characters or signs, together with the sym¬
bols (a semicircle and oval) of the feminine termination ;
in other words, there is a phonetic character correspond¬
ing to every letter in the Greek name. But four of these
characters consecutively A, E, O, IT, have been determin¬
ed by the direct method of comparison ; and as the name
is, by the supposition, known, it follows that the values of
the remaining five may be inferred without almost the
2 x
346
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Champol- possibility of error. Having ascertained the values of the
t^on’ &c’ second, third, fourth, and fifth, we necessarily obtain, at
the same instant, the true values of the first, sixth, seventh,
eighth, and ninth. The same thing precisely is applica¬
ble to the name of Ptolemy. But as the name of Cleopa¬
tra contains eight distinct characters (one, the phonetic
sign of a, being repeated), and as the name of Ptolemy, de¬
ducting the four letters which it has in common with that
of Cleopatra, supplies three more, we thus obtain, from
the analysis of these two names, eleven distinct characters
representing as many distinct sounds ; and if the same in¬
direct method of comparison be applied to the name of Be¬
renice, it will furnish other four signs, three of them re¬
presenting distinct sounds, whilst the fourth, a vulpanser
or goose of the Nile, is a homophone of the letter a. On
the whole, then, it appears that from these three proper
names were deduced fourteen distinct phonetic characters,
being only two less than the number of the Cadmean let¬
ters, and forming no inconsiderable portion of a phone-
tico-hieroglyphical alphabet, which it was an easy matter
to extend, and, at the same time, to verify by the com¬
parison of other scrolls or rings with those of which the
characters had in this way been ascertained.
As far as w^e have advanced, then, the process followed
in determining the phonetic values of characters seemed
equally simple and certain ; it carried its own evidence
along with it; and the results were afterwards confirmed
in the most complete and satisfactory manner by a series
of observations conducted with surprising diligence and in¬
genuity by M. Champollion, who established by unassail¬
able evidence that all proper names were written alphabe¬
tically. But, not content with a mere induction of facts,
the French archaeologist attempted to discover the prin¬
ciple which regulated the phonetic application of certain
characters or signs, and at length came to the conclusion
that every phonetic hieroglyphic is the image of a physical
object, the name of which, in the spoken language of
Egypt, commenced with the sound or articulation which
the sign itself is destined to represent. Thus, according
to him, the image of an eagle, which, in Coptic, is Ahom
or Achom, became the sign of a ; that of a small vase or
censer, in Coptic Berbe, a sign of b ; that of a hand, Tot,
a sign of t ; that of a hatchet, Kelebin, a sign of k ; that
of a lion or lioness, Labo or Laboi, a sign of l ; that of a
nycticorax or owl, Mouladj, a sign of m ; that of a flute,
Sebiandjo, a sign of s ; that of a mouth, Ro, a sign of r ;
the abridged image of a garden, Schne, a sign of sir; and
so on. But this hypothesis, which reduces the phonetic
hieroglyphics to a species of calembourgs, and leaves, in the
greater part of the inscriptions, only a writing in rebuses,
seems obnoxious to insuperable objections. In the first
place, as Dr Young remarked, M. Champollion was never, in
any one instance, led, from the Egyptian name of an object,
to infer the phonetic interpretation or alphabetical power
of its symbol; but the letters having been ascertained by
other means, he ransacked his memory or his dictionary
for some name which he thought capable of being applied
to the symbol, though not always in the most natural man¬
ner. Secondly, as the same letter is represented by a
diversity of characters, it would be necessary to show,
which M. Champollion has not attempted to do, that all
these homophonous characters are employed on the prin¬
ciple above enunciated, or, in other words, that every one
of them is the image of a physical object, the name of
which, in the spoken language of Egypt, began with the
sound which the sign itself was intended to represent.
Thirdly, the Coptic language, which was undoubtedly
formed from that of ancient Egypt, of which it may in
one sense be considered as a precious remnant, neverthe¬
less represents the latter in a very incomplete and imper- Chat
feet manner ; many Coptic words are not Egyptian ; many Hon.
Egyptian words are no longer to be found in the Coptic;
the latter, as it now exists, is merely a mutilated and im¬
perfect fragment, through which some traces and linea¬
ments of an elder form of speech are faintly reflected;
and even with the Coptic, as we now have it, M. Cham¬
pollion was but indifferently acquainted. It is obvious,
therefore, that no reliance whatever can be placed on any
theory connected with hieroglyphics which professes to
depend exclusively upon Coptic, although, as in this in¬
stance, it be propounded with as much confidence as if
the language of Egypt had descended unaltered from the
days of Ramesses, or the author had possessed a glossary
composed under the reign of Sesostris.
Having constructed a phonetico-hieroglyphic alphabet
in the manner above described, M. Champollion proceed¬
ed to apply it in deciphering the proper names inscribed
on the temples and other edifices of Egypt; and in his
Lettre d M. Bacier, which is embodied in his larger work,
he exhibited the results obtained from the inscriptions on
the monuments of Denderah {Tentyris), Thebes, Esneh
(Latopolis), Edfou (Apollonopolis Magna), Ombos, and
Philae, relative to the Greek and Roman periods of the
history of Egypt. Of these, however, we can only afford to
give a very condensed abstract. And,
First, connected with the Greek period we read, 1. the
name of Alexander the Great, which is sculptured twice
on the edifices of Karnak, and written AAK2NTP2 and
AAK2NTPE2. This name Dr Young had previously de¬
ciphered from the enchorial text of the Rosetta inscrip¬
tion.1 2. The name of Ptolemy, common to all the Lagi-
dae, or sovereigns of the Macedonian dynasty. It is com¬
monly written IITOAMH2, sometimes IITAOMH2; it oc¬
curs in the hieroglyphic text of the Rosetta inscription, at
Denderah, on the monolith of Kous, and on other monu¬
ments ; i t is preceded by the particular surnames of Ptolemy,
and followed by one or other of the legends, always living,
beloved of Phtha ; always living, beloved of Isis ; always
living, beloved of PJ.tha and of Isis. 3. The name of Be¬
renice, written BPNHK2, which occurs twice on the ceil¬
ing of the triumphal arch or gate on the south of Karnak.
4. The name of Cleopatra, written KAEOIIATPA on the
obelisk of Philae already mentioned, and KAAOIIATPA
and KAOIITPA on the edifices of Ombos, Thebes, and
Denderah. 5. The name of Ptolemy surnamed Alexan¬
der, and accompanied with the legend, always living, be¬
loved of Phtha. The name is written IITOAMH2, and
this is separated from APK2NTP2 by a group correspond¬
ing to the Greek word Icr/xaXoa/isi/og, surnamed. 6. The
name of another Ptolemy, scarcely known in history, the
son of Julius Caesar by the same Cleopatra for whom Anto¬
ny gave up the empire of the world. This boy, according
to Plutarch, bore the name of Ccesarion; Dion Cassius
calls him Ptolemy-Ccesarion; and his scroll, sculptured
at Denderah, next to that of his mother, contains the
name IITOAMH2 surnamed NHOKH2P2, Ptolemy the
young Ccesar, followed by the ideographic symbols for
always living, and the title beloved of Isis spelled phone¬
tically.
Secondly, the phonetic alphabet was found to apply,
without modification either in the values or the arrange¬
ment of the signs, to a much more numerous class of hie-
roglyphic names of sovereigns sculptured on the monu¬
ments of Egypt; we mean to those of the Roman empe¬
rors : But, contrary to all expectation, it was found that
their titles, names, and surnames, on the bas-reliefs of
the temples, were expressed in hieroglyphical characters,
suggesting not Latin, but Greek words; a circumstance
See Supplement to the fifth and sixth editions of this work, vol. iv. plate Ixxv. ; also section iv. of this treatise.
Cha o1'
lion
HIEROGLYPHICS.
347
which seems to prove, what indeed is otherwise pretty touche containing it being placed before a figure of the Champol-
well established, that latterly these sacred sculptures were emperor on foot, presenting an offering to Phre, or the Sun. hon, &c.
executed by Greek workmen, or at least under the direc- This monument, however, like the Pamphilian obelisk, is
tion of Greek artists. Thus, connected with the Roman supposed to be, not an Egyptian original, but a Roman
period, we read, 1. the imperial title Auroxgarwo, spelled copy, executed by Roman workmen. The name of the
AOTOKPTP, AOTKPTOP, AOTAKPTP, and AOTOKATA, Empress Sabina, the wife of Hadrian, written in phonetic
«ie a etant employe baschmouriquement pour le P,” accord- hieroglyphics, is likewise found upon this obelisk. Finally,
ing toM. Champollion. This title usually occupies an entire on the Typhonium at Denderah, two scrolls joined toge-
cartouche, and is followed by the ideographic symbols for ther contain the legend AOTKPTP K2P2 ANTONHN2,
always living. 2. The title of Kataag or Kaisapog, written The Emperor Ccesar Antoninus, with the ideographic epi-
indifferently KH2P2 or KH2A2. It occupies an entire thet always living subjoined ; and this is several times re¬
scroll, is followed by the epithets always living, beloved of peated on the monuments.
Isis, and occurs on the edifices of Philae and of Denderah. Such is an abstract of the results obtained by the appli-
3. The legend AOTKPTP KH2P2, the Emperor Ccesar, cation of the phonetic alphabet to the inscriptions connect-
always living, beloved of Isis, which, Champollion con- ed with the Greek and Roman periods of Egyptian history,
ceives, can only apply to Augustus, whose Greek medals How far they tend to establish the soundness of the origi-
struck in Egypt commonly contain only the two words of nal discovery we shall endeavour to explain after we have
this legend which are spelled phonetically. It is repeat- adverted to the first part of Mr Salt’s Essay, which applies
ed six times on the cornice of the posterior part of the west- to the subject immediately under consideration. The late
ern temple at Philae. 4. The name of the Emperor Tibe- consul-general of Egypt informs us that, on the first inti-
rius, which occurs several times on the wTalls of the west- mation of the discovery, he had “ conceived a very decided
ern temple at Philae. Two scrolls joined together contain prejudice against the phonetic system,” thinking it “ found-
the legend AOTKPTP-TBPH2-KH2P2, the Emperor Tibe- ed on too conjectural a basisbut having received M.
rius Ccesar, ahvays living. 5. The titles and name of Champollion’s Lettre a M. Dacier, and Dr Young’s IJisco-
Domitian, contained in conjoined scrolls, and written veries in Hieroglyphical Literature, he applied himself se-
AOTKPTP TOMHN2 2B2T2, the Emperor Domitian Au- riously to the examination of their contents, “ being un-
gustus. This occurs on the monuments of Philae ; but a willing to suppose that so much importance could be given,
more extensive legend of this emperor is found on the without reason, by many persons of acknowledged talent
edifices of Denderah, where the hieroglyphic scrolls give in Europe, to a discovery which appeared to him only a
the Emperor Ccesar Domitian surnamed Germanicus. 6. very vague and conjectural hypothesis.”1 This led to a
The name of the same emperor on the Pamphilian obe- complete conviction of his error, and enabled him not only
lisk at Rome ; but this monument, in explanation of which to confirm the truth of the “ hypothesis” from his own in-
Kircher published a folio volume, is believed, on good vestigations on the spot, but also to add several new pho-
grounds, to be spurious. netic homophones, as well as the names of a number of
The name of the Emperor Trajan occurs on the walls kings and gods ; in regard to which, however, he had,
of the intercolumniation of the eastern edifice at Philae. without his knowledge, been anticipated by Champollion.
The image of this good prince, presenting an offering to We shall here state as briefly as possible a few of the more
Isis and to Arsiesi or Horsiest, Horus, the son of Isis, is remarkable results obtained by Mr Salt in the course of
accompanied by two cartouches or scrolls containing the his researches amongst the monuments themselves,
words AOTKPTP KH2P2 NPO TPHN2, the Emperor Cce- Of names connected with the Greek and Roman pe-
sar Nerva Trajan ; and the legend, Trajan Caesar, ever- riods, Mr Salt was enabled to add to the list of those pre-
fern^, contained in a scroll, terminates the perpendicular viously deciphered, 1. that of Arsinoe, which was found
column of hieroglyphics sculptured to the right of the bas- by him at Gau-Kibeer, Edfou, and Dakke, with a figure
relief. The frize of the same intercolumniation is decorated of Isis, and the symbols of the female termination sub-
with nine small scrolls. That of the centre, supported by joined ;2 * 2. the name of Philip, the father of Alexander,
two urcei or royal asps, contains the name of Trajan, which occurs on the granite sanctuary at Karnak, and on
TPHN2, with the ideographic epithet ever-living ; and, the same building is sculptured the name of his son, who
combined w ith the scroll on the right and that on the left, is designated as Mai-Amun, or beloved of Ammon p 3. a
it produces the legend, The Emperor always living, Tra- correction of the reading of the name Berenice, the final
jan ever-living, Ccesar, eternal germ of Isis. The three character of which Mr Salt considered as a hawk, a crow,
cartouches placed to the right of these last produce the or an eagle, instead of a vulpanser, as Dr Young and M.
words, Trajan ever-living, Ccesar, Germanicus, Dacicus, Champollion had concurred in representing it; 4. the
always living. And, lastly, the three cartouches on the names of the Roman emperors Nero, Commodus, Ua-
left give the legend, Nerva Trajan always living, Empe- drian, Antoninus, and one which appeared to be Marcus
ror Ccesar always living, Augustus ever-living beloved of Verus Antoninus Augustus, forming the ornaments of a
Isis. The name of Trajan is also read on the great tern- cornice in the anterior of a small propylon on the west of
pie of Ombos, where two scrolls found amidst the ruins the island of Philae. The name of Domitian Mr Salt
of that monument form together the legend, AOTOKPTP copied from the Beneventine obelisk as delineated by
KH2P NPOA TPHN2 KPMNHK2 THKK2, Zoega; and from the whole of these readings he deduced
The Emp.eror Ccesar Nerva Trajan, surnamed Germani- about twenty homophones, in the greater part of which,
eus, Dacicus ; which is, word for word, the legend of the however, he was, as already mentioned, anticipated by
Greek medals of this emperor struck in Egypt. The name Champollion.
of the Emperor Hadrian is found on the pyramidion of the Before proceeding to give the phonetic names of the
fourth face of the Barberini obelisk, which now stands in Egyptian deities, from which, as Dr Murray remarked,4 af-
the new promenade of the Monte Pincio at Rome ; the car- ter Jablonski, the names of the Egyptian kings are almost
1 Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, pp. 3, 4. London, 1825, in 8vo.
2 On the noble propylon at Karnak, the finest remaining specimen of Egyptian architecture, this name is also found in conjunction
with that of Ptolemy, who'is designated as the “ father” of Ptolemy, who had for his wife Berenice.
* The phonetic hieroglyphics representing the name of Philip evolve OAEEnos, which approaches as near to the sound of the
Greek as any other name that has yet been discovered, excepting that of KAEoriATPA, which coincides with it, letter for letter.
4 See Summary of Egyptian Mythology, in Appendix to Bruce’s Travels, vol. ii.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
348
Champol- all derived, Mr Salt stops to mention an intermediate dis-
covery of no inconsiderable interest. It struck him forci-
bly, that as the phonetic characters had been applied to
the names of stranger kings, the Ptolemies and Roman em¬
perors, so they must likewise, if known, have in all proba¬
bility been employed in expressing the names of the Ethi¬
opian sovereigns who had previously held Egypt in sub¬
jection. And the result proved the soundness of this con¬
jecture. From some sketches made at Abydos, Mr Salt
was enabled to decipher the name of 2ABAKO or 2A-
BAKO<E>0, with the same termination as was afterwards
found in AMENO<I>0; and in a sketch taken from the
back of a small portico at Medinet-Habou he discovered
the name of TIPAKA, whom he conceives to be the same
with “ Tirkahah, king of Ethiopia, who came out to make
war against Sennacherib, king of Assyria,” as mentioned
in the second book of Kings.1 If this supposed identity be
admitted, and if the inscription of these Ethiopian names
on the Egyptian monuments be allowed, as we think it must,
to have been contemporaneous with the age of the in¬
vaders, then it would follow that the phonetic characters
were in use about seven centuries before the Christian
era, that is, as far back as the reign of Psammeticus
and the time of the prophet Isaiah; and a sovereign nam¬
ed in the Bible, of whose existence learned men had en¬
tertained doubts, would be restored to history. Further,
upon the high granite rocks at Elephantine, and also be¬
neath the intrusive name of a Ptolemy, Mr Salt decipher¬
ed, with the utmost ease, the name II2AMITIK, Psam-
miticus, or Psammeticus, written phonetically; a name
which he also found sculptured on one of the small tem¬
ples of Elethyas, on the Campensian obelisk, and also on
that in Monte Clitorio, of which engravings are given by
Zoega at the end of his learned and valuable work on the
origin and use of the obelisks.
Mr Salt then proceeds to give an account of some of
the principal Egyptian divinities, and the images under
which they are represented, together with their hierogly¬
phic and phonetic names, wherever these were decipher¬
ed. He commences with the eight more ancient divini¬
ties mentioned by Herodotus, whose names he determines
to have been, 1. Knuph or Ich-Neuphi, or Kneuph, repre¬
sented symbolically by a chicken watching an ostrich
feather, or by the feather alone with a crouching figure,
or by the flag indicating god, or as the agathodaemon, or
by the image of the sacred serpent, which enters into the
celebrated union of the globe, wings, and serpent, placed
over the entrance of all the temples of Egypt, the pho¬
netic name being uncertain; 2. Neith, phonetic name
NEET or N0, expressed by a zigzag or broken line, two
feathers, and a pair of tongs, one of the great goddesses
of the firmament, represented as a human figure with the
head of a lion ; 3. Phtha, phonetically <E>0A, having for
his emblem a scarabceus,2 3 and represented on the temples
under the form of a human figure with a scarabceus over
its head, sometimes encircled by the globe and serpent; 4.
Amun, Amoun, Ammon, commonly represented by a human
torm ol a black colour, with the head of a ram, surmount¬
ed by the globe and serpent, and written phonetically
AMN ; 5. Phre, the sun, represented generally by a globe
or disc, encircled by a serpent, and hieroglyphically de¬
signated by the same emblem; 6. Athor or Hathor, pho¬
netic name A0P, represented under the form of a female,
with a peculiar head-dress, composed of a globe, encom¬
passed by two slender horns, and surmounted by two long
feathers, and symbolized by the figure of a hawk enclosed
in a square, with a smaller square at one of its corners;
/. Buto or Maut, phonetic name MT, representing the
1 Second Kings, chap. xix. v. 9.
lower firmament, and designated, like Neith, by an out- Cham
stretched female figure, which is also found sometimes lion. He
as her symbolical characteristic; 8. Mendes, or the gene-
rative power of nature, represented under the form of a
human figure, with the head of a goat advanced in front
of the forehead, and designated by a square, a dot, and a
chicken, the phonetic name being unknown.
Of the minor divinities of the Egyptian Pantheon, Mr
Salt explains the phonetic names and symbols of, 1. EPM2,
Hermes ; 2. TT or 00, Taut or Thoth, represented by a
human figure, with the head of an ibis; 3. OY2IPE or
OY2IPI, Osiris, designated, as is well known, by an eye,
and a chair or throne ; 4. ANE<I>0E, Anephthe or Nephthe;
5. OP2, Horus, designated by a hawk, or the figure of a
child with one hand pointing to the lips, the emblem of
silence ; 6. AN®, Anubis, designated by the head of a
shakal or Egyptian fox, commonly mistaken for a dog; 7.
20, Seth or Sothis, symbol unknown; 8. 2APIII, Serapi;
and, 9. IMOX0®, Imouth, the Egyptian iEsculapius, the
reading of whose name is confirmed by a papyrus con¬
taining the expression, ’AffxXrimov 6 sen Ipovdov iiioi'Uipanj.
rov, “ Asclepius (or iEsculapius), also called Imouth, the
son of Phtha.” Mr Salt then subjoins a tabular list of
Egyptian kings and queens whose names are all written
phonetically, and concludes with expressing an opinion,
that, as the fact of phonetic hieroglyphics having been in
use in the earlier periods of the Egyptian monarchy seems
to be clearly established, so their application will be found
not to have been confined to the names of gods and kings
or queens; an opinion the truth of which M. Champol-
lion had already, unknown to Mr Salt, produced a pretty
extensive series of readings to confirm. That the reader,
however, may not be bewildered by details, but may be
enabled to comprehend the true nature and bearing of
these investigations, it may be proper to pause a little in
our exposition, and to take a retrospect, not merely of the
results obtained, but of the principles which have guided
inquiry, and of the evidence by which the different read¬
ings are supported.
I he phonetic system of the ancient Egyptians, as re¬
vealed by the discoveries of Young and Champollion, dif¬
fers so greatly from every mode of writing known or prac¬
tised amongst Europeans, that a little scepticism at the
outset of our acquaintance with it is perhaps unavoidable.
But we are much mistaken if the evidence which prevail¬
ed over the early incredulity of Mr Salt will not prove
sufficient to convince the intelligent reader that, however
anomalous this system may appear, it was in reality em¬
ployed by the Egyptians as an instrument of communica¬
tion, though most probably not to the extent which some
contended for. And, first, the fact of characters being
used in a similar manner, in a living language which upon
the whole is not written phonetically, shows that the sys¬
tem in question is not so contrary to analogy as might at
first be imagined. The Chinese, for instance, is a sylla-
bico-ideographic language, consisting of diversified combi¬
nations of certain elements or keys, two hundred and four¬
teen in number ; but, in order to express foreign sounds,
or combinations of sounds, the characters of that language,
instead of retaining their ordinary values, are rendered
phonetic by an appropriate mark, and thus represent
merely the initial or predominant sound of the name or
word of which they are the common and recognised signs.
Of this M. Klaproth has given an example in the Chinese
method of transcribing the name of Maria, which is re¬
presented by three characters, Ma-li-ya, rendered pho¬
netic ; the first signifying^asjoer, the second gain, and the
third second in rank? The same author also informs us
2 8ee Horus Apollo, Hieroglyphica, voce Phtha.
3 Eseamen Critique dcs Travaux de Champollion, p. 25.
HIE RO GLYPHIC S.
ol- that the ordinary system of Japanese writing resembles,
x. m0re perhaps than any other, that employed by the ancient
o' Egyptians. “ Les Japonais,” says he, “ melent leurs signes
syllabiques, exprimant des sons, aux caracteres ideogra-
phiques des Chinois, exactement comme les Egyptiens,
dont 1’ecriture se composait a-la-fois de signes phone-
tiques et de symboliques.” Lastly, on this point, M.
Saint-Martin, who has succeeded in deciphering an in¬
scription in the cuneiform characters, makes it evident
by the word Khchearcha, Xerxes, which is written pho¬
netically, that, in representing proper names, these cha¬
racters were employed on the same principle as the pho¬
netic hieroglyphics; and it is a singular enough coinci¬
dence that M. Champollion recognised the same proper
name, spelled in the very same manner, in a cartouche
engraved on a beautiful vase of oriental alabaster in the
cabinet of the king at Paris.
In the second place, the progress of the discovery, and
the facts connected with it, seem to demonstrate its gene¬
ral truth and certainty. The name of Ptolemy, taken from
the Rosetta inscription, rests upon the basis of an accom¬
panying translation ; the same thing may be said of the
name Cleopatra, obtained from the obelisk of Philae ; and
from these two have the elements of the phonetic alpha¬
bet been derived. But the strongest evidence, perhaps,
in support of this alphabet, is the perfect agreement of
the results obtained by means of it with known facts in
the history of the individuals whose names have been
deciphered, with the dates of the edifices on which these
names are sculptured, or with other circumstances of a
personal or general nature, the combination of which it
is impossible to ascribe to accident, or to account for in
any way except by admitting the truth and certainty
of the discovery. Thus, the name of Ptolemy is found
only upon buildings which, in the style of their architec¬
ture, are evidently of a date posterior to the older monu¬
ments of Egyptian art. The name of Cleopatra is found,
as mother of a Ptolemy, at Ernent and at Kous, where
there is also a Greek inscription, in which Cleopatra is
represented as reigning with her son; and a queen of the
same name is represented as the wife of a Ptolemy at
Gau-Kibeer, at Dakke, in a temple of Philae dedicated
to Aphrodite, and in another discovered by Mr Salt, de¬
dicated to iEsculapius, in all of which it corresponds with
the Greek inscriptions found there ; whilst, upon many
other temples, a Cleopatra is constantly associated with a
Ptolemy. On the magnificent propylon at Karak, one
of the wonders of Egyptian architecture, the name of a
Ptolemy accompanies, as usual, that of Cleopatra; the
name of Alexander, called the son of Ammon, is found
in juxtaposition with that of his father Philip; but at
Edfou, the name of Ptolemy is followed by the title of
Alexander, and by the name of Berenice his wife. Again,
the titles of Autokrator, Sebastos, Eusebes, Kaisar, are
continually found in conjunction with the names of Ro¬
man emperors, but never with those of the Ptolemies;
the titles of Germanicus, Dacicus, are found annexed only
to the names of those sovereigns who bear these titles on
their medals ; the name of Hadrian is prefixed, as it ought
to be, to that of the Emperor Trajan ; and the greater part
of the names of the emperors from Augustus to Commodus
are found upon temples and edifices, the style of which in¬
dicates that they are of more modern date than those which
belong to the age of the Ptolemies. Nor are these names and
titles, which have all been interpreted by means of the pho-
netic alphabet, confined to a few insulated scrolls. On the
contrary, they are sculptured by hundreds throughout the
different edifices in which there are no scrolls that do not
349
apply to those who were concerned in their construction. Champol-
The oval or ring containing the name of Hadrian is sculp- h°n> &<;•
tured on a column the hieroglyphics of which are known by
a Greek inscription to have been executed immediately
after his reign; the name of Soter repeatedly occurs, in
phonetic characters, amongst the hieroglyphics upon the
soros or mummy-case of a person whose name was Soter,
as appears by the Greek inscription upon the same coffin ;
and this name is also found, in the Greek, immediately
after that of Osiris, exactly as Dr Young had before stat¬
ed, that the names of persons deceased were found in
the hieroglyphics on the body. Here, then, we have a
mass of concurring evidence, a series of corroborative
circumstances, the coincidence and harmony of which
amount to a demonstration of the truth of the principles
on which the phonetic alphabet is founded, and of the
certainty of its application, in as far at least as regards
proper names. True results can never be obtained from
false assumptions.
Thirdly, it is greatly in favour of the phonetic system
of interpretation that the same lax and uncertain use of
the vowels, which is observed in the hieroglyphic writing,
prevails also in the Coptic,1 wdiere one vowel is constantly
put for another, and there is the same confusion between
the l and the R. The mixture of symbolic and phonetic
signs seems likewise a necessary consequence of the pro¬
cess by which, it may reasonably be supposed, the transi¬
tion from ideographic to phonetic writing was produced.
In this, as in so many other things, necessity was the mo¬
ther of invention. The impossibility of representing or
discriminating by symbols the proper names of individuals,
led, as in the Chinese, to the employment of phonetic cha¬
racters, or, in other words, to the separate indication of each
letter or sound in the name by means of an appropriate
sign used phonetically; but as the names of the kings,
which were probably the first they desired to record, were
usually formed from those of the gods, as Thoth-mes, Thoth-
mosis, Amun-ma\ (Mai-amww, Memnon), Amun-ophth,
Pa-m-ses, Osir-tesen, the sign which represented the
name of the god would still indicate, in a compendious
and intelligible manner, the syllable itself, instead of be¬
ing composed into separate letters, each with a separate
representative. Thus, in the phonetic name of Rameses
or Ramses, the emblem or symbol of the sun stands for
the syllable ra. M. Klaproth has not, we think, allow¬
ed sufficient weight to these considerations, in some of his
strictures on M. Champollion. It is obvious, however,
that, as the Coptic is the descendant of the ancient Egyp¬
tian, and as a knowledge of the latter can only be obtain¬
ed by means of the former, our confidence in the phonetic
interpretation must be increased when we find that it
evolves the very same peculiarities observed in that lan¬
guage which embodies all that remains of the idiom of the
Pharaohs.
But it is time to return to M. Champollion. We have
already seen, that the primary idea developed in his Let-
tre d M. Dacier received a more ample and extended ap¬
plication in his Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des An-
ciens Egyptiens, the first edition of which appeared in
1824; that in his Lettres d M. de Blacas, written from
Turin, he made numerous applications of his system, par¬
ticularly to the ancient dynasties of Egypt; and that, on
his return from Italy, he published a second edition of
his Precis, in which, however, he introduced but few mo¬
difications of the statements and assertions contained in
the first, and in no degree altered or modified the opinion
which he had therein expressed as to the phonetic nature
of the great mass of the hieroglyphics. This work, which
1 This has been very clearly shown by Mr Tattam in his excellent Grammar, and by Professor Kosegarten in his very learned
work De Prisca JEgyptiorum Litteratura, Vimarise, 1828, in 4to. See also Quarterly Review, vol. liii. p. 110.
350 HIEROGLYPHICS.
Champol- is written with admirable clearness, and often displays
lion, &c.^ great ingenuity, has for its object to demonstrate, by in-
ductive interpretations, 1. That the phonetico-hierogly-
phic alphabet is applicable to the royal legends of every
epoch in the history of Egypt; 2. that this alphabet is
the true key to the whole hieroglyphical system; 3. that
the ancient Egyptians constantly employed hieroglyphics
to represent alphabetically the sounds of words in their
spoken language; 4. that all the hieroglyphical inscrip¬
tions are, to a certain extent, alphabetical; 5. that dif¬
ferent kinds of characters, the nature of which respective¬
ly he endeavours to define, were simultaneously employed
in the hieroglyphical texts ; and, lastly, from all these pro¬
positions, each of which is supported by a great variety
of readings and examples, he attempted to deduce a ge¬
neral theory of the graphic system of the ancient Egyp¬
tians, generalising with a premature boldness, which af¬
terwards exposed him to the merciless severity of M. Kla¬
proth’s criticism. With all its errors, contradictions, and
inconsistencies, however, this work displays extreme inge¬
nuity, infinite acuteness, and often rare felicity in the de¬
velopment of views, suggested, perhaps, by an incidental
analogy, which would have escaped a less ardent and pe¬
netrating observer. This will be sufficiently evinced by
the following brief abstract of its contents.
Neglecting the purely controversial, which is the least
interesting part of the work, and also omitting that portion
in which he retraces the results already obtained, we pro¬
ceed at once to the application which he makes of the pho¬
netic alphabet to different hieroglyphical groups and gram¬
matical forms of constant recurrence in the inscriptions.
The hieroglyphical groups of most frequent occurrence in
the texts are those which correspond to son, daughter, child
or nursling, offspring, father, mother, sister, king, and place
or locality. 1. The idea of son is expressed by three differ¬
ent hieroglyphic groups, which are often employed upon
the same monument. The most common is a goose sh or
sch, and a small perpendicular line a or e, forming the word
sha, she, or shi, connected with the Sahidic sha, oriri,
nasci, and the Memphitic shai of the same import, and
involved in the compounds sheniot, son of father, or bro¬
ther consanguinean ; shenmau, son of mother, or brother
uterine; shenson, son of brother, or cousin. The second
group is formed of an oval or ellipse s, and a small per¬
pendicular line e, making se or si, which appears in the
composite Coptic name H6r-si~ese or H6r-si-esi, Horus
the son of Isis.1 The third is composed of the figure of a
child with its hand at its mouth, representing 2 in the
title hificiGToi of the Pamphilian obelisk, and the small
perpendicular line, which, as before, give the word se or
si. A fourth group, which in the hieroglyphical inscrip¬
tions expresses filiation, is written ms, equivalent to the
Coptic mes, enasci, gignere, whence mas and mise, natus,
infans, pullus.2 * But this group is generally employed to
indicate maternal descent, whilst the group she or si
commonly expresses paternal descent. Thus, Hor se n
Ousire mes n Ese, Ilorus, son of Osiris, born of Isis. 2.
The group expressing father, formed of the segment of
the sphere t, the horned snake ou, and the small per¬
pendicular line e, reads toue, which is traceable to the
Coptic root taoue, producere, proferre, probably derived
from ta, dare, and ouo, germen. 3. In the hieroglyphical
texts, a vulture represents symbolically the idea of mo- Chan
ther? in Coptic meou, maau, and mau, according to the lion,
dialects ; and this character is accompanied with another, s*'\
the segment of a sphere t, which gives maut or mout ;
a reading the more remarkable, as the word Mot& has been
transmitted to us by Plutarch as pure Egyptian for mo¬
ther, and as one of the surnames of Isis.4 4. The group
expressing king is composed of a plant s, a segment of a
sphere t, and a zigzag or horizontal line N, forming stn,
the skeleton of the Coptic word souten, regere, dirigere.
5. The word ro^os, place, in the Greek text of the Rosetta
inscription, is expressed in the hieroglyphical text by an
owl m, and an extended arm a, thus giving the Coptic
word ma, place, which Dr Young erroneously supposed to
signify /htf/ier.
We come next to the signs or groups in the hiero¬
glyphical texts which perform certain grammatical func¬
tions, and express genders, numbers, persons, and times or
tenses. And, 1. The ordinary mark of feminine groups s,
the segment of a sphere t, answering to the Coptic arti¬
cle t', which also characterises the feminine gender.
Thus, si, son, tsi, the daughter; sn, brother, tsn, the sis¬
ter; and tmau, the mother. But, in the hieroglyphical
inscriptions, the feminine article is sometimes placed at
the end of a group, which accounts for our meeting
sometimes with mau, mother, and maut, the mother;
although the Coptic presents no example of this species of
inversion in the use of the article. The masculine defi¬
nite article in Coptic is p, the equivalent of which is the
striated square, the constant sign of the same letter in all
the Greek and Roman inscriptions. The plural articles
are two in number; first, the zigzag, or the simple hori¬
zontal line n; and, secondly, the vase, which is also n;
both being followed by the small perpendicular line e, so
that we have the Coptic articles ne, ni, and na, of all
which the Rosetta inscription presents several examples.
2. The plural of nouns is expressed either by prefixes or by
terminations. The prefixes are the broken or horizontal
line n, which is the determinate plural article, and the
vase, also n, followed in both cases by the small perpen¬
dicular line e, and equivalent to ne or ni. The termina¬
tions are either two small perpendicular lines indicating
duality, or three such lines indicating indefinite plurality,
as Dr Young originally remarked. The two small lines,
taken phonetically, are in proper names and others equi¬
valent to the e or i ; the three lines, preceded by the
crooked staff (lituus), or by the quail, represent the Cop¬
tic plural termination oue or oui. 3. As in the Sahidic
or Theban dialect of the Coptic certain qualifying words
are formed by the conjunctive nt, qui, so in the hiero¬
glyphical texts a number of groups expressing qualifica¬
tions, or employed adjectively, commence with the vase
and the segment of the sphere, the phonetic signs of nt.
4. In the hieroglyphical texts there has only been re¬
cognized one distinct group representing a pronoun, the
subject of a proposition: it is the pronoun of the third
person singular masculine, which is written phonetically
ntoph, being letter for letter Coptic. But numerous ex¬
amples occur of pronouns of the second, and particular¬
ly of the third person, combined with nouns and verbs,
sometimes as prefixes, though more commonly as affixes.
Thus, keeping in view that nph, or simply ph, equivalent
1 Mr Akerblad was the first who gave the true import of this composite Egyptian proper name.
2 In the Rosetta inscription, this word, combined with the two characters which express day, corresponds to ra yinSxux, of the
Greek text, where the celebration of Ptolemy’s birthday is mentioned.
8 Horus Apollo informs us (Hieroglyphica, i. No. 12), that to denote mother the Egyptians painted a vulture, Ztfw h murv
yin/ rav %i»uv ov^ vvrup%i/.
4 H 2 hr/s iirr/v on nm MOT0 x.a.1 vruX/v 'AHvqi. . . 'S.r/y.ouiova/ 2s rtf y.it <?r^urtt ra* ovt/a.xriuv MHTEPA, rev 2e %iurit>u, x. r. X. {Tie Iside et
Osiride.) The statement of Plutarch is confirmed by the fact that, wherever the representation of Isis occurs on the monuments, it
is accompanied by the legend Ese djer-mcut, Isis, powerful mother.
HIEROGLYPHICS. 351
O, jol* to the Coptic naph or neph, is the masculine, and s,
^ioi fee- equivalent to the Coptic nes, the feminine affix of the
^ third person* we have toueph, father of him, toues, fa¬
ther of her; moutph or tmouph, the mother of him, mouts,
the mother of her; seph, the son of him, ses, the son of her ;
tseph or setph, the daughter of him, tses or sets, the
daughter of her ; snph, the brother of him, sns, the brother
of her; tsnph or sntph, the sister of him, snts, the sis¬
ter of her. 6. In Coptic the preposition n, prefixed to a
noun, indicates the genitive case; and in hieroglyphics
the broken line n performs the same function. Thus, in
all the hieroglyphical legends placed beside the represen¬
tation of the god Horus, we read either Hor she' n Ou-
sire', Horus, the son of Osiris, or Hor she' n Ousire' ms
n Ese, Horus, son of Osiris, born of Isis.
In the hieroglyphical branch of the Rosetta inscription
we meet with verbs in three distinct tenses, present, past,
and future, but only in the third person. The character¬
istic signs of these tenses, taken phonetically, are how¬
ever nothing more than Coptic prefixes and affixes. Thus
the third person plural of the present is indicated in the
hieroglyphical texts by a phonetic sign of s, prefixed to
the group representing the verb, and equivalent to the
Coptic prefix se. Next, the third person of what seems
to be a past tense is indicated by the affix of the horned
snake ph if the subject be masculine, and by that of the
two sceptres s, if the subject be feminine. Of these
verbal forms distinct traces appear in one of the past
tenses of the verb djo, dicere, as pedjai, pedjak, pedje,
pedjaph, pedjas, in the Sahidic, and pedjei, pedjek,
pedje, pedjeph, in the Memphitic dialect. Lastly, the
third person plural of the future, in which form appear
all the verbs in the last nine lines of the hieroglyphical
text of Rosetta, is marked by a group of three characters,
the recurved stem s, the broken line n, and the three
small perpendicular lines i or e, from which we obtain
sne, equivalent to sene or sena, the characteristic mark
of the third person plural of the Coptic future definite.
So much, then, for the application of the phonetic alpha¬
bet to different hieroglyphical groups of frequent occur¬
rence, and also to certain grammatical forms; an applica¬
tion which, in Champollion’s estimation, goes far to prove
his general position, that a great part of every hierogly¬
phical text is written alphabetically.
The next subject of investigation, viz. deciphering the
hieroglyphical names of the Egyptian divinities, is one of
equal interest and importance ; but after the notice which
has already been taken of Mr Salt’s readings, and the
publication of Dr Young’s catalogue at the end of the
article Egypt in the present work, it will only be neces¬
sary to advert to the additional results obtained, and the
corrections applied by M. Champollion. And here it may
be observed generally, that the images of the gods and
goddesses with which the Egyptian monuments of all or¬
ders abound, are preceded by hieroglyphical legends, in- Champol-
variably commencing with three or four characters, im- h°n> &c-
porting, This is the aspect, the mode of existence, the pre-
sence, or the resemblance; and this formula is succeeded
by the preposition n, of, expressed by the broken or hori¬
zontal line, after which comes the proper name of the
god or goddess, which is always written in the same
phonetic characters with those of individuals. But there
is this difference observable, that instead of the figurative
character man, which is found at the end of the latter, the
names of divinities are constantly terminated by the ideo¬
graphic sign of god or goddess, as the case may be ; a sign
the import of which was determined by a comparison of
the Greek with the hieroglyphical and enchorial texts of
the Rosetta inscription. By this initial formula, and this
terminal character, the names of the Egyptian divinities
may easily be recognised on the monuments.
From the testimony of the Greek writers, there can be
no doubt that the god represented on the monuments by
a human figure with the head of a hawk, surmounted by
a globe or disc, is the Egyptian ’HX/og, Sun, denominated
Ra, Re', and Phre'. This name, which is of very frequent
occurrence, enters into the composition of Rameses or
Ramses, written Ra-m-ss.1 Ammon, Amoun, or Amun,
the principal deity of Thebes, represented with the head
of a ram, and assimilated by the Greeks to their own Ziug,
is read Amn by M. Champollion as well as by Mr Salt.
On the paintings and bas-reliefs, however, the former dis¬
covered a second divinity with a ram’s head, but distin¬
guished from the first either by an urceus or asp placed
between his horns, or by a complicated and peculiar head¬
dress, containing a solar disc and one or more urcei. This
divinity, like the preceding, bears the name of Amn,
sometimes that of Amon-ra or Amon-re', but more
frequently a third name, in the orthography of which
there are four distinct varieties, viz. nb, noub, nm, and
noum. Now, if the b of the name nb be pronounced
in the Coptic manner, like a v or an f, we shall obtain
Nev or Nef, the god who, according to Plutarch,
was the principal divinity of the Thebaid ; and, in like
manner, if noub be pronounced nouf, the latter will at
once suggest the KNOTS)-/; of Strabo, identical with the
Kv?j<p of Plutarch and Eusebius. On the other hand, if
noub be pronounced in the ordinary way, we shall obtain
the XNOTB-/; of the inscription at the Cataracts, A^-
/aww 6 xai Xvovftsi, and of the Gnostic or Basilidian Stones,
and also the Ammon-Chnubis oi the Latin inscription dis¬
covered by Belzoni in the quarries of Syene. Lastly, in
the variation noum we discover the XNOTM-/; of the
Basilidian Stones, which bear indifferently Xwn/p/;, Xvou/3/;,
and Xwj[u<;, thus showing that these various names are
applied to one and the same divine being represented
under the form of a serpent.2
According to Eusebius, or Phtha, one of the prin-
1 From the name of this divinity was also derived that of Phra, or, by inserting {more oriental) a vowel, Pharah, identical
with Pharaoh, the denomination common to all the monarehs of Egypt. Josephus informs us {Antiq. Jud. lib. yiii. cap. ti, § 2) that
amongst the Egyptians Pharaoh signified He';—and that to each king they gave the title ot Sun, that is, called him Pure'or Phra,
is demonstrated by all the royal legends, and even by the cartouches themselves, where this title is often expressed, not with the
symbolical disc, as when applied to the divinity himself, but with an equivalent character, the figurative image of the sun, that is, a
human figure with the head of a hawk surmounted by a disc. This idea, which was originally suggested by Mr Wilkinson, has been
fully developed and illustrated by Signor llosellini. “ II titolo di Faraone,” says the latter, “ dobbiamo prenderlo dal testo originale
della Bibbia, ove sta scritto rrjns, Phrah : che tale e la sua naturale pronunzia un poco alterata dai Masoreti, forse non a capriccio, ma
per rendere il suono Egiziano della voce OPH, PJcrt, il quale noi non conosciamo, e che pote probabilmente. conservarsi nella tradi-
zone degli Ebrei. Or dunque tra il Phre o Phra Egizio, ed il Phrah biblico e tanta 1’analogia, che non mi sembra lasciar luogo al
dubbio sulla identita delle due voci. Ma parra forse strano che Mose rendesse colla lettera Ain, appoggiato anche dalia He finale, un
semplice suono vocale Egizio, che risponde alia Heta de caratteri Copti. Alla qual cosa rispondo, che la He finale puo essere enfatica,
completiva, o espletiva, come vuol dirsi; e tale rimane nella stessa pronuzia dei Masoreti. Ma che la Ain sia la lettera usata costan-
temente dagli Ebrei' per esprimere I’elemento e o a del Egizia voce Phra o Phre, Mose medesimo ce ne assicura. Trascrivendo
egli il nome della citt'a Egiziana fabbricata dagli Ebrei e chiamata con Egizio nome Harnesses, scrisse Ebraicamente DDUin, Rhamses."
(See/ Monumenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia, parte prirua, tom. i. pp. 116, H7-)
2 All the details transmitted by the Greek writers concerning the mode in wnich the Egyptians represented Ammon-Kneph, Ammon-
Knuphis, or Ammon-Chnoumis, are perfectly applicable to the images of the god whose hieroglyphical names have been found to be
352
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Champol- cipal Egyptian divinities, chiefly adored at Memphis (Ma-
lion, &c. m-phtha), and assimilated by the Greeks to their'Hpa/tf-
res, was believed to be the son of the god Kneph or
Ammon-Chnuphis or Chnubis. In constant juxtaposition
with the images of the demiurgos, or creator (celui qui
dispose la matiere) sculptured on the bas-reliefs of Ibsam-
bul, Philae, Edfou, Ombos, and Thebes, is the figure of
a second divinity (tfuvvao; &os), distinguished either by a
solar disc and crescent surmounting his head-dress, or by
the ordinary sceptre of the gods, combined with a nilo-
meter, a handled cross, a lash, and a balance, or enve¬
loped from neck to heel in a close tight vestment, leaving
at liberty only the hands which hold the sceptre; and
there can be no doubt that this figure was intended to re¬
present Phtha, because the adjacent hieroglyphical group
contains'the name of Phtha expressed in phonetic cha¬
racters. These readings, then, serve to confirm the state¬
ment of Eusebius, that Phtha was believed to be the
son of Kneph or Ammon-Chnuphis, the demiurgos of
the Egyptian mythology. Amongst the titles which the
decree of Rosetta applies to Ptolemy Epiphanes is Mai-
Phtha, riyarrrifimg vvo rov (££)«, beloved of Phtha. Petbe,
whom the Greeks call Kronos and the Latins Saturn, was
deciphered from a Coptic manuscript in the Borgian Mu¬
seum. In a Greek inscription discovered by Ruppel at
Scheie, between Elephantine and Philae, and containing
the names of different Egyptian divinities, is that of the
goddess 2ATH-2, or 2ATI-2, which occurs immediately
after Ammon-Chnoubis, and corresponds to the 'Hgjj of
the Greeks and the Juno of the Romans. But on the
bas-reliefs the figure of Ammon is always accompanied
by that of a goddess, whose distinctive emblem is a large
feather stuck in her head-dress, and whose hieroglyphical
name expressed phonetically is Sate or Sati, identical
with the larris or 2ar/s of the Greek inscription above
mentioned. Of the divinities better known, the names
deciphered by M. Champollion are, 1. Anubis, son of Osiris
and Nephthe, written Anb and Anbo, in Greek ANoo-
B-/;, and distinguished by the head of a shakal or fox,
which the Greeks mistook for that of a dog; 2. Osiris,
the husband-brother of Isis, written Ousre' and Ousri,
or Ousire' and Ousiri ; 3. Arueris, the twin-brother
of Osiris, written Aroeri, Haroeri, or Haroueri ; 4.
Anucis, assimilated to the 'Etfr/a or Vesta of the Greeks,
and written Ank, Anouk or Anouke, in Greek Avewojf or
Avouxig; together with Horus, Apis, Mnevis, Besa, Socha-
ris, Thermouthis, and the names of the greater part of
the Decans represented on the circular zodiac or plani¬
sphere of Denderah. From all this, then, the inference
deduced by Champollion is, that the Egyptians employed
phonetic hieroglyphics in writing the names of the differ¬
ent members of their populous Pantheon.
Results at once curious and interesting were likewise Chair
obtained by the application of the phonetic alphabet to lion
the names of private persons of both sexes. Of these the
Greek writers have preserved a considerable number, all
of them composed of the proper names of divinities, with
the addition of some distinctive epithet, and easily ex¬
plicable with the aid of the Coptic. Thus Afjbvvrctiog sig¬
nifies given by Ammon ; N/rwxg/j, victorious Neith ; 'Adudig,
engendered of Thoth ; Mag/s or Mo/g/j, gift of Re, or the
Sun ; 2g/Apow<garjjs, Hercules-Harpocrates ; Qo/ioLopda, the
world friend of Phtha; Ila^gig, the consecrated to Isis;
Tlavovpig, the consecrated to Chnuphis; Uadigpovr, the con¬
secrated to Thermuthis; Usrrigig, he who belongs to Isis;
Hsrosigig, he who belongs to Osiris ; Majjovs, gift of Isis, or
loving Isis ; Ysvaftovv, the child of Ammon ; 2s('o<rog, the child
of Osiris ; Ilsrsagwoxgarfjc, he who belongs to Harpocrates;
IIsreagw?3g/s, he who belongs to Aroueris; and so of the
rest. The same observation may be applied to the names
deciphered by Champollion; they are all formed on the
analogy indicated by those which the Greek writers have
preserved, and by their composition they show that the
mythological system of Egypt, like that of India, had
become interwoven with the whole texture of society,
and with every circumstance of life and manners. Re¬
ligion, indeed, like a subtile spirit, insinuated itself into
every thing; and even the names of private individuals
contain evidence of its universal predominance. Thus
we find Petamun, he who belongs to Ammon; Petamu-
ra, he who belongs to Ammon-Ra; Amenoph, A^si/w-
<pig, an abbreviation of Amenoftep, Afizvttxpdrig, approved
of Ammon; Amontet, obedient to Ammon ; Phtaftep or
Ptahtefp, approved of Phtha; Ftep-an-Ptah or Ftep-Ptuh,
the approved of Phtha; Ptahdjer or Ptahdjor, Phtha the
powerful, or the powerful by Phtha; Pethorpre, he who
belongs to Horus and the Sun; Petepre or Petephre,
the same with the Putiphar or rather Putiphrah of Scrip¬
ture, and in the Coptic text of Genesis regularly writ¬
ten Petephre, he who belongs to Re or the Sun (priest
of the Sun) ; Isidjer or Isidjor, Isis the great or power¬
ful ; Hatorshe and Hatorshet, child (male or female) of
Hathor; Hor-amun, Horus-Ammon ; Hdrsiesi, Horus,
son of Isis; and Arnun-Hdrsiesi, Ammon-Horus, son of
Isis. It is to be observed, however, that the Egyptian
proper names of private individuals are never included in
an elliptical ring or cartouche, which is the distinctive
mark of the proper names of sovereigns alone ; they are
written like the ordinary current text of the hieroglyphics,
but are constantly terminated either by the figurative em¬
blem of man, or by the sign of the feminine gender, as
the case may be. From this branch of his analysis Cham¬
pollion concludes that the proper names of individuals
were written phonetically ; and consequently that the opi-
Amn, Nb, Noub, and Noum. Eusebius informs us that the Egyptians represented the demiurgos, or creator of the world, under
a human form, covered with blue flesh, encircled by a zone or girdle, holding a sceptre, and having on the head a royal ornamented
head-dress of feathers. Porphyry gives us the same information. “ Hujus porro KA<p imaginem, inquit, humana forma depingunt,
colore cseruleo, zonam tenentem et sceptrum, pennam gerentem in capite; ovum ab ore producit, a quo nascitur deus quern /Egyptii
Phtha, Grseci Yulcanum vocant.” On all the monuments the god called alternately Am ex and Noub accordingly appears under a
human form, with flesh painted blue, encircled with a zone, and having his head-dress surmounted by two enormous feathers of differ¬
ent colours. Eusebius further informs us {Prceparatio Evangelii, lib. iii. cap. 9, p. 115, Paris, 1628) that Knaph was emblematically re¬
presented under the form of a serpent; and we have already seen that, on the Basilidian Stones, the names Xvou^f, Xvavpis, and Xrovgn,
are accompanied by the image of a serpent. On the monuments in the elder style of Egyptian art, this divinity is sometimes found
with an urceus on his head ; but he is more frequently preceded or followed by a huge serpent nearly covering his visible image with its
voluminous coils. Kneph was regarded by the Egyptians as the 'A.ya.Qobu.if/.w't, or good genius, and, in this character, he was also
represented by a serpent. Nor is it undeserving of notice, in considering his distinctive attributes or emblems, that the surname of
given by flattery to Nero upon those of his medals which were struck in Egypt, is combined with the image of an
enormous bearded serpent having its head ornamented with a symbolical head-dress. Lastly, the Greek and Latin inscriptions, in
which Ammon-ChnouUs is mentioned, were found, the one in the isle of Scheie, near Syene, and the other at Syene itself; in short, at
a small distance from the isle of Elephantine, where Strabo places the temple of Kvau$i;, and where, according to Eusebius, the divi¬
nity worshipped was represented under a human form with the head of a ram surmounted by a solar disc, and had the flesh painted
blue. There can be little doubt, then, that the god who, in the hieroglyphical text, bears the name of Neb or Nef, Noub or Nouf,
and Noum, is identical with Ammon, and the divinity whom the Greeks called Kneph, Chnuphis, and Chnmiis. (See Precis du Systems
Hieroglyphique, pp. 143, 144, 145, 146.)
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Gha ol- nion originally expressed by Dr Young, and repeated by
lion c- himself in his Lettre d M. Dacier, that the phonetic hie-
^ ^ roglyphics were confined to the transcription of words,
foreign to the Egyptian language, is erroneous.
The next subject which engaged the attention of Cham-
pollion was the analysis of the royal titles and qualifications
inscribed on the more ancient Egyptian monuments; an
analysis the object of which is to show that, even anterior
to the Persian invasion, the Egyptians employed in their
hieroglyphical texts characters representing the sounds of
the spoken language ; and that these words are expressed
by signs similar in form and in value to those which were
afterwards used for transcribing the proper names and
titles of the Greek kings and Roman emperors. In his
Lettre d M. Dacier, M. Champollion proved by an un¬
broken series of facts that the Egyptians wrote phoneti¬
cally, or employed the figures of objects to express sounds,
from the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great
(a. c. 332) till the close of the reign of Antoninus (a. d.
161), a period of about five centuries. But as the Per¬
sian conquest preceded the Macedonian by nearly two
hundred years (193), the question which next arose was,
whether, in the interval between these two conquests, and
still more in the periods of the Egyptian monarchy ante¬
rior to the first or Persian, any traces of the same system
of writing could be discovered. If this point were deter¬
mined in the affirmative, M. Champollion conceived that
the chain of evidence would thus be rendered complete.
His reasoning, however, involves several elements of un¬
certainty. In the first place, the period at which any given
name was inscribed on a monument may not have been
contemporary either with the erection of the monument
itself, or with the age of the individual whose name has
been so inscribed. Secondly, the style of the architecture
of the monuments is by no means an infallible indication
of the epoch to which their construction should be refer¬
red, inasmuch as the rise and decline of the art must ne¬
cessarily exhibit many points in common, and show nearly
the same relative imperfection, and as the more ancient
are consequently in danger of being confounded with the
more modern edifices. Thirdly, though the dates of the
monuments may be ascertained from these dedications, or
from independent historical authority, the time when any
given name was inscribed thereon is not determinable by
the same evidence, and can only be inferred from acces¬
sory circumstances, which seldom amount to more than a
probability, the value of which, in ordinary circumstances,
cannot exceed that of a reasonable conjecture.
But, however this may be, we shall complete our ab¬
stract of M. Champollion’s investigations by exhibiting
a few of the results which he obtained by deciphering
hieroglyphic names sculptured on the monuments sup¬
posed to belong to the early age of Egyptian art. And,
!• In a cartouche engraved on a vase of oriental alabaster,
preserved in the cabinet of the king at Paris, M. Cham¬
pollion, as already mentioned, deciphered the name of
Xerxes, written Khschearscha, which is the Persian
name of that monarch, without any other omission than
that of a sort of medial vowel; and this hieroglyphic name
is accompanied by five characters, the phonetic values of
which give the word Ierina or Iriena, the same with Iere,
Iranian or Persian. 2. In the twenty-ninth or Mende-
sian dynasty Manetho places a king whose name is writ-
ten probably the ’Axogig of Diodorus Siculus ; and
353
this king had for his immediate predecessor and immediate Champol-
successor two princes of the name of Nspgg/rjjs, as written Bon, &c.
by Manetho, or N*<peeeug, as written by Diodorus. But on
two sphinxes, the style of which approaches that of the
sculptures executed under the Greek kings of Egypt,
were found the hieroglyphical name of a king Hakr,
’AKOP-/f, and that of a king Naifroue' or Naifroui,
supposed to be identical with Nephereus or Nepherites. 3.
On the Campensian obelisk, which Augustus caused to be
transported from Egypt to Rome, and placed as a gnomon
in the Campus Martius, may be read Psmt or Psmtk, the
skeleton of the name of Psammetichus,1 one of the most
enlightened kings of Egypt, who opened the ports of that
kingdom to the Greeks, encouraged commerce, patronised
the arts, and sought to revive the maritime power of his
country. 4. According to Manetho, the second king of
the twenty-third or Tanite dynasty bore the name of
’Ocrogflog or ’Otfogdwv. But on a granite obelisk amidst the
ruins of Heliopolis is sculptured the name of a prince
called Ousortasen or Osortasen, which also occurs on
a small statue of carnelian in the cabinet of M. Durand,
accompanied by the legend, “ the son of the Sun, beloved
of Phtha.”2 This Pharaoh must not however be con¬
founded with the Osirtesen of Mr Wilkinson, the last
monarch but one of the sixteenth dynasty, and he with
whom the monumental history of Egypt is supposed to
commence. 5. From the same monuments have been ob¬
tained the names of several other kings and queens be¬
longing to the twenty-third dynasty, particularly those of
Ptahaftep, the Petubastes of the Greeks, and father of
Osorthos ; Ran, his queen ; Psjam or Psdjam, Psammus,
bv ’HgantXsa ’kiyuttnoi ’fxaXso'ai', the son and successor of
Osorthos; Amonschet, daughter of Osorthos, and sister
of Psammus ; Beba or Bebo, queen of Psammus; and
Amonraou, his son, probably the last scion of the Tanites.
6. The head of the twenty-second or Bubastite dynasty
is denominated by Manetho lasoyyig or itaoyywcng, being
the Pharaoh who in Scripture is called Sesuk, Shishak,
Shushak, and who, in the reign of Rehoboam the grand¬
son of David, pillaged Jerusalem, and carried off “ all the
shields of gold which Solomon had made.”3 Upon one
of the colonnades which decorate the court of the grand
palace at Karnak are two royal legends, the praenomen
in the first of which contains the title “ approved of the
Sun,” followed by “ the beloved of Ammon, Scheschonk,"
apparently identical with the Sesonchis of Manetho ; but,
in the second legend, we read “ the beloved of Ammon,
Osorkon,” and the king called ’Otfo^ov, who has some¬
times been confounded with ’o<fo§duv, was the immediate
successor of Sesonchis. A variety of other legends serve
to confirm this conclusion. 7. The next Pharaonic name
deciphered by Champollion is that of the head of the nine¬
teenth dynasty, which was one of theDiospolitan. It occurs
on almost every monument executed in the ancient style
of art; it is written Remses, Ramses, Amun-mai-Ram-
ses, Amun-Ramses-mai ; and, according to Champol¬
lion, it is' that of Rameses the Great, the same sovereign
who is called Sethosis by Manetho, Sesopsis by Diodorus
Siculus, and Sesostris by Herodotus and Strabo. This
conclusion is not hypothetical or conjectural; it has been
established by a very elaborate historical investigation, in
which, as appears to us, the identity of these various
names has been made out in a very satisfactory manner.
8. Lastly, of the sovereigns belonging to the eighteenth
1 See the engraving given by Zoega of this obelisk, which was from the first believed to be the work of a Pharaoh. (Plin. I/is-
toria Natural, lib. xxxvi. c. 8, 9, 10.) The name on this obelisk is, according to Champollion, that of Psammetichus I. who flourish¬
ed about 120 years before the Persian conquest.
* Two coloured pillars, transported from Egypt to France, confirm the above reading, and increase the probability that the king
mentioned by Manetho is identical with the Pharaoh whose monumental name is Osortasen. {Precis du Syst. Hierogl. p. 197, et seqq.)
* See First Kings, chap. xiv. ver. 25, 26.
VOL. XI. 2 Y
354
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Champol- dynasty, which was also Diospolitan, Champollion de¬
lion, &c. ciphered those of Meiamoun-Ramses, Ramses I., Ame-
1'—^nophis II. whom the Greeks, mistaking a title (Mei-
amoun) for a name, called 3Temnon, Amenophis I., and,
finally, that of Thouthmosis, the founder.
These results are supposed to have received a remark¬
able confirmation from the Genealogical I able of -A-bj"
dos. This interesting monument was disinterred by Mr
Bankes in 1818, while excavating for the purpose of ob¬
taining an accurate ground plan of the extensive ruins of
Abydos ; and, soon after his return to England, he caused
it to be lithographed, and copies to be distributed to dif¬
ferent persons both in this country and in France.1 One
of these accompanies Mr Salt’s Essay, which, in fact,
was edited by Mr Bankes. A design of the Tablet was
also made by Caillaud, but it is exceedingly ill executed,
and, in the first or uppermost row of royal names, a car¬
touche is wanting. This important and interesting monu¬
ment is composed of three rows of royal names, each row
containing twenty-six ; and the two upper rows exhibit
the names of kings, arranged in the order of immediate
succession, to perform a propitiatory act in favour of Ram¬
ses III. whose name and prsenomen repeated occupy the
whole of the last row. That the names in the two upper
compartments present an immediate succession of kings,
is rendered certain by other monuments which are particu¬
larly referred to by Rosellini. The names in this tablet
are arranged in retrograde order from the right to the
left, so that the fifty-first scroll, reckoning from the com¬
mencement, is the last of the series, whilst the fifty-second
contains the proper name of that king whose praenomen is
included in the scroll immediately preceding; and the first
of the upper compartment on the right is of course the
most ancient of all these kings. With the forty-first scroll
commences the series of kings belonging to the eighteenth
dynasty; the six preceding rings to number thirty-five con¬
tain the seventeenth dynasty of Theban Pharaohs, which
was composed of the same number of kings; and in the
five scrolls to thirty we should have read the names of the
five kings who composed the sixteenth dynasty, if the cha¬
racters had not been obliterated by time ; but two of these
have fortunately been preserved by other monuments. In
the second compartment there still remain three scrolls
(the 29th, 28th, and 27th), which, with the twenty-six of
the first or uppermost row, form the names of twenty-nine
kings, who must have preceded the accession of the six¬
teenth dynasty. The chronological Canon of Manetho
does not give the number of kings who belonged to the
fifteenth dynasty; it merely informs us that this dynasty
was Theban, and lasted two hundred and fifty years, champ
“ Nel silenzio delle liste (di Manetone),” says Rosellini, lionj
“ viene opportunissima la Tavola di Abydos, la quale io y.
credo fuor d’ogni dubbio darci, in quest! ventinove car-
telli, 1’esatto numero dei re che formarono la dinastia
xv.”2 The learned Italian then states the grounds on
which he was led to form this opinion; but if he be right
in ascribing all these twenty-nine names to the fifteenth
dynasty, it will follow that the average duration of each
reign of that dynasty was only about eighty years and
a half, which is considerably below the average duration
of a reign in other dynasties of which complete lists have
been given. This monument has suffered severe injury
from time. In the first or uppermost compartment, twelve
scrolls have been entirely and two of them partially ef¬
faced; in the second, eight have been totally obliterated;
and in the third, three have been destroyed, four ren¬
dered illegible, and one partially injured. M. Klaproth
has given it as his opinion that the Table of Abydos, in¬
stead of being read horizontally from right to left, should
be read perpendicularly from right to left, in columns of
two lines ;3 but although he has marked his copy of the
monument, so as to indicate such a mode of interpretation,
he has not ventured to exemplify his suggestion; and a
very careful examination of the tablet has convinced us
that this idea is erroneous. The repetition of the name
and praenomen of Ramses (Amun-mai-Ramses), each thir¬
teen times, in the third row or compartment, excludes such
a supposition. But there can be no doubt whatever that
the ordinary hieroglyphics in the two vertical columns on
the left, containing the propitiatory act, are to be read per¬
pendicularly, from the top to the bottom, beginning with
the column towards the right.
Hasty, premature generalization formed the prominent
defect of M. Champollion’s mind. The importance of the
monument discovered by Mr Bankes cannot well be esti¬
mated too highly ; but we are not yet perhaps in a condi¬
tion to appreciate its full value. M. Champollion, how¬
ever, assuming a tone of confidence, which, on a subject
of this nature, is worse than ludicrous, boldly laid it down,
first, that his investigations had been confirmed, in the
most remarkable manner, by the monument of Abydos;
secondly, that, as far as these proceeded, they had esta¬
blished the accuracy of the royal chronological Canon of
Manetho, preserved by Julius Africanus, Josephus, and
Eusebius, a record which the learned in their ignorance
had contemned as unworthy of credit; and, thirdly, that
by his researches, taken in conjunction with the fable of
Abydos, the Canon of the high-priest of Heliopolis4 had
1 Well might Mr Bankes take as a motto the words of lamblichus, Kxi to h Afivlu ucropfarov '6u\ot, “ And he will publish the secret
°f ^p^del mio credo ecco le prove,” says the learned Italian. “ La dinastia xiv. comprende settantasei re di origine Dico
nertanto non esser probabile che, nei rimanenti ventinove cartelli del quadro di Abydos, consumato il numero, taciuto da Eusebio,
dei re della dinastia xv., si possano comprendere ancora alcuni re della xiv. Poiche esprimendo questo quadro una specie di pn-
ghiera in favore di Ramses III. per ordine, o ad onoranza del quale fu scolpito un tal monumento, trovasi convenientissimo che a
prewar s’introducano i soli re delle familie Tebane, che con luiebber commune la patria e verisimilmente la discendenza. Ne sarebbe
credibile che sovrani di una altra famiglia, qual fu la Choite, la quale lungamente interruppe il regno delle familie Tebane, commciato
fino dalla dinastia decimaprima, fossero ammessi in comunione di prece a favore di un re Tebano. Imperocche il cangiamento aelie
dinastie fu quasi sempre operato, in tutti i tempi e presso tutti i popoli, per civili discordie e per violenze ; e sempre parton neg i
oftesi, odi implacabili e lunghi. I re poi della dinastia xv. regnarono dugento e cinquant’anni. Dato pertanto un numero approssi-
 ^ • __ j'- . • ?  ' a. .   • .—f i vi iwTtA nr»mi rlrAllo rf,n\rnla fli AHvilncs. nlt.TO Tinchl fin. ASCTl VCTSl
part i. pp. 152, 153.) _ _ ,,
3 “ Au lieu de lire ce monument horizontalement de droite h. gauche, comme M. Champollion I’a fait, il ne nous parait done n
ment douteux que ses lignes doivent se suivre perpendiculairement, et aussi de droite a gauche; e’est-a-dire, par colonnes de e
lignes.” (Exavien Critique, p. 173.) M. Klaproth adds, “ Mon intention n’est pas de donner ici une plus ample explication du monu¬
ment d'Abydos, mais je crois que Vexamen le plus leger suffit pour demontrer que M. Champollion s'est completement trompe sur la cltre -
tion dans laquelle ces lignes doivent etre lues." (P. 174.) This is a great deal too tranchant, especially considering that it is not accomp -
nied with a single example of the method of reading proposed, which, in fact, will on trial be found to be an entire delusion.
* This celebrated Egyptian priest, who was a native of Sebennytus, flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, ^you
years before our era. He discharged the functions of sacrificer, and keeper of the sacred animals, in the temple of Heliopolis, w i
HIEROGLYPHICS.
355
3l. been verified in almost every particular. But there are
lion c. several weighty considerations, which render it impossible
^ ^ for us to acquiesce implicitly in these conclusions.
And, first of all, the Table of Abydos differs in many
most essential particulars from the royal Canon of Ma-
netho. In the eighteenth dynasty, for instance, Manetho
has three queens, whilst the Table of Abydos has not one ;x
and other discrepancies of equal magnitude might easily be
pointed out. But our objections strike deeper, and apply
much more to principles than to details. The Table of Aby¬
dos, with which M. Champollion began his defence of the
chronology of Manetho, is the foundation upon which his
disciples and followers, including Rosellini, still in a great
measure build. We do not object to Manetho, that if his
chronology be right, that of Herodotus, Diodorus, and
Eratosthenes must be wrong. Neither would we reject
it because, if all his dynasties existed, and if he were ac¬
curate in every point, as M. Champollion contended, we
might give the chronology of Moses to the winds. Truth
is our first object; and if it had been proved to be on the
side of the high priest of Phtha, we should not have hesi¬
tated a moment to join his standard. But the inconsisten¬
cies, not to say contradictions, of which this high priest
has been guilty, and the improbable, nay incredible, stories
which he relates, render his honesty questionable, and ac¬
cuse his judgment of positive imbecility. Manetho, how¬
ever, has had his supporters amongst chronologers. If
the system of collateral dynasties, so ingeniously and at
the same time so erroneously imagined by Marsham,
should be revived, the assistance of Manetho might again
be required. Even Freret, whilst he contended against
Newton, where Newton was not in his strength, did not
disdain to invoke that assistance. It is not the less true,
that the learned in general have condemned the chro¬
nology of Manetho as erroneous and untenable. But in
M. Champollion’s speculations we have all at once a new
defence set up for the high priest of Phtha. By the re¬
sults of a double discovery, that of the long-lost key of
the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the disinterment of a
new monument containing a catalogue of the Egyptian
kings, predecessors of Ramses III. the royal Canon has
been replaced within the pale of history, and Manetho
proved to have been accurate in all his statements.
But this assertion, though very confidently made, has
not served to overcome our incredulity. Our objections
to Manetho’s chronology are numerous. It would be no¬
thing to us if M. Champollion had found the Hermetic
books from which Manetho affirmed that he had made
his extracts. We do not deny that the latter copied docu¬
ments which existed in his time, and which the zeal and
success of future inquirers may, perhaps, prove to exist at
present. We allow that he quoted from the records of the
priests; but we dispute the authenticity of those records.
We hesitate not to believe Herodotus when he tells us
that the priests of Egypt communicated to him their ar- Champol-
chives. We doubt not the word of this honest, though hon, &e.
somewhat credulous historian, when he says that the
wooden images of three hundred and forty-one pontiffs,
whp had succeeded each other, from father to son, had
been exhibited to him by the priests. We only contend
that the archives were forgeries, and that the images,
like some other images, were the fabrications of fraud
and imposture. Three hundred and forty-one descents,
in unbroken succession, would be nearly as great a mi¬
racle as any of those which the legislator of the Jews, in
preparing the deliverance of his countrymen, performed
in Egypt; and, even if this difficulty were overcome, all
chronology would be disturbed by an hypothesis which,
taking the ordinary average of human life, and allowing
thirty-three years for a generation, involves a period of
rather more than eleven thousand years. Nor is this all.
It would seem that, in every separate district of Egypt,
the priests had distinct and totally different records. How
shall we account otherwise for the very different state¬
ments of Herodotus, of Manetho, of Eratosthenes, of the
author of the Old Chronicle, and of Diodorus Siculus ?
The Greeks were clearly made the dupes of these falsified
archives, and now the moderns are to be duped by them
in their turn. But if the archives of the Egyptians plain¬
ly and positively contradict each other, as it is manifest
from the testimony of the Greeks that they do ; if the in¬
ternal evidence of these records show that one is not
more worthy of belief than another, as Sir William Drum¬
mond has most conclusively proved in the second volume
of his Origines ; to what purpose, unless it be to gratify
curiosity, can they be reproduced at the present time ?
It would be no answer to this that M. Champollion had
found the very records themselves which Manetho co¬
pied, and in wdiich a lamb is said to have spoken in the
time of Busiris; for we should still contend that these
records, like those shown to Herodotus, and those ex¬
plained to Diodorus Siculus, were mere fabrications forged
by the priests of Egypt.
' But whilst we distrust the authority of Manetho as
founded on documents unworthy of credit, and contend
that the coincidences discovered in the Table of Abydos
cannot make that authority either better or worse than it
was before, we are at the same time prepared to admit
that M. Champollion has done much to prepare the way
for a more extensive acquaintance with the monumental
records of ancient Egypt. I hat he has pushed his con¬
clusions a great deal too far, is undeniable ; that when he
adopted new opinions he seldom or never took the trouble
to retract his old ones, or explain why he had abandoned
them, is certain ; that, in his interpretations, a sign some¬
times represented one letter, sometimes another, has been
indisputably established by M. Klaproth ; and that too
much still rests on his unsupported authority, is unfortu-
he officiated as high priest of Phtha. Of his history of Egypt, which was written it
Klaproth seems to think that he has given the true names of the Egyptian monarchs, and that the “f'on „e S d“c pS donter,”
ed from the monuments should generally be conformable to the catalogue given i, i cotnme M Champollion le dit, par
says he, “ qu’il ne nous ait conserve les veritables noms tp^gypte3,'qu’on^iarvlendjait^^nctraire'des^inoinimensl it
simple hvpothese, des noms en partie vulgaires. Toute sene des rois gyi , j j rismie de naraitre coniecturale a
I’aide de ^alphabet phonetique, L. etre generalemen. conorme * «^ue
la critique. Les decisions arbitrages ne sent pas des preuves en matiere i -i , y standard in regard to what
Critic pp. 171, 172.) This must not be mistaken. ..f“S be SL to everv ob"ctn whiSan £ com,
was believed or represented by the priests; in other respects, his statements m , ' J
petently urged against the records from which he copied, or the authorities upon w m. ' .007 addressed to the au-
1 “ Allowing to M. Champollion,” says Sir William Drummond, in a letter dated Naples, 27th Apri ^ pressed^tot^
thor of this article, “ that he reads and comprehends the hieroglyplntal monume testimony in favour of Manetho. I
as he does the Moniteur, or the Gazette de Paris, I should still hesitate befo^ . accurate cony of the Table of Abydos,
have not seen his book on the chronology of Egypt; but I have had in my p rh iij ,/ jm;rers> qqiat gentleman pointed out
and I have examined it with the assistance of one of the most devoted d M. Champolhon s admirers.^ ^hat genue^ M
to me several names, which, he said, were those of kings of the eighteen y y . 1 Eusebius be right, or whether all
Champollion has since discovered them, and can tell us whether Josephus, or Julius Afncanus, or Eusebius, be ngnt,
three are wrong.” We suspect M. Champollion never made such a discovery.
356
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Champol- nately beyond dispute. Considered in one point of view, he
lion, &c. was little better than a brilliant empiric. Instead of cau-
tiously working out his conclusions from fixed and settled
premises, he dashed off conjectures which sometimes
dazzled by their ingenuity, and at other times overcame
all objections by their extreme felicity, but which, upon
many occasions, were extravagant and empirical in the
highest degree. In a subject beset with difficulties of the
most formidable kind, he refused to admit that to him
any obstacles were insuperable. Signs at one moment
assumed a phonetic, at another a symbolic or ideographic
power, as the occasion seemed to require, at the fiat of
this hieroglyphical conjuror ; when he happened not to
find a Coptic word suited to his purpose, he scrupled not
to invent one ; and, with the strongest adverse facts star¬
ing him in the face, he persisted to the last in asserting
the almost unlimited applicability of his alphabet. On
several occasions, indeed, he acted as if he wished it to
be believed that he read and comprehended hieroglyphi¬
cal inscriptions, and even enchorial texts, with as much
facility and,accuracy as he did the Moniteur or the Ga¬
zette de Paris. Of this he gave a striking but most unfor¬
tunate exemplification in the affair of the papyrus in the
collection of M. Sallier at Aix ; an affair which, very soon
after its occurrence, was placed in its true light before
the public by the author of this article, in a journal which
he then conducted. M. Champollion remained two days
at Aix;1 but it was not until the evening of the second
day that a packet of papyri was placed in his hands. No
matter for this ; time and labour, which are so necessary
to other men, the intuitive penetration of M. Champollion
enabled him to dispense withal. In a single evening he
ascertained the contents of all these manuscripts, and de¬
cided off-hand that the third, of which the first pages
were wanting, was “ a real historical treasure,” contain¬
ing the praises and exploits of Rameses the Great, or
Sesostris, in the form of a kind of dithyrambic dialogue
between the gods and the king. He also read, or ra¬
ther pretended to read, the names of fifteen conquered
nations, amongst which were mentioned the lonians
(louni or lavani), the Lycians (Louka or Louki), and
also the Ethiopians and Arabs ; and he further informed us
that the manuscript spoke of the chiefs of these nations,
“ led into captivity, and the tributes imposed upon their
countries.” All this was the work of one evening; all this,
if M. Champollion may be in aught believed, was deci¬
phered from a manuscript papyrus written in a character
the signs of which are but imperfectly ascertained, in a
language of which it is only known that the Coptic, in its
various forms or dialects, bears to it nearly the same rela¬
tion as the Italian or Spanish does to the Latin, or the mo¬
dern to the ancient Greek.2 Empirical pretension like this
was surely more than sufficient to alarm the most credu¬
lous believer, and to excite suspicion and distrust in re¬
gard to all that he had actually accomplished.
In contradistinction to all this haste and empiricism, we
shall here introduce the deliberately-expressed opinion of
a sober and patient inquirer, formed after twelve years’
laborious practice in the application of the phonetic sys¬
tem. “ With regard to the translation of hieroglyphics,”
says Mr Wilkinson, “ M. Champollion must allow, no
one is yet sufficiently advanced in the language of ancient
Egypt to enable him literally to translate an inscription Champol.
of any length, or moderately complicated, though a gene- Hon, 4C.'
ral meaning may frequently be obtained. Time will no
doubt do more, and we may hope to see this language in¬
terpreted with the same facility as many with which we
have long been acquainted. But the steps must be slow
and cautious; and the only mode of convincing those
who still adhere to a contrary opinion, is to trust little to
conjecture, or at least to state an uncertainty, whenever
it exists; to admit and correct errors when discovered;
and to settle a fixed rather than a temporary interpreta¬
tion to the groups which will answer to their meaning
whenever they occur.”3 These are the words of truth
and soberness, and, we may also add, of honesty.
Much of this extravagance and folly, however, is to be
attributed to M. Champollion’s unlimited confidence in
his alphabet, enchorial as well as hieroglyphical, and his
consequent adoption of the principle that the Egyptian
system of writing hitherto regarded as almost wholly con¬
sisting of symbols or emblems of ideas, was, on the con¬
trary, composed of signs, a large proportion of which ex¬
pressed merely the sounds of words in the spoken lan¬
guage of ancient Egypt. The consequence was, that he
disregarded the tentative or experimental method of in¬
vestigation, to which Dr Young was mainly indebted for
the discoveries which have given such lustre to his name;
believing his alphabet an instrument of general if not uni¬
versal applicability, he shrunk from the labour of the ex¬
haustive process of hypothetical induction, by which the
values of entire groups maybe determined, notwithstand¬
ing their constituent elements remain unknown; and to
this unfortunate misconception, or rather limitation, may
be attributed all the inconsistencies into which he was
betrayed in endeavouring, by means of his alphabet, to
interpret signs which are not alphabetical. It was not by
the enchorial alphabet, for example, that Dr Young was
enabled to translate enchorial manuscripts, which, in fact,
are not reducible to any alphabet, except in proper names;
it was the words or groups themselves which he translat¬
ed, with now and then only a hint from a letter or two. In
regard to the sacred characters, M. Champollion has no
doubt rendered it highly probable that the phonetic signs
were much more extensively employed than Dr Young
had at first imagined; but, on the other hand, he pushed
his system to an extravagant length, and neglected that
method of investigation so successfully exemplified by Dr
Young, which, when systematically applied, must ulti¬
mately lead to certain results, because it is founded on the
principle of a constant correction of errors and accumu¬
lation of evidence.
Even in deciphering proper names, which are incontes¬
tably written phonetically, the difficulty experienced is
great, and the risk of error often incalculable. This aris¬
es from the capricious and arbitrary manner in which they
are written; sometimes from the left to the right, at other
times from the right to the left, most frequently up and
down ; whilst the elements of one word are often thrown
together pell-mell, in such a way that unless the sound of
the word were somehow known beforehand, it would be
absolutely impossible to dispose or arrange the characters
representing it in correct order; and where this previous
knowledge is wanting, the chance of error must be very
1 Lettres writes d'Egypts et de Nubie, en 1828 et 1829, p. 21. “ Cette trouvaille est immense,” says he, “ etce manuscrit hiera
tique (the third) porte sa date a la derniere page. II a etd dcrit, dit le texte, Van ix. au mois de Paoni, du regne de Ramses-le-
Grand.”
2 No sooner did M. Champollion arrive in Egypt than he gave a fresh proof of his unhesitating decision. At eight o’clock in the
evening he had an interview with the viceroy, who requested a translation of the inscription on the obelisks of Alexandria, which
have three columns of characters on each face. The Frenchman at once undertook to gratify the viceroy’s curiosity, and the whole,
translated into Turkish, was delivered to him next morning.
8 Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, p. 57-
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Our il- great, and the probability will therefore be, either that a
lion, c. barbarous word will be involuntarily formed, or that one
^ J very different from that which is actually formed will be
evolved. This observation applies rigorously to all the
words of the Egyptian language, and even extends to such
proper names of gods and kings as are not derived from
the Greek or Latin, and the exact forms of which have
not been transmitted to us by the ancient authors. Let
us suppose, for example, that, by means of the phonetic
alphabet, the following groups of literal characters are re¬
cognised in an inscription:
A person skilled in the interpretation of hieroglyphics
would readily discover that No. 1 is the name of Cleopa¬
tra, which, in fact, is so written in a ring or cartouche con¬
tained in an inscription of Philae, published by Mr Salt;
and that No. 2 is the name of Toutmosis, which is other¬
wise well known. But if this were not so, and if we were
devoid of all extrinsic information or assistance, the doc¬
trine of probabilities has no formula to exhaust the num¬
ber of combinations amongst which an interpreter might
fluctuate before discovering the true collocation ; and,
what is more, he could never be absolutely certain that
he had discovered it at all.
Another and still more formidable obstacle to be sur¬
mounted, is the incomplete and imperfect manner in which
the Coptic represents the ancient Egyptian, notwithstand¬
ing it may, in one sense (as we have already shown), be
considered as a precious remnant of that language. Hence,
supposing that the forms and values of the letters were
perfectly determined, that their arrangement was well
understood, that, in a word, we could spell syllables and
distinguish words with as much certainty and precision
as in the improved alphabets of the West, there would
yet always remain one difficulty, over which genius it¬
self could not triumph, namely, to discover the signifi¬
cation of the words, when it is not known by tradition
or otherwise. Some of the misjudging admirers of M.
Champollion have talked of his labours in deciphering
the hieroglyphical inscriptions, as if he had been accus¬
tomed to read the most ancient legends with the greatest
facility and certainty; and, from a number of circum¬
stances, it is but too obvious that he himself evinced no
disposition whatever to disturb this belief in the omnisci¬
ence of his genius for interpretation. But the interests
357
of truth require that so gross a delusion should be dissi- Champol-
pated; and this cannot be better accomplished than by lion, &c.
stating, as M. Klaproth has done, the real difficulties of
the problem which he undertook to resolve, and tracing
a clear line of demarcation between the province of ra¬
tional inquiry, and the fantastical domain of archaeologi¬
cal empiricism.1
In fact, the discoveries of M. Champollion apply only
to a limited number of the hieroglyphical signs; that is,
to proper names, and some other words incapable of sym¬
bolization, which are expressed by means of an alphabet
in some measure resembling that of the Semitic langua¬
ges, in which the consonants of words are written some¬
times with only part of the vowels, and frequently with¬
out any vowel whatever. But in deciphering these names
and epithets M. Champollion had an excellent guide in
the lists supplied by the tables contained.in the Egyptian
Dynasties of Manetho and other ancient authors; he
knew beforehand what he had to seek for, and he was not
a person to be long in finding the precise thing which he
wanted. But, notwithstanding this, he is by no means at
one with himself as to the extent of his discovery. In
the introduction to his Precis, he affirms “ that his hiero¬
glyphic alphabet applies to the royal hieroglyphic legends
of every epoch, that the discovery of the phonetic alpha¬
bet is the true key to the whole hieroglyphic system, and
that at all epochs the ancient Egyptians employed it to
represent alphabetically the sounds of their spoken lan¬
guage.” (P. 11.) But at the commencement of the eighth
chapter of the work, he contradicts this dogma in the
most explicit manner. “ I admit,” says he, “ that we do
not yet know with any degree of certainty whether the
inscriptions and hieroglyphic texts, in which are found
Egyptian words expressed phonetically, belong to the
tiroes of the Pharaohs {remontent aux temps des Pharaons),
kings of the Egyptian race ; or only to the Greek period,
as the inscription of Rosetta, the obelisk of Philae, and
the temples of Ombos and Edfou; or merely to the Ro¬
man period, as the obelisks of Albani, Borgia, Pamphilius,
Barberini, that of Benevento, part of the edifices of Phi¬
lae, and the temples of Esneh and Denderah.” With re¬
spect to the alleged universality of the phonetic mode
of writing “ at all epochs,” it is therefore evident, first,
that M. Champollion flatly contradicts his own fundamen¬
tal proposition; secondly, that this proposition being at
variance with all that the ancient authors, particularly
Clemens Alexandrinus, have stated respecting the dif-
1 “ L’intelligence que nous avons des monumens littdraires des Grecs et des Romains est venue jusqu’a nous par une tradition non
interrompue ; nous possddons la plus grande partie des livres de ces peuples avec une suite d’explications et de commentaires desti¬
nes a en dissiper les obscurites, et pourtant a I’epoque de la renaissance des lettres, que d’immenses travaux n’a-t-il pas fallu faire ?
combien d’hommes patiens et laborieux ont use leur vie pour achever d’eclaircir ce que les anciens textes presentaient k chaque
pas d’embarrassant, d’obscur ou d’inintelligible pour les modernes ? Quand une inscription grecque se presente a nous pour la pre¬
miere fois, quelle habitude ne faut-il pas pour la lire; la restituer, en expliquer le contenu, developper les circonstances auxquelles
elle se rapporte ? La langue que de profonds philologues ont si bien approfondie est ici la moindre difficult^, mais les choses, les
fails, les particularitds de date ou de loealite, les institutions, les litres des magistrals, les usages, les prdjuges, les opinions religieuses;
tout enfin n’exige-t-il pas de la part de nos savans une rare application et une sagacite merveilleuse ? Cependant que de travaux
prdparatoires n’a-t-on pas fails pour diminuer leur peine ? que de recherches, de tables, de dictionnaires n’a-t-on pas accumulds de-
puis trois siecles pour eclairer tout ce qui fait partie du domaine de I’archdologie ? En Egypte, au contraire, une yaste solution de
continuite, un abime immense sdpare les dvenemens d’autrefois de la critique des terns modernes. Toute la litterature, a disparu
avec la religion, la philosophic, et le systhne entier de la civilisation; les livres, s'il y en eut jamais, ont etc completement aneantis ; les
papyrus, que quelques personnes pen iclairees prennent pour des livres, n'offrent qu'une perpeluelle repetition des mimes formules tou-
jours relatives au mime sujet, la mart et ses consequences. Les inscriptions hieroglyphiques sont les seuls livres que nous aient Id-
gues les Pharaons; mais Ik se prdsente a I’instant cette double difficult^, insoluble si Pon ne parvient a la diviner; tout est^ in-
connu dans ces inscriptions la langue et les fails, Vccriture et le fond des choses. On arriverait a I’intelligence du contenu si 1'on avail a sa
disposition I’explication des mots, et vice versa on reconnaitrait aisement la valeur des signes si 1’on savait d’avance le sens qu’ils re-
presentent. Mais pour ope'rer ce dernier prodige, il faudrait recreer a-la-fois PEgypte des Pharaons avec son systeme idolatrique,
les noms des dieux et de toutes les choses sacrees, les details du culte et toute la serie des opinions philosophiques, la vie civile avec
ses innombrables particularites, et, par-dessus tout cela, la prononciation mate'rielle de tous les mots qui s’y appliquaient, leur syno¬
nymic et leurs nuances, et la valeur speciale d’une foule depressions, de figures, de mdtaphores, d’emblemes, d’attributs, que Pusage
chez une nation vivante introduit, renouvelle et modifie sans cesse. Ce n’est pas la critique humaine, e'est 1'intuition de la divinite
qui pourrait opdrer un tel miracle ; et 1’on voudrait qu’un savant, de quelques facultds qu’on le supposat doue', eut fait seul, en peu
d’anndes, ce que la raison et le bon sens demontrent impossible a des generationes littdraires qui se succederaient pendant des
siecles.”
358 HIEROGLYPHICS.
Chainpol- ferent kinds of Egyptian writing, it cannot be established
lion, &c. by their authority; and, thirdly, that M. Champollion
has not only not demonstrated its truth, but that, in the
actual state of our knowledge, such demonstration appears
to be impossible.1
We could have wished to follow up these observations
by stating concisely the results of the searching analysis
by means of which M. Klaproth has reduced to their real
dimensions the discoveries of M. Champollion. But after
what has already been said, we must content ourselves
with stating generally, that different and often incongru¬
ous values are arbitrarily assigned by him to the same cha¬
racter, without any previous notice or explanation; that
the image of an eye, for instance, which was originally set
down as a phonetic sign of s, has been successively em¬
ployed to represent a, e, and o; that, in numerous other
instances, changes still more arbitrary have been made;
that we are left in equal ignorance of the process by
which the original values were pretended to have been
ascertained, and of the reasons which induced the author
to abandon them; that he attributes values to signs
which are not contained in his alphabet, and of which no
account or explanation is given anywhere else; that he
is frequently betrayed into incongruities and inconsisten¬
cies which impeach his judgment, and would even war¬
rant a suspicion of bad faith; that in the interpretation of
ideographical characters or symbols, he adopted conjec¬
tures and fancies of his own, which, however ingenious,
are wholly unsupported by evidence, or even by probabi¬
lity ; that, for instance, the symbolical group which, as far
as page 265 of his second edition, is rendered “ the god¬
dess Sate,” becomes suddenly converted into Tme, and
this name continues to the end of the work, though, in
the plates, the goddess appears under the name of Sme ;
that changes of a similar description occur in many other
words, and almost invariably without any previous inti¬
mation ; and, lastly, that not a few of his pretended dis¬
coveries are mere conjectures and imaginations, some¬
times exceedingly ingenious, seldom altogether extrava¬
gant, but, in as far as evidence is concerned, not more
rational nor better founded than the cabbalistical reveries
of Kircher or the fanciful vagaries of Palin. For the de¬
tails and demonstrations of these anomalies, however, we
must refer to the Examen Critique itself, one of the most
masterly works of criticism that has yet appeared on the
subject of which it treats, and which is well deserving of
the most attentive perusal.
It now only remains, under this head, to notice the French
and Tuscan expeditions to Egypt; the former undertaken
at the urgent solicitation of M. Champollion, who, as early
as the month of April 1827, had digested the plan of
such an enterprise, and both having for their common
object a re-examination of the monuments, as well as a
more extended application of that method of interpre¬
tation which had originally been divined in this country,
but which was subsequently enlarged and improved in
France. The discovery of the phonetic alphabet, gene¬
rally regarded on the Continent as the basis of the graphic
system of Egypt, promised to the historical sciences an
ample harvest of new facts, the more interesting and im- Champoi.
portant, as these might perhaps fill up with some degree of lion, L
certainty the large blanks in the first pages of human an-
nals. But, to answer this expectation, it became indispen¬
sable that the new lights which had been acquired on the
subject of hieroglyphical writing should be applied to the
innumerable inscriptions engraved on all the monuments,
public and private, of Egypt and Nubia ; and it was with
this special object that the governments of France and
Tuscany appointed each a commission, the former directed
by M. Champollion, and the latter by Signor Rosellini,
professor of history and antiquities in the university of
Pisa. With M. Champollion were associated A. Bibent,
architect, and Nestor FHote, Salvador Cherubini, Alex¬
ander Duchesne, Berlin the younger, and Lehoux, as
draughtsmen; with Professor Rosellini, Gaetano Rosel¬
lini, architect, Dr Ricci, Giuseppe Angelelli, and Raddi,
professor of natural history, with an assistant. M. Cham¬
pollion set out from Paris on the 16th of July 1828,
reached Toulon on the 24th, and set sail for Egypt on the
31st of that month, accompanied by the members of the
Italian commission. During the remainder of 1828, and
the whole of 1829, the members of both commissions were
unremittingly occupied in exploring the antiquities scat¬
tered along the valley of the Nile, from the Mediterra¬
nean as far as the second cataract, and in accumulating
those treasures which, now that Champollion is no more,
Signor Rosellini is giving to the world in his splendid
work, entitled I Monumenti delV Egitto et della Nubia, of
which a considerable portion has already (1835) ap¬
peared, accompanied with engravings equally remarkable
for their accuracy and beauty.
The indefatigable travellers, never once losing sight of the
determinate object of their enterprise, and exploring, one
by one, the monuments still extant on both banks of the
river, or on the different points of the valley of the Nile,
transferred to their portfolios all kinds of positive docu¬
ments furnished by each ruin. Every bas-relief and every
inscription, whether establishing an historical fact, a point
of religious belief, or a usage of ordinary life, was de¬
signed or copied with the most scrupulous care; and in
the work of Signor Rosellini these bas-reliefs have been
reproduced by faithful designs, with all the details and
colours exhibited by the originals, as often as this ap¬
peared necessary either to illustrate the subject, or to
convey a just idea of the compositions of art which adorn
the monumental remains of ancient Egypt. The result has
been an accumulation of not less than fifteen hundred de¬
signs, together with a particular description, drawn out on
the spot, of every monument in Egypt and in Nubia, con¬
taining the subject of each bas-relief, the detail of the de¬
corations, which are always significant, and copies of the
accompanying inscriptions, whenever the texts presented
any subject of historical interest.
In a climate like that of Egypt, the fatigue incident to
such an undertaking must have been trying even to the
most robust constitutions; and it is not to be wondered
therefore that some of the travellers should have sunk
under it.; M. Champollion died soon after his return to
1 It may be proper to state here a fact, which seems to be decisive of the question. The phonetic alphabet consists of about a hun¬
dred and thirty-four characters, more than the half of which are purely conjectural. But supposing the whole to have been complete¬
ly ascertained, the absolute number of distinct hieroglyphics on the monuments is, according to Champollion’s computation, 864, whilst
Zoega makes it 958 ; and if from the former we deduct 134, there will remain 730 signs, the greater part of which, it is certain,
are not employed phonetically, and their real values as yet altogether unknown. With this fact before him, it is not easy to conceive
how M. Champollion could venture to affirm that his phonetic alphabet applied to the royal hieroglyphical legends of all periods;
that it was the true key to the whole hieroglyphical system ; and that the ancient Egyptians employed it, at all epochs, to represent
alphabetically the sounds of their spoken language.
- M. Bibent, the architect, was obliged, from bad health, to take leave of his associates amidst the ruins of Memphis, and to return
to F ranee, where he soon afterwards died. Professor Raddi died at Rhodes, when on his way back to Europe. The assistant of the
latter had sailed for Leghorn some months before, but sunk during the voyage under the effects of the fatigue and labour to which
he had been exposed. Lastly, Dr Ricci had the left side of his body paralysed in consequence of the bite of a scorpion at Thebes.
HIEROGLYPHICS. 359
n France, though not until he had prepared a Hieroglyphic
. Grammar, which will doubtless contain the ultimate con-
J elusions established by himself and his learned associates ;
and it is to Signor Rosellini that we must now look for
the exposition and illustration of all that was collected
during the time that the commissions were occupied in
exploring, designing, and describing the monuments of
Egypt and of Nubia. Nor, judging from the portion which
has already appeared, could the work of digesting and
arranging the materials thus accumulated have fallen in¬
to abler or more competent bands. The designs are in
every view worthy of the subject, and will not suffer much
by a comparison with those contained in the French na¬
tional work, in point of execution, whilst in all other re¬
spects they are greatly superior. As to the literary part
of his undertaking, it is composed in a spirit of perfect
candour and liberality, evincing not only the acquirements,
but also the accuracy, of an accomplished scholar, and
uniting to great erudition the utmost anxiety to ren¬
der justice towards all his colleagues in this branch of
inquiry. With regard to M. Champollion’s Lettres ecrites
d’Egypte et de Nubie en 1828 et 1829, it would have been
better for his fame perhaps had these hasty productions
never appeared. Signor Rosellini attributes the publica¬
tion and reprint of the Lettres to a speculating booksel¬
ler in Paris; and states, what is no doubt the truth, that
M. Champollion, if he had lived, would have altered and
retracted much that is contained in them. But it is ne¬
vertheless obvious that they were originally intended for
publication ; they were evidently written for effect, to keep
up the excitement in favour of his project; in short, they
were calculated for the meridian of Paris.
VIII. SYSTEM OF SPOHN AND SEYFARTH.
The conflicting results at which both ancient and mo¬
dern writers had arrived respecting the contents of the
Egyptian texts, as well as the kind and description of
characters in which these had been expressed, were well
calculated to stagger an ordinary reader, and to seduce
him into complete scepticism as to the possibility of the
hieroglyphical inscriptions being ever deciphered and in¬
terpreted. According to Horus Apollo, these mysterious
writings contained obscure indications of things sacred
and profane ; according to Clemens and Plutarch, moral
sentences ; according to Hermapion, as quoted by Ammi-
anus Marcellinus, the praises of kings; according to Kir-
cher, cabbalistic, metaphysical, and theosophistical dog¬
mas ; according to Pluche, matter connected with mete¬
orology, astronomy, and the division of time; according
to Denon, the rules of husbandry; and, according to the
author of the work Tie VEtude des Hieroglyphes, a version
of the psalms of David. Prior to the researches of Dr
Young, nothing deserving the name of investigation had
been attempted, and one bold or fanciful conjecture was
merely displaced by another perhaps still more extrava¬
gant. It was therefore high time that the subject should
be either abandoned as hopeless, or that conjecture and
hypothesis should give place to rational inquiry conduct¬
ed on ascertained or demonstrable principles. Dr Young
felt this, and, starting from a point entirely new, succeed¬
ed, by means of collocation, comparison, and tentative or
experimental investigation, in fixing the values of certain Spohnian
characters and groups, and, generally, in tracing out the System,
line or direction which inquiry ought to pursue. M. Cham-
pollion followed close in his footsteps, and, enlightened
even by the errors of his predecessor, unfolded a method
of interpretation, the soundness of which, at least within
certain limits, has been established by the truth of the re¬
sults it has evolved.
But not long after these interesting discoveries had been
made known to the world, a system was imagined in Ger¬
many which, as far as we are able to comprehend it, seems
to proceed on assumptions at once ingeniously original and
demonstrably unsound. This system was first obscurely
revealed in the work of Spohn De Lingua et Litteratura
Veteris Egypti, and afterwards more fully expounded in
the splendid work of Professor Seyfarth, entitled Rudi-
menta Hieroglyphices,1 which appears to have been favour¬
ably received by his countrymen. Spohn died young, with¬
out completing his investigations or maturing his system ;
but Seyfarth undertook to do both, and, if we may credit
a writer in the Leipsic Journal, he has succeeded so well
that, besides establishing the truth of his own method of in¬
terpretation, he has demonstrated the utter fallacy of the
pretended discoveries of Dr Young and M. Champollion,
The investigations begun in England, and so successfully
prosecuted in France, were by no means calculated to find
favour with the Germans, who seem to have a natural dis¬
taste for what may be acquired without labour or under¬
stood without effort; and hence the very simplicity of the
principles upon which these inquiries were conducted,
served to confirm their habitual prejudices, and to fortify
their understandings against the conviction naturally aris¬
ing from the results actually obtained. Dr Young s re¬
searches had no flavour of mystery about them ; and those
of M. Champollion were communicated in language sin¬
gularly remarkable for the most transparent perspicuity.
The lovers of the profound, therefore, saw to the bottom
at once, and because they did so, they concluded that the
waters were shallow. The question at issue, however,
is not so much one of erudition as of evidence, of which
the German scholars and orientalists are not the only
competent judges ; and we think we shall be able to show
that if Young, Champollion, and others who have followed
in their footsteps, have done but little, Spohn, Seyfarth,
and their disciples, have literally done nothing at all.
M. Seyfarth modestly professes himself to be a mere ex¬
pounder of the doctrines of Spohn, and candidly admits his
obligations to the work of that distinguished scholar, not
only for the theory proposed, but for the greater part of
the materials by which it is illustrated. “ Quod sibi vide-
tur hie libellus rationem tradere, qua hieroglyphica scripta
legenda sint; id cujus nomine adscribi debeat, tacere,
maxime impium et invidiosum esset. Scilicet Spohnius,
vir immortalis meriti, omnia prceparavit, quie ducunt ad
intelligentiam etiam hieroglyphicorum. Quodsi concessum
ei fuisset, pergere in vita, quam ingressus erat, plura
yEgyptiomm scripta, inspicere, perlegere, inter se compa-
rare, quod mihi contigit, non potuisset, sed debuisset leges
etiam invenire, quibus hieroglyphica scriptura constat.
Qua? quum ita sint, velim hce schedce accipiuntur, tamquam
placita Spohnii, vel tamquam fructus, qui ex segete ejus
prodierunt, quem instauratorem litterarum iEgyptiarum
veneramur.”2 The learned professor deserves credit for
1 Gustavi Seyfarthi Prof. Lips. Rudimenta Hieroglyphices. Accedunt Explicationes Speciminum Ilieioglyphicorum, Glossarium,
atque Alphabeta; cum xxxvi. tabulis lithographicis. Lipsise, cmmcccxxv. in 4to. , •
2 Rudimenta Hierogl. Introduct. § 2. In a note to the following section the author says, “ Vovrotnt'gras inuriptioncs denwticasjii-
mus (Spohnius) interpretatus est.” But of this bold assertion no proof whatever is produced ; and even if Spohn had interpreted, m
his own way, entire demotic inscriptions, his system is so groundless and untenable, not to say visionary, that a ques “ ^^
could not possibly be raised between him and Dr Young. The tentative method o interpretation so successfully exemplified by the
latter has nothing in common with the imaginative transcendentalism of Spohn, and the methodical absurdity o ey a
HIEROGLYPHICS.
360
Spohnian the manly candour of this avowal, as well as for the me-
System. thodical distinctness with which he has stated the princi-
'***-\~*-/ pies and doctrines of his master ; and all those who take
any interest in Egyptian literature can scarcely fail to be
pleased with the very beautiful lithographic tables which
adorn his Hudimenta Hieroglyphices. But here, unfor¬
tunately, our commendation must stop. The theory in¬
vented by Spohn and expounded by Seyfarth appears to
us to proceed upon an erroneous assumption, to involve in
its explication glaring absurdities, and to be incapable of
ever leading to any true results.
The fundamental principles of the Spohnian theory are,
first, that the hieroglyphical language is a sacred dialect i1
and, secondly, that the hieroglyphical characters are not
letters, but only symbols of letters.2
The first of these propositions, which is professedly found¬
ed on a statement of Manetho, quoted by Syncellus, is thus
explained by Professor Seyfarth: “ E verbo dialecti, quo
linguam hieroglyphicam veteres insigniverunt, satis clarum
est, hanc neque convenisse cum vulgari, neque diversam
plane fuisse a Coptica. Differt autem dialectus sacra a
Coptica, partim dementis seu verbis, partim legibus gram~
maticis. Inter dialectum autem sacram et profanam vete-
rem ^Egypti omnia intersunt, quibus dijfert recentior ora-
tio a veteri, nationis cujusque magis subinde artium et lit-
terarum humanitate eruditae.” Now, according to this de¬
finition, the language of Chaucer should be denominated
the “ sacred dialect” of English, in contradistinction to the
“ profane” dialect by which it ha's, in the progress of im¬
provement, been displaced; and a similar title of honour
should be conferred on the antiquated phraseology of our
venerable countryman Gawin Douglas. But how, we would
ask, are we to detect the existence of this “ sacred dialect,”
or elder form of the Egyptian ? All that remains of the
ancient language of Egypt is preserved in the Coptic, of
which there are still extant two dialects, the Memphitic and
Sahidic, with a few words belonging to a third, called the
Bashmouric. But of these three dialects the most ancient
is undoubtedly the Bashmouric, of which scarcely a vestige
can now be discovered ; and hence the “ hieroglyphical
language” or “ sacred dialect” of Spohn and of Seyfarth is
a perfect nonentity. Not to dwell upon this, however, we
may observe, that there is no such thing known as a “ hie-
roglyphical language,” the term “ hieroglyphical” being ap¬
plied only to a particular method of writing, and never to
the thing written. The proposition of Seyfarth, therefore,
involves an assumption which is contrary to the fact, and at
the same time amounts nearly to a contradiction in terms.
Secondly, since hieroglyphical inscriptions continued to be
executed as late as the reign of Antoninus,3 if the “ sacred
dialect” or elder form of Egyptian was alone employed in
these texts, it follows that an antiquated dialect still re¬
mained in use, and co-existed with the more modern form
by which it had been displaced. Thirdly, if one dialect
was employed in hieroglyphical writing, it is at least equally
probable that another was used in the hieratic, and a third
in the enchorial. Lastly, Spohn and Seyfarth have equally
misunderstood the statement of Manetho, quoted by Syn¬
cellus, in which the “ sacred dialect,” whatever it may
have been, is expressly distinguished from the “ hierogly¬
phical characters” which had been written in the time of
Thoth, the first Hermes, “ and which were taught after the
transition from the sacred dialect to the Greek language.” Spohnia
So much, then, for the first proposition, in support of which System
no proof of any kind is produced by Professor Seyfarth. W‘N,~'
But the main pillar of the theory is the second proposi¬
tion, namely, that the hieroglyphical characters are not let¬
ters, but symbols of letters. Remove this, and the whole fa¬
bric must at once fall to pieces. A letter is a character or
symbol, representing either an elementary sound, or the
simplest combination of elementary sounds. But what are
we to understand by the symbol of a symbol of a sound ?
The symbol of a sound either represents a particular sound,
or it represents nothing at all. If then a hieroglyphic be
not a letter, but only the symbol of a letter, it follows that
it is the representative of a representative, yet is neither
that which it represents, nor the sign or symbol of the
thing represented, namely, sound; in other words, it is mere¬
ly the shadow of a shade. This fundamental principle or
proposition, therefore, when taken by itself, would seem to
be rather a jew de mots than a statement of an elementary
truth. But Professor Seyfarth labours to make himself in¬
telligible ; and, having narrowly examined his exposition,
we shall endeavour, as distinctly as possible, to state the sub¬
stance of his doctrine, or rather that of his master Spohn.
He admits that in every country, not excepting Egypt,
the first attempts at writing consisted in rude delinea¬
tions of material or physical objects ; that, from the dif¬
ficulty and inconvenience of this practice, men were soon
led to abridge those delineations by putting, per synecdo-
chen, a part for the whole, and by other devices; that as
this pictural tachygraphy was incapable of representing
changes of relation and qualities, as well as the senti¬
ments and passions of animated beings, it soon came to
be enriched with symbols strictly so called, that is, with
arbitrary marks or characters employed to represent those
ideas which had no sensible archetypes in nature; that, in
the progress of time, all traces of connexion between the
sign and the thing signified would be lost, and the charac¬
ters, being applied to the spoken language, would become
the representatives of words, or portions of words, as in the
Chinese ; and, lastly, that from accident, or the fortunate
contrivance of a superior mind, some of these known
characters would at length be appropriated to represent
the elementary sounds of the spoken language, or, in other
words, an alphabet would be invented and introduced.
But, whilst he does not, and indeed cannot, dispute this
gradual progression of the human mind from picture-writ¬
ing to an alphabet, the first and greatest of all inventions,
the finest result of the finest analysis, Professor Seyfarth
at the same time contends that the Egyptians had passed
all these different stages before they began to fabricate
hieroglyphical characters ; that, amongst them, alphabe¬
tical signs, instead of being the eventual offspring of pic¬
ture-writing, through the intervention of kuriological and
tropical writing, were in reality the parent of both these
forms, primary as well as secondary; and that, in Egypt,
after attaining the simplest and last refinement in the art
of writing, they retrograded to the imperfect, obscure,
and cumbrous methods which in every other country dis¬
appeared as soon as an alphabet had been invented.
According to Spohn and Seyfarth, the Egyptians as
well as the Greeks received letters from Phoenicia.4 But,
if we are to give credit to these authorities, the former peo-
1 This notion is founded on a statement of Manetho, quoted by Syncellus, Chronograph, p. 40, Paris, 1652, which is as follows:
lActfiu xptifianrces ix tuv tv r») Xvpahxri yy XiiftivaDi trrnXav, hpu, <pn<ri, 'Siukixr* xeu hfay^atpixm; y^ag/iairi x^a^axTi-^itrpivui vxe rev
Eofttw, xai ieftrunuHiitrav ftira rov xacraxZ.ir/u,i3\i ix rns it/ius ^ia\ixrou h; rnv 'EXXnviSa (fituvnii, x. r. X.
* The real author of this fancy is Cosmas Indicopleustes, a geographical writer of the sixth century, who gravely reports that
Moses learned yguppctra. upoyXuipixa, fiaXXev St trvpfioku y^ccgfiaruM. (Cosmograph. p. 161.)
A leai ned countryman of Professor Seyfarth’s, Dr Sickler, wrote a book to prove that the language concealed under the hiero¬
glyphics is Hebrew, or, at least, a form of speech composed of the different Semitic dialects.
4 “ At demonstrari potest iEgyptios litteras accepisse a Phcenicibus, p. 15. The learned professor, however, has not thought it
HIEROGLYPHICS.
gpo an pie must have made an extraordinary use of this invalua-
Sys “• ble acquisition. Instead of attempting to improve the in-
^ vention, or to apply it directly to the purposes of writing,
which it was so eminently calculated to facilitate, they
did exactly the reverse, and immediately commenced em¬
bellishing, varying, and multiplying these elementary cha¬
racters, as fancy or caprice happened to dictate. “ Li-
cuit cuivis calamo, cuivis cestro, variare hieroglyphica.”
Such is the broad and unqualified statement of M. Sey-
farth ; but how these arbitrary variations were to be ren¬
dered intelligible to any but the scribe, painter, or sculp¬
tor by whom they were executed, or even to him after
the lapse of a considerable interval of time, the learned
professor has not condescended to explain. It would
seem, indeed, that nothing short of inspiration itself could
enable any one to read and understand writing formed and
executed in the manner here described. Yet the three
kinds of Egyptian writing, now perfectly distinguished,
were, it seems, the fortuitous results of this most extra¬
ordinary procedure, first imagined by Spohn, and after¬
wards zealously contended for by Seyfarth.
Clement of Alexandria informs us that those wdio were
educated amongst the Egyptians learned three sorts of
writing; firstly, the epistolographic or demotic ; secondly,
the hieratic; and, lastly, the hieroglyphic.' But Spohn
and Seyfarth take it for granted that the order of instruc¬
tion here indicated is also the order of invention ; and, ac¬
cordingly, they lay it down as a principle that the demo¬
tic is the basis upon which the whole superstructure has
been reared, the original stem which the fancy or caprice
of writers in time covered and adorned with a variety of
branches. In plain terms, their notion is, that the hie¬
ratic has been generated by variations on the epistolo¬
graphic or demotic, and the hieroglyphic by similar or
analogous variations on the hieratic; and they contend
that all these variations are not letters, but only symbols
of letters (<fvy,(3oXa yga/o./Aarwv). Taking M. Seyfarth’s as¬
sumption, therefore, that the original alphabetic charac¬
ters were twenty-five in number, and supposing also with
him, that each of these underwent thirty variations, in
order to constitute the total amount of demotic charac¬
ters, that the demotic underwent an equal number to form
the hieratic, and the hieratic again an equal number to
produce the hieroglyphic; we shall have 25 X 30 X 30
X 30 = 675,000 “ symbols of letters,” or 27,000 varia¬
tions of every one of the twenty-five original alphabetic
characters. This is M. Seyfarth’s own calculation; and
it is inconceivable how it should have failed to convince
him of the utter extravagance and absurdity of his whole
system. No critic, however ingenious or malicious, could
have more effectually exposed it to ridicule than he has him¬
self done. The total number of the Chinese characters,
which are combinations of little more than two hundred
elementary “ keys,” does not much exceed the number
of variations (27,000) here supposed to have been made
upon one original alphabetical character; yet, of all the
languages, living or dead, that of China is the most difficult
361
of acquisition, and to master it fully, so as to be able to Spohnian
write it with tolerable facility, is even to a native the System,
work of half a life-time. But what shall be said of a lan-
guage the graphic system of which must, upon this hypo¬
thesis, have embraced nearly 700,000 distinct characters,
called “ symbols of letters ?”
There are data, however, from which a more direct and
conclusive refutation may be deduced. Bruce, Zoega,
and Champollion have each given approximate computa¬
tions of the absolute number of hieroglyphics. From a
somewhat superficial survey of the temples and other edi¬
fices of Egypt, Bruce reckons only 514; from a careful
examination of the obelisks at Rome, and the monuments
preserved in the museums of Italy, Zoega makes out 958 ;
and, from a painful analysis of all the inscriptions which
have been copied into the French national work Descrip¬
tion de VEgypte, and other publications, M. Champollion
reduces them to 864. By taking a mean of the two last
computations, 911, we shall probably make a pretty close
approximation to the truth. If this, then, be added to the
known heratic and demotic characters, it will be found
that the total number of characters, in the three different
kinds of Egyptian writing, does not exceed, if in truth it
amounts to, 1200. Suppose it, however, 2000, or, if you
will, 20,000, and still M. Seyfarth’s case will not be im¬
proved ; for, even on the last supposition, which is at least
ten times more than the truth, the learned professor will
have to account for 655,000 “ symbols of letters,” of which
no trace can be discovered on the monuments.
Having thus unfolded the general principles of the theory
of Spohn, M. Seyfarth next proceeds to classify the hiero¬
glyphics. And these he divides into emphonic, sympho¬
nic, and aphonic. The emphonic are those which “ suo
ambitu integram litteram hieraticam pluresve describunt,”
and which “ sistuntur pro situ litterarum in iis latentium,
et ratione rerum quas significant.” They are susceptible
of transposition, variation, and abridgment, and may be af¬
fected by defective or superfluous writing, permutation of
vowels or consonants, and by conjunction. The sympho¬
nic are those “ quae nonnisi cum aliis, sive singulis sive plu-
ribus, elementa verborum vel litteras exprimuntthat is,
a sort of enclitic “ symbols,” significative only in combina¬
tion with emphonics. They are of hieratic origin, but oc¬
cur more frequently in the hieroglyphic than in the hiera¬
tic characters ; and they are affected by permutation, po~
sition, order, conjunction, omission, and sejunction. The
aphonic, “diversa suntalitteris, magisque ad picturam quam
scribendi artem referri debentin other words, they repre¬
sent, either directly or metaphorically, not letters, but ideas,
and are accordingly not phonetic, but ideographic symbols.
They are divided into mimetic, “ ipsae rerum imagines;”
tropic, “ quae imagine aliena rerum notiones exprimunt
and allegoric, “ quae alia, quam quae proxime significentur,
innuunt.” And this is all the information which the learn¬
ed professor has vouchsafed to afford us respecting the sys¬
tem which is said to have enabled Spohn to decipher en¬
tire demotic inscriptions, and to achieve other wonders in
necessary to give any demonstration to prove that the Egyptians received letters from the Phoenicians, but has contented himself
with a reference to Zoega (De Origine et Usu Obelise, p. 550), who, unfortunately for him, contends strenuously that the invention of
letters is due, not to the Phoenicians, but to the Egyptians; an opinion which is supported by a great preponderating weight of an¬
cient testimony, and by the concurrence of the most learned men of modern times. (See particularly, 1 lato m Phi e . p. 1 7, an in
Phadr. p. 213; Cicero, Dc Natur. Dear. lib. iii. c. 22; Pliny, lib. vii. c. 56 ; Arnobius, lib. iv. p. 135: Diodorus Siculus, p. 14 ; San-
choniathon apud Euseb. Prepar. Evangel, lib. i. c. 9, p. 31 ; Plutarch, Sympos. lib. ix. 9, 3, p. 736; Jablonski, Pantheon JEgypt. hb. v.
c‘ fb P- 161 et seqq. ; Zoega, De Orig. et Usu Obelise, p. 475.) _ „ . . iI , , . .
fn the appendix to M. Seyfarth’s work, there is a very learned criticism, by Professor Weiske of Leipsic, on the celebratec pas¬
sage of Clemens, in which, speaking of the perplexing trroixua, he remarks, “ At si noster (Clemens) ra imtia es
voluisset esse verbi cuiusque litteras, baud dubie ™ itogar,; addidisset.” Professor Weiske himself, resting on the authority
of Aristotle’s definition of the word (a-ra^s^v y,tv ow 'urn Qwvri al>tetiP--ro; . . . ffvnrr,. De Art. Poetic, c. 20), is incline to rent er rat
n*™ '™Xu* “ simplicissimos sonos, qui'litteris exprimuntur a version which does not differ so widely from that of M. Letronne as
he seems to imagine. For as the letters expressive of the simplest sounds were also the most ancient, it follows, even from M. Veis e
Version, that ra. w^ura. arotxuu may equally mean rra.\xiora.TU.—rx xfyxrn y^xppxrx S/a KxSfiov ivopxirfovrx.
VOL. XI.
362 HIEROGLYPHICS.
Spohnian this marvellous region. We are not told in what way, or
System, jjy what process of investigation, the trim classification here
propose(j was discovered ; no examples are produced in il¬
lustration of any of these classes, or to enable us to distin¬
guish an emphonic from a symphonic, and both from an
aphonic hieroglyphic. Every thing is left in the uncertainty
and obscurity of vague generality ; and after being informed
that the hieroglyphical characters are the “ symbols of let¬
ters,” and nothing more, we learn, to our astonishment, that
there is nevertheless a class of these characters (the apho¬
nic) which consists, not of “ symbols of letters” but of sym¬
bols of ideas. In short, there is neither sense nor coherence
in the system itself, or in any explanation which can be given
of it, even by so learned an expositor as Professor Seyfarth.
The plates, or rather hieroglyphical tables, which accom¬
pany Professor Seyfarth’s work, though very beautiful spe¬
cimens of lithography, are constructed on a principle which
it is not easy to understand ; unless, indeed, it was his ob¬
ject to involve the subject in impenetrable mystery. But
upon this supposition they are undoubtedly masterpieces
of skill and ingenuity. The order of the hieroglyphics on
the monuments is totally disregarded ; an arbitrary collo¬
cation is introduced; imaginary or fantastical values are
assigned to detached characters ; and no attempt whatever
is made to bring this pretended system to the test of ex¬
periment, by applying it directly to the interpretation of
Egyptian texts, whether enchorial, hieratic, or hieroglyphic.
It is no doubt true that M. Seyfarth has ventured to give
some scraps of translation, which are set forth with all the
learned parade of the Chaldaic letters. But, in the first
place, we are left completely in the dark as to the method
of interpretation pursued by him ; and, secondly, the ver¬
sions actually given are either absolute nonsense, or, where
they disclose a glimpse of meaning, are evidently mystifi¬
cations of M. Champollion. A single example will be suffi¬
cient to establish the truth of vdiat is here stated. M. Cham¬
pollion renders a certain hieroglyphical legend thus : “ Sou-
tien de 1’Egypte, dieu fils d’un dieu, soutien de I’Egypte,
Horus, manifeste ou engendre par ou d’Osiris, engendre
dTsis deesse.” But, according to Seyfarth, the meaning
of the legend is, “ Venias age, Isis, venias age, ./Egyptio-
rum generator in JEgyptum deusf or “ Venias age, Isis
venias age, vEgypti generator in Algyptum generator
which is merely a mystification of M. Champollion’s ver¬
sion, with an absurdity peculiar to itself, in the first form,
namely, that of calling Isis, the sister-spouse of Osiris, a
god. It would be easy to multiply examples, of the same
description, and, moreover, to show that, where the learn¬
ed professor has not the aid of a prior version to guide him,
the obscurity thickens into impenetrable night, unillumi¬
nated even by a solitary flicker of sense or intelligence suf¬
ficient to make the darkness visible.
Professor Seyfarth, unmindful of his obligations to the
system which it is his object to overthrow, contends that
the interpretations of M. Champollion cannot be genuine,
because, in the hieroglyphical spelling of proper names,
sometimes one vowel is omitted, and sometimes another. But
he forgets that such is the practice in almost all the orien¬
tal languages ; that systematic accuracy was scarcely to
be expected in writing foreign names and words ; that it
is often exceedingly difficult to transfuse the sounds of one
language into another; that the workmen employed in
sculpturing the hieroglyphics were most probably ignorant-Acrota •
of the language to which the proper names in question be- Hierogiy'
longed ; and that their natural impulse must have been to phics
shorten or abridge their labour as much as they possibly
could. The learned professor also forgets that, according
to his own system of arbitrary variations, no two persons
would write the same word in the same way, or in precise¬
ly the same sort of characters ; and that, whilst such dif¬
ferences or discrepancies as those he has referred to exist
in all languages, without in the least degree affecting the
certainty of the mode of writing, or materially obscuring
the names thus variously spelled, the number must, on his
system, have been almost infinite ; and hence, if there be
any force in the objection he has raised, it must bear prin¬
cipally against his own hypothesis. In every view, then,
we consider the doctrine of Spohn and Seyfarth as wholly
untenable. It rests on assumptions which are either false
in principle or erroneous in fact; it requires, in its exposi¬
tion, the admission of elements totally inconsistent with
these assumptions ; and it leads to results, or, at least, re¬
sults are deduced from it, which have either no meaning
at all, or one which is absurd and extravagant.
IX. ACKOLOGICAL HIEROGLYPHICS.
The discovery of what M. Klaproth has termed acro-
logical hieroglyphics belongs to the Chevalier Goulianoff.
Having adopted the idea that ra, ffgcorot Groiyzia, in the pas¬
sage of Clemens, so often referred to, means the initial
elements of the names of objects, the chevalier imagined
a system of writing according to which the same sign may
equally well represent all objects the names of which
commence with the same letter, as cat, cabin, capstan,
coast, caravel, castanet; duke, dunce, ditch, day, doom, de¬
vil. The first intimation of this discovery given to the
world was contained in a letter which M. Klaproth ad¬
dressed to M. de Goulianoff; but the ironical tone which
pervades this composition was calculated to excite a sus¬
picion that the object of the learned author was rather to
banter his correspondent, than to evince a frank and sin¬
cere adhesion to a burlesque system, based solely on the
hieroglyphical explanations given by Horus Apollo, and
without the slightest support from the monuments, on
which nothing had as yet been discovered that bore the
slightest resemblance to an aerology^ This letter, how¬
ever, was not long afterwards followed by another ad¬
dressed to a different person, in which M. Klaproth em¬
ployed all the resources of his ingenuity and learning to
give a colouring of plausibility to a system essentially ri¬
diculous, and, at the same time, to expose the ignorance
of Coptic displayed by M. Champollion, as well as the
unwarrantable liberties which the latter had taken with
that language, in coining words when he could not find
any, and perverting known terms to answer his immediate
purposes. Nor can it be denied that, if he signally failed
in convicting the ancient Egyptians of having employed
so absurd a system of writing as that imagined by M. de
Goulianoff, he nevertheless succeeded in establishing,
by irresistible proofs, the ignorance, and, what is much
worse, the bad faith, of M. Champollion, in as far as re¬
gards the Coptic language. It would be a waste of time
1 This name has been most infelicitously imagined. To render it susceptible of the sense which has been attached to it, from
analogy with acrostich, it would have been necessary that \oyoS should signify a word or a name, as signifies a verse; but in
Greek the grammatical sense of word or name is rendered by ivopu,, Asg/*, pijpa, whilst Xoyo; signifies proposition, phrase, discourse, and
the like. It is no doubt true that we find the adjective arpoXoyos applied as an epithet to the bee, and also the verb ax^aytTv; but
these are simply used as poetic terms, composed of Xoyw, and convey the idea of collecting honey from flowers, or cropping the sum¬
mit of an object. If the words uxgoXoyos, ux£oXoyiu, ax^oXsyixa;, having as their root Xoyos or Xiya, had existed in Greek, they would
have signified something analogous to the point or summit of discourse ; summary, superficial, or pointed discourse ; or perhaps a discourse
on points; but they could never have conveyed any idea like that which has been attached to the words acrological hieroglyphics. (See
Letronne, Examen particulier des Expressions relatives aux llicroglyphcs Phonctiques in Champollion’s Precis, p. 393. Paris, 1828.)
HIEROGLYPHICS. 363
Blei n- to attempt a grave refutation of the acrological hypothesis,
.ary in- tjie original conception of which appears to have been
ciP ' suggested by an ingenious mistranslation of the words of
^ J Clemens, whilst the development of the conceit thus ima¬
gined rendered it necessary to adopt, without challenge,
all the puerilities of Horus Apollo, A system of writing
according to which a god may be designated by a gander,
a hero by a horse, or a woman by a walnut, is surely a fit¬
ter subject for ridicule than for reasoning.
X. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF HIEROGLYPHICS.
The ancient Egyptians employed three distinct kinds
of writing; I. the Hieroglyphic or sacred ; II. the Hie¬
ratic or sacerdotal; and, III. the Demotip or popular,
called also the Epistolographic, and Enchorial or common
running hand of the country.
I. The Hieroglyphic or sacred writing is of three
sorts; 1. Phonetic, in which the hieroglyphic stands for a
letter, as the feather for A or e ; 2. Emblematic or sym¬
bolic, when the object is represented by an emblem or
symbol, as a hawk’s head surmounted by a disc for the
sun ; 3. Figurative or pictural, when it is a representation
of the object itself, as the image of a man or a horse to in¬
dicate man or horse.
In the first of these modes, words are formed of a number
of phonetic hieroglyphics, in the same manner as in any
other alphabetical mode of writing: thus mai, beloved, is
expressed by three characters respectively representing m,
a, i; and ioh, the moon, by an equal number representing i,
o, h. In words which are written phonetically, the medial
vowels are very often suppressed, as in the Hebrew, Phoe¬
nician, Arabic, and other oriental languages ; sometimes,
indeed, the vowels are altogether omitted. Each sound
or articulation may be represented by several homopho-
nous signs; but the employment of one in preference to
another seems to have been regulated by considerations
derived fronrPthe material form of the sign, and the na¬
ture of the idea to be expressed by the phonetic charac¬
ters.
The emblematic and figurative kinds are too simple to
require any remarks. In the former, ideas are expressed
by symbols, as when a part is put for the whole, or one
thing is metaphorically employed to represent another.
The latter is merely picture-writing. In the Egyptian
sentence, “ We give you the assemblies of Ita, the God,”
all the three kinds of hieroglyphic writing are simulta¬
neously employed; “ We give you” being expressed pho¬
netically, “ the assemblies” figuratively,“of” phonetically,
“ Ra” emblematically, and “ the God” figuratively.
When two words resembled each other, the same cha¬
racter often stood for either of them; as neb, lord, and
niben, all, each of which is represented by a segment of
a sphere, or, as some think, a species of hatchet. The
force or value of a phonetic sign is, according to Cham-
pollion, derived from the initial sound of the Egyptian
name of the object which it represents. Thus the figure
of an owl, mouladj, represents m, that of a goat or ram,
baampe, b, and that of a star, stou, s. This might seem
calculated to occasion great confusion, from the miscel¬
laneous use of different signs ; but, practically, the Egyp¬
tians confined themselves to particular characters in writ¬
ing particular words; for example, Amun, which is inva¬
riably expressed by the same phonetic signs. Some few
variations are, however, to be met with in writing the
same word, as in mai, beloved, and n, of, in which the cha¬
racters are occasionally changed ; but these variations are
limited in number, and used with great discretion. Be¬
sides, many signs, as, for instance, a camel, are always ex- Elemen.
eluded from the phonetic alphabet. tai7 Prin-
The next material point is the expletive sign. This is ^iples.
put after words to denote their grammatical force or ef-
feet. Thus an arm, with the forefinger of the hand point¬
ing upwards, denotes an active sense, as “ cuts,” and a
straight line, with a small leaf or flourish on one side,
shows that the word preceding it is a noun, as in the ex¬
pression “ great honour,” where the expletive is inserted
after the adjective as well as after the substantive. But
in those groups which are of most frequent occurrence, or
the sense of which is unequivocal, these signs are often
omitted.
The plural number is indicated by three lines, S E I, fol¬
lowing the object, or by that object being thrice repeat¬
ed ; the dual number, when employed, is represented by
two lines, but this is of rare occurrence.
The names of kings are contained in two scrolls or el¬
liptical rings, the first of which includes the praenomen,
composed of titles derived chiefly from the names of the
gods, and the second the nomen or phonetic name of the
king; as Amasis, Ptolemy. The former is generally pre¬
ceded by the title “ king of men, lord of the worlds, good
god” (divus bonus) ; the latter by “ son of Ra, lord of
the strong.” The queens have only a phonetic scroll or
ring, preceded by the title “ royal wife, the potent queen
of the world.”
The names of individuals are followed by the figure of
a man, and are not enclosed in an oval or scroll; as “ Ger-
manicus, man.”
The hieroglyphics are always to be read towards the
faces of the figures. Thus, if the front be to the left, they
must be read from left to right; if to the right, from right
to left; and if arranged in perpendicular lines, from the
top downwards. Historical tablets commence with the
year of a king’s reign, and the month of that year; but
no trace of any era, such as the Christian or Mohamme¬
dan, has been discovered in these sculptures.1 Sentences
placed over the figures of the gods, and beginning, “ This
is (the figure) of,” are arranged perpendicularly ; as in the
expression, “ This is (the figure) of Isis, goddess.”
A memorial, ywiya, or commemorative inscription, al¬
ways commences with the same group of characters; of¬
ferings are in like manner represented by invariable signs;
and the same thing may also be predicated of adoration
or prayer.
In historical subjects the names of kings are preceded
-and followed by a profusion of titles relating to “ power,”
“ victory,” and other attributes or distinctions, or by such
expressions as “ like the sun, like Atmoo, lord of the as¬
semblies, like his father Phtha, like Horus,” and so forth.
Pronouns combine with the groups which they qualify ;
as sonph, Coptic pephson, his brother, sonk, Coptic per¬
son, your brother.
In the names of districts and towns, the sign of “ land”
is placed after them: thus, “ Philae or Ailak, land of
“ Ap or Tape (Thebes), land of.” The sign which signi¬
fies “ foreign land,” may also apply to “ country” in gene¬
ral, in opposition to the particular sign indicating “ land.”
Town or abode is indicated by the hieroglyphic equiva¬
lents of ei, house, as m-Amun, the “ abode of Amun,” or
Dio spoils.
II. The Hieratic or sacerdotal writing is immediately
derived from the hieroglyphic, of which it is merely a
tachygraphy or abbreviated form. The signs are accord¬
ingly considerably abridged; but they nevertheless com¬
prehend figurative, emblematic, and phonetic characters,
though instead of the two former are often substituted
groups of characters, which are either phonetic or altoge-
1 See Young, Rudiments of an Egyptian Dictionary in the ancient Enchorial Character ; Wilkinson, Maiei ia Ilierog lyphica.
364
HIEROGLYPHICS.
Elemen¬
tary Prin¬
ciples.
ther arbitrary, <e qui ne conservent plus la forme de leur
signe correspondant dans le systeme hieroglyphique.”
All the hieratic manuscripts extant, whether they are
of the Pharaonic, the Macedonian, or the Roman epochs,
belong to one system, that is, exhibit merely an abbre¬
viated form of the hieroglyphic writing, however widely
some of the characters may at first view appear to ditfer
frorn it. This method seems to have been confined to
the transcription of texts connected with matters of reli¬
gion or science, or to inscriptions of a character purely
religious.
III. The Demotic, Epistolographic, or Enchorial, is a
method of writing distinct from the hieroglyphic, and also
from the hieratic, of which it is an immediate derivative.
The signs employed in the demotic or enchorial texts are,
in fact, only simple characters, borrowed from the hiera¬
tic. The demotic nearly excludes all figurative charac¬
ters, picture-writing being incompatible with the object
aimed at in a current hand; but it admits emblematic or
symbolical signs, though, according to Champollion, “seule-
ment pour exprimer des idees essentiellement liees au
systeme religieux.”
The characters employed in the demotic or enchorial
are much less numerous than those of the other methods ;
and Champollion affirms that a large proportion of them
are phonetic. But this is evidently a mistake; for Mr
Akerblad, who proceeded upon the assumption that the
greater part of the enchorial characters were letters, or
signs of sounds, failed to interpret a single word of the de¬
motic text of the Rosetta inscription ; whilst Dr Young,
who conceived that proper names alone were written al¬
phabetically, succeeded in interpreting the words or groups,
and eventually deciphered all that remains of this branch
of the triple inscription. During a long series of ages,
the demotic, the hieratic, and the hieroglyphic methods of
writing were simultaneously in use throughout the whole
extent of Egypt.
In stating the elementary principles of the demotic writ¬
ing, we shall begin with the verb. It appears to possess
only a single form. When the root is prefixed to a noun
or to a personal pronoun, without any qualification preced¬
ing, it may be translated by an indefinite past tense; and
sometimes, when the sense requires it, even by the pre¬
sent, as happens in several of the Semitic languages.
When the conjunction signifying that is prefixed to the
radical form, the latter is thereby converted into a kind
of optative or subjunctive, as “ he took care that they
should do it;’ and the particle appears to convert the
same primary form into a preterperfect. Of the pronouns
annexed to the root, only four, /, he, we, and they, have as
yet been met with; but there are probably three others,
which still remain to be discovered, thou, she, and ye. The
auxiliary verb denoting is used to express the impe¬
rative and future. It precedes the nominative, whether
it be noun or pronoun, and then follows the root, as in
the example {Rosetta Inscript?) signifying debent sacerdotes
colere, the priests ought to attend to. The passive voice
is commonly expressed periphrastically by means of the
plural pronoun of the third person. Thus, for “ the priests
ought to be called,” we have, “ they ought to call the
priests ;”and for “ that the customary things should be done,”
we find, “ that they should do the customary things.”
The only exception to the general rule, that the verb pre¬
cedes its nominative, occurs when the nominative is a re¬
lative pronoun. The pronoun whence comes the Coptic
ete, prefixed to the verbal root, forms a kind of past par¬
ticiple, as in the example “ who established,” in Greek
xaraGrritayivov; but the particle used pronominally seems Elem
always to express the present participle, as in the exam- taryprj
pie “ who enter,” in Greek susno^wysm. If no verb fol- ciPks.
low this particle, it signifies “ who is” or “ who are.” The
initial vowel of this word is seldom expressed; indeed
the omission of vowels may be regarded as a general prac¬
tice in the enchorial writing.
A masculine noun is made feminine by the addition of
the termination x; and this termination, or an equivalent
one, added to adjectives, converts them into abstract
nouns. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding
an upright stroke A or e, as may be seen in the plural of
“priestsbut, in the enchorial, as in the hieroglyphical
writing, plurality is more commonly indicated by subjoin¬
ing to the noun three upright strokes. Masculine nouns
singular take one article; feminine nouns, singular and
plural, take another, which is also used generally before
the possessive pronoun when it precedes the noun. The
possessive pronouns experience no change on account of
gender or number, and are sometimes represented by af¬
fixes, as in the hieroglyphical method of writing.
All or every is expressed after the noun, as “ the tem¬
ples of Egypt, all of them.” Each is expressed by the
adjective following the noun written twice, as in the ex¬
ample, “ the priests who are of the temple, temple each,”
that is, “ the priests who are of each temple.” Cardinal
numbers follow the noun in the singular, with the singular
article prefixed, if there be occasion to use one. This is
contrary to the usage of almost every other language;
but it is well established that such is the enchorial prac¬
tice. Ordinal numbers are the same as the cardinal; but,
for distinction, a x is sometimes placed after such numbers.
In the enchorial method of expressing the common frac¬
tions after figures, and in sentences, we discover a strik¬
ing resemblance to that which we now employ, the frac¬
tion being represented by an oblique line, with the deno¬
minator placed underneath. The word denoting “ one
half,” is easily read phakax, a word which, with a slight
modification, is used at this day in both parts of Nubia to
signify the same thing.1 The words denoting one third,
one fourth, and so on, are used with or without the ac¬
companying word signifying part, just as in English we
say indifferently a fourth or a fourth part.
For the numerals, hieroglyphic, hieratic, and enchorial,
the reader is particularly referred to Professor Kosegar-
ten’s first Commentation De Prisca JEyyptiorum Littera-
tura, also to Young’s Rudiments of an Egyptian Dictio¬
nary, and to Wilkinson’s Materia Hieroglyphica. That the
forms of the Arabic numerals have been borrowed from
the Egyptian, the slightest inspection will show; but the
latter have no value in position, a circumstance which
forms the distinguishing characteristic, as well as the great
superiority, of the Arabic method of notation.
Plate CCLXXXV. contains the hieroglyphico-phonetic
alphabet, according to Wilkinson’s arrangement, which
we consider as decidedly the best. The characters are
divided \x\\.o certain, probable, and. doubtful. The certain
are those for which there is sufficient authority or evi¬
dence, deduced chiefly from the names of the Ptolemies
and the Caesars. The probable are those which, on good
grounds, are supposed to correspond to the respective
letters under which they have been arranged, but for
which no direct or positive authority can be produced.
The doubtful are not only without positive authority, but
in a great measure conjectural; though, as far as conjec¬
ture goes, they are supposed to correspond to the letters
under which they are respectively placed. (a.)
We learn fiom Burckhardt that the Kensy word for “ one half” is bagatto, and that the Nouba word is Fagat-ivcra, literally,
“ half one,” Fagat meaning half, and wera one.
H o- HIEROMANCY, in Antiquity, that part of divination
it, vj which predicted future events from observing the various
things offered in sacrifice.
Hig ate- HIEROMNEMON, amongst the ancient Greeks, sig-
^ W nified a delegate chosen by lot, and sent to the great
council of the Amphictyons, where it was his business to
take care of all that concerned religion. The hieromne-
monies were reckoned more honourable than the other
members of that assembly, the general meetings of which
were always summoned by them, whilst their names were
prefixed to the decrees enacted by the council.
Hieromnemon (composed of /egos, sacred, and /avjj/awv,
one who reminds of), an officer in the ancient Greek church,
whose principal function was to stand behind the patriarch
at the sacraments and ceremonies, and show him the pray¬
ers and psalms, which he was to rehearse. He also cloth¬
ed the patriarch in his pontifical robes, and assigned the
places of all those who had a right to be around him when
seated on his throne, just as the master of the ceremonies
now does to the pope.
HIEROPHANTES, or Hierophanta (from /ego;, holy,
and (pum/iui, 1 appear), a priest amongst the Athenians.
The hierophantes was properly the chief person who offi¬
ciated in the Eleusinian mysteries. This office was first
executed by Eumolpus, and continued in his family for
about twelve hundred years, though when any person was
appointed to this dignity he was required always to live
in celibacy.
HIEROPHYLAX, an officer in the Greek church who
officiated as guardian or keeper of the holy utensils, vest¬
ments, &c. and who answered to our sacrista or vestry
keeper.
H1ERES, four small islands in the Mediterranean Sea,
a part of the department of the Var in France. They are
near Toulon, and form shelter for a roadstead of the same
name, where ships are protected by the town of Hieres on
the mainland. That town is small, but is remarkable for
the mildness of the climate, and for the quantity of pome¬
granates, figs, and other fruits, which the vicinity yields.
HIGH, a term or relation, importing that one thing is
superior to or above another. Thus we say a high moun¬
tain, the high court of parliament, high relief, and the like.
High, in Music, is sometimes used in the same sense
with loud, and sometimes in the same sense with acute.
High Places were eminences upon which the heathens
used to worship their gods, and which were chosen for
that purpose as being supposed to be nearer heaven, their
constant residence. The Jews are frequently blamed for
their attachment to high places, after the manner of the
Gentiles ; and theirproseuchce were frequently upon moun¬
tains, with groves planted round them. Where high places
are reprobated in Scripture, therefore, we should under¬
stand them as places abused and prostituted to idolatrous
purposes.
High Way, a free passage for the king’s subjects; on
which account it is called the kings highway.
High- Way-Men are robbers on the high way, for the
apprehending and taking of whom a reward of L.40 is
promised by the statute 4 and 5 W. and M. to be paid
within a month after conviction by the sheriff of the county ;
to which the statute 8 Geo. II. cap 6 superadds L.10 to be
paid by the hundred indemnified by such capture.
HIGHAM-FERRERS, a town of the county of North¬
ampton, which gives name to the hundred in which it
stands, and is sixty-four miles from London. It is an an¬
cient borough, formerly returning one member to parlia¬
ment, but disfranchised by the law of 1832. There is a
small market on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 726, in 1811 to 823, in 1821 to 877, and in 1831
to 965.
HIGHGATE, a populous village, four miles from Lon-
H I G 365
don, on the great north road. It is situated on a hill over- High,
looking the metropolis, and commanding extensive views to landers
the south beyond it. It is the residence of several of the ti-
opulent merchants and traders of the city, some of whose
houses are of great elegance. It is partly in the parish
of Hornsey and partly in that of Pancras, but has a church
or chapel of ease. It was designed a few years ago to form
a tunnel and a roadway through the hill; but that plan
has yielded to an archway, which has lightened the labour
of horses.
HIGHLANDERS, a general appellation for the inhabi¬
tants of the mountainous parts of any country. In Bri¬
tain, the name is appropriated to the people who inhabit
the mountainous parts of Scotland, to the north and north¬
west, including those of the Hebrides or Western Isles.
See Scotland.
HIGHMORE, Joseph, a painter and writer of some
eminence in his day, was born in the parish of St James’s,
Garlickhithe, London, on the 13th of June 1692, being the
third son of Mr Edward Highmore, a coal-merchant in
Thames Street. Having such an early and strong inclina¬
tion to painting that he could think with pleasure of nothing
else, his father endeavoured to gratify him by making a
proposal to his uncle, who was serjeant-painter to King
William, and with whom Mr, afterwards Sir James Thorn¬
hill, had served his apprenticeship. This however was
subsequently for good reasons declined, and he was arti¬
cled as clerk to an attorney in 1707, but so much against
his own declared inclination, that in about three years he
began to form resolutions of indulging his natural disposi¬
tion for his favourite art, having continually employed his
leisure hours in designing, and in the study of geometry,
perspective, architecture, and anatomy, but without any
instructors in these branches except books. He had after¬
wards an opportunity of improving himself in anatomy, by
attending the lectures of Mr Cheselden; besides enter¬
ing himself at the painters’ academy in Great Queen
Street, where he remained ten years, and had the honour
to be particularly noticed by Sir Godfrey Kneller, who dis¬
tinguished him by the name of the Young Lawyer. In
1714 his clerkship expired; and in 1715 he began paint¬
ing as a profession, and settled in the city. In the same
year Dr Brook Taylor published his Linear Perspective.
On this complete and universal theory our artist ground¬
ed his subsequent practice; and it has been generally al¬
lowed, that few if any of the profession at that time were
so thorough masters of Taylor’s excellent but intricate
system. In 1716 he married Susanna, daughter and heir¬
ess of Mr Anthony Hiller of Effingham, in Surrey ; a young
lady in every respect worthy of his choice. As his repu¬
tation and business increased, he took a more conspicuous
station, by removing to a house in Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields ;
and an opportunity soon offered of introducing him ad¬
vantageously to the nobility, by his being desired, by Mr
Pine the engraver, to make drawings for his prints of the
knights of the bath, upon the revival of that order in
1725. The publication of Pamela in 1744 gave rise to a
set of paintings by Highmore, which were engraved by
two French engravers, and published by subscription in
1745. In the same year he painted the only original of
General Wolfe, who was then about eighteen years of
age. His Pamela introduced him to the acquaintance
and friendship of the excellent author of that work, whose
picture he drew, and for whom he painted the only origi¬
nal of Dr Young. In 1750 he had the misfortune to lose
his wife. On the first institution of the Academy of Paint¬
ing and Sculpture, in 1753, he was elected one of the pro¬
fessors ; an honour which, on account of many avocations,
he was induced to decline. In 1754 he published a critical^
examination of two paintings by Rubens on the ceiling of
the banqueting-house at Whitehall, in which architecture
366 H I L <
Highness is introduced, as far as relates to perspective; together with
II the discussion of a question which has been the subject
Hilarius. 0f debate amongst painters; printed in 4to. Of the nu-
merous portraits which Mr Highmore painted, in an ex¬
tensive practice of forty-six years, it is impossible and
useless to discuss the merits. . Some of the best in the
historical branch may, however, be mentioned, viz. Ha-
gar and Ishmael; the Good Samaritan; the Finding of
Moses; the Harlowe Family, as described in Clarissa;
Clarissa, the portrait mentioned in that work ; the Graces
Unveiling Nature ; the Clementina of Grandison ; and
the Queen Mother of Edward IV. with her younger son,
in Westminster Abbey.
Flis principal literary work was his Practice of Perspec¬
tive, on the principles of Dr Brook Taylor, written many
years before, but not published till 1763. In 1765 he
published Observations on a Pamphlet entitled Christi¬
anity not founded on Argument; and in the same year
two small volumes of Essays, moral, religious, and mis¬
cellaneous, with a translation in prose of Mr Brown’s La¬
tin poem on the immortality of the soul. A strong con¬
stitution, and constant attention to his health, prolonged
his life and preserved his faculties until his eighty-eighth
year, when he gradually ceased to breathe, and, as it
were, fell asleep, on the 3d of March 1780.
HIGHNESS, a quality or title of honour given to princes.
The kings of England and Spain had formerly no other title
' but that of Highness ; the former till the time of James I.
and the latter till that of Charles V. The petty princes
of Italy first began to be complimented with the title of
Highness in the year 1630; and the Duke of Orleans as¬
sumed the title of Royal Highness in the year 1631, to
distinguish himself from the other princes of France.
HIGHWORTH, a market-town of Wiltshire, which
gives its name to the hundred. It is situated on a plea¬
sant hill near the Valley of the White Horse, seventy-seven
miles from London, has a market, which is held on Wed¬
nesday, and was formerly a corporate place. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1801 to 1493, in 1811 to 1580, in
1821 to 1388, and in 1831 to 3127.
HIJA, or Hixar, a city of Spain, in the kingdom of
Aragon, about thirty miles from Saragossa. It contains a
church, a monastery, and two hospitals or poor-houses,
with 2800 inhabitants, and confers the dignity of a duke
on one of the oldest families of Spain.
HILARIA, in Antiquity, feasts celebrated every year
by the Romans, on the 8th of the kalends of April, or the
25th of March, in honour of Cybele, the mother of the
gods. The hilaria were celebrated with great pomp and
rejoicing. Every person dressed himself as he pleased, and
assumed the marks or badges of whatever dignity or quality
he had a fancy for. The statue of the goddess was car¬
ried in procession through the streets of the city, accom¬
panied by multitudes in the most splendid attire. The
day before the festival was spent in tears and mourning.
Cybele represented the earth, which at this time of the
year begins to feel the kindly warmth of the spring; so
that this sudden transition from sorrow to joy was an em¬
blem of the vicissitude of the seasons, which succeed one
another. The Romans originally derived this feast from
the Greeks, who called it uvaSaeig, ascensus ; and the eve
ot the day they spent in tears and lamentations, whence
they denominated it xaraCacvg, descensus. But afterwards,
the Greeks took the name /Xzgia, from the Romans; as
appears from Photius, in his extract of the life of the phi¬
losopher Isidore.
HILARIUS, an ancient father of the Christian church,
who flourished in the fourth century. He was born, as
St Jerome informs us, at Poictiers, being descended of a
good family, and he received a liberal education in the
Pagan religion, which he did not forsake till he had ar¬
il I L
rived at maturity. He was advanced to the bishopric of Hilanrii
Poictiers in the year 355, according to Baronius, and be- 1
came a most zealous champion of the orthodox faith, par-
ticularly against the Arians, who were at that time gain- ■ tlein1,
ing ground in France. He assembled there several coun-
cils, in which the determinations of the synods of Rimini
and Seleucia were condemned. Fie wrote a treatise con¬
cerning Synods, and a work in twelve books on the Tri¬
nity, which is much admired by orthodox believers. He
died about the end of the year 367. His works have been
many times published; but the best edition of them is that
by the Benedictines at Paris in 1693.
HILARODI, in the ancient music and poetry, a sort of
poets amongst the Greeks, who went about singing little
gay poems or songs, somewhat graver than the Ionic pieces,
accompanied with some instrument. From the streets
they were at last introduced into tragedy, as the magodi
were into comedy. They appeared dressed in white, and
were crowned with gold. At first they wore shoes; but
afterwards they assumed the crepida, being only a sole
tied over the foot with a strap.
HILARY, St, a town, the capital of the island of Jer¬
sey. It has a very convenient and secure harbour, defend¬
ed by a strong castle; and the town is powerfully fortified
both on the land and the sea sides, and the entrance from
the country is protected by a drawbridge and an iron gate.
The town is well built, with broad streets, and there is
an elegant building for the courts of justice of the island.
In the church the public worship is performed in both the
English and French languages. It has an excellent mar¬
ket on Saturday. The corn market is held in a handsome
building, supported by piazzas of the Tuscan order. At
the census of 1831, the inhabitants consisted of 16,027
persons, viz. 7298 males, and 8729 females. Long. 5.24.25.
W. Lat. 50. 7. 38. N.
HILBURGHAUSEN, a city, the capital of the duchy
of Saxe-Hilburghausen, in Germany. It stands on the
right bank of the river Werra, is surrounded with walls,
and contains the magnificent palace of the sovereign, two
Lutheran churches and one Reformed, and several other
public buildings. It is divided into three parts, the old town,
the new, and the suburbs, which together have a popula¬
tion of 3820 persons, in 362 houses. It is a place of little
commerce, and depends chiefly on the trade arising from
the court, and from being the residence of the officers of
the several boards of law and revenue.
HILDESHEIM, a province of the kingdom of Han¬
over, formerly an ecclesiastical state, but secularized and
transferred to Prussia in 1803, and in 1805 delivered over,
with Goslar, to the Hanoverian government. It is bound¬
ed on the north by Luneburg, on the east by Brunswick,
on the south-east by Saxon Prussia, on the south by the
Hartz and Brunswick, and on the west by Calenburg. It
extends over 683 square miles, and comprehends nine
cities, four market-towns, 240 villages and hamlets, formed
into 135 parishes, with 18,803 houses, and a population in
1812 amounting to 121,816, now estimated to have since
increased one fifth. The greater part of the inhabitants
are Lutherans, but one sixth are Catholics, with a few
Jews, and some Protestant sects. It is for the most part
a level district, but towards the south there are some lofty
mountains. A considerable portion of the land is covered
with wood, and the rest yields moderate crops of rye, bar¬
ley, flax, and potatoes, with some little wheat. It produces
feathers, honey, and wax. The females spin much flax,
and the yarn is an article of export; as are also wool, hops,
rape-oil, and timber. The province is well watered by the
rivers Innerste, which rises in the Hartz, by the Ecker,
the Radau, and several small streams, which all finally
terminate by the Leine, in the Weser. The province is
governed by its own assembly of states, and has still its
H I L
lildt bishop, who has only ecclesiastical authority over the Ca-
heir tholics.
Hildesheim, a city of Hanover, the capital of the pro-
Hil vince of that name. It is situated on the river Innerste, and
^ 1 surrounded with walls and ditches, which have been con¬
verted into promenades. It contains an ancient cathedral,
containing, amongst other antiquities, a pillar called the Ir-
min-Saule, said to have been constructed by the Saxons in
honour of Arminius, who defeated the Roman army under
Quintilius Varus. There are three other Catholic and
four Lutheran churches, with 1874 dwelling houses, and
13,820 inhabitants. It contains a Catholic seminary called
Joseph’s Gymnasium, with eleven professors, and several
schools for elementary instruction. It has some manufac¬
tures of ironmongery, linens, leather, soap, starch, snuff,
and yarn. Near to it is the Zwergshohle, a saline spring,
from which some Glauber salts are prepared. Long. 9.
48.28. E. Lat. 52. 9. 32. N.
HILL, Aaron, a poet of considerable eminence, the
son of a gentleman of Malmesbury Abbey, in Wiltshire,
was born in 1685. His father’s imprudence having ruined
his paternal inheritance, he left Westminster School at
fourteen years of age, and embarked for Constantinople
to visit Lord Paget, the English ambassador there, who
was his distant relation. Lord Paget received him wdth
surprise and pleasure, provided him a tutor, and sent him
to travel, thus affording him an opportunity of visiting
Egypt, Palestine, and a great part of the East. About
the year 1709 he published his first poem, entitled Ca-
millus, in honour of the Earl of Peterborough, who had
commanded in Spain ; and being the same year made
master of Drury-lane Theatre, he wrote his first tragedy,
called Elfred, or the Fair Inconstant. In 1710, he be¬
came master of the opera-house in the Haymarket, and
wrote an opera called Rinaldo, which met with great suc¬
cess, being the first that Handel set to music after he came
to England. Unfortunately for Mr Hill, he was a projec¬
tor as well as poet, and in 1715 obtained a patent for ex¬
tracting oil from beech-nuts; an undertaking which mis¬
carried after engaging his attention for three years. He
was also concerned in the first attempt to settle the colony
of Georgia, from which he never reaped any advantage;
and in 1728 he made a journey into the Highlands of Scot¬
land, in prosecution of a scheme of applying the woods
there to ship-building; but in this he also lost his labour.
Mr Hill seems to have lived in perfect harmony with all
the writers of his time, except Mr Pope, with whom he
had a short paper war, occasioned by that gentleman’s in¬
troducing him in the Dunciad as one of the competitors
for the prize offered by the goddess of Dulness. Mr Hill,
amongst many other pieces, also wrote one called The North¬
ern Star, upon the actions of Peter the Great; and for
this he was several years afterwards complimented with a
gold medal from the Empress Catharine, agreeably to the
czar’s desire before his death. His last production was
Merope, which was brought upon the stage in Drury Lane
by Mr Garrick. He died on the 8th of February 1749,
and after his decease four volumes of his works in prose
and verse were published in octavo, and his dramatic works
in two volumes.
Hill, Sir John, a voluminous writer, and singular cha¬
racter, was born about the year 1716. He was originally
bred an apothecary; but his having married early, and with¬
out a fortune, made him very soon look around for other re¬
sources than his profession supplied. In the year 1746, he
translated from the Greek a small tract by Theophrastus,
on Gems, which he published by subscription ; and which,
neing well executed, procured him friends, reputation, and
money. Encouraged by this, he engaged in works of great¬
er extent and importance. The first he undertook was a
General Natural History, in three vols. folio. He next en-
H I L 36/
gaged, in conjunction with George Lewis Scott, in furbishing Hilversum
a Supplement to Chambers’s Dictionary. Fie at the same
time started the British Magazine ; and whilst he was en-
gaged in a great number of works, some of which would
seem to have claimed the continued attention of a whole
life, he carried on a daily essay, under the title of Inspec¬
tor. Amidst this hurry of business, Mr Hill was so laborious
and ready in all his undertakings, and was withal so exact
an economist of his time, that for many years he scarcely
ever missed a public amusement, where, whilst he relaxed
from the severer pursuits of study, he gleaned up articles
of information for his periodical works. It would not be
easy to trace Mr Hill through all his various pursuits in life.
He obtained his doctor’s degree from the university of St
Andrews. A quarrel he had with the Royal Society, for being
refused admission as a member, provoked him to ridicule
that learned body, in a review of the works of the Royal
Society, 4to, 1751. This, together with his writing upon
all subjects without reserve, made him gink in the estima¬
tion of the public nearly at the same rate at which he had
ascended. He found, as usual, however, resources in his
own invention. He applied himself to the preparation of
certain simple medicines, as the essence of water-dock,
tincture of valerian, balsam of honey, and the like. The
well-known simplicity of these medicines made the public
judge favourably of their effects, insomuch that they had a
rapid sale, and once more enabled the doctor to figure in
that style of life which was so congenial to his inclination.
He obtained the patronage of the Earl of Bute, through
whose interest he acquired the management of the royal
gardens at Kew ; and, to wind up the whole of an extra¬
ordinary life, having a little before his death seized an op¬
portunity to introduce himself to the knowledge of the
king of Sweden, that monarch invested him with the order
of knighthood, which he had not the happiness of enjoying
above two years. He died near the close of the year 1775.
HILVERSUM, a town of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of North Holland, between Amsterdam and Norden.
It contains 3520 inhabitants, who carry on extensive manu¬
factories of carpets, floor-cloths, woollen baize, and kerseys,
and make some cotton goods.
HILLAH. This town stands on a portion of the site
of the ancient Babylon. It is situated about sixty miles
to the south of Bagdad, on the western bank of the Eu¬
phrates. It is inclosed with a mud wall, and is said to
have been built in the twelfth century, partly out of the
ruins of the ancient city of Babylon. The land in the
immediate neighbourhood is cultivated and fertile, and
produces great quantities of rice, dates, and grain. This
fertility is caused by the irrigation of the Euphrates,
which here flows from two to two and a half miles an
hour, and varies in breadth from 450 to 500 feet; and in
spring, when it is in flood, is forty feet in depth. During
six months of the year, the Euphrates is navigable as far
as Hillah for flat-bottomed vessels not exceeding fifty tons
burden. During the other six months the marshes of
Lemloon entirely obstruct the commerce with Bassora;
and but for this circumstance it would become the seat
of a flourishing commerce. Hillah contains 12,000 inha¬
bitants. A part of the town is situated on the eastern
bank of the river, and is connected with the other by a
bridge of boats, but is not nearly so extensive as that on
the western bank. The town is well built, has an exten¬
sive and well-regulated bazar, several stately caravanserais
built of the old Babylonian bricks, and numerous coffee¬
houses, along the bank of the river. It is governed by a
magistrate deputed by the pasha. It is 48 miles to the
south of Bagdad; 35 south-east of the Nahr-Malcha, at
its junction with the Tigris, which is the site of Seleucia ;
and 130 miles west from Hit, a town on the Euphrates.
Long. 44. 13. 15. E. Lat. 33. 34. N. See Babylon.
368
HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.
Himalaya HIMALEH, or Himalaya (literally the Seat of Snow),
Mountains, sometimes Himachal {Snowy Mountains), are the names
given to a vast range of lofty mountains which separates
India from the two Thibets, and forms the highest part of
that extended chain which was known to the ancient wri¬
ters of Europe by the names of Imaus or Emodus, which is,
in all probability, a corruption of the Sanscrit name; as
“ Imaus,” says Pliny, “ in the language of the natives,
signifies snowy''
If we consider the Himalaya as extending from the de¬
file near Cashmere through which the Setlij or Sutledge
flows, to that through which the Brahmapootra passes, the
length will be, from north-west to south-east, nearly 1000
British miles; the western extremity being about the la¬
titude 32°, and longitude 77° ; the eastern about the lati¬
tude 24°, and longitude 95°. Throughout the whole of
this extent their snow-capt summits present a succession
of peaks of great but unequal elevation, some of which, in
the fine pure atmosphere of Hindustan, are visible at an
almost incredible distance. “ The southernmost ridge of
the Bootan Mountains,” says Major Rennell, “ rises near a
mile and a half perpendicular above the plains of Bengal,
in a horizontal distance of only fifteen miles; and, from
the summit, the astonished traveller looks back on the
plains, as on an extensive ocean beneath him.” Beyond
is a chain of peaks still higher, which, he adds, “ are visi¬
ble from the plains of Bengal, at the distance of 150 miles,
and are commonly covered with snow.” From these ex¬
pressions, and from his conclusion of their being “ in point
of elevation equal to any of the mountains of the old hemi¬
sphere,” it is quite clear that this celebrated geographer
had no adequate idea of their real height.
On the northern termination of the plains of Hindustan
is a narrow belt of a thickly wooded, swampy country,
called Terreeana, between which and the base of the great
Himalaya chain lies a broad tract of a rugged, mountain¬
ous region, from sixty to a hundred miles in width, full of
fertile and well-peopled valleys, and once divided into a
number of petty states, which are now mostly absorbed by
the British or the Chinese empires ; the latter at least lay¬
ing claim to some of the hilly countries to the south of
the Himalaya, as tributary states, to which our recent
conquests have brought us into immediate contact. Be¬
ginning at the westward, the principal of these states were
Serinagur, Almora, Kemaoon, Gorkah, Nepaul, and Boo¬
tan : all of these are parts of the mountainous belt, and
their towns and fortresses occupy the summits of hills ris¬
ing to the height of from 4000 to 6000 feet; and many of
the shoulders or abutments which connect these hills with
the lofty range of Himalaya are from 8000 to 14,000 feet
high. The great extent of these mountain masses pro¬
duces a greater degree of cold in winter than would pro¬
bably be found in the same degree of latitude in Europe
at an equal elevation ; and, as will presently appear, a
greater degree of heat also. In the middle of winter the
snow covers the summits of those inferior hills, and falls
sometimes even in the interjacent valleys ; but the climate,
in every part of this mountainous region, is delightfully fine,
and almost all the species of European vegetables are found
in a native state, and growing in the greatest luxuriance.
In fact, since we have had free access to the base of the
tlimalaya range, it has been discovered that the general
character of the vegetation corresponds very nearly with
that of the middle and southern parts of Europe, and that
a very large portion of the trees and shrubs of the latter
are indigenous in the former; such as pines of various
species,oaks, chestnuts,horse-chestnuts, walnuts,birch, the
hazel, the raspberry, gooseberry, bilberry, barberry, and
strawberries. Many of the flowering shrubs, and the Him i
humbler plants, as the polyanthus, anemone, and ranun-Mountain
cuius, the common and lemon thyme, mint, sweet basil
and a great variety of other aromatic plants, clothe the
sides of the hills, and shed their fragrant odours around.
Moorcroft mentions the furze {Ulex Europea), which was
supposed not to be met with out of Europe. These hills
may be considered as the roots and branches of the great
stem, all of them connected more or less remotely with it
and appearing at a distance, when seen from the plains of
Hindustan, as a succession of inferior ranges ; but, on en¬
tering the country, “ the whole,” says Mr Fraser, “ be¬
comes a confused and chaotic assemblage of most rugged
mountains, huddled into masses and peaks, and running
into ridges which defy arrangement.”1
The highest peaks of the Flimalaya Mountains had long
been noticed before it was known or even conjectured what
their absolute height might be above the level of the sea.
All the information respecting them that could be obtain¬
ed was derived from Hindu pilgrims, who annually flock¬
ed to pay their devotions at the shrine of some deity pre¬
siding over the various wild and awful features of these ele¬
vated regions. To a people gifted, like the Hindus, with
strong imaginative faculties, the snow-capt summits of the
Flimalaya Mountains, and the numerous torrents issuing
from their bosom, which, when united into one grand stream,
carried fertility over their extensive plains, could not fail
to become so many varied objects of their veneration.
From the accounts of these people, the main branch of the
Ganges was represented to issue from a chasm or cavern
in the side of the mountains, to which, from its supposed
resemblance to the mouth of an animal sacred in the ritual
of their faith, was given the name of the Cow's Mouth.
This cavern was supposed to perforate the great chain of
mountains, and the source of the Ganges to be in a lake on
the other side, considerably to the eastward of the Cow’s
Mouth. This lake was named Manasarovara, and was held
sacred; and, under the impression of the relation of pil¬
grims being correct, the source and passage of the Ganges
were laid down in the most improved maps of Hindustan.
The authority, however, on which this hypothesis rest¬
ed not being deemed satisfactory, it was determined by the
Bengal government that an expedition should be under¬
taken to ascertain how the fact stood ; and Captains Raper
and Hearsay, accompanied by Captain Webb, assistant-
surveyor, set out in the spring of the year 1808, in order
to clear up this point; and from their observations, and
those of more recent travellers, it has now been ascertain¬
ed, that the main sources of the Ganges are all on the
southern side of the great Himalaya chain ; and that, rec¬
koning from the westward, they consist of, 1. the Jumna
(whose two great branches are the Girree and the Touse);
2. the Bhagiruttee, whose source is near the celebrated
spot called Gangoutri, where the Cow’s Mouth is supposed
to be situated; and, 3. the Alkananda, with its numerous
tributary streams, the last of which rivers is now acknow¬
ledged as the main branch of the Ganges.
The object of Captains Raper and Hearsay was to pene¬
trate as far as possible to the sources of the two great
branches, the Bhagiruttee and the Alkananda. With great
difficulty and fatigue they approached near enough to Gan¬
goutri to enable them to conclude, from the contraction of
the stream, and the stupendous height and unbroken sides
of the Himalaya Mountains, that “ there can be no doubt
but the source of that branch is situated in the snowy
range;” and that “any other hypothesis can scarcely be
reconciled to hydrostatical principles.” Not quite satisfied,
however, with this conclusion, they dispatched one of those
1 Journal of a Tour through part of the Snowy Range of the Himalaya Mountains, 4to, Lond. 1820.
HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.
.369
imal i fanatics of India, known by the name of Fakirs, who deem a
junt: s* pilgrimage to Gangoutri to have the effect of redeeming the
1 person performing it from all the troubles of this life, and
of ensuring him a happy passage through all the stages of
transmigration which he is destined to undergo in another,
to push his inquiries farther into the mountains. This
man reported, on his return, that, a few miles beyond Gan¬
goutri, the river was lost under vast beds of snow, and that
a rock in the midst of the rushing stream resembled the
body and head of a cow; and here the valley was termi¬
nated by the steep and wall-sided mountain.
The party next set out in order to trace the other great
stream of the Ganges, the Alkananda, and succeeded in
reaching a spot four or five miles beyond the temple of
Bhadrinath, where the stream was narrowed to eighteen
or twenty feet, and where “ the north faces of the moun¬
tains were completely covered with snow from the sum¬
mit to the base.” A little way beyond this place was a
cascade named Barsie d’Hara, where the Alkananda (or,
as sometimes called, the Vishnuganga) was entirely con¬
cealed under immense heaps of snow, beyond which no
traveller has been known to pass. Yet this place was es¬
timated to be still distant about twenty miles from the
southern front of the Himalaya chain. In these lofty re¬
gions, beyond Bhadrinath, stands the populous town of
Manah, consisting of two hundred houses ; the inhabitants
of a different race from the generality of the mountaineers ;
and, from their broad faces, small eyes, and olive-coloured
complexions, evidently of a Tartar origin. Seven hundred
villages are said to be attached to the temple of Bhadri¬
nath, whose sanctity may be estimated by the fact of no
less than 40,000 pilgrims, chiefly fakirs, having visited it
that year.
Not less holy in the estimation of the Hindus, though
less frequented from the difficulty of access, is the source
of the main stream of the Alkananda, named the Cali-
gunga, near which is situated the temple of Kedar-nath,
at an elevation of 12,000 feet nearly above the level of
the sea. This place was not visited by Messrs Raper
and Hearsay, but its height was ascertained barometrically
by Captain Webb.
Though this expedition threw considerable light on the
nature of the country between the plains of Hindustan
and the southern base of the Himalaya Mountains, and
succeeded in tracing two of the most considerable branches
of the Ganges nearly to their sources, still the great chain
of the Himalaya itself had not yet been approached, and
the altitude of its various peaks above the level of the sea
remained undecided. The account however given by Cap¬
tain Raper (Asiatic Researches, vol. xii.) is full of interest¬
ing and important details.
The task of penetrating this vast chain was left to the
exertions of a more daring traveller. Mr Moorcroft, ac¬
companied by Captain Hearsay, the same who had been
on the former expedition, and by a Hindu pundit of the
name of Harkh Deo, set out with the hope of finding a
passage across these mountains into the regions of Tartary,
in order to purchase horses and the shawl-goat, and, at
the same time, to collect such geographical information
respecting these unknown regions as might fall within
their reach. With the latter view, the learned pundit
was engaged for the express purpose of striding over these
mountainous regions, along the whole route, in regular
paces of four feet each; a task which, it seems, he per¬
formed with exemplary patience and perseverance, across
rocks, and rivers, and the most rugged precipices, without
failing or faultering, except on one single occasion, where
a piece of rock had slipped out of a narrow ledge on the
very verge of a tremendous declivity, and left a gap just
wide enough to show an abyss below, of a depth sufficient
to appal the stoutest heart.
VOL. XI.
Beginning their operations at the point where the Dauli Himalaya
river falls into the Alkananda, they followed up the former Mountains,
to the very base of the Himalaya, and, after eighteen days
of excessive fatigue, reached a gorge in the mountains,
named the Nitee Ghati, or Pass of Nitee. At some dis¬
tance below it was a small village of the same name, the
great height of which was inferred by the hill, terminat¬
ing the valley on which it stood, being tipped with snow
on the 5th of June, and also by a quick breathing with
which Mr Moorcroft was seized, and which obliged him
to stop every four or five steps; he complained also of a
sense of fulness in the head, accompanied by giddiness.
In ascending the Ghaut, the difficulty of breathing in¬
creased, with great oppression about the heart; and, when
on the point of falling asleep, a sense of suffocation was
felt, and sighing became frequent and distressing. The
same symptoms of oppression and debility were experi¬
enced by M. Saussure on the Alps, which he ascribed
rather to the presence of carbonic acid gas, than to the
tenuity of the atmosphere. We conceive, however, that
the great height alone is sufficient to account for these
symptoms.
At Nitee the travellers were informed that the passage
of the mountains was never attempted before Sancrant,
or the entrance of the sun into Cancer; they waited, there¬
fore, till the 24th of June. For the last twenty days the
thermometer at sun-rise was generally about 46°, at noon
72°, and from that to 80°; the nights were clear and se¬
rene ; the birch trees and rose bushes were just then burst¬
ing into leaf, the furze coming into blossom, and the grain
appearing above the ground.
The length of the Nitee Pass is about two miles; it
leads to an elevated plain, to which there is little or no
descent, called by the natives Undes or Ondes, which
signifies “ the country of wood.” The name of Thibet was
not known to them, and Captain Webb thinks it may have
been derived from Teiba, which signifies, in the Gorkah lan¬
guage, “ high-peaked mountains.” The mountains crossing
this plain, or rising in detached masses out of its surface,
were covered with snow. The first, and indeed the only
continued ridge seen by Moorcroft, was at the distance
of about forty miles from the Himalaya, and nearly paral¬
lel to it, closing, however, gradually upon it to the east¬
ward; but, at the distance of above eighty miles, they
united, not far from the two lakes of Rawan-hrad and Ma-
nasarovara, which were separated from each other by a
slip of land about four or five miles in width. The ridge
thus uniting with the Himalaya is named Caillas, which
is rather a generic term for any high mountain, than pe¬
culiar to a single one, and is among the Hindus what Olym¬
pus was among the Greeks.
The intermediate plain consists of a rugged stony sur¬
face, bristled in some places with rude shapeless rocks,
and in others scooped out into broad and deep ravines,
presenting on every side an extended dreary waste, with¬
out a tree or shrub to enliven the prospect, the only vege¬
tation being confined to some low furze bushes, a woolly
plant like everlasting, tufts of silky grass, and a species
of moss, exhibiting a sickly green, among patches of snow
and splashes of snow water. The only enlivening objects
that appeared to Mr Moorcroft and his party were “ two
very beautiful poplar trees, in which were many gold¬
finches.” These were on the banks of a considerable
stream, flowing to the westward, down the middle of the
plain, in the bed of which was a species of tamarisk, then
in blossom, and reaching to the height of eight feet.
This river was then conjectured, and has since been
ascertained, to be the Sutledge or Satudra. It rises in the
lake Rawan-hrad, to the eastward of any of the sources
of the Ganges, and, having collected in its western course
the various streams from the northern face of the Hima-
3 A
370
HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.
Himalaya laya, and the southern face of the Caillas, finds a passage
Mountains, through the former chain, near Mount Kantel, on the
eastern side of Cashmere; and, on entering the plain of
Hindustan, becomes the easternmost of the Punjab, or Five
Rivers, the boundary of our Indian possessions to the west¬
ward ; and, in its course to the southward, joins the Indus.
This source and direction of the Sutledge can now be no
longer doubted, as its course, which was ascertained by Mr
Baillie Fraser to lie through the great range of mountains,
has been traced back through the ravine of the Hima¬
laya, and for a considerable distance to the eastward. On
this elevated plain is situated the town of Deba.
Mr Moorcroft and his party having passed the first table¬
land, crossed the Caillas range, on the other side of which
the rugged plain extended beyond the reach of sight.
The numerous streams from the northern face of Caillas,
uniting in the vale of Ghertope, form a river of consider¬
able magnitude, which, from information, pursues a north¬
westerly course for some hundred miles, passes by Latak,
and then crossing the Hindu Coosh, which may be con¬
sidered as a prolongation of the Himalaya, to the west¬
ward of Cashmere, assumes the name of Indus or Scinde ;
of which great river it may be considered as one of the
main branches, the other coming from the northward out
of the mountains called the Moos-tag.
Mr Moorcroft did not ascertain what river or rivers
flowed out of the lake Manasarovara, and seems to think
that it has no outlet. This is very improbable, as its water
was fresh, and there seems to be little doubt but the San-
poo, or the main branch of the Brahmapootra, issues from
its eastern extremity. In that case, this lake may be con¬
sidered as about the highest part of the general level of the
great plateau of Tartary.
Thus, by the exertions of intelligent travellers, the geo¬
graphy of the great mountainous buttress which supports
the elevated regions of Thibet and Tartary has been pretty
well ascertained ; but all is still conjecture as far as regards
an extensive range of country to the north, the north-west,
and north-east of the Caillas range of mountains.
Neither the ancients, to whom the Himalaya Mountains
were well known, nor the Hindus, to whom they have al¬
ways been the cherished objects of veneration, nor our
countrymen, who, from the plains of Bengal, had so often
gazed at their snow-capped summits from a distance of
150 miles, ventured to form a conjecture even of their ab¬
solute height above the level of those plains. Mr Cole-
brooke, in his Note to Captain Raper’s Narrative, observes
that, “ without supposing the Himalaya to exceed the
Andes, there is still room to argue, that an extensive range
of mountains, which rears high above the line of perpetual
snow, in an almost tropical latitude, an uninterrupted chain
of lofty peaks, is neither surpassed nor rivalled by any
other chain of mountains but the Cordilleras of the Andes.”
Shortly after this, however, he thinks the observations of
Captain Webb “authorize the opinion, that the Himalaya
is the loftiest range of alpine mountains which has yet been
noticed, its most elevated peaks exceeding the highest of
the Andes.”
The highest part of the Himalaya is about the centre
of the chain, or between the source of the Bhagiruttee and
the valley of Nepaul. From an observation taken by Colo¬
nel Crawford (when at Cathmandu, in Nepaul, in 1802) of
very small angles at the extremities of a short measured
base, it is concluded that one peak, called Dhaibun, rose
to an elevation of 20,140 feet above the spot where the
observation was made; which being itself 4500 feet above
the level of the sea, would make the height of this peak
24,640 feet. By similar observations, the height of an¬
other peak was proved to be 22,319 feet, of another
24,525, another 22,952 feet, and of a fifth 23,162 feet,
above -the level of the sea.
But the peak which was found to possess the most ex- Himala
traordinary elevation was that called Dhawala-giri, or the Moiinui
White Mountain. By a mean of three observations, taken WY>
from the following computed distances, and seen under
their respective angles, namely,
At station A, distance miles. Ang. 2° 48'
 B, 102^ 2° 19'
 C, I36tVo 1° 22'
and, by allowing for refraction, the height of this moun¬
tain is calculated at 27,677 feet above the plains of Go-
rak’hpur; which plains being 400 feet above the mouth
of the Ganges, it follows that the whole height of Dha-
wala-giri must be taken at more than 28,000 feet above
the level of the sea. By a subsequent calculation, how¬
ever, the height of this peak was reduced to 26,862 feet.
Of this and six other peaks, the following are the results
of Mr Colebrooke’s calculations, made from the observa¬
tions of Captain Webb:
Feet.
Dhawala-giri, “on the lowest computation”...26,862
Jamunawatari, or Jamautri 25,500
A mountain supposed to be Dhaibun 24,740
A nameless mountain 22,768
Another nameless mountain 24,625
Another, near the last 23,262
A third, in its vicinity 23,052
These heights are probably exaggerated; it appears,
indeed, that subsequent observations, made by Captain
Webb, with an excellent instrument, from the extremities
of a well-determined and sufficient base, have decided
them to be so. They make, for instance, the height of the
first “nameless mountain” in the above table only 21,000
feet above the plains of Rohilkhund, or 21,500 above the
level of the sea, being a deduction from Mr Colebrooke’s
calculation, for the same mountain, of 1268 feet.
The following table exhibits the results of Captain
Webb’s corrected observations, of no less than twenty-
seven different peaks of the Himalaya range, as taken in
the progress of his survey of Kumaon, but for the accu¬
racy of which he candidly admits it would be impossible to
vouch, in all the circumstances under which the observa¬
tions were taken. They are, however, in all probability,
not far from the truth :
No. of Peak. Altitude.
1  22,345
2  22,058
3  22,840
4  21,611
5  19,106
6  22,498
7  22,578
8  23,164
9  21,311
10  15,733
11  20,681
12  23,263
13  22,313
14  25,669
No. of Peak. Altitude.
15  22,419
16  17,994
17  19,153
18  21,439
19  22,635
20  20,407
21  19,099
22  19,497
23  22,727
24  22,238
25  22,277
26  21,045
27  20,923
After these trigonometrical deductions had been made,
Captain Webb had the good fortune to succeed in mak¬
ing several barometrical observations in the Nitee Pass,
through which Moorcroft had reached the plateau of Tar¬
tary. In his way thither he reached nearly the base ol
those lofty peaks of the Himalaya which tower above the
temple of Kedar-nath, and the altitudes of which are
amongst those previously determined by triangulation, at
a great distance, and seen under very small angles. He
had, however, at this place, the advantage of observing
one of these peaks under an angle of 26° 15' 15"; and
HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.
tr iva this, he says, gave him a result that agreed as well as could
Mow ins,be expected with the position and altitude he had for-
'u*- ^ merly assigned to it. The temple itself, by the mean of
five barometers, was found to be 11,897 feet above the
level of Calcutta, or about 12,000 above that of the sea,
vet no snow lay near it in the beginning of July.
*■ Captain Webb next proceeded to Josimuth, near the
commencement of the defile leading to the Nitee Pass,
where he met with one of the civil servants of the East
India Company proceeding on a mission to the frontier,
with a view of opening a commercial intercourse with the
Tartars. These subjects of China, however, declined all
connection with us, and pushed forward picquets of caval¬
ry to guard the pass. This untoward circumstance did
not deter Captain Webb from proceeding. On approach¬
ing the pass he experienced the same difficulty of breath¬
ing which occurred to Moorcroft, and from the influence
of which, he says, neither horses nor yaks are exempt.
The natives call it Bis-Kee-huiva, or the poisonous atmo¬
sphere ; and conceive it to be owing to the effluvia of cer¬
tain flowers.
He found in the pass a troop of Tartar cavalry, who,
with some inhabitants of Deba, received him kindly, and
consented to let him remain until an answer should be
received from Ghertope respecting his farther progress,
which, at the end of fifteen days, was a negative, or, which
amounted to the same thing, a reference to the viceroy
of Lassa. He had been permitted, however, to proceed
to the crest or highest ridge of the Nitee Ghaut, which
is at or near its farthest extremity, and to make his ob¬
servations, which are exceedingly interesting and import¬
ant. On the 21st of August, at three p. m., by the mean
of four barometers, the mercury stood at 16,27 inches, and
the thermometer at 47°; and on the same day and hour,
and the two preceding and following days, the state of the
barometer and thermometer at Dumdum, about fifty feet
above the sea, by a journal of the weather kept by Colonel
Hardwicke, was as follows :
Aug. 19, barometer 29,46 inches. Ther. 88°
20  29,46 84
21  29,48 85
22  29,48 84
23  29,65 81
Mean 29,51 84-4
From which the Nitee Ghaut above Dumdum must be
16,764 feet, and above the sea 16,814 feet. Yet, at this
extraordinary elevation, not a vestige of snow appeared
in the Ghaut, nor on the shoulder of the ridge on the left
of the pass, which rose to the height of 300 feet above it;
and hence it would appear that the lower point of conge¬
lation, on the northern or Tartarian side of the Hima¬
laya, is not less than seventeen thousand feet.
From the crest of the Ghaut Captain Webb was able
to perceive the line of the Sutledge winding through the
plain to the westward, and to take the angle of depression,
from which, and Moorcroft’s distance (generally found to be
correct), he determined the elevation of this lowest part of
the table-land of Thibet to be 15,924 feet. The angle of
depresssion was 1° 28' 10", and the distance 15£ British
miles. Notwithstanding this enormous elevation of 15,000
feet, the banks of the Sutledge afford the finest pastures
for myriads of quadrupeds ; and crops of a species of bar¬
ley called ooa, from which the natives make their bread,
are annually produced. Nay more ; on the cheeks of the
Nitee Pass plants were found that ripened their seed at
the height of 17,000 feet. These singular anomalies, so
utterly at variance with the theories of Humboldt, Leslie,
371
Kirwan, and all European writers on the subject, can only Himalaya
be explained with reference to the great radiation of heat Mountains,
from that vast extent of elevated land that rises out of Cen- '
tral Asia like the boss of a shield, creating as it were a new
atmosphere of its own. “ As the heat,” says the Baron de
Humboldt, “ of high regions of the atmosphere depends on
the radiation of the plains, it is conceived that, under the
same geographical parallel, <?ne may not find in the system
of transatlantic climates the isothermal lines of the same
elevation above the level of the sea, as in the system of Eu¬
ropean climates.” For the same reason, the system will
apply still less to the climates of Central Asia. The same
philosopher has observed, that the Cordilleras of the An¬
des, though they extend from north to south 120 degrees
of latitude, are, generally speaking, not more than from
two to three, and very rarely from four to five degrees in
breadth ; but the vast surface of table-land, supported by
the great Himalaya buttress, stretching from Daouria on
the east, to Belur-tagh on the west, through 47 degrees
oflongitude, and from the Altai on the north, to the Hi¬
malaya on the south, through a mean breadth of 20 degrees
of latitude, presents & plateau, more or less elevated, equal
to above three millions of square miles.
In confirmation of the great influence of radiated heat
from extensive elevated plains, some strong facts are exhi¬
bited both in America and Asia. Thus, on the mountains
which rise out of the elevated plain of Mexico, Hum¬
boldt observed the lower line of perpetual congelation, in
lat. 19o-20°, at 15,090 feet above the sea, which, by the
table of Professor Leslie, ought to have been at 13,560,
making a difference between fact and theory of 1530 feet.
The lower point on the side of Chimbora^, nearly under
the equator, was 15,746 feet, being only 656 feet higher
than on the mountains of Mexico; whereas, by Leslie’s
table, the difference ought to be 1729 feet. Compare,
again, the height of this lower limit of perpetual conge¬
lation on the side of Chimborazo with the observations of
Captain Webb in the Nitee Pass, and we have the extra¬
ordinary anomaly of a place in Asia, in 30° of latitude, hav¬
ing that limit higher by 1253 feet than another place in
America immediately under the equinoctial line, and at
5500 feet, or more than a mile, higher than it ought
to be in that parallel of latitude, according to the theory
on which Professor Leslie constructed his table.1
It is right to observe, however, that the same anomaly
exists, though in a less degree, on the southern face and
abutments of the Himalaya range. Ihus the elevation ot
Kedar-nath, at 12,000 feet, is below the verge of perpetual
snow, which in Europe, on the same parallel of latitude,
would be at 700 feet lower. Thus, also, the village and
temple of Milem, in lat. 30° 25', were not only without snow
at the height of 11,790 feet, but extensive fields of buck¬
wheat and Tartaric barley were growing at that elevation.
In the same degree oflatitude the same height in Europe
would be some hundred feet within the limits of perpetual
snow. At the same height, on the 21st ot June, Captain
Webb’s encampment was surrounded with flourishing
woods of oaks, of the long-leafed pine, and the arborescent
rhododendron, and the surface was clothed with a rank
vegetation. On the following day he determined the ele¬
vation of Pilgointi-Churhai Pass to be more than 12,700
feet above the sea; yet even here no snow was visible,
but the black soil was clad with creeping plants ; and the
shoulder of a mountain rising still higher was without a
vestige of snow, and appeared, as far as could be seen
through the mist, enamelled with flowers. The reflected
heat from the perpendicular face of the immense mass of
naked rock, on which snow cannot rest, exposed to the
1 See the article Climate.
372 H I M
Himilco. rays of a south-western sun, will probably be deemed suf-
’'■V'-' ficient to explain the anomaly which is found to exist on
the southern side of the chain.
Of the geological strata of these mountains we have
not as yet full information. Mr Baillie Fraser, who pene¬
trated to the very base of the great chain, at the head of
the Jumna and the Bhagiruttee branches, describes the first
and inferior hills of sandstone, more or less destructible,
of indurated clay, with beds of rounded pebbles and gra¬
vel. The second ridge of hills, rising to the height of 1500
to 5000 feet, are sharp, rough, and run into numerous
ridges, divided by deep shaggy dells ; and the crests of the
ridges are frequently so sharp that two persons can hardly
stand abreast upon them. Beyond these are a mass of
hills entirely composed of limestone, of a round, lumpish,
rugged character, whose highest points may be from 5000
to 7000 feet. Next to these commences the schistus, or
slate, which continues to the very roots of the Snowy
Mountains. All above appeared to be striated hard grey
gneiss, and a compact granite, which, Mr Fraser supposes,
is the material which constitutes the highest ridges and
crests of this great mountain range; but schistus is the
rock that mostly predominates. Hot springs are found
on both sides of the Himalaya; and copper, lead, and iron,
are commonly met with. Gold is also found in the beds
of the rivers. Captain Webb obtained the petrified bones
of an animal of the deer kind, which were dug out of a
bed of gravel, on the side of the Caillas Mountain, at least
16,000 feet above the level of the sea, a height at which,
it may safely be asserted, no other organic remains have
hitherto been discovered.
For some further statements of the height of the high¬
est peaks of the Andes, as compared with those of the Hi¬
malaya chain, see the article Asia.
HIMILCO, a celebrated navigator of Carthage, a con¬
temporary of Hanno, and equally distinguished for his ma¬
ritime discoveries. He was the first who ventured to tra¬
verse the Northern Ocean, and to examine the shores of
Great Britain; but the details of this voyage, which must
have been remarkable for its boldness at that early period,
have nearly disappeared in the lapse of years (Plin. ii. 67).
Festus Avienus, in his work entitled Ora Maritima^ has
preserved to us a few particulars, which, as it is the earliest
notice taken of our island, it may be interesting to give:
“ Here is the point of a high ridge, called in ancient times
CEstrymnis; the whole lofty mass of rocks faces the warm
south. In front of this promontory opens the bay Gistrym-
nicus, in which are found the islands CEstrymnides, rich
in tin and lead. The country is populous, and the inhabi¬
tants are remarkable for their pride, their active industry,
and their commercial spirit. They traverse, in small boats
made of skins, the boisterous sea and whirlpools of their
ocean, abounding in sea monsters. Two days sail, you reach
the island of the Hiberni, and near them you have the island
of Albion.” The CEstrymnides are evidently the Scilly
Islands, which were afterwards called Cassiterides. This
voyage is supposed to have taken place in the sixth century
before the Christian era.
Himilco, a senator of the Barcine or popular faction at
Carthage, who warmly supported the policy of Hannibal in
attacking the Romans in their own country. The successful
battle fought 216 b. c. at Cannae, was to him a convincing
proof of the correctness of their policy, and he did not fail to
take advantage of this opportunity to inveigh loudly and sar¬
castically against the gloomy predictions of his opponents,
and the more cautious policy which they recommended.
(Liv. xxiii. 12.) The severe defeats sustained by the Ro¬
mans in Italy had shaken the fidelity of even their more
faithful allies, and it was not to be expected that their more
distant conquests in Sicily could be retained without a
complete supremacy of power. Many of the cities in that
H I N
island had abandoned their cause; and Himilco, who com- nm
manded the fleet at Pachymnon, 214 b. c., returned to j|
Carthage to press on the attention of the executive the himh
necessity of more decisive measures. His representations /'“osh
were attended to, and he landed at Heraclea with a force Wy>
which he imagined to be sufficient to drive the Romans from
Sicily. He took the city of Agrigentum, but his subse¬
quent success was by no means equal to the sanguine ex¬
pectations he had entertained. Marcellus still maintained
his position before the city of Syracuse, and the fearful ex¬
ample he made of the people of Euna prevented even the
most disaffected cities from openly declaring in favour of
the Carthaginians. (Liv. xxiv. 35-39.) At last the critical
position of Syracuse imperatively required some efforts to
be made for its relief, and Himilco, with his colleague
Hippocrates, suddenly took up positions so as to render
the besiegers the besieged. The boldness of this proceed¬
ing was not followed by measures sufficiently vigorous. A
pestilential fever succeeded, which attacked the Carthagi¬
nians with more severity than the Romans, and Himilco,
with the whole body of his countrymen, fell a victim to its
ravages, b. c. 212. This melancholy end of Himilco was
the death-knell to the liberties of Syracuse. (Liv. xxv. 26.)
HIN, a Hebrew measure of capacity for things liquid,
containing the sixth part of an ephah, or one gallon two
pints English measure.
HINCKLEY, a town of the hundred of Sparkenhoe, in
the county of Leicester, 100 miles from London. It is
built on an eminence in a fertile country, and is chiefly in¬
habited by persons employed in the hosiery trade. There
was formerly a castle, now converted into a modern dwel¬
ling, and a Benedictine monastery; and the town must
once have been of greater extent than it is at present.
There is a well-supplied market which is held on Monday.
The population amounted in 1801 to 5070, in 1811 to
6058, in 1821 to 6706, and in 1831 to 6468.
HINDIA, a district of Hindustan, in the Mahratta ter¬
ritories, in the province of Khandesh. It is situated be¬
tween the twenty-second and twenty-third degrees of north
latitude, and is bounded on the north by the Nerbuddah,
and on the south by the Cattygong hills. The country is
fertile. Hindia, the capital of this district, is a fortified
town, and is pleasantly situated on the northern bank of
the Nerbuddah river. Long. 77. 10. E. Lat. 22. 31. N.
HINDON, a borough-town of the county of Wilts, for¬
merly a part of the parish of East Knowle, in the hundred
of Downton. It is ninety-six miles from London, has a
small market on Thursday, and its population amounted in
1801 to 793, in 1811 to 781, in 1821 to 830, and in 1831
to 932.
HIND ONE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Agra. It was formerly a large city, but has suffered se¬
verely from the depredations of the Mahrattas. Long
77. E. Lat. 26. 45. N.
HINDU Coosh, or Kosh, a portion of the Himalaya
range of mountains, in Afghanistan. They form the
north-west boundary of the province of Caubul, separating
it from Balk and Buduckshan. The range of mountains
so denominated extends in a south-westerly direction as far
as the snowy peak of Hindu Coosh, nearly north of Cau¬
bul. These mountains are covered with snow the greater
part of the year, and void of verdure at the summit, but
are well wooded at the base. They form the Caucasus
range of the ancients. From the peak of Hindu Coosh
the height diminishes; it no longer bears perpetual snow;
and it is soon afterwards lost in a group of mountains which
stretch in length from Caubul to Herat in Persia, and
occupy more than two degrees of latitude in their breadth.
Through these mountains there are seven passages; the
principal of which are at Bajaruch, Anderab, Tool, Bamian,
and Abderah.
373
HINDUSTAN.
j,. , m< Hindustan has from the earliest ages been celebrated
^ as one of the most highly favoured countries on the globe,
and as abounding in the choicest productions both of na¬
ture and art. In ancient times, this distant region was
very imperfectly known to the Greeks and other nations
of the West; but they imported its most valuable pro¬
duce, its diamonds, its aromatics, its silks, and its costly
manufactures. The country which abounded in those
expensive luxuries was naturally reputed to be the seat of
immense riches, and every romantic tale of its felicity and
glory was readily believed. In the middle ages, an ex¬
tensive commerce with India was still maintained through
the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea ; and its precious pro¬
duce, imported into Europe by the merchants of Venice,
confirmed the popular opinion of its high refinement and
its vast wealth. After the discovery of a passage to India
by the Cape of Good Hope, the same ideas still prevail¬
ed; and the maritime states of Europe contended with
their fleets and armies for the dominion of the Asiatic
seas, and for the commerce of the country. The Portu¬
guese, and afterwards the Dutch, made important con¬
quests, and carried on an extensive trade. In later times,
Great Britain and France appeared on the field as com¬
petitors for the prize of Indian commerce and dominion,
and were allowed to establish factories on the coasts for
the reception and the store of goods. These were gra¬
dually converted into military posts, defended by soldiers
and cannon; and in due time those two powers were ran¬
ged on opposite sides in all the wars and politics of In¬
dia. This contest terminated in the triumph of the Bri¬
tish arms. France lost her pre-eminence on the continent
of India; and her great rival, enlarging her power on every
side, gradually rose to greatness and dominion, and now
rules with undisputed sway from the Himalaya Mountains
to Cape Comorin. This vast extension of the British
power in the East has opened the way into the interior
of India. It has tended greatly to enlarge our knowledge
of this distant region; and if more accurate inquiry has
reduced the marvellous tales of its glory and greatness
within the bounds o'f sobriety and truth, Hindustan, the
seat of industry, of commerce, and of the arts, when Eu¬
rope was sunk in barbarism, the scene of many eventful re¬
volutions, from the Mahommedan invasion till its conquest
by the armies of Britain, and inhabited by a people of pe¬
culiar manners, laws, institutions, and religion, still pre¬
sents a wide field for interesting inquiry and speculation.
In the following account of this interesting country, we
propose to describe, I. Its geography and natural features ;
its produce, its animals, its manufactures and commerce;
the numerous races by which it is inhabited, with their
manners, religion, and policy; and the wars and political
revolutions which have terminated in establishing the sway
of Great Britain over nearly the whole continent of India.
II* The transactions and internal policy of the East India
Company, with the various reforms introduced into the
revenue, judicial, and police departments, will afford ample
materials for a separate discussion and inquiry. And, III.
A brief account will be given of the constitution, commer¬
cial privileges, and pecuniary transactions of the Company,
originally merchants, now the sovereigns of a vast empire.
Ge raphy. I* The ancient geographers had no precise ideas of the
extent of Hindustan or India, terms which we mean to
use synonymously in the following article; and they ac¬
cordingly extended its frontier westward as far as Persia,
and eastward to China. In after ages its limits often fluc¬
tuated with the events of war, and served only to mark
out the course of conquest, with little or no attention to Hindustan,
geographical accuracy. Yet in no part of the earth has
nature pointed out, in the great features of the country,
more distinct and magnificent boundaries. On the north
it is separated from the elevated table-land of Thibet by
the precipitous wall of the Himalaya Mountains, the high¬
est land of the Asiatic continent; on the west the Indus
divides it in its course to the sea from Afghanistan ; while
the great river Brahmapootra may be said to constitute
its eastern boundary, or, more accurately perhaps, that
range of hills and forests that skirt the Bengal districts of
Chittagong and Tipperah, and stretch southward to the
point where the Brahmapootra, after having long flowed
in a westerly course, makes a sudden sweep to the south.
The Indus and the Ganges discharge themselves into the
ocean on the western and eastern coasts of Hindustan, in
about 24<0 and 25° north latitude; and to the south the
country is contracted into an irregular triangle, projecting
into the Indian Ocean to within eight degrees of the equa¬
tor, or about 1000 miles, and on all sides enclosed by the
sea. The extensive region situated within these limits is
nearly comprehended between the 8th and 35th degrees
of north latitude, and between the longitudes of 68° and
91° east; and its length from the northern barrier of the
Himalaya Mountains to Cape Comorin is about 1900 miles,
whilst in breadth it may be estimated at 1500 miles,
though, owing to the irregularity of its figure, it does not
exceed 1,280,000 English square miles.
Hindustan is of an extremely diversified aspect, and Natural
comprehends within its bounds all the varieties of climate, features,
of soil, and of natural scenery, from the bare and naked
rock, and lofty mountain buried under eternal snows, to
the low and fertile plain, scorched by the tropical sun,
and the seat of luxuriant vegetation. This diversity in
the aspect of the country has given rise to the following
territorial divisions, namely,
1. Northern Hindustan, which comprehends the Hima¬
laya Mountains on the north, with their lower ranges of
hills, extending southward to the great plain of the Ganges;
and which includes Cashmere on the west, and the coun¬
try of Bootan on the east.
2. Hindustan Proper, which extends southward as far
as the Nerbuddah river, where the Deccan commences,
and which includes the following provinces, namely, Ben¬
gal, Bahar, Allahabad, Oude, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Cash-
mere, Ajmeer, Moultan, Cutch, Gujerat, and Malwah.
3. The Deccan, bounded on the north by the Nerbud¬
dah river, and on the south by the rivers Krishna and
Toombudra, comprehends the provinces of Gundwana,
Orissa, the Northern Circars, Khandesh, Berar, Beeder,
Hyderabad, Aurungabad, and Bejapoor.
4. India south of the Krishna river, comprehending the
provinces of Canara, Malabar, Cochin, Travancore, Balag-
haut Ceded Districts, Mysore, Coimbetore, Salem and the
Barramahal, and the Carnatic.
1. The alpine region of Hindustan, which forms its
northern barrier, is a narrow strip of land not exceeding
150 miles in breadth. It is here that the land of Asia at¬
tains to its height; and the country is composed of a suc¬
cession of vast mountains rising far above the level of per¬
petual snow. These frozen deserts consist in many places
of rugged and bare rocks, shooting aloft into the sky, and
divided by deep ravines, very steep, and often ending in
dark chasms, which are sometimes wooded, but as often
bare rocks several hundred feet in height, with little more
space between them than has been worn by the violence
HINDUSTAN.
374
Hindustan, of the torrents. Here is concentrated all that is sublime
in the scenery or phenomena of nature. On every side
are to be seen snowy summits of stupendous height, and
of every form; the conical volcanic peak; the mountain
regularly rounded, or broken into rugged and frightful pre¬
cipices, rising upwards to a tremendous height, or descend¬
ing with a frightful declivity into deep hollows, and all
covered with snow. This mountainous and frozen region
is the scene of the destructive avalanche, when the ac¬
cumulated snows of successive winters are precipitated
from the mountains into the plains below, burying every
thing in their progress; or when the action of the intense
cold upon the solid rock rends it from its base, and sends
it bounding down the steep, producing the most fearful
ruin of every thing beneath. Mr Moorcroft, who in the
year 1816 penetrated across the Himalaya ridge, mentions
the tremendous crash from the fall of a rock, which he
heard at a great distance. The slope of a hill he also saw
broken from top to bottom. “ In its fall,” he observes, “ it
has overwhelmed large trees, of which some have been hurl¬
ed into the river, others lay across its bed half buried in
rubbish, and others, thrown down, were seen hanging by
their roots with their heads towards the base of the moun¬
tain.” The southern face of the Himalaya Mountains is
much more steep than the northern descent into the table¬
land of Thibet, and it is in proportion difficult and danger¬
ous. There is nothing like a road in these mountainous
districts. The traveller has to scale the most terrific heights,
by a path so narrow as not to admit two abreast, which
winds along the mountain, and often along bare and per¬
pendicular precipices, by a narrow and irregular flight
of steps, or by natural irregularities in the face of the
polished marble rock, and sometimes by a projecting ledge
not more than a foot broad, whilst a declivity of 600 or 700
feet in depth opens on the outer side. These steps, at cer¬
tain projecting points, where the rock is perpendicular, wind
in lines of zigzag not more than ten or twelve feet in length,
at angles so sharp that, in a length of twenty-four feet, the
actual height gained is not more than ten feet, and they
are often placed at most inconvenient distances, which
greatly increases the danger and the difficulty of access,
except to those hardy mountaineers who have been trained
from their infancy to agility and steadiness in such tremen¬
dous paths. Mr Moorcroft himself had on one occasion a
narrow escape. “ My left foot,” he says, “ having slipped off
one of these irregularities, I lay for a few seconds upon the
poise ; but a snatch at a clump of grass, which on being
seized did not give way, and a sudden spring, brought me
to a comparatively safe spot, with the loss of some skin
from my knees and elbows, and some rents in my trowsers
and sleeves.”1 His Hindu attendants encountered the same
perils, and one of them had very nearly fallen down the
precipice. On missing his footing, he mentions that “ he
shrieked violently, and sunk down almost senseless upon a
point of stone, with one leg hanging over the abyss, calling
out that he was lost.” Another of the bearers was so
alarmed that he was incapable of proceeding until he w as
secured by a turban tied round his waist, and held by one
of his companions. In some places the rock wTas found to
project to the edge of the river, and it was turned by rude
staircases made of wood and stone, or the path lay over im¬
mense stones and rocks, piled up in dangerous disorder, where
it was very difficult to secure a footing; whilst in other places
the party had to aid their ascent by laying hold of shrubs,
roots ot trees, clumps of grass, and clods of earth, or by creep¬
ing on both hands and knees to prevent slipping down. Yet
the heavily loaded native carriers, each carrying a weight of
60 pounds, are seen descending these difficult passes with Hindust
apparent ease and unconcern.2 Lieutenant Webb, who in w-y>
1808, along with Captains Raper and Hearsay, was sent
to explore the sources of the Ganges, experienced the same
dangers as Mr Moorcroft, and was finally compelled to desist
from his hazardous journey when he had reached within
six or seven days’journey of Gangoutri. The country here
assumes a savage wildness, and, except in the passes or
beds of the rivers, is totally impervious ; and these rivers, in
approaching their sources, from rapid and turbulent streams
flowing over a rocky channel, become furious torrents, dash¬
ing from one huge block of stone to another, along which
the traveller, climbing over rocks, or picking his dangerous
way along the path of precipices, as already described, is at
last met by masses of mighty ruins, which entirely check
his further progress. More recently these wild regions
have been explored by that enterprising traveller Dr Ge¬
rard, who crossed the great Himalaya pass, and penetrated
into the plateau of Tartary. The abstract of his tour,
given in the Asiatic Journal, is replete with valuable infor¬
mation, and confirms all the previous accounts of travellers
respecting the nature of the country, rude and inaccessi¬
ble, and exhibiting, on a scale of grandeur hardly to be
conceived, all the great phenomena of nature.
The Himalaya Mountains contain the sources of the
great rivers which flow through the burning plains of Hin¬
dustan. The deep valleys between the mountains are the
channels through which the waters flow from the higher
grounds ; and, by the melting of the snow, those streams,
suddenly swoln into torrents, and rushing down the de¬
clivity, work out a deep and narrow channel amongst the
rocks, where, imprisoned as it were between steep and
perpendicular banks, they roar and foam amidst precipices,
or in dark and unfathomable glens, exhibiting, in the con¬
flict of their troubled waters, all the great phenomena
which belong to rivers, namely, the cataract, the rapid,
the boiling eddy, and the dangerous whirlpool, and only
subside into smoothness when they break out and spread
over the plains. Huge rocks were seen by Dr Gerard
whirled along with frightful velocity; nothing visible but
an entire sheet of foam and spray, thrown up and shower¬
ed upon the surrounding rocks with loud concussion,
and re-echoed from bank to bank with the noise of the
loudest thunder. Across these streams are thrown rude
bridges made of ropes or of wood, the usual expedient by
which rivers are crossed in all mountain countries. Where
the breadth of the river is small, the passage is effected
by one or two fir spars laid across from rock to rock;
but where the space is wider, a bridge of ropes is con¬
structed, on the principle of the chain bridge. In attempt¬
ing the passage by one of these rude bridges, a carrier who
accompanied Fraser in his journey to the sources of the
Ganges unfortunately lost his footing and fell into the
water. He was instantly swept down the stream to its
junction with the Bhagiruttee, about fifty yards, “ when
his head,” says the traveller, “ appeared for a moment,
and his load floating beside him ; but the foaming current
of the Bhagiruttee, here tumbling over large rocks with
a mighty roar, seized him and hurried him along with
its tremendous torrent.”
The height of the great Himalaya range has been fixed
by accurate measurements at between 26,000 and 27,000
feet above the level of the sea. According to the ac¬
counts of all travellers, these mountains present from the
plains below one of the sublimest aspects in nature, and
they are at a loss for words to express the admiration and
awe with which they are first beheld. Bishop Heber
1 See Moorcroft’s Journal, Asiatic Researches, vol. xii. p. 386.
2 Fraser, Journal of a Tour through part of the Snowy Range of the Himalaya Mountains.
HINDUSTAN.
375
m. mentions that the nearest range rises into a dignity and
^ grandeur which he was not prepared for, divided as it is
into successive ridges, in all the wildest and most ro¬
mantic forms of ravine, forest, crag, and precipice. In
his further progress he found “ one range of mountains
after another quite as rugged, and, generally speaking,
more bare than those which we had left, till the horizon
was terminated by a vast range of ice and snow, extend¬
ing its battalion of white shining spears from east to
west, as far as the eye could follow it; the principal
points rising like towers in the glittering rampart, but all
connected by a chain of humbler glaciers.” Captain
Raper, who accompanied Lieutenant Webb in his survey
of the Ganges, viewed the Himalaya ridge from a sum¬
mit about 4000 feet above the lower plain. “ From the
edge of the scarp,” he observes, “ the eye extended over
seven or eight distinct chains of hills, one rising above
the other, till the view was terminated by the Himalaya
or Snowy Mountains. It is necessary for a person to
place himself in our situation before he can form a just
conception of the scene. The depth of the valley below,
the progressive elevation of the intermediate hills, and
the majestic splendour of the cloud-capt Himalaya, form¬
ed so grand a picture, that the mind was impressed with
a sensation of dread rather than of pleasure.’’1 “ The
stupendous height of those mountains,” says Elphinstone,
“ the magnificence and variety of their lofty summits ; the
various nations by whom they are seen, and who seem to
be brought together by this common object; and the aw¬
ful and undisturbed solitude which reigns amidst their
eternal snows, fill the mind with admiration and astonish¬
ment that no language can express.”2
Northern Hindustan varies in its climate and in its as¬
pect with the height of the ground. The lower ranges of
mountains, though they scarcely reach the level of per¬
petual snow, still retain the sublime features of alpine
scenery; namely, the rugged and bare mountain, the
craggy rock, white, gray, red, or brown, springing up in
fantastic forms above the general mass ; and the deep and
suddenly descending chasm, with the foul torrent foam¬
ing over its rocky bed. The luxuriant foliage is wanting
which embellishes the lower hills ; the rich and smil¬
ing valley is not so often seen; whilst the forests of dark
brown fir fringing the mountains and the hollow’s impart
a sombre and unvarying appearance to the scene. At
a lower level the country improves; and though it still
exhibits the mountain and the precipice, the intervening
valley is clothed with verdure, and the lower hills with
the most magnificent forests of large and lofty trees, the
open country with roses, jasmines, and other lovely or
odoriferous shrubs, and with the most luxuriant alpine
plants.3 The valleys through which flow the head waters
of the Indus and the Ganges, namely, the Sutlege, the
Pabur, the Jumna, the Bhagiruttee, the Alkananda, with
their tributaries, exhibit all the varied and sublime scenery
of this romantic country. The valley of the Sutlege is
hemmed in by brown and barren mountains, steep and rocky,
without the grandeur of lofty precipices or fringing wood.
The hollows through which it receives its tributary streams
are dark chasms, without cultivation ; the heights crown¬
ed with forts, but without any neat villages surrounded
with trees to relieve the adjacent desert. The banks of
the Jumna, on the other hand, though rocky and wild, are
wooded and green, and the sloping faces of the hills fer¬
tile and well cultivated ; and even at its source, the coun¬
try, however wild and picturesque, is still not nearly so
dreary as the valley of the Bhagiruttee. The features of
the landscape are here lofty, rugged, and inaccessible, Hindustan,
with less of the beautiful than of the sublime and terrible.
A pleasing contrast to this wild scenery is presented by
the smiling valley through which the Pabur meanders,
chequered as it is with pasture and crops, and the banks
and the hills clothed w ith cultivation, villages, and wood.
Such is the usual aspect of the lower valley of Northern
Hindustan, the height of which is for the most part from
3000 to 6000 feet above the plains. The difference be ¬
tween the northern and southern exposures of this moun¬
tainous country is remarkable, not only in the formation
and structure of the hills and rocks, but in the vegetation.
The country on its southern face is of a brown and dusky
colour ; the grass short and parched ; the hills rough and
lumpy, with rocks standing through the ground; the
lower parts bare of wood; and above, the Weymouth pine,
with a few stunted larches sprinkled amongst the rocks;
whilst the higher parts are spread over with oak, holly,
and alder, their leaves of brownish green, harmonising
with the burned appearance of the hills, and giving a
sombre hue to the whole scene. On the northern expo¬
sure a rich colour of dark green is diffused over the whole
landscape ; the rocky sides of the glens are bolder and
grander ; and they are clothed with noble forests of larch,
silver, and spruce firs, which shroud from the view the
highest and steepest cliffs. “ All,” says Fraser, “ was
rich and dark; and here and there a glade opened, or a
high slope extended from the base of the rock, or project¬
ed between two streams, of a bright beautiful green, shin¬
ing through the sombre forest.” This difference between
the northern and southern exposures is strongly marked
all over the hills.4
That strip of flat country, about twenty miles in breadth,
which lies at the base of the great Himalaya range, di¬
viding it from the plain of the Ganges, is called Terrae
or Terreeana. It is covered with thick forests and low
swamps, and, though fertile, is so unhealthy that it is little
cultivated. Bishop Heber graphically describes it as a long,
black, level line, extending at the foot of the lowest hills,
“ so black and level,” he adds, “ that it might seem to have
been drawn with ink and a ruler.” This flat does not ex¬
tend farther north-west than through a portion of Rohilcund,
where the healthy cultivated country reaches to the foot of
the hills, which rise abruptly from the sandy flat beneath.
These low hills are watered by streams from the higher
mountains, that rise to the level of 1500 or 5000 feet, from
which this lower range is frequently separated by fine
valleys of some length, which are called doon by the na¬
tives, answering to the Scottish name of strath. The hills
which rise beyond this lower range to the height of about
5000 to 7000 feet, are lofty and majestic, and broken into
numerous ridges, divided by deep shaggy dells. This
appearance Fraser ascribes to the quality of the rock of
which they are composed, which consists of a strongly
indurated clay, with a mixture of siliceous matter, form¬
ing a rock exceedingly hard, though easily destructible
by exposure to the air, and splitting into variously-sized
fragments, leaving hard marbly masses staring through
the scanty soil. It may be finally remarked of this sin¬
gular and interesting country, that though it appears from
the plains to be divided into distinct ranges or terraces, it
is really a vast collection of mountains heaped in masses
one above another, without any order or plan that can be
discovered, until the height of land is reached at the
great Himalaya ridge, which extends from beyond the
sources of the Indus in a continuous chain far into China.
The great plain of Hindustan presents an entirely dif-
See Raper’s Narrative of a Survey of the Sources of the Ganges, Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 4G9.
Rlphinstone’s Journey to the Kingdom of Caubul, p. 95. 3 Fraser’s Journal, p. 141.
* Ibid. p. 142.
376
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, ferent scene. The cold and bracing air of the upper
country is there exchanged for burning heat; the moun¬
tain torrents no longer rage, except when they are in
flood, but roll their streams lazily over the plains. That
large tract which is contained between the Indus and the
Brahmapootra, and which extends east and west from
1200 to 1400 miles, and about 300 or 400 miles from north
to south, is, with few exceptions, a level country, consist¬
ing chiefly of the great plain of the Ganges, rich and fer¬
tile, and clothed with the most luxuriant vegetation, in
which the spreading palm, with groves of mango and
other trees of the most luxuriant foliage, and gardens, are
intermixed with cultivated fields. The noble river which
intersects this extensive plain determines the aspect and
character of the country. Its swelling stream, as it ap¬
proaches the sea in the provinces of Bahar and Bengal, is
very broad and deep, and waters so completely the whole
country, that in the driest season there is scarcely any part
more than twenty miles distant from some river; and by
means of lakes, rivulets, and water courses, boats may ap¬
proach the peasant’s door. During the annual inundation,
a large tract of cultivated country is submerged to a great
depth; and the lower part of the Delta, named the Sun-
derbunds, is chequered by a labyrinth of creeks and rivers,
expanding to a breadth of two hundred miles ; the actual
inundation reaching a breadth of one hundred miles, in
which trees and villages are seen like islands appearing
above the water. Higher up the stream the inundation
is diminished in extent; and in the province of Bahar the
river is not above a mile broad, the country being flat and
fertile, though not so abundant in trees as the rich plains
of Bengal. Towards the w'est, the plain watered by the
Ganges and its tributary streams yields in abundance all
the productions of the tropics ; especially the Dooab, or
the tract that lies between the Jumna and the Ganges,
the provinces of Allahabad and Agra, and in general all
the alluvial tracts near the rivers. At a distance from
these; irrigation is resorted to by the cultivators, and
deep wells are dug. The plain is diversified by ranges
of hills, wdth abrupt peaks occasionally shooting up, and
crowned with forts, in which, during the decay of the
Mogul empire, the rebellious or robber chiefs sought to
secure a precarious independence. The plain of Hindus¬
tan is generally fertile when water can be obtained ; and, as
it approaches the mountains, in the northern provinces of
Oude and Delhi, and is watered by the numerous streams
flowing towards the Ganges, it is flat, fertile, and rich,
except towards the western borders of Delhi, on the verge
of the great desert, where sterile tracts occur, without cul¬
tivation or inhabitants. Towards the south-western por¬
tion of the plain, near the Nerbuddah, in the province of
Malwah, the country is of greater elevation, but has a re¬
gular descent from the Vindhya Mountains, which extend
along the north side of the river, as is pointed out by the
course of the numerous streams that still flow northward
into the Ganges. But the aspect of the country changes
as it recedes from this great stream ; the overflowing river
no longer spreads over the plain, and forms a navigable
water-course ; it is now merely a mountain torrent, of no
depth to float down the produce of the country. West¬
ward, in approaching the Indian Ocean, wild tracts occur,
hilly and rocky, and overgrown with jungles, the haunts
of wild beasts and of robbers ; and, still further west, the
province of Cutch is a cold, sterile waste, half covered
with a salt morass called the Runn. In the interior of
Hindustan, large and fertile tracts have been laid waste
by misrule, or the devastations of war : these are overrun
with a rank vegetation, which quickly springs up under the
quickening influence of a tropical sun ; and which, con¬
sisting of tall trees with spreading branches, interwoven
into an impenetrable fence with brushwood, and with innu¬
merable shrubs and creeping plants clinging round the Hin(iusta
trees, and lacing them firmly together, forms thick jungles,
affording abundant cover to the wild animals of the coun¬
try, and to gangs of banditti, who are even more ferocious
than the beasts of the field.
Hindustan, as well as almost all other tropical countries,
would soon be changed, by the great heat, into deserts
of sand, like a large portion of Africa, if it were not re¬
freshed by the periodical rains and the overflow of the
rivers. In the plain of Hindustan, towards the west, oc¬
curs a tract of this description, which, having neither rains
nor refreshing streams, still remains an arid sand. This
great desert reaches northward as far as the Chinaub,
one of the five tributary rivers of the Indus, and to the
south as far as the salt lakes of Cutch, which communicate
with the Gulf of Cutch in the Indian Ocean. It extends
about five hundred miles from north to south, and is about
four hundred miles in breadth, encroaching eastward on
the cultivated parts of the Delhi and Agra provinces, and
westward on the country fertilized by the Indus. Mr El-
phinstone, in his journey to Afghanistan, travelled across
this waste, which he describes as consisting mostly of hil¬
locks of loose and deep sand, from twenty to a hundred feet
in height, which in summer are blown aloft in clouds by the
wind, and threaten to overwhelm the traveller. Here a
miserable village is sometimes seen, which is merely a few
round straw huts, with low walls and conical roofs, like
little stacks of corn, surrounded by hedges of dry thorny
branches stuck in the sand. A few fields, watered by the
dews and the rains, surround these abodes of misery, and
yield crops of the poorest kinds of pulse, and coarse grain.
Water is scarce, and is only obtained from wells often three
hundred feet deep, with a diameter of only three feet, and
all lined with masonry. One was seen by Mr Elphinstone
of the enormous depth of 345 feet, with such a scanty sup¬
ply of unwholesome brackish water, that the whole was
drawn out, by two bullocks turning the water wheel, in a
single night. In this sandy desert springs up in profusion
the most juicy of all fruits, the water-melon. From about
the western frontier of Ajmeer, at Shekawutty, to Baha-
wulpoor, the distance is 280 miles, of which the western
portion, for 100 miles, is wholly destitute of inhabitants,
water, and vegetation. In the Punjab, the abundance of
water corrects the sterility of the soil; qpd in the country
watered by the five well-known rivers which flow into the
Indus, cultivation, with waving grass and trees, marks the
termination of the desert. In the north-western extremity
of Hindustan, high up the Indus, and embosomed amongst
lofty mountains, is situated the Valley of Cashmere, cele¬
brated in oriental tales for its romantic beauty. Here the
eastern princes, in the days of their prosperity, were wont
to retire, and to seek in those sequestered scenes of natural
beauty a brief oblivion of their daily cares.
The country to the south of Nerbuddah, namely, theDec-
can, extending north-west and south-east 800 miles, com¬
prehends the whole breadth of Hindustan, between the Ner¬
buddah on the north and the Krishna or Kistnah river on the
south. The western range of the Ghaut Mountains, rising up
with the steepness of a wall from the shore of the Indian
Ocean, runs along the coast southward from the river Tap-
tee, as far as Cape Comorin, and forms the highest land,
only about seventy, or in some places forty miles, from the
western shore; whilst on the opposite side the distance east¬
ward to the coast is from three to six or seven hundred miles.
Owing to this conformation of the ground, all the rivers
of any size or length of course, such as the Godavery am
the Krishna, which water the Deccan, and the Conjeveram
and the Cavery, which belong to Southern India, roll down
the eastern declivity of the Ghauts, there being no space on
the western declivity for the formation of any other than a
mountain stream. These mountains also diverge in ridges
HINDUSTAN.
377
Uusi .across the country of the Deccan, which on the eastern
-U coast is low, flat, and sandy, with the exception, however,
of the tract between the Godavery and Kistna or Krishna
rivers, 150 miles in length, along the sea shore, and forty
miles broad, composed of rich vegetable mould, such as is
usually found at the mouths of rivers, and remarkably fer¬
tile. In the interior, the country, especially towards the
north, is wild, woody, mountainous, and overrun with thick
jungle ; in some parts, as in the province of Gundwana, it
is a primeval wilderness, inhabited by barbarous tribes,
who owe their safety to their poverty. Towards the south
and the west, in the provinces of Hyderabad, Beder, and
Berar, the ground rises into a table-land, which declines
towards the north in the province of Khandesh ; and it is
hilly, though not mountainous, well watered, and in many
parts fertile; but towards the south, large tracts have been
desolated by war and robbery; and ruined towns, and wasted
fields overgrown with jungle, still remain, the sad memo¬
rials of those calamities. The western provinces of Au-
rungabad and Bejapoor extend towards the Indian Ocean,
and include the Western Ghauts, which rise to the height of
about three thousand feet above the level of the sea. They
abound in all the interesting aspects of mountain scenery,
and are studded with fortresses and natural strongholds.
The eastern declivity stretches out into a table-land, with
plains well watered and productive ; whilst the intervening
strip of land, from the mountains to the sea, is in general
flat and sandy, but improves as it approaches the moun¬
tains, which are fringed with noble forests of teak and
other valuable trees. Numerous mountain streams, but
no rivers of magnitude, make their way to the sea from
the Western Ghauts; and there are few coasts so much
broken into small bays andhar bours, with so straight a
general outline.
To the south of the Kistna river, the country forms
a triangle, of which this river is the base, and the coasts
of Coromandel and Malabar the sides. Its extent from
the Kistna to Cape Comorin, which is the point of the
triangle, is 600 miles; and its breadth in the widest
point is about 550. It may be shortly described as a table¬
land 3000 feet in height, containing the central provinces
of Balaghaut, Mysore, and Coimbetore, and enclosed on
each side by the Western and Eastern Ghauts, from which
the country descends on both sides to the sea; on the east
to the Bay of Bengal, and on the west to the Indian Ocean,
forming the two provinces of the Carnatic and of Mala¬
bar ; the latter a narrow strip of low country, extending
200 miles along the coast, much broken, and interspersed
with back-water runs and extensive ravines, shaded with
forest and jungle, and filled with population; the former
also a long narrow tract, stretching 570 miles along the
shore, and nowhere more than 120 miles in breadth, and
commonly not more than seventy-five. T he Eastern Ghauts
extend from the Cavery to the Kistna. They are not so
high as the western range; and naked, sun-burnt, and
rocky peaks are more commonly seen amongst them. The
table-land in the centre descends both towards the north
and south, its elevation in the southern province of Coim¬
betore not exceeding 900 feet. It is extremely diversified
with woods, waste, and jungles ; and cultivation is here, as
in other parts of India, carried on by means of large tanks
containing a supply of water for the irrigation of the land.
In descending from the hills into the southern plains of
Travancore, which extend to the Indian Ocean, the coun¬
try presents a varied prospect of hill and dale, and wind¬
ing streams which clothe the valleys in perennial green;
and the grandeur of the scene is heightened by the lofty
forests which cover the mountains, producing pepper, cas¬
sia, frankincense, and other aromatic gums.
The following are the chief rivers of Hindustan, with
the length of their respective courses to the sea:—Indus,
VOL. XI.
1700; Brahmapootra, 1650; Ganges, 1500; Jumna (to Hindustan,
its junction with the Ganges 780), 1500; Sutlege (to
the Indus 900), 1490; Ghylum (to the Indus 750), 1250;
Gunduck (to the Ganges 450), 980. In the Deccan and
south of India, the Godavery, 850; Kistna, 700; Ner-
buddah, 700 ; Mahanuddy, 550 ; Tuptee, 460 ; Cavery,
400. There are few coasts of such extent, so destitute of
islands and harbours as that of Hindustan. With the ex¬
ception of emerged sea banks and mere rocks, Ceylon is
the only island near its shores; and on the eastern coast,
Masulipatam, which admits vessels of 300 tons burden, is
the only harbour for large vessels between Trincomalee in
the island of Ceylon, and the Ganges, which is free from
a raging surf. To this inconvenience Madras, though an
important British settlement, is peculiarly liable. On the
western coast, the only harbour capable of admitting large
vessels is Bombay; Mangalore admits no vessels drawing
more than ten feet, and this only at the height of the tide.
Hindustan comprehends within its bounds the opposite Climate,
extremes of heat and cold. The plains are burnt up with in¬
tense heat; whilst winter, with every intermediate variety
of temperature, prevails in the mountains. Philosophers
have in vain endeavoured to fix the point of perpetual con¬
gelation under dilferent degrees of latitude. They have
indeed framed a graduated scale of the respective heights
at which, according to calculation, this point should begin
at corresponding distances from the equator. But theory
is here at variance with actual observation. The climate
of mountainous tracts depends so much on localities and the
particular course of the winds, as to baffle all general spe¬
culation. Hence in the Himalaya Mountains harvests of
grain are found, where, according to hypothesis, the ground
should be buried under deep snow, and trees are seen to
flourish in the regions of perpetual winter. Captain Webb,
in ascending the Himalaya range, saw around him, at the
height of 11,630 feet above the level of Calcutta, rich fo¬
rests of oak, pine, and rhododendra, the ground covered with
vegetation as high as the knee, strawberry beds in full flower,
and currant bushes in blossom; and in 1818, at the Niti
Pass, 16,814 feet in height, philosophy was again at fault,
as the ground was clear of snow, though above the line ot
perpetual congelation, and many quadrupeds were feeding
on the grassy banks of the Sutlege. It was remaiked
by Dr Gerard that vegetation attained a higher level on
the northern than on the southern face of the Himalaya
ridge, where the extreme height of cultivation is 10,000
feet; the limit of the forest 11,800 feet, and 12,000 feet
that of bushes. On the northern side cultivation rises to
the height of 11,400 feet; in other places to 13,600 feet;
birch trees to 14,000 feet; and tama bushes, which form
excellent fuel, to the height of about 17,000 feet. In
Northern Hindustan, great and sudden changes of tem¬
perature occur, which is the cause of pulmonary affections.
During summer, the thermometer, which is often in the
morning at 32° or under it, rises to 70°, 75°, and 80° or up¬
wards during the day: the winters are, however, uniformly
severe. In this also, as in other hilly countries, the traveller
may be fainting to-day under a tropical sun, and shivering
to-morrow amidst the rigour of perpetual snows. From the
banks of the Sutlege, where the thermometer frequently
stands at 100° and 108°, three days climbing will carry
him into the regions of winter.
In the plains of Hindustan, the heat during the greater Seasons,
part of the year is unintermitting and intense; except where
it is modified by the ranges of mountains, or the table-lands
towards the west. The seasons here are commonly divided
into the hot, cold, and rainy. The spring and the dry
season throughout the valley of the Ganges last about
four months, the heat gradually increasing with the sea¬
son, until, in May and June, the thermometer rises to
100°, and frequently in the interior to 108° and 110 ,
3 B
H I N D U S T A N.
378
liindustan. when it. is almost intolerable even to the natives, and
still more so to Europeans, who resort to various modes of
alleviation, such as the cuscus tatty, which is a frame of
wood, interwoven with twigs, between which is distri¬
buted a layer of a particular kind of sweet-scented grass.
This being hung before an open window, in the. quarter
of the prevailing wind, and constantly moistened on the
outside by a water-carrier, diffuses a refreshing coolness.
Bishop Heber, however, thought it more effectual to shut
out the external air, by which, and by agitating the air
within by punkahs, a slight frame of wood, covered with
silk or with canvass, and suspended from the ceiling, and
swung backwards and forwards by servants, he reduced
the temperature to 85° within doors, although it was at
100° without. Thus imprisoned, he complains that in
going to an open window or door, “ it is literally like
approaching the mouth of a blast-furnace.” This raging
heat is modified by occasional thunder storms from the
north-west, termed north-westers, which, however terrific,
refresh the air and the ground, and give new freshness and
luxuriance to the grass, and to the shrubs and trees.
Milder showers also occur, which refresh the atmosphere.
In the western provinces of Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, &c. a
parching wind very frequently blows from the west during
the hot season, and, during the night, is succeeded by a
cool breeze from the opposite quarter, sometimes for days
and weeks by easterly gales; and as these parching winds
prevail, refreshing breezes and cooling showers of rain and
hail are more rare. Those remarkable winds, the monsoons,
which blow half the year from the south-west and the other
half from the north-east, exercise a powerful influence on
the climate and seasons of Hindustan. The periodical rains
are ushered in by the south-west monsoon, which com¬
mences about the beginning of June in the south of India,
and somewhat later towards the north. Mr Elphinstone,
in his account of his journey to Afghanistan, gives a just
and forcible description of the phenomena which accom¬
pany the change of the seasons in those eastern countries.
“ The approach of the monsoon,” he observes, “ is announ¬
ced by vast masses of clouds that rise from the Indian
Ocean, and advance towards the north-east, gathering and
thickening as they approach the land. After some days,
the sky assumes a threatening appearance in the evening,
and the monsoon in general sets in during the night. It
is attended by such a thunder storm as can scarcely be
imagined by those who have only seen that phenomenon
in a temperate climate. It generally begins with violent
blasts of wind, which are succeeded by floods of rain.
For some hours lightning is seen almost without inter¬
mission ; sometimes it only illuminates the sky, and shows
the clouds near the horizon; at others it discovers the
distant hills, and again leaves all in darkness, when in an
instant it re-appears in vivid and successive flashes, and
exhibits the nearest objects in all the brightness of day.
During all this time the distant thunder never ceases to
roll, and is only silenced by some nearer peal, which bursts
on the ear with such a sudden and tremendous crash, as can
hardly fail to strike the most insensible with awe. At
length the thunder ceases, and nothing is heard but the
continued pouring of the rain and the rushing of the rising
streams. The next day presents a gloomy spectacle ; the
rain still descends in torrents, and scarcely allows a view
of the blackened fields; the rivers are swollen and disco¬
loured, and sweep down along with them the hedges, the
huts, and the remains of the cultivation, which wTas carried
on, during the dry season, in their beds.” After some
days the sky clears, and discloses the face of nature changed
as if by enchantment. The fields, formerly parched, are Himii
now covered with luxuriant verdure ; the clear and burn- ^
ing sky is varied and embellished with clouds; the rivers
are full and tranquil; the dust which loaded the atmo¬
sphere, and which made the sun appear dull and discolour¬
ed, has now disappeared ; and the parching wind, like the
blast from a furnace, and the still more sultry calms, have
been succeeded by a pure and delicious air. Intermitting
rains now fall for about a month, when they come on
again with great violence, and in July are at their height.
During the third month they rather dimmish, but are still
heavy; and in September, and at the end of the month,
they depart amidst thunders and tempests as they came.1
About eighty inches of rain fall in Bengal during the
rainy season.2
The dense masses of clouds which arise on the Indian
Ocean are carried forward by the south-west monsoon over
the plains of Hindustan, as far as the Himalaya Mountains.
On the coasts they descend in deluges of rain, which di¬
minish as they recede from the sea, unless where the
vapours are intercepted by high mountains, when they
pour down in torrents of rain on the plains beneath. But
in Southern India, the south-w'est monsoon is intercept¬
ed by the double chain of the Western and Eastern
Ghauts, by which the mass of clouds being as it were cut
in twain, is carried forward on the north and the south
sides of this mountain wall, going clear of a considerable
tract to leeward of the Eastern Ghauts, namely, the coast
of Coromandel, which is thus free from the periodical rains
which fall in all other places of Hindustan. The western
range of the Ghauts, though it checks, does not altogether
impede the passage of the clouds ; and we find accordingly,
that in the table-land of Mysore and the neighbouring
countries, the south-wrest monsoon brings on the rains,
though they are not so violent nor of such long continuance
as in Bengal, and cn the western shores of India. But
those light and elevated clouds which pass the Western
Ghauts, being stopped in their progress by the eastern
chain, or descending in rain on the intermediate table-land,
never reach the Coromandel coast; and here, accordingly,
on the eastern side of the mountains, the dry season pre¬
vails, when it rains on the table-land of Mysore to the
west, and still more heavily on the Malabar shore. On the
other hand, it is the north-east monsoon which, in the Bay
of Bengal, sets in about the middle of October, with thun¬
der and lightning and violent hurricanes, that ushers in
the rains on the Coromandel coast, wrhich continue to tire
middle of December, and sometimes to the 1st of January,
whilst at this period southerly gales and fair weather prevail
on the opposite coast of the Indian peninsula. It was for¬
merly supposed that the Ghauts, interrupting the progress
of the south-west monsoon, occasioned a diversity of sea¬
sons through a great part of India. But it is only that limit¬
ed track of country to the leeward of the Eastern Ghauts
that is free from the influence of the south-west monsoon,
which accordingly brings on the rainy season at the mouth
of the Godavery, immediately to the north. Major Itennell
suggests that those clouds may be blown by the south-west
monsoon from Cape Comorin; though he afterwards adds
that this is not his opinion, because the cape bears south-
south-west from the mouth of the Godavery, and tire reign¬
ing winds are much more westerly.3 But the true reason
seems to be, that the eastern chain of the Ghauts does not
extend so far north; hence they afford no shelter to the coun¬
try at the mouth of the Godavery, which thus lies in the di¬
rect course of the south-west monsoon. To the north of the
Ghaut Mountains, in the parallel of Surat, the south-west
Elphinstone s Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, p. 128. 2- Martin’s History of the British Colonies, vol. i. p. 91.
s Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. 214.
HINDUSTAN.
379
j , n monsoon, meeting with no interruption, carries its supplies
J of moisture over the whole face of the country. The pe-
riodical rains accordingly extend over the great plain of
the Ganges. They commence on the coast of Malabar in
Mav, farther north in June, where they are not so violent;
at Delhi they do not come on till the end of June; and a
much smaller quantity of rain falls than at Bombay or Cal¬
cutta.1 Near the sea the clouds are still in a deep mass, and
descend in deluges of rain ; but they are exhausted as they
<ro; the rains become weaker and weaker, and are at last
diminished to a few transient showers in the south of the
Punjab. On the sea-shore the south-west monsoon extends
into Beloochistan, and thence into Mekran, the eastern¬
most province of Persia, where the clouds being arrested by
mountains, descend in heavy rains. They pass with little
obstruction over the countries of Lower Sind; but being
intercepted by the mountains of Upper Sind, they occasion
the principal rains of the year.
The eastern provinces of Hindustan, including Bengal
and the mountainous countries of Bootan, Nepaul, and the
other contiguous provinces, are not dependent on the rains
that come across the country from the Indian Ocean, which
would be very scanty at so great a distance from the sea.
Of the mass of clouds driven before the south-west mon¬
soon, that portion which passes Cape Comorin on the south
is carried north-eastward across the Bay of Bengal, until,
meeting with the mountains that join the Himalaya from
the south, of which they are in deed a continuation, they follow
their direction, and are thus diverted from a north-easterly
into a north-westerly course; and it is from this quarter
accordingly, namely, from the south-east, that Bengal and
the adjoining provinces receive the rains fresh and abun¬
dant from the ocean. Part of these clouds make their way
over the first hills, and bring on the rains in Nepaul and Thi¬
bet ; and part passing to the north-west, water the plains of
Bengal, the southern face of the Himalaya Mountains, the
countries which lie to the north of the Ganges, the northern
parts of the Punjab, and, in their progress to the north-west,
the southern declivity of the Cashmere Hills, and the plains
beneath, though they scarcely make their way over these
hills into the Valley of Cashmere. They continue their pro¬
gress westward to Afghanistan, where they gradually become
weaker, and only produce occasional showers. Phe cold
season, which succeeds the rains, lasts from November to
the middle of February ; and during all this period the air
is clear, and the thermometer is from 65° to 84c. In South¬
ern India the heat is greater than in Bengal. In the Car¬
natic the thermometer ranges from 100° to 106°, and the
cold season is of very short duration. On the table-land
above the Ghaut Mountains, as at Coimbetore, among the
hills, the temperature in the cold season is from 31° to 59° ;
in summer 64°, 65°, and 75°, or even higher. On the
table-land in which Bangalore in situated, the thermometer
seldom rises above 82°, or falls below 56°.
V table Hindustan comprehends all the known varieties of the
Pr; ce. vegetable tribes. The mountainous tracts of Northern Hin¬
dustan produce all the alpine plants, and the various spe¬
cies of European grain, fruits, and flowers. Deep woods
cover those lower ranges of mountains, in which are found
the pine tree of various species, “ the tallest, straightest,
and most magnificent,” says Fraser,2 he ever beheld ; the
larch, the silver, and the spruce fir, from the bark and twigs
of which resin exudes in abundance; the yew tree; seve¬
ral species of oak, holly, alder, sycamore, birch, with mul¬
berry and chestnut trees. Here is also found the mimosa
tree, from which is made the catechu or Indian rubber;
the resinous part of this fir, cut into slips, answers the
common uses of the lamp. These noble forests extend over Hindustan,
immense tracts, and would afford inexhaustible supplies of
timber, if they could be transported to the proper market.
Fruits in great variety are also produced in this elevated
region, such as apricots, peaches, and grapes, apples, pears,
currants, raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries;
roots, such as turnips, carrots, garlic, onions; flowers and
plants, as roses, both red and white, lilies of the valley,
jasmines, butter-cups, yellow, blue, and white cowslips,
sweet briar, with numerous other beautiful and fragrant
plants. The valleys exhibit, according to their altitude
and temperature, the productions of Europe or of the tro¬
pical countries. At the height of 6000 feet appear the oak
and the pine; at that of 3000 feet rattans and bamboos of
enormous dimensions; in some parts the pine-apple, the
orange, the sugar-cane, grow to maturity; in others, barley,
millet, and similar grains are produced. The lower part of
these hills is the seat of the saul forests. The lower valleys,
yield rice sown broad-cast, maize, wheat, barley, pulse of
various kinds, sugar-cane, cotton, Indian madder, a large
species of cardamum, besides other productions. The pas¬
toral tribes of Northern Hindustan feed considerable flocks
on the lower hills and valleys; in summer they climb the
alpine country, and browse on the herbage adjacent to the
region of perpetual frost.
The vegetable produce of the plains in Hindustan, and
of the southern provinces, is the same as in all tropical
countries. The soil, where it is copiously watered, is fer¬
tile ; and if the country were one unvaried level, the co¬
pious rains would afford a sufficient supply for every spot.
But, from the inequalities of the surface, the lower parts
are frequently overflowed, whilst, in the higher grounds, ve¬
getation is burnt up. To secure a more equal distribution
of water, various contrivances are resorted to. It is re¬
tained in extensive plains by means of dams, or in reser¬
voirs constructed of stone, or in ponds and water-courses,
whence it is distributed over the land. But these bene¬
ficial works, so essential to agriculture, are in a dilapidated
state. Their construction conferring a reputation for piety,
they have been uselessly multiplied; and not being duly
repaired, they are soon filled with aquatic plants, putrid wa¬
ter, bad smells, and pernicious exhalations. One of these
tanks, seen by Dr Buchanan, is stated to be eight miles
long and three broad. “ I never viewed a public work,”
he observes, “ with more satisfaction, a work which sup¬
plies a great body of people with every comfort which their
moral situation will permit them to enjoy.”^ The Hindu,
though he is a most industrious, is not a skilful cultivator;
his implements are of a very rude kind; and even if he
had the skill, he has not the capital necessary for an im¬
proved system of husbandry. The ploughing in Hindu¬
stan is quite different from any thing seen in this country.
The plough has no contrivance for turning up the earth,
nor has the share sufficient depth to stir a new soil. Se¬
veral ploughs in succession deepen the furrows, or rather
scratch the surface. The branch of a tree, or some other
equally rude substitute for a harrow, is then employed to
pulverise the soil, and prepare it for the seed. The plough
is drawn by oxen, and in Southern India by buffaloes.
The field, after it is sown, must be protected for several days
by a person exalted on a bamboo stage, against the depreda¬
tions of numerous flocks of birds, and still longer in woody
districts, from the havoc of wild elephants, buffaloes, and
other animals. The harvest is reaped by the sickle, the
scythe being unknown. There is no occasion for stacking
rice, which is completely preserved by the husk. The
grain, after it is winnowed, is stored in jars of unbaked
Elphinstone’s Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, p. 130. 2 Fraser’s Journal of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains, p.
8 See Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, voi. i. p. •
139,
HINDUSTAN.
380
Hindustan, earth, or in baskets made of large twigs. In Benares and
the western provinces, and also in the south of India, it is
stored in subterraneous granaries ; but in the damp climate
of Bengal it is hoarded above ground. The rotation of
crops, so essential to the husbandry of Europe, is not known
in Bengal; nor are the articles for cultivation ever selected
with any view to restore the exhausted powers of the soil.
The land is never properly manured. The Hindus, from
their limited use of animal food, are no extensive breeders
of stock. The labouring cattle are either pastured on small
commons, or fed at home on cut grass; and those for the
dairy graze in numerous herds in the forests or on the
downs. The dung is accounted holy by the superstitious
Hindus, and is either converted to religious uses, or into
fuel, and sold. In Bengal no manure is used ; and, in the
southern provinces, only a small quantity of ashes and dried
vegetables. Oil-cake is sometimes employed as a manure
for the sugar-cane. The ryot or husbandman is generally
poor, deriving only a bare subsistence from his labour; the
greater part of the produce of the land being taken for the
government tax. Under the extortions of the eastern
governments, whether native or British, a thriving farmer
could hardly exist.
Rice is the great staple of agriculture throughout Hin¬
dustan, in the plain of the Ganges as well as in Southern In¬
dia. It is sown at the approach of the rains, and it is gathered
during the rainy season, about the end of August; the last
crop is sown during the same season, and is gathered in the
beginning of December. It is esteemed the best, not
being equally liable with the other to decay. The diver¬
sity of soil and climate, and the several seasons of cultiva¬
tion, have given rise to infinite varieties in this species of
grain. When the rains fail throughout Hindustan, which
occasionally happens, the rice crops are apt to be deficient
to a degree altogether unknown in the well-regulated agri¬
culture of Europe, where the severest scarcity hardly ever
raises the price of corn more than three times its usual
rate. But the famines of Hindustan leave thousands with¬
out subsistence, and fill the land with scenes of misery and
death. In the great famine of 1769, it was estimated that
three millions of the people perished; the air was so in¬
fected by the noxious effluvia of dead bodies, that it was
scarcely possible to stir abroad without perceiving it, and
without hearing also the frantic cries of the victims of fa¬
mine, who were seen in every stage of suffering and death ;
whole families expired, and villages were desolated; and
when the new crop came forward in August, it had no own¬
ers. Bengal has been less liable to famines since this pe¬
riod, but they very frequently occur in other parts of In¬
dia. Rice thrives well in the inundated track of the Ganges;
and in Southern Hindustan, especially on the low lands of
the sea-coast, higher up the Ganges, wheat and barley are
more generally cultivated, also in the high grounds and
elevated table-lands of Southern India. Other kinds of
grain are cultivated, such as Indian corn; and great va¬
rieties of pulse and coarse grains, such as peas, beans,
chiches, gram, vetches, and raggy, which is the most im¬
portant crop raised in the dry field, and in some parts of
Southern India is the subsistence of all classes, in others
of the poorer classes. These m*e important articles of cul¬
tivation, as they have each their particular season, and
thrive even on poor soils. Maize is the general produce of
poor soils in hilly countries, and is commonly cultivated in
the more western provinces. Millet and other grains are also
cultivated, and, vegetating rapidly, and in every season, they
fill up profitably for the farmer the short intervals between
the other modes of cultivation in Lower Hindustan. Sugar
is everywhere cultivated, and at less expense, by the Hindu Hind
cultivator, though sometimes a slave, than by the slaves of ^
the West Indies; and it is on this account burdened in
Britain with a heavier import duty than the expensive sugar
of the West Indies, by which means, under the baneful in¬
fluence of monopoly, we favour one colony by crushing ano¬
ther. Though formerly unknown in Europe, sugar has
been produced in India from the remotest times, and was
thence transplanted into Arabia, whence it has been in¬
troduced into Europe, Africa, the West Indies, and Ame¬
rica. It grows luxuriantly throughout all the valley of the
Ganges and in the plains of Southern India, and could be
produced, with the help of European skill and capital, to
meet any demand. It thrives more especially in Bahar
and Benares, and in particular districts of Bengal. Opium
is the peculiar and staple produce of the province of Bahar,
and is also extensively cultivated in Malwah, and in other
parts of Hindustan. It is a precarious crop, producing al¬
ternately high profits and heavy losses. The liquor extract¬
ed from the poppy is collected as it exudes, and is then
placed in pots, where it is dried and formed into lumps, in
which process it loses from one tenth to one eighth of its
weight. The opium produced in Bahar and Bengal being
monopolized by the East India Company, and bought at a
fixed price, is a contraband article of trade, and its cultiva¬
tion is confined to certain districts. But it is nevertheless
clandestinely imported into Bengal, and sold in consider¬
able quantities. In Malwah a treaty was entered into with
the different rulers and chiefs, by which the monopoly
was extended to that country, and all that was produced
delivered to the Company, at the rate of three rupees a
seer, which is two pounds. But so great was the discon¬
tent excited by this extension of the monopoly, that, at
the desire of the chiefs, the treaties were rescinded in
1819-1820; and the trade in opium, and its cultivation, is
now free in that province, and everywhere throughout In¬
dia, except in the Company’s dominions, which renders
it impossible to maintain a strict monopoly, more espe¬
cially as the opium of Malwah, having of late years been
greatly improved in quality, and rivalling, and even sur¬
passing, the best opium produced in Bahar, is brought into
competition with the Company’s opium in all the foreign
markets, and especially in China.1 The cotton plant has
from time immemorial been one of the staple products
of Hindustan, and is indigenous from Ceylon in the south,
to the Himalaya Mountains. It is cultivated extensively
throughout Bengal, and in the interior provinces on the
banks of the Jumna; also in the Deccan, and in Southern
India, whence it is imported into Bengal, and into Mir-
zapoor, in the district of Benares, where it is manufac¬
tured. Flax and hemp are also cultivated in several dis¬
tricts both in the north and in the south of India. Silk was
long the exclusive product of India and China. Silk worms
are now reared principally in the district of Burdwan, and in
the vicinity of the Bhagirati and in the Ganges, and for
about 100 miles down their streams. Four crops of mul-
bei’ry leaves are obtained in the year, the last in December.
A considerable quantity of silk, of a coarse kind, is obtain¬
ed from wild silk worms, which do not feed on the mulberry,
and are found in the forests of Silhet, Assam, and the Dec-
can. Indigo was originally a product of India; and the plant
was afterwards carried to South America, whence Europe
was for a long time supplied with this dye. The manufac¬
ture on which the quality of the indigo depends was very
unskilfully conducted until the year 1783. Since this pe¬
riod it has been so much improved by the skill and capital
of Europeans that it is now a staple article of commerce,
1 See Appendix to the Report on the East India Company’s affairs, p. 15, Par. 59, House of Commons Papers, 1831. Minutes of
Evidence before Lords’ Committee, 26th February 1839.
HINDUSTAN.
381
an. and in Bengal the annual produce amounts to about nine
^ millions of pounds. Indigo is produced generally through¬
out the plain of the Ganges, and in Southern India, but
chiefly in Bengal. Tobacco, formerly unknown in India,
and introduced from America probably about the begin¬
ning of the seventeenth century, is now extensively culti¬
vated in every part, chiefly however in the northern pro¬
vinces, and more rarely in the south. The tobacco grown
in the Mahratta territories is most esteemed; particular¬
ly that which is produced near Bilsea, a town in Malwah.
Bengal does not yield good tobacco; but the Company’s
territories in Guzerat, being principally of a rich black
soil, are considei’ed as peculiarly suitable to its cultivation.1
The Hindus having been already in the habit of inhaling
the smoke of hemp leaves, and other intoxicating drugs,
readily adopted tobacco as a more agreeable substitute,
and it soon came into general use. Their recent know¬
ledge of it appears from their having no name for it which
is not a corruption of some European term. Pepper,
though of inferior consequence, is a valuable product of
Southern India, especially of Malabar. It is produced from
a species of vine which is made to twine 1’ound the jack
tree. It bears fruit about the third or fourth year, amount¬
ing to from three to seven pounds weight, and yields two
crops in the year. The areca nut and betel leaf, univer¬
sally chewed by the natives, thrive in the low grounds,
where water is abundant; and cardamums, a spice in great
repute. The universal and vast consumption of vegetable
oils in Hindustan, for food or unguents, or for the lamp,
is supplied by the extensive cidtivation of mustard seed,
linseed, sesamum, palma christi, besides what is procured
from the cocoa nut. The first ripen in the cold season,
the sesamum during the rains, or soon afterwards.
The forests in the low plains of Hindustan, of Southern
India, and those which cover the western range of the
Ghauts, and more sparingly the Eastern Ghauts, abound
in the most valuable trees, applicable to many important
uses. The extensive woods in Southern India supply the
teak tree, valuable for ship-building; and in Malabar,
these forests are the private property of the Nairs, by
whom they are often sold or mortgaged to the dealers.
Saul, sissoo, toon, and bamboo trees abound; the last of
which yields a medicine much used by the native doc¬
tors, and which sells for its weight in silver. There are
many species of the palm tree, with its luxuriant and spread¬
ing leaves, of which the produce is extremely useful. The
cocoa-nut tree is in some provinces an important article of
culture. The kernel is used for food by the richer natives,
either in its raw state, or dressed after various fashions;
and it yields by far the finest oil in India, if the nut be
fresh and the oil quickly used. Extensive tracts, many
miles in length, are planted with the cocoa-nut and betel-
nut palms. Many other species of timber are found in
the deep recesses of the woods, of which Dr Buchanan,
m his account of Mysore, gives a particular description,
with the botanical names of the different trees, and to his
work we refer; observing generally, that the woods con¬
sist of every description of timber, black, heavy, and strong,
and adapted for the beams and posts of houses ; other kinds
are white, hard, and durable, and adapted to all the purposes
for which strong materials are required ; some are beauti¬
fully grained, and take a fine polish, and are well suited
for furniture, or exude resins and gums of a sweet scent,
that are used in temples for incense; the wood of some
kindles readily into a clear light, and is used for torches.2
Gther kinds of wood are employed for dyeing. The sandal
wood is valuable for its perfume, and for the essential oil Hindustan,
which it yields. It requires a strong soil, and it is twelve
years before it attains the proper size for being cut. The
billets of wood are prepared by being buried in the dry
ground for two months, when the ants eat up all the outer
wood, leaving the heart, which is the sandal. The deeper
the colour the higher the perfume. The whole sandal
wood of Hindustan is now in possession of the rajah of
Mysore, who succeeded to a small portion of Tippoo’s do¬
minions, and of the British government.
The climate of Hindustan, owing to the long and heavy
rains of summer, is not so favourable for many kinds of
fruit which are not ripened by the previous heat of the
spring. Orchards of mango trees diversify the plains of
Bengal, and are common all over Hindustan; the palmyra
and the date tree abound everywhere, and especially in
Bahar. The former thrives remarkably well in dry barren
spots, and is prized for the tari or wrine which it yields.
The bassia, which yields an intoxicating spirit, also suits
the poorest soils, and abounds in the hilly districts, where
the oil expressed from its seeds is a common substitute for
butter. The other fruits are the plantain, the lime, the sw eet
and bitter orange, the guava, the pomegranate, the jack, the
tamarind, &c. Under the shade of lofty flower and fruit-
bearing trees, and the luxuriant bamboo, and the rank
weeds which shoot up along with them, the natives, from
shyness, bury their cottages, and especially their females,
from the view of strangers; and the damp vapour from the
confined air, the loathsome and pernicious animals which
harbour among the trees and weeds, and the filthy habits
of the natives, are generally sufficient to repel Europeans
from their habitations. The Hindus cultivate in their kit¬
chen gardens a variety of esculent vegetables and roots.
But, of the European vegetables, the potato alone is suited
to the climate, and is of as good quality as that which is pro¬
duced in England. Asparagus, cauliflower, radish, onions,
and other esculent plants, are raised; but they are com¬
paratively tasteless.3
Hindustan, from the great extent and inequality of its Animals
surface, its stupendous and snow-clad mountains, and its
vast and wooded plains lying under a burning sun, compre¬
hends all the most interesting forms of animal life; more
especially those animals of the tropical regions remarkable
for ferocity or size, which have been the subjects of scientific
research as well as of popular curiosity in all ages, and
which find ample cover in the deep woods and jungle-
covered wastes of those tracts of the country which have
been desolated by tyranny or war. A minute or systema¬
tic inquiry into so important a branch of natural history
cannot w ithin our limits be attempted. All that we can
propose is a brief and popular sketch of the principal ani¬
mals which give to the zoology of India its distinct and
brilliant character. The elephant, which holds a conspi¬
cuous place in the animal creation, is seen in all parts of
Hindustan, and ranges wild in its deep forests and jungles.
This animal, from its size and strength, was employed in
the ancient wars, and the prodigious momentum of its
charge often turned the tide of battle. The richly capari¬
soned elephant is still used to swell the gorgeous parade of
the Asiatic courts, and is at the same time, from its pa¬
tience and docility, the humblest of domestic drudges. An
elephant is about thirty-five inches high when newly born,
and does not attain his full growth of ten or ten and a half
feet, or twelve feet when the head is set up, until the age
of twenty or thirty years. In length he is about fifteen or
sixteen feet. The rhinoceros is between five and six feet
1 See Letter of the Secretary to the Court of Directors, to the Secretary of the India Board, 5th September 1828.
2 See Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. i. p. 25.
3 See Hamilton’s Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Description of Hindustan, voL i. p. 20.
HINDUSTAN.
382
Hindustan, high, in length eight feet, the whole body covered with
a thick and nearly bare skin, in irregular folds, and the head,
at least of the Indian species, armed with a single horn.
The rhinoceros is strong and active, of peaceable habits ;
but when he is hunted he turns on his pursuers and resists
fiercely. The Bactrian camel with two humps, so useful
in traversing the sandy wastes of the torrid zone, and the
dromedary with a single hump, formed more lightly for .speed,
are natives of Hindustan. The deer is found in all its varie¬
ties, from the large and powerful mountain stag, with its well-
compacted form, to those lighter forms of the antelope spe¬
cies which sport so gracefully in the woods and in the burning
plains. The musk-deer, so named from the perfume contain¬
ed in a small bag situated in the lower region of the abdomen
of the male, is a solitary dweller in the mountain tracts of
Hindustan and of Central Asia, amidst ice and snows ; it is
shy and timid, and seldom approaches the lower region of
the pine forests. This animal has no horns; the horned
tribe are, however, numerous. The Nepaul stag has a short
tail, short horns, and two small antlers at the base. Deer
of a large size abound in Bengal, and also in Southern
India, in the forests of the Ghaut Mountains. One spe¬
cies, with branching horns, attains to the size of a horse.
The black deer of Bengal is about fifteen or sixteen hands
high ; it is a bold, fierce, and powerful animal; dark brown
in the upper parts of the body, and in winter of a shining
black ; whitish in the belly, with a ring of white round the
nostrils and mouth. The spotted deer, with large antlers,
ranges all over India, and abounds in the forests of Ben¬
gal, and along the banks of the Ganges. The hog-deer is
known in Bengal and in the northern parts of India; and
the roe-buck in the hilly districts, and still more among
the Ghaut Mountains in the south. There are, besides,
numerous other varieties of the deer species. Hindustan
contains several species of the antelope; one about twenty
inches in height, and nearly three feet in length, with four
horns, haunts the western forests and hilly tracts in the
valley of the Ganges. The white antelope, between three
and four feet in height, and of surpassing swiftness, ranges
along the banks of the Ganges and the Indus, and over the
intervening deserts; and another species, with one horn,
and an abundant covering of wool, is a native of the moun¬
tain and icy regions of the Himalaya. Of the feline tribe,
the lion claims the first place. He is considered as the lord
of the brute creation ; and his whole appearance, the flow¬
ing and shaggy mane, the ample forehead, the kindling eye,
and the muscular strength and compactness of the whole
frame, so powerfully armed by nature for the purposes of
destruction, concur to give an idea of majesty and power,
which is further strengthened by the boldness and courage
with which, instead of seeking a dastardly retreat in the
forest or the jungle, he rushes forth to confront his enemies
in the open plain, where he is generally shot by the hun¬
ters. But, in the event of his being only wounded, he is ex¬
tremely formidable, from his vast strength and fierceness,
and the immense weight of his body, especially towards the
head, and the power of his tremendous claws.1 The lion Hindus
is not nearly so common in Asia as in Africa, and is only '^-v.
found in the northern provinces of Hindustan.2 The tiger
is the more common animal of India, abounding in all the
forests and jungles, from the mouth of the Ganges to the
Himalaya Mountains. He is not quite equal in strength
to the lion, though superior in activity ; and his undulating
movements have more of ease, grace, and bounding elasti¬
city ; whilst his bright-yellow, tawny-coloured skin, varie¬
gated with dark stripes, shaded with white in the under parts,
completes this beautiful specimen of the animal creation.
Since the British have acquired possession of India, they
have so eagerly pursued the sport of tiger-hunting, that the
animal has been driven from the inhabited parts of the
country into the vast jungles which line the great rivers,
and which may be considered as the game preserves of
Hindustan. The leopard and the panther are found in the
woods ; the former animal in such numbers, that during the
marches of the British troops in 1803, amongst the deep
forests at Cuttack, in the province of Orissa, many of the
sentinels were carried off by them in the night. The bear
abounds in all the wooded mountains; also wolves, which
at Cawnpore, where there is a British encampment, are
so numerous that they frequently dash into some corner
of the camp, and carry off children under five years of age,
who happen to be straggling amongst the huts. The other
wild animals are hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, porcu¬
pines, hedgehogs, monkeys in great variety, and prodi¬
giously multiplied by the superstitious Hindus, who con¬
sider them as sacred animals, to the great annoyance of
Europeans. The wild boar, which inhabits the woods and
jungles of India, is a fierce animal, and very destructive to
the corn fields and sugar plantations. It affords excellent
though sometimes dangerous sport to the hunter, when it
turns on its pursuers. The wild dog of the Himalaya
Mountains is a remarkable animal, in form and fur resem¬
bling a fox, though stronger and larger. Bishop Heber saw
one of these animals which had been taken, and was ex¬
ceedingly wild and fierce. They hunt in packs, give tongue
like dogs, and have a very fine scent; and they are said to
attack and, by dint of numbers, to destroy the tiger. They
are highly valued in these countries.3 Dr Gerard observed
a pack of these wild dogs stealing along a gulley quite red.
The buffalo, both wild and tame, is a native of India.
There are different species, one of which (the Bos Arnee)
is noted for its gigantic dimensions, its great strength, and
its horns, which are nearly six feet in length, by the aid
of which it is a match for and frequently repels the fiercest
tiger. Dr Buchanan, however, insists that this is merely the
common buffalo in its wild state.4 The yak, or ox of Tar¬
tary, particularly described by Turner in his account of his
embassy to Thibet, is numerous among the Himalaya Moun¬
tains, where they browse in herds, amidst ice and snow; and
constitute, next to corn, the wealth of the inhabitants.5 * * * 9 It
has a downcast, heavy look, and is fierce and of a suspici¬
ous temper. The Cashmere goat has been long celebrated
1 Heber’s Journey, ii. 170.
2 “ The lion,” says Bishop Heber, “ which was long supposed to be unknown in India, is now ascertained to exist in considerable
numbers in the districts of Saharunpoor and Loodianah. Lions have also been killed on this side of the Ganges, in the northern parts
of Itohilcund, in the neighbourhood of Moradabad and Rampoor, as large, it is said, as the average of those in the neighbourhood of
the Cape of Good Hope. Both lions, where they are found, and tigers, are very troublesome to the people of the villages near the
forest, who, having no elephants, have no very effectual means of attacking them with safety. The peasantry here (in the province ot
Delhi) are not a people to allow themselves to be devoured without resistance, like the Bengalese; and it often happens, that when a
tiger has established himself near a village, the whole population turn out, with their matchlocks, swords, and shields, to attack him.
Fighting on foot, and compelled to drive him from his covert by entering and beating the jungle, one or two generally lose theirlives;
but the tiger seldom escapes.” Heber mentions, that he derived his information from Mr Boulderson, who was a keen sportsman,
and had long been in India, and who said that he had seen some skins of tigers which “ bore the strongest marks of having been
fought with, if the expression may be used, hand to hand, and were in fact slashed all over with cuts of the tulwar or short scimitar.”
(Heber’s Journey, vol. ii. p. 149.)
9 Fraser’s Journal of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains, p. 176. 4 Journey through Mysore, vol. i- p. H6-
s Fraser’s Journal of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains, p. 263.
—
HINDUSTAN.
jjini] ;an. for the soft silky nature of the wool found at the root of
w- o'' its long hair, which is manufactured into shawls. The other
animals in the alpine regions of Hindustan are also provided
with a similar covering of soft wool. “ The cow,” says
Moorcroft in his Journal, “ has a material of the same kind,
not much inferior in warmth and softness; the hare has
her fur of peculiar length and thickness ; and even the dog
has a coat of fur added to his usual covering of hair.”1
The goat bred in Southern India, called the maycay or
long-legged goat, mentioned by Dr Buchanan, is also of
quite a different breed from the common goat. There are
other breeds remarkable for long and curiously-twisted
horns. The native horse of India is a small, ill-shaped, vi¬
cious pony, the finest horses being imported from the
countries to the west of Hindustan. But wild horses are
seen in herds in the northern mountains. The sandy de¬
sert in the west of Hindustan is the haunt of the wild ass ;
as he is described in Scripture, “ his house the wilderness,
and the barren land his dwelling.” This animal is found
in herds of sixty or seventy on the banks of the Runn, the
great salt morass or lake of Cutch, where it browses on the
brackish and stunted vegetation of the desert. When caught,
as it sometimes is by the natives in pits, it is fierce, un-
tameable, and bites and kicks in the most ferocious manner.
Its form is that of the mule rather than of the ass ; its body
is of an ash colour, changing to a dirty white under the belly.
It is larger than the tame ass, stronger and more active,
remarkable for shyness, and still more for speed, throwing
out, at a shuffling trot peculiar to itself, the fleetest horses
in the pursuit.2 In Southern India, the ass, of which there
are several varieties as to colour, is very commonly tamed
for domestic purposes ; some are of a black hue ; and there
is a species of milk-white ass, though it is rare.3 The rat
tribe abound in Hindustan ; and one species is of enormous
size, the tail above a foot long, and very mischievous, bur¬
rowing to a great depth in the ground, making its way un¬
der the foundations of stores and granaries, and perforating
the mud or unburnt brick walls of the native cottages.
Eir The ornithology of India, though it is not considered
as so rich in specimens of gorgeous and variegated plum¬
age as that of other tropical regions, still contains many
splendid and curious varieties of the feathered race, as
well of those that are clothed in nature’s gayest attire, far
surpassing the richest dyes of art, as of that other class,
the birds of prey, distinguished by strength, size, and fierce¬
ness. The parrot tribe are the most remarkable for beauty.
So various are the species, that we cannot even enumerate
them, and must refer for details to the scientific works on
the subject. Of the birds of prey, the eagle or the condor,
which haunts the inaccessible crags of the great Himalaya
range, is the most remarkable; Bishop Heber mentions
that one of these animals was shot at Dega by Lieutenant
Fisher, with whom he conversed ; and, from the bareness
of its neck, resembling that of the vulture, the form of
its beak, which is longer and less hooked than the eagle’s,
and from its extraordinary size, he judged it to be the con¬
dor. It measured between the extended wings thirteen feet;
its talons were eight inches in length ; its colour was a deep
black. According to Heber, children are sometimes carried
away by this animal from the streets of Almorah.4 Eagles,
oi which there are three different sizes, are numerous,
and do great injury to the flocks of the shepherds in the
mountainous districts. There are various kinds of vul¬
tures, and also of the falcon tribe. There is the gentle fal¬
con ; the goshawk, a large grey short-winged bird; the
shaukeen, which is taught to soar over the falconer’s head.
383
and strike the quarry as it rises ; -the chirk, which strikes Hindustan.
the antelope, fastening on its head, and retarding its course    
till the hounds come up; with various other species.5 Nu¬
merous other birds are common in India, such as herons,
cranes; the gigantic stork, well known for clearing the coun¬
try of snakes and other reptiles, and the populous cities of
offal; the peacock, which is found wild in the forests in all
its various and brilliant hues; the black-backed goose,
measuring nearly three feet in length ; besides other kinds,
which migrate with the seasons, and are very destructive
to the corn; swans, partridges, quails, gulls, plovers, wild
ducks, and the other common domestic fowls.
The serpent brood in India is numerous: they swarm in lieptiles-
all the gardens, and intrude into the dwellings of the in¬
habitants. Seme are comparatively harmless, but the bite
of others is speedily fatal. The cobra di capello, the name
given to it by the Portuguese, from the appearance of a
hood which it produces from the expanded skin ab*ut the
neck, is the most dreaded. It is not above three or four
feet long, and about an inch and a quarter thick, with a
small head, covered on the fore part with large smooth scales;
it is of a pale-brown colour above, and the belly is of a bluish
white tinged with pale brown or yellow. It is more frequent¬
ly the assailant than any other, though the bite of these also
is equally dangerous, and often fatal. The Russelian snake,
about four feet in length, is of a pale-yellowish brown,
beautifully variegated with large oval spots of deep brown,
with a white edging. Its bite is extremely fatal. The
whip snake is a remarkably malignant species ; it darts from
the thick foliage of the trees, at the cattle below, most com¬
monly at their eyes, and inflicts wounds of which they
quickly expire, often in great pain. Itinerant showmen
carry about these serpents, and cause them to assume a
dancing motion for the amusement of the spectators. They
also give out that they render them harmless by the use of
charms, though it is known that it is by extracting the ve¬
nomous fangs. But, judging from the frequent accidents
which occur, they often dispense with this precaution. The
snake-catching fakirs pretend to bear a charmed life; and
it is related, that one of these impostors being invited by
a shopkeeper to catch a snake which had been seen in an
inner apartment, was stung in the hip bone, and for shame
would not discover the injury he had received, and went
home endeavouring to counteract the poison, but in vain.
He died; and such is the blind confidence of the natives in
these impostors, that they believed he would revive into life,
until the body became putrid.6 Physicians differ respecting
the mode in which the poison of serpents acts upon the human
frame. The symptoms also vary, the patient being some¬
times seized with torpor and insensibility, or falling into fe¬
verish heat and convulsions ; the breathing laborious ; the
skin cold and clammy, with a livid countenance and a feeble
pulse. The mode of treatment by the British physicians in
India is to bind up the limb above the wound ; along with
this to apply strong stimulants, as ammonia, hartshorn, eau
de luce, and the like; and, above all, to give the strongest
narcotics, such as laudanum and brandy. By this judicious
treatment many patients have been brought back from the
jaw's of death.7 There are several water-snakes in India,
the bite of which is venomous ; and scorpions are common.
The rivers of Hindustan, and the surrounding seas, Fishes,
abound in a great variety of fishes and amphibious animals,
such as alligators, porpoises, and small turtle of inferior
quality. The voracious shark infests the mouths of the
rivers, as well as the sea-coast, and grows to an enormous
size. One that was caught in the Ganges measured in
1 Asiatic Researches, voL xii. p. 4G0, J. Moorcroft’s Journey to Lake Manasarovara.
3 Elphinstone, p. 7. s Elphinstone, p. 144.
3 Buchanan, p. 7. 6 Asiatic Annual Register, vol. xxiv. p. 7G0.
4 Heber’s Journey, vol. ii. p. 277- 7 Asiatic Journal, vol. xviii. p. JU1.
384 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan.length eleven feet nine inches, and its girth round the
shoulders was immense.1 The dolphin of the Ganges is
about seven feet long, and abounds chiefly in the delta of
the river. It pursues its prey with great velocity, though
at other times its motions are slow and heavy. The Ganges
and its numerous branches, and all the tanks, swarm with
fish ; during the wet months they may be scooped up with
a hand-net in every field ; and, next to rice and plantains,
they form the main food of the poorest classes. The bickty
or cockup is an excellent fish ; as is also the sable fish, which
is uncommonly rich. But the best and highest-flavoured
fish is the mango, a favourite delicacy at all the European
tables, especially during the two months when it is in roe.
Mullet abound in all the rivers, and are often killed with
small shot as they swim against the stream. The Indian
eel, of a pale-brown colour, with spots of a somewhat
deeper hue, is said to possess a certain degree of electrical
powe% The remora, about seven feet in length, is remark¬
able tor its singular habits. It is used by the fishermen
for catching turtle. A long cord being inserted through a
ring fastened to the tail of the fish, it is carried to sea in a
vessel filled with salt water, and is let out into the water near
the turtle, when it immediately fastens itself on its breast so
firmly that both are drawn out together. There are many
other kinds of fish, some of a delicate flavour, others noted
for the various colours of their shining scales. The vora¬
cious dolphin, and the flying fish, its food, abound in the
Indian Seas. The pomfret is much esteemed as a delicacy ;
also the robal, and several others of the same nature. The
bumbalo, when dried, is an article of commerce, and is much
prized for its nutritious qualities; as is also another fish,
the urahl, found in the interior lakes. There are many
other kinds of fish which we cannot attempt even to enu¬
merate. The natives are dexterous fishers. They enclose
the fish with nets into a narrow space, when they catch
them with their hands or teeth. Bishop Heber, in his ex¬
cellent Journal, gives a lively account of the fishing of a pool
or lake which was nearly dried up owing to the want of
rain. The fish were driven into a shallow part of the lake,
when four Bheels from the mountains, with bows and ar¬
rows, made in a few hours such havoc among them, that they
were procured in the greatest abundance. “ They singled
out the largest,” says Bishop Heber, “and struck them with
as much certainty as if they had been sheep in a fold. The
arrows intended for striking the fish were so contrived that
the iron head slipped off the shaft when the fish w as struck,
but remained connected with it by a long line, like a har¬
poon, and afloat on the water, which not only contributed
to weary out the animal, but to show which way he fled,
and to facilitate his capture.”2 Oysters are procured from
the coast of Chittagong, not so large, but fully as well fla¬
voured, as those of Europe.
Insects. The insect tribes in India may be truly said to be innu¬
merable ; nor has any thing like a complete classification
been given of them, in the most scientific treatises. The heat
and the rains give incredible activity to innumerable nox¬
ious or troublesome insects, and to others of a more showy
class, whose large wings surpass in brilliancy the most splen¬
did colours of art. Stinging musquitoes are innumerable ;
and moths and ants of the most destructive kind, as well as
others still more noxious and disagreeable. Amongst those
which are useful is the silk worm; the insect which pro¬
duces the vermilion dye, the cochineal, a South American
species; and that which produces lac, which is imported
into Europe and used for varnish, and more recently for
cochineal. Clouds of locusts are occasionally seen, which
leave no trace of green behind them, and give the coun¬
try over which they pass the appearance of a desert. Dr Hind
Buchanan saw a mass of these insects in his journey from ^
Madras to the Mysore territory, about three miles in length,
like a long narrow red cloud near the horizon, and making
a noise somewhat resembling that of a cataract. Their size
was about that of a man’s finger, and their colour reddish.
They did no damage at that time to the smallest vegetable;
but at other times they eat up every green thing.
From the wild and inaccessible nature of the country Mineral
in many parts of Hindustan, its metallic products are but produc-
imperfectly known. It is found to produce all the metal- lions, &c,
lie ores, as well as diamonds and precious stones, and
other mineral substances. Gold is generally found in the
sands of the mountain streams, and is extracted by wash¬
ing. The head streams of the Ganges bring along with
them particles of gold, which in Rohilcund are collected
by a particular caste of people. It is found in various
parts of Mysore, particularly nine miles east of Boodi-
cotta, where the country is impregnated with it; also in
the Nielgherry Mountains, and in great quantities in all
that tract of country that lies west, and in the adjoining
Koondanad and Ghaut Mountains. This whole tract, in¬
cluding the mountains, and comprising a space of 2000
miles, contains gold. Unrefined gold is regularly ex¬
changed by many of the mountain tribes of the north for
the produce of the plains. It is estimated that about 1000
men are continually employed in collecting this precious
metal. Copper is produced in the province of Delhi,
which the natives collect either on the surface or with very
slight excavations; also in the Rajpoot principality of
Jeypoor in the province of Ajmeer, and in other parts of
the same province, there are copper mines, and in the Car¬
natic, about forty miles north-east from Cuddapah. The
metal is found in layers about two inches, and occasionally
two feet thick; they are coated with ochre, and are in ge¬
neral flat, as if they had undergone compression. The ore
exists in nearly a metallic state, without any admixture of
sulphur, arsenic, or any other substance that requires se¬
paration. The best ores yield fifty, and the worst six per
cent, of pure metal. The granitic mountains of Nepaul
and Northern Hindustan contain much iron, lead, and cop¬
per, with a little gold in the river courses. The copper
mines are quite superficial, the ore being dug from trenches
entirely open above, so that the work is laid aside in the
rainy season. Iron ore is found in many parts of Hindu¬
stan. There are mines of iron in Lahore and in Ajmeer.
In Orissa many of the natives are iron smelters, and most
of the iron sent from Balasore to Calcutta is produced in
this district. In Bejapoor the working of iron furnishes
employment to many of the inhabitants, who extract it by
a very rude process. The Mysore country abounds in
iron, and forges are erected, by which it is extracted from
the black sand, which is found during the rainy season in
the Cavery or its tributary streams, and partly from ores.
At the iron works near Chinarayana Durga the ore yields
about forty-seven per cent, of malleable iron, though, as
usual, it is very impure. The smelting houses are so small
and mean that they are put up in a day. There are also
forges for manufacturing steel, which are minutely de¬
scribed by Dr Buchanan in his account of the Mysore
country.3 In Coimbetore and in Malabar the iron mines
give employment to a considerable number of persons.
The process and machinery for extracting the iron are very
imperfect. Iron mines were formerly worked in the dis¬
trict of Boglipoor, but they have been long neglected.
Rich iron ores are abundant in Cutch. The ore is gather¬
ed in baskets from the surface of the earth, and yields
Asiatic Journal, vol. xix. p. 276. 2 Heber, vol. ii. p. 467.
3 Journey from Madras, vol. i. p. 170, 180 ; vol. ii. p. 139.
HINDUSTAN. 385
Ju, twenty-two per cent, of iron ; and the steel which is made The other varieties of precious stones found in India are Hindustan.
from this ore is the finest in the world. Lead is produced the ruby from the table-land of Mysore, the beryl, the
in various parts ; also antimony, plumbago, sulphur, alum ; topaz, the chrysolite, garnet, cat’s eye, &c. There are cor¬
and there are inexhaustible supplies of coal, though the nelian mines in the province of Guzerat, in the wildest
mines are not worked with any effect. Coal is raised in parts of the jungle. They consist of numerous shafts
Burdwan in considerable quantities and of a fine quality, worked down perpendicularly, about four feet wide, and
Saltpetre is produced in Bengal and Bahar, though its several of them to the depth of fifty feet. Some of them
manufacture does not go beyond the eastern limits of the extend at the bottom in a horizontal direction, though not
latter province. It might, however, be attempted with to any distance; the heavy rains cause the banks to fall
success in Bengal, where the tendency of the soil to its in, so that new openings are always made at the end of
production is very great; and there might be manufacto- the rainy season. The nodules weigh from a few ounces
ries of salt in almost every part of the country, but they to two or even three pounds, and lie close to each other in
are restricted by the Company’s monopoly. In the Mysore abundance, not in distinct strata, but scattered about. They
plains the wells are salt, and the ground is frequently co- are of various colours when they are found, of a blackish
vered with a saline efflorescence. A range of hills, extending olive, like common dark flints ; others of a lighter hue, with
from the Indus to the Hydaspes, yields the famous rock-salt a slight milky tinge ; though it is quite uncertain what ap-
of Lahore, of which they are almost entirely composed.1 pearance they will assume after the process of turning.
Many quarries are found in the hilly districts, which pro- They are carried to Cambay, where they are cut, polished,
duce fine stone, that is cut by the inhabitants into pil- and formed into the fine ornaments for which that city is
Jars, flags, statues, and used for other ornamental pur- so highly celebrated. Beautiful jaspers and agates are also
poses. Dr Buchanan saw several fine-grained specimens found in this district, and in other parts of India,
of granite, also a black stone used in the construction of In every country the nature and quality ot the manu- Manuf'ac-
Hyder’s monument, and a beautiful green stone which factures must depend on the condition of the consumers, tures.
takes on a marble polish. The hills of Guzerat contain and amongst the despotic states of Asia these naturally
marbles exhibiting many colours and qualities; and mar- consist of two classes; ls£, of the great and powerful, in
bles are seen in the various tombs and monuments of whose hands the property of the country is accumulated,
ancient art still remaining in the country, finely ground and who are comparatively few; and, 2dly, of the body or
and of different colours, white and yellow with red veins, mass of the people, oppressed by extortion, and sunk in
and green clouded with yellow and black, of which the poverty. Such, accordingly, has been from time immemo-
quarries have never been discovered. rial the state of Hindustan ; and its manufactures, which
Diamonds are no longer found in the celebrated mines of are necessarily adapted to the use of these two classes,
Golconda, but they are still gathered in the bed of the Krish- have always consisted of exquisitely fine fabrics of cotton,
na, and in the province of Gundwana. Near the confluence for the use of the imperial court, or of the rajahs and
of the Hebe and the Mahanuddy, thirteen miles beyond the princes of the country, or of coarse stuffs for the common
town of Sumbhulpoor, after the rains, the natives find dia- people; and to such perfection have they attained, that
monds in the red earth washed down from the mountains, the modern art of Europe, with all the aid of its won-
The matrix containing them is a clay which has a red ap- derful machinery, has never yet rivalled in beauty the
pearance like burnt bricks.2 There are diamond mines in products of the Indian loom. \et the Hindu workman
the south of India, about seven miles north-east of Cudda- has no advantage from capital, from machinery, or from
pah, on both banks of the Pennar river. These mines have the division of labour; he prepares the raw material
been worked for several hundred years, and occasionally with his own skilful hand, in all the various stages of
yield large diamonds, which are either found in the alluvial its manufacture ; his loom and all his implements are ot
soil, or are recognised by their sparkling among the gravel the rudest construction ; and yet, by patience, perseve-
after it is washed and spread out, or in rocks of the latest ranee, and unusual skill, he produces an article which L
formation. The grounds are leased by the collector of prized all over the world for its inimitable richness and
taxes to private speculators, at a moderate rent. In All aha- beauty, as well as for its durability. The native aitisan
bad also, the table-land which surrounds Pannah, wherever distinguishes at once these fine fabrics from all counter-
the ground is of a gravelly nature, produces diamonds, feits, by the eye, the touch, and the smell. In the dis-
The soil is from two to eight cubits deep, and diamonds trict of Dacca are chiefly fabricated plain muslins, vau-
are found intermixed with small pebbles, though not ad- ously denominated, according to the closeness or fineness
hering to them. A very few diamonds in the course of a of the texture; also flowered, striped, or chequered mus ins,
year repay the labours of the workmen. The diamonds denominated from their patterns ; and the thinnest sort
found are mostly under the value of 500 rupees, or L.30, of muslins, for the manufacture of which the province is
though some reach the value of from 500 to 1000 rupees, much celebrated, as is Coromandel in Southern India, for
They are weighed and sold to the merchants residing at its calicoes and other piece-goods, of the most bnlliant
Pannah, and are by them carried to all parts of the country, and durable colours. Other kinds ^ore closely woven
The workmen are allowed three fourths, two thirds, or a are fabricated in the western parts of Bengal; and ano-
half of the diamonds they find, according to their size, and ther sort of a more rigid texture in every district. Coaise
any man is at liberty to dig. The number of workmen muslins, in the shape of turbans, handkerchiefs, &c. aie
amount to 1000, who appear to be wretchedly poor. The made in all parts ot Hindustan; and in its northern pio-
diamond grounds are strictly guarded against the contra- vinces plain and flowered muslins, but of infeuor qua ity
band trader, and the least delinquency draws down the to the beautiful fabrics o* Dacca. In Moultan are ma-
prompt and barbarous vengeance of the rajah. These are nufactured silks which possess a strength of texture and
supposed to be the diamond mines mentioned by Ptolemy, brilliancy of hue that have secured for them a preference in
Their annual produce was estimated, in the reign of Acbar, the Indian market. They are woven into shawls and scarfs,
at eight lacs of rupees. In 1750 it had fallen off to one which are in great demand, and which the Indian manufac-
half; and being now comparatively insignificant, it has turer in other parts has never been able to rival, either in
been given up by the British to the native chiefs. colour or durability. Carpets are also manufacture m
J See the observations of Lieutenant Burnes, on the commercial relations of the Punjab. - See Hamilton, vol. ih p- 20.
VOL. XI. ^ C
386 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, this province, though they do not equal those of Persia, mand. Masulipatam goods have, however, for some years Hindusta
Various articles of calico are made, which still retain been entirely superseded by the manufactures of Man- v—-'p»
their Indian denominations, as khasahs, which are manu- Chester and Glasgow ; and in all appearance the Northern
factured north and east of the Ganges; cloths of nearly the Circars will at no distant period of time be deprived of
same quality are made near Tanda in Oude. Near Lucki- the manufactures of white calicoes also.2 * A great change
poor, on the western frontier of Benares, in the neighbour- has indeed been brought about in the manufactures of In¬
hood of Allahabad, and also in the province of Bahar, baf- dia by the introduction of British goods, which, in many
taes are manufactured; sanaes in Orissa, and in the dis- branches, have supplanted those of the country; the poor
trict of Midnapoor; and a similar cloth under the same Hindu, notwithstanding the low rate at which he works,
denomination in the eastern parts of the province of Be- is thus undersold in his own market by the manufactur-
nares; woven silk and taffeta, both plain and flowered, in ers of Manchester and Glasgow; and this competition
the neighbourhood of Moorshedabad; tissues, brocades, of British goods nearly ruined the native manufacturers
and ornamented gauzes, at Benares; plain gauzes for do- of India, deprived the workmen of employment, and re-
mestic use in the west and south of Bengal; and at duced them to great distress; so that the directors re-
Moulda, Boglipoor, and at several towns in the district of mark concerning the Indian trade, that “ it exhibits the
Burdwan, mixed goods of silk and cotton. Sackcloth is picture of a commercial revolution, productive of much pre¬
manufactured from packthread in many places, especially sent suffering to numerous classes in India, and hardly to
in the northern provinces, for the clothing of the moun- be paralleled in the history of commerce.”
taineers. Cotton is made into canvass in the neighbour- Hindustan, from its great extent, and the diversity of Commei
hood of Chittagong, Patna, and other places; and blankets its soil and climate, supplies the materials of an extensive
every7where for common use. A coarse cotton cloth dyed commerce. Its internal trade is great, while its rare and
red with cheap materials is very generally used, and is precious products are exported to the remotest regions of
chiefly manufactured in the country between the Jumna the world. An extensive commerce takes place between
and the Ganges. Fine and coarse calicoes are dyed with Bengal and the other maritime districts, and the western
permanent and fugitive colours for common use in the pro- provinces of Hindustan, consisting in the exportation of
vince of Benares, the city of Patna, and the neighbour- grain from the corn districts, in exchange for salt, a great
hood of Calcutta. This art appears to have had its origin staple, for betel nut, sugar, raw silk, silk and piece goods,
in India, and to have been there perfected to a degree From the provinces of Central India are imported into
never surpassed by Europeans. Dimities of various kinds, Bengal opium, the great staple of Bahar and Malwah,
and damask linen, are made at Dacca, Patna, Tanda, and saltpetre, indigo, cotton, cotton cloths, &c.; and from Al-
various other places. In Mysore, near Bangalore, silk is lahabad diamonds, in return for which salt is received,
manufactured into different articles of dress; into strong and European goods, from the maritime parts of Bengal,
cloths, which men, women, or boys, wrap round them, and The holy city of Benares is a great mart of trade, in which
into turban pieces. These cloths are of a rich fabric, va- are exchanged the shawls of the north for the diamonds
riously figured, and the pattern, if ordered, is elegantly of the south, and for the muslins of Dacca and the east-
wrought in gold thread. Turbans are made of cotton and ern provinces; and it has, besides, very considerable silk,
silk. Thin white muslins with silk borders ornamented cotton, and fine woollen manufactures of its own, the
with gold and silver, and plain green muslins with silk produce of which is exchanged for other commodities,
borders, are manufactured for female dresses; also striped Through the northern provinces of Delhi and Lahore
and chequered muslins; cloth like the khasahs of Bengal, a great trade is carried on between the hill countries
for wrapping round the shoulders of men, sometimes with and the plains. The inconsiderable town of Hurdwar or
striped or silver borders. Handkerchiefs with red bor- Hardiwara, being a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrim-
ders, a coarse thick white cotton cloth with red borders, age, is a great commercial emporium, to which multitudes
and turbans ornamented with silver and gold thread at resort for the purposes of trade, as well as from piety,
the ends, are also made in this district; and the dyeing This great annual concourse takes place in the spring,
of cotton cloth, cotton thread, and silk, is carried on by a when the produce of the northern and western coun¬
set of people who act as tailors, cloth-printers, and dyers, tries is exchanged for the manufactures of the lower
Tanneries are established, and manufactories of oil.1 At provinces. The principal articles brought here for sale
Chinapatam there are manufactories of glass, of green from Cabul, Candahar, Moultan, and the Punjab, are
and of glass rings, universally worn as bracelets by the horses, mules, camels ; some of these from Balk, Bokhara,
women of the Deccan. Steel wire is also made here and the countries on the northern side of the Hindu
for the strings of musical instruments. At Vizigapatam, Coosh Mountains; a particular species of tobacco, anti¬
in the Northern Circars, the inhabitants are very expert in mony, assafoetida, dried fruits, such as apricots, figs, prunes,
carving curious little boxes of ivory and bone. Through- raisins, almonds, pistachio nuts, and pomegranates; from
out Southern India manufactories of cotton and silk are Cashmere and Amritsir, shawls, dootas, and pattoos;
generally established. In the Northern Circars the prin- spotted turbans, looking-glasses, toys, with various manu-
cipal part of the East India Company’s investment of factures in brass and ivory from Jeypoor; shields from
piece goods was formerly provided. This country, ex- Rohilcund, Lucknow, and Silhet; bows and arrows from
tending about 500 miles along the coast of Coromandel, Moultan and the Doab; rock-salt from Lahore; baftas
from the river Kistnah to the borders of Cuttack, has from and piece-goods from Rahn, a large city in the Punjab,
very early times been the seat of an important and exten- The country of Marwar also supplies many camels, and a
sive manufacture of cotton piece-goods, of which the de- species of flannel called loo. In exchange are brought
scription of calicoes known as Madras long cloths and sa- from the British provinces Kharwa muslins, musbiooor
lempores are the chief, and, with Masulipatam dyed hand- sarsnet, woollen cloths, the coarsest of which only find
kerchiefs, and other kinds of goods for the African and a market. In this fair Dutch and Venetian coins are cur-
West India trade, have, until lately, been in great de- rent; and some toys of European manufacture were seen
1 Buchanan’s Journey through Mysore, vol. i. 209, 229.
2 See Copy of a Letter from the Secretary to the Court of Directors, to the Secretary of the India Board, dated East India
House, 5th September 1828.
I
HINDUSTAN.
387
a' (] an.exposed to sale by Mr Webb. The northern merchants
^ by whom it is frequented assemble at Amritsir in cara¬
vans about the end of February, and pursue their route
through the Sikk country, molested by freebooters, who
frequently carry off stragglers. Still farther to the north
and west the province of Lahore and Moultan export to
the countries to the west of the Indus, sugar, rice, indigo,
wheat, and white cotton cloths, hides, &c. The imports
are swords, horses, fruit, lead, and spices; and into all
these countries European goods are imported from the
lower provinces. The southern provinces export to Ben¬
gal pepper, betel nut, sandal wood, and cardamums, teak
timber, &c.; whilst they receive in return salt and rice,
cotton cloths, and articles of European manufacture.
A very considerable coasting trade is carried on between
the different parts of Hindustan. Bengal exports to Ma¬
dras and the coast of Coromandel grains of different de¬
scriptions, sugar, saltpetre, molasses, ginger, long pepper,
oil, silk wrought and unwrought, muslins, spirits, and
provisions. The returns are salt, red wood, fine long
cloth, izarees, and chintzes. From the Malabar coast the
imports are sandal wood, coir rope, pepper, cardamums;
and the returns are generally in the annual supplies which
Bombay receives from Bengal. From Bombay are brought
teak timber, elephants’ teeth, lac, &c.
From the reputed wealth and precious produce of In¬
dia, foreign nations were always desirous to participate
in its trade. Prior to Alexander’s expedition to the East
it was scarcely known to the Greeks, nor is it certain that
they had ever seen its productions. But we know that
these were brought to Rome, especially silk, which so al¬
lured the vanity of the Roman ladies that it sold for its
weight in gold. Other valuable commodities of India, such
as calicoes, muslins, aromatics, ivory, diamonds, pearls, and
other gems, precious aromatics, the pepper of Malabar,
turtle shell, &c. and some dry sugar and indigo, were also
imported into Alexandria, the chief emporium of east¬
ern commerce, and were naturally attracted to the great
metropolis of the ancient world. This trade was car¬
ried on from Myos Hormos, the chief port on the Red
Sea, whence, after the conquest of Egypt by the Romans,
the annual fleets, sometimes of 120 vessels, set sail, and,
under the propitious influence of the south-west monsoon,
boldly stretched across the Indian Ocean for the western
coast of Hindustan, which they reached in about forty
days; and afterwards extended their voyage round Cape
Comorin to the coast of Coromandel and the mouths of the
Ganges. The high price received for these eastern luxu¬
ries in Rome encouraged the merchants to provide larger
vessels, and a band of archers to defend them against the
pirates, who then, and until very lately that they were extir¬
pated by British ships of war, infested the western shores
of India. The commodities of the East being landed at
Myos Hormos, were carried on canals to Coptos, the seat
of a flourishing trade, and thence by sea to the Nile, whence
they reached Alexandria by water carriage, and were re¬
shipped to the different ports on the Mediterranean. The
produce of India was also brought to Europe by other
routes, namely, by the way of Palmyra, then a flourishing city,
and thence to Rome and other western countries, through
the ports of Syria; or across the Himalaya Mountains to
the Oxus, thence to the Caspian, and afterwards to the
Black Sea, and finally to its ulterior markets in Europe. But
though there was a demand in Europe for the produce of In¬
dia, there was no demand in India for the produce of Eu¬
rope ; and bullion was the only article that could be sent out
in exchange. The annual drain of gold from Rome and its
provinces, for Indian goods, was estimated by Pliny at 500
sestertia, equal to about L.400,000. In the convulsions Hindustan,
which followed the decline of the Roman empire, the trade
of the East was successively engrossed by the Persians and
Arabians. The latter in the year 636 built the city of Bas-
sora, which soon grew into a great commercial mart; and to
this place, and to Ormus, long celebrated for its vast riches
and its trade, the spiceries and merchandise of India w ere
brought, and distributed through the various ports of the
Mediterranean. After the expulsion of the crusaders from
Syria and Egypt, Alexandria again became the chief entre¬
pot of eastern produce, whence it was carried to Italy by the
Venetians and others, and distributed throughout Europe.
But the discovery of a passage to India in 1495 by the Cape
of Good Hope changed the course of this trade, which now
entirely left the Italians, and was engrossed by the Portu-
guese for nearly a century without any molestation from Eu¬
ropean rivals. At length the Dutch and the English became
their competitors, and establishedjoint-stock companies, with
the exclusive privilege of the eastern trade. But their an¬
ticipations of profit were not realised. The great distance
of Europe from India, and the want of an equivalent for
its produce, precluded any extensive intercourse; the trade
accordingly bore a very small proportion to the trade of the
country; and being besides cramped by monopolies, it never
attained its natural growth. In 1773 the average exports of
Britain to India amounted to about L.489,000 a year ; in
1793, on a like average, to about a million a year; and it does
not appear that a greater trade was carried on with India
from any other part of Europe. The commerce of nations is
limited to the surplus produce which they can mutually ex¬
change ; and, from the great distance between India and
Europe, this surplus produce was long confined to those
few articles which, containing a great value in small bulk,
could bear the expense of a long voyage. The demand
was also altogether on the side of Europe, and its trade
with India consisted merely in the purchase, with bullion,
of a small quantity of precious articles for the consumption
of the rich. The progressive improvement of industry in
Europe, together with the partial opening of the trade to
India in 1793, and still more in 1814, has occasioned not
only a greater exportation of British goods, but a change
also in the nature of the trade. It is not so much the pro¬
duce of the labour, as of the climate and soil of India, which
no ingenuity can supply, that is in demand in Britain ; and
accordingly whilst the import of Indian manufactures has fal¬
len off1, that of the raw material, and many varieties of vege¬
table produce, has increased. 1 hus the importation of cot¬
ton piece-goods, namely, white calicoes and muslins, which
amounted in 1814 to 1,266,608 pieces, had decreased in
1832 to 407,506 pieces; whilst within the same period the
importation of cotton wool had increased from 2,850,318 lbs.
to 35,219,504 lbs., and the exportation of cotton manu¬
factures from 811,003 to 57,183,599 yards. Even the fine
muslins of Dacca are in less demand since the introduc¬
tion of British goods.1 Thus, in the progress of the trade
between India and Europe, the former country, notwith¬
standing its boasted wealth and superior industry, has taken
the lowest place, exporting her rude produce for the ma¬
nufactures of the richer country, which is the nature of
the trade carried on between Britain and America, and the
countries in the north of Europe, and is a sure index to
the respective progress of the two countries in wealth and
improvement. Those countries which cannot manufacture
their own rude produce send it to Britain, which abounds
in capital, and still more in art and industry; and both
countries are benefited, the poorer country exchanging its
surplus produce for a supply of manufactures of which it is
in want, and the richer country the produce of its over-
1 See Report of Lords’ Committee on the Affairs of the East India.Company, Evidence of W. Chaplin, Esq.p. 179.
388
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, flowing capital, for a supply of the rawr material, which its
own soil does not afford. This is now the relative condi¬
tion of Great Britain and India. The former having out¬
stripped the latter country in industry and wealth, sends
out a supply of cheaper goods than the native workman
can furnish ; and so prodigious have been the improve¬
ments in machinery, that the raw material of cotton is im¬
ported from India, and being manufactured in Britain, is
re-exported and sold at a cheaper rate than it can be made
at home, though loaded with the expense of a double voyage
across half the globe ; and thus it has become an important
staple in the trade of Great Britain with the East. A no¬
tion was long and successfully propagated by the advocates
of the monopoly, that the Hindus, from their poverty and
their simple habits, would never become extensive con¬
sumers of European goods, and that the demand was amply
supplied by the exports of the East India Company. Evi¬
dence to this effect was given before the committee of the
House of Commons in 1810, by Sir Thomas Munro, and
other eminent servants of the Company. But such state¬
ments have been completely refuted by the rapidly increas¬
ing exportation of British goods to India since the partial
opening of the trade in 1814. This will appear from the
following table.
Value of Exports from Great Britain to Hindustan.
Years.
j By the East
I India Company.
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
£
826,558
996,248
633,546
638,382
553,385
760,508
971,096
887,619
606,089
458,550
654,783
598,553
990,964
805,610
488,601
434,586
195,394
146,480
149,193
Private Trade.
£
1,048,132
1,569,513
1,955,909
2,750,333
3,018,779
1,586,575
2,066,815
2,656,776
2,838,354
2,957,705
2,841,795
2,574,660
2,480,588
3,830,580
3,979,072
3,665,678
3,891,917
3,488,571
3,601,093
Total Exports.
£
1,874,690
2,565,761
2,589.455
3,388,715
3,572,164
2,347,083
3,037,911
3,544,395
3,444,443
3,416,255
3,496,578
3,173,213
3,471,552
4,636,190
4,467,673
4,100,264
4,087,311
3,635,051
3,750,286
The goods exported, as they are enumerated by Mr Rick- Hindustan
ards in his valuable work on India, consist of all the staple
manufactures of Britain. “ Woollens and cottons,” he men¬
tions, “ of every variety and value; manufactured silks; hard¬
ware of all descriptions; iron, copper, lead, tin, and spelta, in
large quantities ; marine and military stores ; machinery for
various uses; glass ware of the metal specimens, down to
articles of the commonest use; china ware or porcelain, the
same ; jewellery of all sorts ; gold and silver plate and or¬
naments ; clocks, watches, furniture, carriages, harness, ha¬
berdashery, hosiery, stationery, books; in short, every ar¬
ticle of luxury, comfort, or convenience, which British in¬
dustry can produce.”1 According also to all the most cor¬
rect observers of Indian manners, the taste for European
fashions, luxuries, and comforts is rapidly extending among
the Hindus. Bishop Heber, in his interesting journal of a
tour through India, strongly confirms this fact. “ The
wealthy natives,” he observes, “now all affect to have their
houses decorated with Corinthian pillars, and filled with
English furniture ; they drive the best horses and the most
dashing carriages in Calcutta. Many of them speak Eng¬
lish fluently, and are tolerably read in English literature;
and the children of one of our friends I saw one day dress¬
ed in jackets and trowsers, with round hats, shoes, and
stockings.”2 At Benares he found “ English hardware,
swords, shields, and spears, from Lucknow and Monghyr;
and these European luxuries and elegancies, which are
daily becoming more popular in India, circulate from
hence through Bundelcund, Gorruckpoor, Nepaul, and
other tracks which are removed from the main artery
of the Ganges.”3 At Nusseerabad, in the province of
Berar, the same traveller mentions that “ English cotton
cloths, both white and printed, are to be met with common¬
ly in wear among the people of the country, and may, I
learned to my surprise, be bought best and cheapest, as
well as all kinds of hardware, crockery, writing desks, &c.
at Pallee, a large town and celebrated mart in Marwar,
on the edge of the desert, several days’ journey west ot
Joudpoor, where, till very lately, no European wras ever
known to have penetrated.”4 In short, it appears that Bri¬
tish and other European manufactures, from their quality
and cheapness, are everywhere in demand. They pene¬
trate into the remotest districts of Asia ; and now that the
termination of the East India Company’s monopoly, which
took place in 1834, has laid open Hindustan to the capital
and enterprise of Britain, experience proves that an equal
demand for them may be anticipated in that country. We
subjoin the following tables, containing a view of the trade
between Great Britain and Hindustan, and a list of the
principal articles exchanged between the two countries,
abridged from the parliamentary accounts.
Rickards India, or facts submitted to illustrate the character and condition of the native inhabitants, vol. i. p. 75.
1 Ueber's Journal, vol. iii. p. 252. 3 Ibid. vol. i. p. 381. “ Ibid. vol. ii. p. 448.
Account of the principal Imports into Great Britain, from all Places eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, excepting China.
!indi
HINDUSTAN.
389
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1 The account of the sugar imported by the private traders includes, in 1830, 485,326 cwts. ; in 1831, 516,077 cvrts.; and in 1832, 527,904 cwts. from the Mauritius.
HINDUSTAN
390
Hindustan.
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HINDUSTAN.
391
i. The pernicious effects of naonopoly are illustrated by the Indies amounts to between 4,700,000 and 4,800,000 cwts. Hindustan.
' whole history of the Indian trade. It appears, from the ac- In like manner, coffee, which has only been of late culti-
count of the exports and imports, how the commerce of the vated in India, though it might be produced to any ex-
two countries expanded, as with an elastic bound, when this tent, pays a duty of ninepence per pound, in place of six-
dead weight was partially removed in 1810. The wall of se- pence, the duty on West India coffee; and the tobacco of
paration has now been entirely thrown down. By the late India pays threepence more of duty, namely, three shil-
great and enlightened measure of Mr Grant, a free trade is lings per pound, on being imported into Great Britain, than
established to India, and a free intercourse with the natives; the tobacco of Mauritius, or of any other British colony,
and from this liberal policy we may anticipate a still greater No reason can be assigned for this unjust distinction. The
extension of the trade. But there are other barriers yet mother country ought to dispense equal justice to all. If
to be removed. Although British goods may be introduced the West Indian colonies have been of late depressed by
into the markets of India, certain staple articles of that the low price of sugar, the native manufactures of India
country are excluded from Britain by heavy and unequal have been nearly ruined by the competition of British
duties; and this for the purpose of favouring the trade of the goods, and justice as well as policy imperiously demands
West Indies. Thus sugar, which might be cultivated to any for the produce of Hindustan a free access to the markets
extent in India, pays a duty of thirty-two shillings per cwt. of this country.
in place of twenty-four shillings, the duty levied on West In- The following tables contain a general view, ls£, of the
dia sugar; and this, with the heavier charge of freight and extent and value of the trade of India to all parts of the
insurance, is a serious bar to its importation into Britain, world; and, 2<%, of the extent of its trade to the different
Accordingly, while only 700,000 cwts. of sugar are annual- countries of Europe and Asia, with the exception of that
ly imported from India, the annual importation of the West to China, of which a more detailed account will be given.
Imports and Exports of Hindustan to and from all Parts of the World.
Bengal.
Merchandise 
Treasure 
Total..
Total...
Horses..
Total 1
Private Trade.
Rupees.
3,00,40,816
51,68,390
93,91,228
36,28,467
1,30,19,695
1,20,04,989
5,01,800
3,75,62,026
8,57,90,927
Company’s Trade.
Rupees.
1,51,916
17,33,984
18,85,900
4,18,117
4,18,117
23,04,017
Total Rupees.
3,01,92,732
69,02,374
3,70,95,106
98,09,345
36,28,467
1,34,37,812
2,50,55,237
1,20,04,989
5,01,800
3,75,62,026
8,80,94,944
L.4,633,238
L.l,511,753
L.4,225,727
L.10,370,718
Total....
Total Exports..
3,39,10,365
14,63,193
3,53,73,558
1,40,64,835
10,12,726
1,50,77,561
2,89,64,478
20,40,178
4,47,200
3,14,51,856
8,19,02,975
1,63,71,594
3,00,000
1,66,71,594
22,62,868
44,66,376
67,29,244
2,34,00,838
5,02,81,959
17,63,193
5,20,45,152
1,63,27,703
54,79,102
2,18,06,805
2,89,64,478
20,40,178
4,47,200
3,14,51,856
10,53,03,813
L.5,204,515
L.2,453,265
L.11,196,113
"’■T—
392
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan. General View of the Commerce of Hindustan with Europe, North and South America, the Eastern Isles, and Arabia, Hindus
with the exception of China ; from Papers ordered to be printed by the House of Commons, June 1833. '
Great Britain 
North America 
South America, Brazils.
Lisbon  
France 
Sweden 
Hamburg 
Total.
A ll India.
Eastern Isles 
Arabia, Persian Gulf, New}
South Wales, &c /
Total,
IMPORTS.
Merchandise.
L.3,614,138
146,696
60,680
4,180
138,289
17,229
2,968
L.3,984,180
L.45,403
45,527
L.90,930
Bullion.
L.1,310
95,382
10,440
'*’990
L.108,122
L. 39,624
263,237
L.659,261
Total.
L.3,615,448
242,078
71,120
4,180
139,169
17,229
2,968
L.4,090,882
L.850,277
308,764
L.393,791
EXPORTS.
Merchandise.
L.3,545,100
1,348,907
6,744
319,421
11,962
L.5,232,134
L.690,098
817,387
L. 1,507,485
Bullion.
L.570,571
37,764
337
L.608,672
L.62,244
3,172
L.65,416
Total.
L.4,115,671
1,386,671
L.5,502,342
L.752,342
820,559
L.1,572,901
An extensive commerce is carried on between Hindu- This trade is either carried on in armed boats, in defiance of
stan and China, and one of the great staples in this trade is the Chinese authorities, or they are paid largely for their
opium, which being a contraband article, is smuggled into connivance. We subjoin the following account of the
China in great quantities by private traders from Hindustan, trade between Hindustan and China.
Account of the Trade carried on with China by the East India Company, or in their Ships by their permission.
Exports from India to China.
Articles.
Cotton 
Privilege trade in Compa- }
ny’s ships j
Metals 
Privilege trade.
Quicksilver 
Pepper and spices 
Rattans 
Betel nuts 
Putchuck, a dye for nankeen.,
Stock-fish 
Drugs 
Saltpetre 
Sandal wood 
Woollens 
Privilege trade 
Cotton goods...
Privilege trade.
Cotton yarn 
Privilege trade.
Diamonds, pearls, cornelians,
Watches and clocks 
Sundries 
Privilege trade 
Value in Dollars.
1,086,480
781,863
194,806
148,318
2,123,730
174,546
132,883
84,997
146,886
9,156
6,543
42,730
1,868,343
343,124
12,460
74,284
11,690
18,849
2,808
10,075
14,444
5,257
27,941
2,298,276
217,880
156,042
3,000
11,786
49,273
5,125,531
Trade carried on with China by Private Ships.
Articles.
Opium.
Sharks’ fins and maws.
Elephants’ teeth 
Rice 
Sundries 
Valuein Dollars,
] 1,304,018
3,061,072
31,755
36,113
5,769
1,224
3,172
9,964
44,219
46,530
138,517
89,642
43,428
212,475
136.740
26,913
128.740
88,116
I 15,808,405
Add Company and privilege^ ! ^ ^5 531
trade J i ’ ’
20,933,936
HINDUSTAN.
393
*;nd a"1
Imports from China to British Dominions in Hindustan.
By East India Company, or in their Ships by per¬
mission.
Articles.
Value in Dollars.
Tea 
Raw silk 
Nankeen 
Sugar and sugarcandy.
Drugs 
Silk piece-goods 
Block-tin 
Mother-of-pearl shells.
Tortoise-shell 
Mats 
Bamboos 
Total...
Bullion.
8,542,343
449,328
844
1,233
4,254
26,400
12,096
12,529
5,767
3,829
5,846
9,179,170
1,902,082
11,081,252
By Private Ships under British Flags.
Articles.
Tutenague 
Raw silk 
Nankeen 
Sugar and sugarcandy....
Tea 
Cassia and cassia buds...
Drugs 
Silk piece-goods 
Tortoise-shell 
Mother-of-pearl 
False pearls 
China-ware  
Writing paper, toys, &c.
South American copper.
Cotton goods 
Cotton yarn 
Total...
Add Company and privi¬
lege trade 
Value in Dollars
19,200
2,205,360
160,941
560,349
212,783
57,040
155,903
221,461
13.250
25,466
48,094
43,179
83,840
96,810
14.250
73,536
6,123,166
11,081,252
17,204,418
Hindustan.
Pop An accurate census of the population is still a desidera-
tion turn in the statistics of Hindustan. Partial estimates have
indeed been made in different districts, by the industry of
British judges and magistrates; but these do not agree with
subsequent and more accurate inquiries. In 1801, returns
were made at the desire of the supreme government, of the
population of several districts in Bengal, by the magistrates
and collectors, which are generally believed greatly to un¬
derrate the population. In 1808, Dr Buchanan, by the di¬
rection of government, framed, from the most careful inqui¬
ries, an accurate census of certain districts of Bengal, which
created astonishment, as his estimate was more than three
times that of the collector, and more than double that of the
magistrate. It was confirmed, however, by the careful in¬
vestigations of Mr Bayley in 1814, and is now generally re¬
lied on for its accuracy. An estimate has been published
by authority, of the number of the villages and houses in
Lower Bengal; from which, reckoning five inmates to a
house, the population has been computed at 37,238,265
souls. Other computations, made on different data, produce
nearly the same result. From an accurate survey of one
district, the inhabitants on each square mile were found to
amount to 2003 ; and this principle of computation being
generally applied to Bengal, will give a population of
33,590,770. But it is only in particular provinces that
there is even this approximation to accuracy. In the re¬
mote districts and provinces we have no data for a confi¬
dent estimate; and there is no general census of Hindustan
which rests on any higher authority than plausible conjec¬
ture, and which may not be erroneous by many millions.
We subjoin the following population table, which seems to
be as accurate as any that has yet been constructed.1
1 Notwithstanding the ravages committed by incessant wars and revolutions, as well as by famine and pestilence, their usual con¬
comitants, India has, from the earliest times, been a densely-peopled country. In different states of society, the law of the increase
of mankind will vary according to their relative circumstances and position, and the same or nearly the same principle will be found
to apply to those classes who are placed at the opposite extremities of the scale. Amongst a people who are possessed of affluence, or
the means of commanding the necessaries and comforts of life, the exercise of moral restraint is unnecessary; amongst those who are
reduced to a mere physical subsistence, without the possibility, and consequently without the desire, of improving their condition, it
will be disregarded; and hence the same results will follow from causes in their own nature diametrically opposite. But in India the
great mass of the population have for ages been placed in a situation which excludes all idea of improvement; and religion has lent
its powerful aid to obstruct the operation of those natural causes which, in other countries, have served to ameliorate the condition of
the people. Confined to the use of vegetable food, inhabiting a country the nature of whose climate renders the greatest simplicity
of attire and of household accommodation sufficient for all purposes absolutely necessary to mere existence, and prevented by the law
of caste from ever passing beyond the condition in which the accident of birth may have placed them, the natives of India, habituated
to a minimum of the simplest fare, or what in other countries would be considered as a famine allowance, have, in spite of all the
grinding exactions of despotism, and the devastations of war, conquest, and anarchy, continued to increase and multiply, and, at
every period of their history, the population has been found to press harder than in any other part of the world upon the means of
subsistence. Amongst a people so circumstanced, with a religion which tends at once to inflame the animal passions, and to debase
the understanding, it would therefore be vain to expect that those moral considerations which operate as a restraint amongst other
communities of mankind, should have any effect whatever in controlling the impulses of nature, or checking that tendency to excess,
which has originated the most difficult problem connected with the science of government. Of all productions, that of human beings
is the least susceptible of regulation ; and as it is frequently found to advance most steadily in countries where poverty and misery
have reached the extreme point of depression, and become almost universal, the only checks which can prove even temporarily effec¬
tive, are those great and wide-spreading desolations to which we have alluded, combined with that permanent disregard of life which
is found to prevail wherever mankind generally are reduced to the condition of the Hindus, and which, amongst the latter, is fos¬
tered by the barbarous rites of a cruel and sanguinary superstition. But it may be permitted to hope, that though India always has
been, it will not always be, what it now is; that the extension of commerce, under the protection of a vigorous and impartial govern¬
ment, will awaken new ideas in the minds of the people; that security to person and property will give a strong stimulus to industry;
that the habitual contact with a higher and more rational form of civilization will serve to mitigate their prejudices, and, in time, to
destroy the influence of a debasing superstition ; and that, in proportion as their wants are multiplied, their efforts to ameliorate their
condition will be increased.
VOL. XI. 3 D
1
394
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan,
v y  
Relative Area and Population of the Modem States of Hindustan for a. d. 1820.
Bengal, Bahar, and Benares 
Additions in Hindustan since a. d. 1765 
Gurwal, Kumaon, and the track between the Sutledge and Jumna.
Under the Bengal presidency 
Under the Madras presidency 
Under the Bombay presidency 
Territories in the Deccan, &c. acquired since 1815, and not yet
attached to any presidency 
Total under the British government.
British Allies and Tributaries.
The Nizam   
The Nagpoor rajah 
The king of Oude..   
The Guicowar 
Kotah 6500, Boondee 2500, Bopaul 5000 
The Mysore rajah 
The Satarah rajah 
Travancore 6000, Cochin 2000   
Under the rajahs of Joudpoor, Jeypoor, Odeypoor, Bicanere, Jes-
selmere, and other Rajpoot chiefs; Holcar, Ameer Khan, the
Row of Cutch, and innumerable other petty native chiefs; Sikhs,
Gonds, Bheels, Coolies, and Catties, all comprehended within
the line of British protection  
Total British and their allies.
Independent States.
The Nepaul rajah 
The Lahore rajah (Runjeet Singh) 
The Ameers of Scinde 
The dominions of Scindia 
The Cabul sovereign 
Grand total of Hindustan.
British Square
Miles.
162,000
148,000
18,000
328,000
154,000
11,000
60,000
553,000
96,000
70,000
20,000
18,000
14,000
27,000
14,000
8,000
283,000
1,103,000
53,000
50,000
24,000
40,000
10,000
1,280,000
Population.
39,000,000
18,000,000
500,000
57,500,000
15,000,000
2,500,000
8,000,000
83,000,000
10,000,000
3,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
3,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
15,000,000
123,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
1,000,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
134,000,000
fhndustai
''•'Yv
Races.
Other calculations, on data sufficiently plausible, swell
the population under the dominion of the British, including
the allied and protected states, to 200,000,000. There is
of course considerable uncertainty in all these accounts.
A country of such vast extent, under one common ap¬
pellation, and subdivided by many impassable tracts of
mountain and jungle, comprises, as may readily be imagin¬
ed, numerous races, differing in their origin, in their physi¬
cal aspect and frame, in their manners, customs, in their
respective advances in civilization and pursuits, as well as in
their modes of faith and language ; and accordingly Bishop
Heber, who excels all other writers in the delineation of
Indian manners, observes, that “ it is a great mistake to
suppose that all India is peopled by a single race, or that
there is not as great a disparity between the inhabitants of
Guzerat, Bengd, the Doab, and the Deccan, both in lan¬
guage, manners, and physiognomy, as between any four
nations of Europeand in another passage he says, “ the
inhabitants of the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and
of the Deccan, are as different from the nations I have seen,
and from each other, as the French and Portuguese from
the Greeks, Germans, and Poles.”1 A minute account of
the various races and castes, with the still more various
subdivisions into which the inhabitants of Hindustan are
distinguished, would fill a volume, and would besides be
exceedingly tedious. A general description, however, of
the most remarkable tribes which compose the mixed po¬
pulation of this extensive country, forms an essential part
of its history. The great division of the people is into
Hindus and Mahommedans, in the proportion of about
seven to one. And these two great classes are distin¬
guished not more by their religion than by their peculiar
disposition and character. The Hindu is careful, penu¬
rious, and abstemious in his habits; timid, obsequious, and
fawning in his manners; chiefly attaining his ends by de¬
ceit and cunning, the usual resource of weakness; whilst the
Mussulman still retains the haughty and irascible character
of a conqueror, and his hostility to the English, which he
is at no pains to conceal, like the Hindu, by an obsequious
demeanour. He is withal prodigal, luxurious, fond of ease
and pleasure, and dissolute to excess in his morals; more
courageous and martial, however, with more energy ox
purpose and elevation of sentiment, and more cultivated,
than the Hindu of Bengal. In the population of Bengal
these two races may easily be distinguished from each
other; and amongst the Mahommedans, the Mogul, the
Afghan, and their immediate descendants, may be known
amongst the native Mussulmans. The features of the Ben*
1 Heber’s Journal, voh hi. p. 349.
HINDUSTAN.
Hinc tan-galee distinguish him from the other inhabitants of Hin-
'•*' ^ dustan. He is stigmatised as of a cowardly disposition, and,
from whatever cause, is not esteemed throughout the coun¬
try. With these two principal classes are intermingled, in
very small proportions, British, Armenians, a peaceable race,
and highly honourable in their dealings, Portuguese, and
other Christians. The Parsees are numerous in the island
of Bombay, where they amount to 10,738; they are de¬
scendants of the Guebres or fire-worshippers, are a fine race,
being generally engaged in traffic, and distinguished in
their dealings by the highest integrity and intelligence. The
Jews are numerous in India, and many are to be found
in the Bombay army, where they have often behaved bravely.
The Asiatic Jews are distinguished by a large Roman nose.
The Mahrattas, a powerful tribe, have been long distin¬
guished in the wars and politics of India. They are chiefly
found in the Deccan, which contains about 3,285,985 in¬
habitants, of whom they compose about three fifths. They
were originally a pastoral and warlike people from the moun¬
tains of Berar, who with a host of cavalry invaded and de¬
solated the adjacent provinces with fire and sword, and at
length acquired an extensive empire. Minute shades of dif¬
ference prevail amongst them, but no distinctions of caste ;
every Mahratta eating with his neighbour, unless, which
often happens, he be expelled from his caste. They are not
a military caste, as appears from the names of farmer, shep¬
herd, and cowherd, by which their principal tribes are
known; and also from their exterior, which marks an origin
different from that of the military Rajpoot. They are of a
diminutive size, generally badly made, and of a mean look
and rapacious disposition; whilst the Rajpoot has both per¬
sonal grace and dignity. The memorable battle of Pani-
put, fought in 1761, gave a blow to the Mahratta power,
from which it never recovered; and the confederacy was
entirely dissolved in 1817, when the peshwa, the great feu¬
dal chief of the empire, surrendered to the British, and was
by them confined as a state prisoner. The nation derives
its name from Mahrat, a province of the Deccan; though
it is the opinion of some that the Mahrattas migrated from
Persia about 1200 years ago.1 The Mahratta language is
widely spread over India. It is remarkable, that in pro¬
ceeding northward into Northern and Central India, and
into the Rajpoot states, the people far excel in strength
and stature the feeble Hindu of the southern provinces,
being fully equal in their bodily frame to Europeans.
“ They despise,” says Bishop Heber, “rice and rice eaters,
feeding on wheat and barley bread, exhibiting in their ap¬
pearance, conversation, and habits of life, a grave, proud,
and decidedly a martial character, accustomed universally
to the use of arms and athletic exercises from their cradles,
and preferring very greatly military service to any other
means of livelihood.” The character of the Rajpoots, the
Sikhs, and the Jauts, fully answers to this animated descrip¬
tion of a warlike race. The tribe of Jauts or Jats was little
known in India till about the year 1700, when they migrated
from the banks of the Indus, and became industrious culti¬
vators in the Doab, or the country between the Ganges and
the Jumna. During the civil wars which ensued on the
death of Aurungzebe, they acquired a large extent of terri¬
tory, in which they built forts, and accumulated wealth.
They were noted plunderers; and it was out of the spoil
taken from Aurungzebe’s army in its retreat from the Dec-
can that the fortress of Bhurtpore was erected, in the gal¬
lant defence of wdrich against the British they fully sus¬
tained the character of brave soldiers. Their claim to the
distinction of a military caste has, however, been disputed;
and it is said, that though success has emboldened them to
395
assume that honourable title (khetri), they were originally Hindustan,
a low tribe of sudras or labourers. They also affix to their
name singh, a lion, which probably belongs only to the
Rajpoots. The Jauts are said by Bishop Heber to be the
finest people in bodily advantages and in martial spirit which
he had seen in India, and their country one of the most fer¬
tile and best cultivated. They have a high character for
valour throughout Hindustan; insomuch, adds the writer
above quoted, “ that when I was passing through Malwah,
‘ gallantee shows,’ like those carried about by the Savoyards,
were exhibited at the fairs and in the towns of that wild
district, which displayed, amongst other patriotic and popu¬
lar scenes, the red coats driven back in dismay from the
ramparts, and the victorious Jauts pursuing them sabre in
hand.”2 The lower classes of Jauts found in the barren
tracts of Ajmere, and in Northern India, are however dif¬
ferently described, being of small stature, ill-looking, and
black in complexion, and their condition that of squalid
poverty. The Sikhs were originally a religious sect, of
which the founder, Nanak, was born a. d. 1419, in the
province of Lahore ; and the word Seik, properly Sikh or
Siksha, in the old Sanscrit, signifies a disciple or devoted
follower. He left two sons, from whom are descended
1400 families, called Shahzadehs, who live at Dera, in the
Punjab, highly respected. His successors were spiritual
chiefs, until the year 1675, when Gooroo Govind, a warrior,
succeeded. He converted the Sikhs from religious secta¬
ries into ferocious soldiers; he changed their name from
Sikh to Singh, signifying a lion, the title claimed and high¬
ly prized by the Rajpoots; and enjoined his followers to
cut off their hair, or to shave their beards. The tribe con¬
sider this chief to be the founder of their political indepen¬
dence, and Nanak of their religion. The Sikhs acquired
power during the convulsions that followed the death of
Aurungzebe, and after the invasion of Nadir Shah. They
were severely checked by the Mahommedans, and were
nearly exterminated by the victorious Afghans after the
battle of Paniput in 1761. But their valour still triumphed
in the struggle, until they acquired and consolidated their
present possessions under Runjeet Singh, who has reduced
under his own powerful sway all the petty principalities in
the country. The eagle eye, Roman nose, and flowing
beard, of the Sikh cavaliers, give them a noble appearance;
and in horsemanship they are not excelled by any other
nation either of Europe or Asia. Colonel Todd, in his great
work on Rajast’han, describes the appearance of the Raj¬
poot cultivators in the valley of Odeypoor, who came to
meet him in a body, “ as being so striking as to draw forth
the spontaneous exclamation from his friend, 4 what noble
looking fellows i” 44 Their tall and robust figures, he adds,
44 sharp aquiline features, and flowing beards, with a native
dignity of demeanour, though, excepting their chiefs, who
wore turbans and scarfs, they were in their usual labouring
dresses, immense loose breeches, and turbans, compelled
admiration and respect.”3 Their cast of countenance is
Hindu, somewhat altered by their long beards; they
are active, and more robust than the Mahrattas, owing to
better living and a healthier climate; and rival in courage
the most renowned tribes of India. They evince in battle
the most determined contempt of personal danger, and are
easily roused to desperation by prejudice or religion; they
act as infantry in foreign armies, and as cavalry at home.
Their address is bold and somewhat rough ; they speak in¬
variably in a loud bawling tone of voice ; and are dissolute
in their habits, indulging so freely in spirituous liquors,
which their religion allows, though tobacco is prohibited, and
in opium and bang, an intoxicating drug, that a Sikh sol-
Indian Recreations, vol. i. p. 20.
? Heber’s Journal, vol. iii. p. 369.
Hamilton’s Description of Hindustan, vol. ii. p. 483.
3 Annals and Antiquities of Rajast nan.
vol. i. Personal Narrative, p. 687*
396 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, dier is rarely sober after sunset. The Sikhs are allowed to buffalo, hunting the boar and the deer, shooting ducks Hindustan,
eat the flesh of all animals except the cow. They are strict and wild fowl; from their ancient use of the war-chariot,
in their religious observances; and converts, whether Hindu as appears from the inscriptions and engravings on their
or Mahommedan, must give up all customs which infringe monuments ; from the order of the birds common amongst
the tenets of Nanak, or the military institutes of Gooroo them; from their passion for gaming and intoxicating li-
Govind. The military class highly relish the flesh of the quors ; from their sensual and slothful habits ; from their
jungle hog, of which they compel Mahommedan converts funeral ceremonies, particularly from their immolation of fe-
to partake, and also to abstain from circumcision. The males; and from other peculiarities of manners and customs
Sikh merchant or cultivator, if he be a Singh, is still a sol- common to these ancient tribes. The Rajpoots claiming so
dier in his habits, as he wears arms, and is well trained from splendid a descent are distinguished above all other tribes
his infancy to the use of them. The original followers of by rank and pride of birth, and high aristocratic feeling;
Nanak, the Kalasa Sikhs, differ widely from the warrior and hence has arisen the barbarous custom among the chiefs
tribe. They are as pliant, versatile, and insinuating in their of putting to death their female children as soon as they are
manners as the lower class of Hindus, whom they so much born, lest they should contract any base alliance. Others
resemble in their dress and appearance as not to be rea- say that this custom is occasioned by the practice amongst
dily distinguished. The descendants of Nanak are a mild, the Rajpoot princes of providing splendid dowries for their
inoffensive race ; and the other religious tribes retain their daughters, by which they are frequently impoverished, and
peculiar manners. to avoid which they murder them in infancy. Colonel Todd,
The Rajpoots inhabit the Rajpoot states of Mewar or the depth of whose researches into the ancient litera-
Odeypoor, Marwar or Joudpoor, Bicanere and Kishen- ture of the Hindus appears in his accurate and lively deli-
agur, Kotah, Boondi, Amber or Jeepoor, Jesselmere, and neation of the national character and manners of the Raj-
the Indian desert to the valley of the Indus. They are the poots, ascribes to their chiefs a more ancient and chivalrous
children of the sun and the moon; and, in memory of descent than many of the royal houses of Europe. “ From
their great ancestor the radiant Surya, or Apollo, many of the most remote periods,” he observes, “ we can trace no-
them wear badges of gilt metal round their necks with the thing ignoble, nor any vestige of vassal origin. Reduced
image of a sun and moon on horseback. The lineage of in power, circumscribed in territory, compelled to yield
both the solar (Soorya) and lunar (Indu) tribes is given much of their splendour and many of the dignities of birth,
by Colonel Todd, on the authority of the Puranas (sacred they have not abandoned an iota of the pride and high
books), a copy of which, obtained from the library of the bearing arising from a knowledge of their illustrious and
Rana of Odeypoor, he carefully consulted, in the presence regal descent. The poorest Rajpoot of this day,” he adds,
of a body of learned pundits. This work contains the va- “ retains all the pride of ancestry, often his sole inheritance;
luable results of his learned researches into the antiquities he scorns to hold the plough, or to use his lance but on
and history of the Rajpoot tribes, which were conducted horseback. In these aristocratic ideas he is supported by
with all the patience and perseverance that an enthusias- his reception among his superiors, and the respect paid to
tic devotion to the subject can alone inspire ; and being him by his inferiors.” These honours and gradations of rank
guided by philosophy, and the most profound knowledge of are supported by peculiar privileges, each of the superior or-
oriental literature, have thrown great light on the history ders being entitled to a banner, to kettle-drums, preceded by
and character of the ancient inhabitants of Rajpootana. heralds, and silver maces, with peculiar gifts and personal
Vyasu, the Hindu historian, gives fifty-seven princes of the honours in commemoration of some exploit of their an-
solar line from Menu to Rama; and fifty-eight from the cestors. Armorial bearings are used by the martial Raj-
same period of the lunar race, from Buddha, its founder, poots; a golden sun on a crimson field adorns the great
to Krishna. The establishment of these two grand races in banner of Mewar ; those of the chiefs bear a dagger, whilst
India is fixed by Colonel Todd at about 2256 years before others display a fine coloured flag; and the lion ram-
the Christian era. From Rama all the tribes termed Soor- pant in an argent field was the warlike emblem of the now
yavansa or Race of the Sun, claim their descent, namely, extinct state of Chanderi.2 The Rajpoots are divided into
the present princes of Mewar, Jeepoor, Marwar, Bicanere, thirty-six royal races, described by Colonel Todd; to each is
and their numerous clans ; whilst from those of Buddha and attached a bard, who is acquainted with all the peculiarities,
Krishnathefamiliesof Jesselmere and Cutch, extending over religious tenets, and ancient history of the tribe. These
the Indian desert, from the Sutledge to the ocean, deduce are subdivided into an infinite variety of lesser clans, each
their pedigrees. Colonel Todd draws a parallel between more or less honourable as they can trace their pure de-
them and the ancient Scandinavians and Scythians ; and the scent from the original and illustrious founders of their race,
striking resemblance that appears in the manners, customs, The character of the Rajpoots, as given by Bishop Heber on
and religious opinions of the two nations, he insists, strong- the authority of Captain Macdonald, the political resident of
ly suggests the idea of a common origin. These ancient the Company in that district, is far from favourable. “ The
tribes were devoted to the god of war; and the Rajpoot, people,” he observes, “ who are generally oppressed, and
he observes, “ delights in blood; his offerings to the god of have been, till very lately, engaged in incessant war, have
battles are sanguinary, blood and wine. The cup of liba- the vices of slaves added to those of robbers, with no more
tion is the human skull. He loves them because they are regard to truth than the natives of our own provinces,
emblematic of the deity he worships; and he is taught to exceeding them in drunkenness, fondness for opium, and
believe that Hor loves them, who in war is represented sensuality, whilst they have a blood-thirstiness from which
with the skull to drink the foeman’s blood, and in peace the great mass of the Hindus are very far removed. Their
is the patron of wine and women. With Parbutti on his courage, however, and the gallant efforts they made to de¬
knee, liis eyes rolling from the juice of the p’foot and opi- fend their territories against the Mahrattas, deserve high
um, such is this Bacchanalian divinity of war.” “ Is this praise.” They are extremely attached to their respective
Hinduism,” he adds, “ acquired in the burning plains of chiefs, to whom they yield a feudal obedience. The lands
India ? Is it not rather a perfect picture of the Scandina- are let at low rents, on the condition of military service,
vian heroes.”1 This hypothesis of a common origin Colo- every village furnishing its contingent of horsemen on the
nel Todd further supports from the Rajpoots slaying the shortest notice. One of the chiefs who visited the above
1 See Annals and Antiquities of Jiajast'han, by Lieutenant-Colonel Todd, p. 68.
3 Ibid, p. 138.
HINDUSTAN.
397
m. traveller, and who is said by him to have been a striking
J specimen of the tribe, is described as “ young and hand¬
some, but dirty in his dress, boisterous in his manner,
talking with a great deal of gesticulation, many winks,
nods, beckonings, and other marks of intelligence; and
half drunk.” Colonel Todd’s work contains an accurate and
instructive delineation of the manners and feudal relations
amongst the llajpootana chiefs; of their martial virtues,
their romantic fidelity and honour, and their high pride,
the parent at once of the noblest deeds and the deepest
crimes; with which, according to their enthusiastic annal¬
ist Colonel Todd, their history is stained. Family feuds
are frequent amongst them, and last for centuries. They
are handed down, as an inheritance, from generation to
generation; and thus the debt accumulates with interest,
«the deep reversion of delayed revenge,” till it is extin¬
guished in the blood of the hostile tribes. Hence murders,
burnings, poisonings, mingle in their domestic annals with
traits of generosity and romantic valour; and the modem
Rajpoots, though they are certainly not improved, differ
little in their manners and prejudices from their ancestors.1
The Bheels, another predatory tribe, inhabiting the moun¬
tains situated near the Nerbuddah and the Tuptee rivers,
thence extending northward towards Rajpootana, west¬
ward towards the province of Gujerat, where they meet
the Coolies, and eastward to Gundwana, where they come
in contact with the Gonds, two other predatory tribes, are
supposed to have been the aborigines of Central India. All
these tribes are averse to industry, and subsist by plunder,
by hunting, or by cultivation, when all other expedients fail.
The Coolies near the sea-coast lived, until lately, by fishing
or piracy. The Bheels inhabit the interior; and during
die late unhappy era of disorder and rapine in India, ter¬
minated by the triumph of the British arms in 1817, they
had by their inroads laid waste several districts, and were
rapidly increasing in power. They were frequently hired
by the native chiefs to assist in their desolating wars, as
horsemen or as infantry, armed with bows and arrows, and
nearly naked. Thieves and savages as they are, Bishop
Heber found that the British officers stationed in that dis¬
trict thought them, on the whole, a better race than their
conquerors. “ Their word,” he observes, “ is more to be
depended on; they are of a franker and livelier character;
their women are far better treated, and enjoy more influ¬
ence ; and though they shed blood without scruple in cases
of deadly feud, or in the regular way of a foray, they are
not vindictive or inhospitable under other circumstances,
several British officers having with perfect safety gone
hunting and fishing into their country without escort or
guide except what these poor savages themselves cheerfully
furnished for a little brandy.” The Bheels in the south
of Malwah were partly reclaimed by the wise and conci¬
liatory policy of Sir John Malcolm. But in Northern In¬
dia, in the mountainous tract south of Odeypoor, they are
differently treated, and severity has confirmed their primi¬
tive habits. To such extremities have they been inflamed,
that they cut off the head of a messenger sent to them by
the British with an offer of mercy, and fixed it on a bam¬
boo, where it was found next morning, and fled further into
the hills. The Gonds are a miserable race in Gundwana,
who have been driven, like the Bheels, by their invaders, into
the unwholesome fastnesses of the mountains. They ap¬
proach nearly to a state of nature, and frequently descend
from the mountains, especially during the harvest, to plun¬
der their ancient inheritance in the plains. Having within
the last fifty years acquired a taste for salt and sugar, they
have begun to cultivate the land, in order to obtain these:
luxuries. The Gonds bear a striking resemblance to the Hindustan.
African negro. The Grassias are another race of plun-
derers who are numerous in Gujerat, the most western
province of India. They have or pretend to have ancient
claims on the land, many portions of which were either
surrendered to them by the proprietors for the secure pos¬
session of the remainder; or they received an annual pay¬
ment in money (toda) in full of all demands, as black-mail
was paid in Scotland to the Highland robbers during the
disorders of the feudal times. The Grassias seldom levied
these claims in person; but, assuming the character of
chieftains, they rallied around them a band of adventurers,
who levied their grassia claim, and who, under this autho¬
rity, plundered and laid waste the country. These Gras¬
sias are of no sect or caste; they include Hindus and Ma-
hommedans indiscriminately. But, of all these predatory
races in Hindustan, the Coolies, who haunt the shores of
the great salt marsh called the Runn, near the Gulf of Cutch,
are the most untameable. They resist every approach to ci¬
vilization, and pride themselves upon their mean and filthy
dress. The tribes of thieves which are found in India, un¬
der the various designations of Grassias, Catties, Bhatties, or
wandering outlaws who worship the sun and moon, Coolies,
Bheels or Mewassies, Meenas, Buddicks, Cozauks, and the
like, generally wander along the rugged banks of rivers, or
among inaccessible mountains. The Bhats are a singular
race, who are most numerous in Gujerat. Some are cultiva¬
tors, others beggars and itinerant bards or traders; whilst a
few are contractors for the payment of the public revenue,
receiving a small per centage on the amount, or guarantee
the observance of private agreements and awards. The
Cherons are a sect of Hindus nearly resembling the Bhats
in their manners and customs. They are carriers of heavy
goods, such as grain and other articles, in which they are
also dealers, and possess large droves of cattle for carriage.
They are likewise engaged to protect travellers in the wild
parts of the country, and take an oath to die by their own
hands in the event of those who are under their protection
being plundered; and the superstitious thieves of Hindustan
are always overawed by this threat of the Cherons, whom
they hold in great veneration.2 The population of Hindustan
contains other tribes or sects, too numerous and diversified
to be described in detail, and differing, if not in language,
at least in dialect, and in their manners, customs, and occu¬
pations. The Phasingars in the south of India, and the
Thugs, are professional murderers; the latter are compos¬
ed of men of all castes, even Brahmins, who, when mur¬
ders are committed, are frequently the chief directors in
the scene. Their practice is to decoy the traveller into
the midst of their band, and then, drowning his cries by the
noise of pretended revelry, to strangle him by suddenly
throwing a noose round his neck, after which the body is
cast into a grave previously dug for it. Another tribe, the
Gwarriahs, who live by stealing women and children, are fast
disappearing under the strict rule of the British. The Brin-
jarrees and Loodanahs, or carriers of grain, are a singular
wandering race, who dwell in tents, and have no home; pass¬
ing their whole time in transporting grain from one part of the
country to another. They move about in large bodies with
their wives, children, dogs, and loaded bullocks ; and carry
arms, with which they stoutly defend themselves against
petty thieves. In war they are allowed to pass and repass
quietly as neutrals between hostile armies, and to sell sup¬
plies of grain to either party. It was from the Brinjarrees
that Lord Cornwallis received all the supplies for his army
when he advanced against the capital of Mysore in 1799.
The Oorians, a singular race, who inhabit Orissa, are dis-
1 Annals of Rajast'han, vol. i. chap. 3. . „
* For a more full account of some of these tribes, see the article on Gujerat, a province in which they abound.
398
HINDUSTAN.
Hindusun. tinguished by their feminine appearance, so that they are
w-v-w often mistaken for women. They are timid, dissolute in
their manners, and more practised in low cunning than any
other people in the East, though they are said to be honest
and industrious. The pastoral tribes, the Todawars or
Toderies, and the Koties, inhabit the table-land of Mysore;
the first a manly race in features, and of a proud and in¬
dependent character, strongly resembling the ancient Ro¬
mans ; the second more diminutive, with darker complexions,
and less expressive features. They are considered as the
aborigines of these highlands. rlhe Toderies aie herdsmen,
wandering from pasture to pasture, and they and the Koties
always go bare-footed and bare-headed. The Nail s in
Malabar form a singular caste, from their peculiar manners
and customs. Pretending to be soldiers by birth, they
disdain all industry; and are often seen parading up and
down fully armed, each man with a firelock, and with at
least one if not two sabres, which they more frequent¬
ly use in secret assassination than in open war. Amongst
the Nairs marriage is a mere form, and both sexes indulge
in a promiscuous intercourse. The women are married
before they are ten years of age; but the husband never
cohabits with his wife. He allows her a suitable mainten¬
ance, whilst she lives with her brothers, and cohabits in¬
discriminately with any person of an equal or higher rank.
Owing to this irregular intercourse, no Nair knows his own
father; and every man considers his sister’s children as his
heirs.1 The Nestorian Christians are numerous in the south
of India, and are a peaceful and industrious race. The
Roman Catholics, the descendants of the Portuguese and
French, or converts to their faith, amount to 600,000, and
are sunk in idolatry not much superior to that of the Hindus.
The foreign races in India are the mercenary Arabs, who
are brave soldiers, ready to fight on any side for good pay ;
and the Chinese, who are fast increasing in Calcutta, and en¬
gross, by their skill as artisans, the principal business in the
city. Another race has sprung up in India since the country
was occupied by the British, who are known by the various
names of Europeans, Anglo-Indians, Indo-Britons, half-
castes, and the like, but who have now assumed the ap¬
pellation of East Indians. They are the descendants of Eu¬
ropeans, either British or others, by native mothers, legiti¬
mate and illegitimate. They are estimated to amount, in
the province of Bengal, to about 20,000, including men,
women, and children. Nearly two thirds of this number
reside in Calcutta, and there are about 10,000 more in
the presidencies of Madras and Bombay. They speak the
English language, and follow all the European habits, and
the Protestant religion. But as they are an intermediate
caste between Hindu and Mahommedan, they are not sub¬
ject to, nor are protected by, the English law, and may, like
the natives, be arrested by any of the courts, fined, impri¬
soned, and corporally punished at the discretion of the judge,
without the intervention of a jury; though, in point of fact,
no such severities are ever practised, being prevented alike
by the force of public opinion, by the sentiments and feel¬
ings of the British rulers of India, and also by the respect¬
able conduct of this mixed caste. They have been, since
the year 1791, excluded by express enactments from the
civil and military service of the Company, and are only eli¬
gible to subordinate situations in public offices; though of
late years this exclusion was only applied in its rigour to
the immediate descendants of European and Indian pa¬
rents, all others being eligible to civil and military offices.
Prior to 1791, the East Indians were freely admitted into
the army, and several of them attained to the rank of gene¬
rals and colonels, and commanded large bodies of troops Hindus;,
with efficiency and success. Notwithstanding the restric-
tive law, there are still examples of their admission into
the Company’s service. Those who are not engaged in the
public service follow other professions. Some have ac¬
quired high reputation and large fortunes by medical prac¬
tice. Others are employed as planters, schoolmasters, ar¬
chitects, printers, carvers and gilders, or engaged in com¬
merce. Mr Grant’s measure, passed in 1883, for regulating
the Company’s affairs, abolishes these unjust and illiberal
distinctions, and renders every class, of whatever caste or
religion, eligible to all offices civil and military.2 *
Such are some of the principal tribes who inhabit the low
country of Central and Northern India, whilst the moun¬
tains and woods, wherever they occur, show specimens of
a race entirely different from all these, and in a state of so¬
ciety scarcely elevated above the savages of New Hollander
New Zealand.” It is finely observed by Sir John Malcolm
in his history of Persia, that, in the conquest of a country,
the rocks and the mountains often afford a last asylum to
the brave and the free; and accordingly, many of the na¬
tive tribes in Hindustan, flying from the destroying sword,
have thus maintained for ages a savage independence, and
all the distinct traces of an original race. The elevated
tract which Bengal includes towards its western frontier,
reaching from Rajamahal to Burdwan, is inhabited by se¬
veral tribes of mountaineers, who are probably the abori¬
gines of the country; and, from their features, language,
civilization, and religion, are obviously of a different stock
from those in the plains. Amongst the Puharrees, who in¬
habit this tract, the Hindu institution of castes is unknown;
the Hindu deities are equally so ; and they have no idols, be¬
ing nearly in the condition of savages. They subsist by the
chase, their arms are bows and arrows, and they are nearly
naked. They formerly waged incessant war with the cul¬
tivators of the plains, whom they robbed and murdered,
and were in their turn hunted by the Mahommedan ze¬
mindars like wild beasts. Having been kindly treated and
conciliated by the British, they are so far reclaimed from
their wild habits, that a battalion of sepoys has been raised
from amongst them. The peculiar features of the rude
tribes in the eastern hills of Bengal, and the adjacent plains,
equally indicate a distinct origin. The Kookies, who live
in the mountains to the north-east of the Chittagong dis¬
trict, have all the peculiar features of a Tartar countenance;
the flat nose, the small eyes, and the broad round face.
They are stout and muscular, though not tall; and they
are hunters and warriors, armed with bows and arrows,
clubs and spears. They live in the most inaccessible hills,
in a state of constant warfare, and, like all savages, are
cruel and vindictive. * .
The inhabitants of Hindustan rank much lower in the he 'S10
scale of civilization than the nations of Europe. They are
far behind them in literature, science, and the arts, and in
all the civil institutions of society; and their religion is
that of a rude people, consisting in an endless detail of
troublesome ceremonies, which are deeply interwoven with
the whole system of life. The reason of man, in contem¬
plating the wonders of creation, is directed by the light of
nature to one great first cause, and in the structure of the
universe are clearly seen the divine attributes of goodness,
wisdom, and almighty power. Accordingly Brahm, or
God, is declared, in many passages of the Vedas or sacred
wTitings of the Hindus, to be the almighty, infinite, eter¬
nal, self-existent being, who sees all things, and is every¬
where present; the creator and lord of the universe, its
1 Buchanan’s Journey from Madras, voL iL p. 412. . • • r ha-
* Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company, on a Petition of certain Christian in n ■
bitants of Calcutta, &c. presented to the House of Commons on the 4th May last; 21st June 1831.
HINDUSTAN.
399
, s preServer and its destroyer, who can neither be described
nor adequately conceived by the limited faculties of man.
But with these elementary conceptions of the divine majesty
other grosser ideas are combined, and a system of polythe¬
ism, accompanied by the most extravagant and obscene
fables, and all the disgusting, cruel, and blood-thirsty rites
of an abominable idolatry. Whilst Brahm, the Supreme
Being, is supposed to remain in holy obscurity, he has dis¬
tributed respectively to three other deities, Brahma, Vish¬
nu, and Siva, the power of creating, preserving, and de¬
stroying the world. But it does not appear that these dei¬
ties are strictly confined to their separate functions; Vish¬
nu, the preserver, frequently employing himself in acts of
destruction; and Siva, on the other hand, in acts of benefi¬
cence. In short, the Hindu creed presents no clear nor de¬
terminate ideas. All is vague, inaccurate, and confused.
Brahma, the creator, is represented as a golden-coloured
figure, with four heads and four arms. Vishnu, the pre¬
server, is represented of a black or blue colour, with four
arms, and a club to punish the wicked. The emblems un¬
der which he is represented refer to his vindictive charac¬
ter. He has three eyes, to denote the three divisions of
time past, present, and future. A crescent in his forehead
refers to the measuring of time by the lunar revolutions,
as a serpent denotes it by years; and the necklace of skulls
which he wears, the extinction of mankind in successive
generations. The great ends of his providence are brought
about by various incarnations of the Hindu deity. Of
these visible appearances, denominated avatars in the Hin¬
du mythology, there are ten, of which nine have already
taken place; and although the Hindu account of what
took place at these times is a tissue of absurdity, extrava¬
gance, and indecency, yet we may trace, under a mass of
fable, the Scripture account of the deluge, with various
other points of the Christian theology. But the history of
the creation from a seed deposited in the waters, which
became an egg, from which Brahma the creator was born,
is in the highest degree absurd and profane. At the tenth
avatar, which is yet to come, Vishnu, as is foretold, will
appear on a white horse, with a scimitar blazing like a co¬
met, for the everlasting punishment of the wicked who
shall then be on the earth. Each earthly incarnation of the
divinity gives rise to a new deity; and there are, besides, in¬
numerable other minor deities, amounting, it is said, to 330
millions. All the great elements of nature are deified by
the extravagant superstition of the Hindus; also the fir¬
mament of heaven, the sun, moon, and stars; every river,
fountain, and stream, is either a deity in itself or has a divi¬
nity presiding over it, nothing being done without some
supernatural agency; and there are, besides, innumerable
myriads of demigods, to whose honour idols are erected
and worshipped by all classes with much apparent devotion.
Stocks and stones, or a lump of clay smeared over with a
little red paint, are converted into a god, and reverenced,
by the ignorant Hindu. Any figure, either of brute or man,
or any monstrous combination of both, with a multiplicity
of heads and hands, mark a Brahminical place of worship.
In the lapse of ages, great changes have been introduced
into the religious practices of the Hindus; and sectaries have
arisen amongst them, each with peculiar objects of adoration
and modes of worship. Five great sects worship exclu¬
sively a single deity; one recognises the five divinities
that are respectively reverenced by the other sects, but
they select one object for daily adoration, whilst they per¬
form only occasional rites to the other deities. The Ve¬
das, or the Hindu Scriptures, were revealed before the ap¬
pearance of Buddha, the ninth incarnation of Vishnu, which
is supposed to have taken place in the year 1014 before
the Christian era. He appears to have borrowed his the¬
ology from the system of Capila, in which the unlawfulness
of killing animals is inculcated as an essential point. But
the overthrow of the Buddhists did not revive the religious Hindustan,
system inculcated in the Vedas. The doctrines taught in
these sacred books are now mostly obsolete, and in their
stead new forms and ceremonies have been instituted, and
new orders of devotees. In particular the goddess Kali,
the consort of Siva, who delights in blood, has been propiti¬
ated by the sacrifice of animals ; and the worship of Rama
and Krishna, incarnations of Vishnu, and of Siva the de¬
stroyer, appears to have been introduced since the perse¬
cution of the Buddhists and Jains.
The worshippers of Buddha, though they believe in the
incarnation of Vishnu, are regarded as heretical by the
Hindus, and have been compelled, by persecution, to fly
to other countries. They have now propagated their faith
over the greater part of Eastern India, in China, and as far
as Japan; also in Thibet and Ceylon. The Jains are ano¬
ther sect of Hindus, who acknowledge only as subordinate
deities some, if not all, of the gods of the Brahmins, and the
prevailing sects; and assign the highest place to certain dei¬
fied saints, who, according to their creed, have risen to the
dignity of superior gods. They neither address prayers
nor perform sacrifices to the sun or the fire; and they re¬
ject the authority of the Vedas, as do also the Buddhists.
The presence of umbrella-covered pyramids, or semi-globes,
and of plain human figures sitting cross-legged, or stand¬
ing in an attitude of contemplation, point out the temple
or excavation of a Buddhist. The twenty-four saintly
figures, without the pyramid, indicate a Jain temple.
The sacred books of the Hindus, though they inculcate
generally all the moral duties of justice, mercy, and bene¬
volence, yet seem, like every other system of false religion,
to give the first place to the ceremonial law; and according¬
ly the devotion of the Hindus consists in mere outward ob¬
servances, and is not inconsistent with the most scandalous
crimes. Under the Christian system, there can be no piety
to God without benevolence to man. But the troublesome
ceremonies of the Hindu religion encroach, not only on all
moral duties, but on the whole business of life; and confer
such a stock of atoning merit that they seem to supersede
the weightier matters of the law. The observances which
are imposed upon a Brahmin commence when he rises in the
morning, and consist in divers ablutions and prayers, in
the worship of the rising sun, in the inaudible recitation
of the gayatri, or the holiest text of the Vedas, in holy
meditation, and in other ceremonies. He has then to
perform the five sacraments, which consist in teaching,
and studying the scriptures, which is the sacrament of
the Veda; in offering cakes and water, which is the sacra¬
ment of the manes; in an oblation of fire, the sacrament of
the deities; in giving rice and other food to living crea¬
tures, which is the sacrament of spirits; and in receiving
guests with honour, which is the sacrament of men. The
whole day would not suffice for the punctual performance
of these ceremonies; and they are of necessity abridged,
to give time for the proper business of life. In almost all
the religious traditions of the world we find traces of the
Scripture revelation, however corrupted; and the Hindu sys¬
tem seems to have borrowed, and to have greatly extended,
the typical impurities of the Mosaic law. The rules on
this subject, pointing out the causes of defilement, and the
modes of purification, are numerous, many of them to the
last degree absurd and troublesome. The death or the birth
of a child renders all the kindred unclean. Any one who
touches a dead body, a new-born child, an outcast, &c. is
unclean; or a Brahmin who has touched a human bone.
The natural functions of the body give occasion to many
minute and disgusting regulations ; and the modes of puri¬
fication are equally strange and ridiculous. Of these, bath¬
ing is the most rational; the other modes are by stroking
a cow, looking at the sun, or having the mouth sprinkled
with water. He who is bitten by any animal frequenting
400
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, a town, or by a mare, a camel, or a bear, is unclean; and
he is purified by stopping his breath during one inaudible
repetition of the gayatri. Inanimate substances may also
be unclean, and the various modes of purifying them rival
in absurdity the other extravagances of the Hindu code of
religious observances.
The expiation of sin by voluntary penance is another
favourite doctrine of the Brahmins, by which they contrive
to awe superstitious minds into subjection; and in their
estimate of offences, with a view to suitable penances,
they subvert all moi’al distinctions. “ Acts naturally in¬
different,” says the author of Indian Recreations, “ are put
on the same footing with immoralities; eating certain ar¬
ticles of food, drinking certain liquors, or touching certain
objects, are declared forfeitures, and are expiated by pe¬
nance as immoral conduct. Forgetting texts of scripture is
classed with perjury ; eating things forbidden, with killing
a friend ; incest and adultery are compared to slaying a bull
or a cow; drinking forbidden liquor, to killing a Brahmin.
In several instances, actions highly meritorious according to
our notions, are put on the same footing with a conduct
implying great infamy. Working in mines of any sort,
engaging in dykes, bridges, or other great mechanical works,
is classed with subsisting by the harlotry of a wife, and
preparing charms to destroy the innocent.”1 To these ar¬
tificial offences, penances are either affixed by the Brah¬
mins, or are voluntarily undertaken by their pious votaries;
r.nd these generally consist in fasts, mortifications, watchings,
and other bodily privations. “ If a Brahmin,” says Menu,
“ have killed a man of the sacerdotal class without malice,
he must make a hut in a forest, and dwell in it twelve whole
years, subsisting on alms, for the purification of his soul.
If the slayer be a king, he may perform sacrifices, with pre¬
sents of great value; if a person of wealth has committed
this offence, he may give all his property to some Brahmin
learned in the Veda.” In some cases the penances consist
in eating what is filthy and disgusting. If a Brahmin kill
by design a cat, or an ichneumon, the bird chisha, or a
frog, a dog, a lizard, an owl, or a crow, he must perform
the ordinary penance required for the death of a Sudra,
one of the lowest caste, who are thus no more valued than
a cat or a frog. A particular class of devotees, namely, the
Fakirs, signalize their piety by enduring the severest
tortures, and with a constancy worthy of a better cause.
Bishop Heber describes, with his usual force, the appear¬
ance of these eastern monks as he entered the holy city
of Benares. “ Fakirs’ houses,” he observes, “ as they are
called, occur at every turn, adorned with idols, and send¬
ing forth an unceasing tinkling and strumming of vinas,
byyals, and other discordant instruments; while religious
mendicants of every Hindu sect, offering every conceivable
deformity which chalk, cow-dung, disease, matted locks,
distorted limbs, and disgusting and hideous attitudes of
penance, can show, literally line the principal streets on
both sides. Here,” he adds, “ I saw repeated instances
of that penance of which I heard much in Europe, of
men with their legs and arms voluntarily distorted by
keeping them in one position, and their hands clenched till
the nails grew out at the backs. Their pitiful exclamations
as we passed, ‘ Agha Sahib, Topee Sahib,’ the usual names
in Hindustan for an European, ‘ khana he waste hooch cheez
do,’ give me something to eat, soon drew from me the few
pence I had; but it was a drop of water in the ocean; and
the importunities of the rest, as we advanced into the city,
were almost drowned in the hubbub which surrounded us.”2
The tortures which these fanatics endure exceed all belief.
A penitent who went through the ceremony of sitting be¬
tween five fires, is described by Fraser, who witnessed Hindus
the penance at a public festival. Being seated on a quad- Wy
rangular stage, after the sun began to have considerable
power, he stood on one leg gazing stedfastly at its scorch¬
ing beams, whilst fires large enough, says the traveller, to
roast an ox were burning around him, the penitent count¬
ing his beads, and occasionally adding fuel to the flames.
He stood upright on his head in the midst of these fires
for three hours; and then seating himself with his legs
across, he remained till the end of the day exposed to the
scorching heat of both the sun and the fires.3 Other cruel
and bloody rites are contrived by those devotees, the wor¬
shippers of Siva or his consort the goddess Kali. At one
of the festivals in honour of this goddess, Bishop Heber,
who was present, relates, that one of these self-tormentors
had hooks thrust through the muscles of his sides, which
he endured without shrinking, and a broad bandage being
fastened round his waist to prevent the hooks from being
torn through the flesh by the weight of his body, he was
fastened to a long pole, and, by means of another pole fixed
in the ground, he was swung aloft and whirled round in
the air; on a motion being made to take him down, he
made signs for them to proceed, a mark of constancy re¬
ceived with shouts of applause by the ignorant multitude.
Other devotees were seen going about with small spears
thrust through their tongues and arms, or with hot irons
pressed against their sides. Bishop Heber saw another of
these penitents who was actually half roasting himself by a fire
which he had kindled in a hole dug in the ground; another
was seen hopping on one foot, having made a vow never to
use the other, which was now contracted and shrunk up;
and a third had held his hands above his head so long that
he had lost the power of bringing them down to his sides.
Some are seen buried up to the neck in the ground, or even
deeper, with only a small hole for breathing. Some lie on
beds of iron spikes, or tear their flesh with whips, or chain
themselves for life to the foot of a tree, or remain in a
standing posture for years, till their legs swell, and break
out into ulcers, and become at last too weak to support
them ; others exhaust their bodily strength with long fast¬
ing, or gaze on the blazing sun, till their eyesight is extin¬
guished. These devotees subsist entirely by charity; and
Dr Buchanan mentions a class of them in the south of In¬
dia, who wander about with bells tied to their legs and arms,
in order to give notice of their presence as they approach
the villages.4 They are always naked, and filthy in the ex¬
treme, being covered with cow-dung and chalk; and for the
tortures which they endure in public they indemnify them¬
selves in private by the utmost license of sensual indulgence.3
Amongst other observances, the Hindus have always been
much given to religious pilgrimages; and their holy places
have been generally established near the sea, the sources
and junctions of rivers, which are held in peculiar venera¬
tion, the tops of remarkable hills, hot springs, caves, water¬
falls, or any other place of difficult or dangerous access.
A pilgrimage to Gangoutri, near the sources of the Ganges,
is accounted the great achievement of Hindu piety. To
the waters of this river the superstitious Hindu ascribes
peculiar sanctity, and devoutly worships it throughout its
whole course. But there are particular spots more sacred
than others ; and so great is the resort of pilgrims, and such
their ardour to wash in the sacred stream, that numbers, in
the crush and tumult, are hurried into the water and
drowned, or trodden to death in the crowd.
It is not doubted that, at a period not very remote, the
bloody deities of the Hindus were propitiated with human
sacrifices, and some of the rites still in use amongst them
1 See Tennant’s Indian Recreations, vol. i. p. 155. 3 Mill’s History of British India, vol. i. p. 353.
3 Heber, vol. i. p. 373. ■» Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. i. P-
6 Martin, vol. i. p. 291.
HINDUSTAN.
401
n. confirm this suspicion. The Brahmins, in resisting any de-
j mand which they conceive to be oppressive, resort to a con¬
trivance, in which a human victim is really sacrificed. They
erect a circular pile of wood, on the top of which they place
a cow or an old woman; and if the demand is insisted on,
they set fire to the pile, and consume the sacrifice, which
is supposed to entail on the oppressor the deepest guilt.
Bishop Heber gives, in his narrative, an example of the
sacrifice of an old woman, who, in a quarrel which her hus¬
band had with his neighbour respecting some land, was
thrust into a Mahbout’s hut, and there burned, in order
that her spirit might haunt the spot, and entail a curse upon
the soil. Children were also formerly sacrificed, by throw-
ino- them to the sacred sharks of the Ganges, till the prac¬
tice was forbidden by the British government; and a vo¬
luntary sacrifice of themselves by individuals, in honour of
the gods, is still reckoned meritorious. At the festival of
Juggernaut, the idol is placed on a ponderous machine or
chariot, and dragged forw ard by a crowd of devotees and
priests, when numbers of the people, even fathers and mo¬
thers, with their children in their arms, throwing themselves
in the way of the chariot, and being crushed to death un¬
der its ponderous wheels, amidst the fanatical cries of the
multitude, are supposed to be conveyed immediately to
heaven. Numerous victims of both sexes drown themselves
annually at the junction of the sacred streams ;l many strike
off their own heads as a sacrifice to the Ganges, whilst
others expiate their sins by casting themselves into the
avenging flames. This act of devotion is accompanied by
atrocities that are truly shocking, the devotee previously lay¬
ing open his bowels with the stroke of a sabre, tearing out his
liver and giving it to a byestander, conversing all the time
with apparent indifference.2 * Many other enormities are prac¬
tised at the festivals in honour of their gods, which it would
be endless and disgusting to detail. The custom of a widow
burning herself on the funeral pile of her husband is a noted
rite of the Hindu religion, by which she is supposed to ex¬
piate all her husband’s crimes, however great, and to se¬
cure for herself the joys of paradise. It is most frequent
in Bengal and near Benares, and is much encouraged by
the Brahmins. The Hindus in this, as in many other in¬
stances, evince a singular indifference about their own lives;
which also appears in the frequent instances of suicide
amongst them. “ Men,” says Heber, “ and still more women,
throw themselves down wells, or drink poison, for apparent¬
ly the slightest reasons, generally out of some quarrel, and
in order that their blood may be at their enemy’s door.” Ob¬
scenities mingle with these bloody rites, and the most in¬
decent figures are pourtrayed on the chariots used at the
temples, many of them large and richly carved. “ These,”
says Dr Buchanan, “ representing the amours of the god
Krishna, are the most indecent that I have ever seen.”J
Equally indecent representations are carved on the sacred
cars fixed at the temples, in which the musicians and dancing
girls are all prostitutes to the Brahmins, and turned out to
starve when they grow old, unless they have a handsome
daughter to support them from the wages of iniquity. The
state of morals among the Hindus is such as might be ex¬
pected from a religion so impure, and from the gross em¬
blems which are used on sacred occasions ; their wTitings
and their conversation are shocking to European ears; and
even the Hindu women hear without a blush and join in lan¬
guage the most gross and disgusting. They are sensual in
all their ideas, and pursue the intercourse of the sexes with
little more discrimination than the brute creation. Fidelity
to marriage vows is scarcely known amongst them, at least
amongst the men.
A superstitious tenderness for the brute creation is a Hindustan,
peculiar tenet of the Hindu creed, which prohibits the w-vw'
use of animal food excepting at the great festivals, when
the sacrifices of beasts propitiate the bloody deities, and
serve the natives for a feast.4 But the same abstinence
from animal food is not general throughout Hindustan.
In the north of India it has already been mentioned
that it is freely used by the inhabitants; and, according
to Dr Buchanan, there are castes in the south of India
who eat sheep, goats, hogs, fowls, and fish, though there
are others who religiously abstain from these, and from all
spirituous liquors.6 Several animals, as the cow and the
monkey, are objects of veneration. Bishop Heber, so
often quoted, mentions, that on entering the holy city of
Benares, “ the sacred bulls devoted to Siva, of every age,
tame and familiar as mastiffs, walk lazily up and down
the narrow streets, or are seen lying across them, and
hardly to be kicked up; any blows, indeed, given them
must be of the gentlest kind, or woe be to the profane
wretch who braves the prejudices of a fanatic population,
in order to make way for the tonjon. Monkies, sacred
to Hunimaum, the divine ape, who conquered Ceylon for^
Rama, are, in some parts of the town, equally numerous,
clinging to all the roofs and little projections of the tem¬
ples, putting their impertinent heads and hands into every
fruiterer’s or confectioner’s shop, and snatching the food
from the children at their meals.”6 To such a length is this
superstition carried, that they have established an hospital
for sick and infirm beasts, and for fleas, lice, and insects,
though it does not appear, as reported by some travellers,
that they feed these loathsome creatures on the flesh of
beggars hired to lodge in the hospital for that purpose.
An hospital for animals is to be seen at Broach in Gujerat,
which has considerable endowments in land, and in which
are monkies, peacocks, horses, dogs, cats, and little box¬
es filled with fleas and lice. This hospital was described
to Bishop Heber by the British commercial agent resi¬
dent at Broach. The funds, however, are said to be
alienated by the avaricious Brahmins, and the animals
allowed to starve. With all this veneration for animals,
they are nowhere more cruelly treated. They are over¬
worked and abused in a manner shocking to a European.
“ They treat their draft horses,” says Bishop Heber, “ with
a degree of barbarous severity which would turn an Eng¬
lish hackney coachman sicknor do they show any
greater sympathy for human beings, who are allowed to
perish before their eyes from hunger or disease. Lepers,
according to their base and irrational superstition, are
treated as objects of the divine wrath; they are cruelly
neglected, and regarded with abhorrence rather than with
sympathy.
The transmigration of souls is another favourite tenet
of the Brahmin superstition. The souls ot good men
migrate in the next world into hermits, religious mendi¬
cants, Brahmins, demi-gods, genii, or other celebrated in¬
telligences; and the best ascend to the condition of Brah¬
ma with four faces. The next gradation allotted to souls
filled with passion is into men and not into deities, into
cudgel players, boxers, wrestlers, actors, or those of a
higher class into the bodies of kings, and the highest
become genii, attendants on the superior gods; whilst
souls filled with darkness are degraded into the lower
animals, such as worms, reptiles, cattle, &c. or into ele¬
phants, horses, Sudras (the lowest caste), or into the still
more degraded class of men of no caste, or into lions, ti¬
gers, &c.; to the highest are allotted the forms of dancers,
singers, &c. birds, giants, blood-thirsty savages. Particu-
1 Tennant, vol. ii. p, 250.
* Mill’s History of British India, voL i. p. 358.
Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. ii. p- -07-
VOL. XI.
4 Journey from Madras, &C. vol. i. p. 262.
4 Ibid. vol. i. p. 248.
* Heber’s Narrative, &c. vol. i. p. 373.
3 E
402
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, lar migrations are assigned as the punishment of certain
enormities ; but it is useless to pursue the system further
into its absurd and disgusting details.
Manners. The religion of Hindustan is so closely interwoven with
its customs, manners, and laws, that they can scarcely be
described separately. The division of a Hindu commu¬
nity into castes is an institution, not of policy, but of re¬
ligion, which embraces the whole detail and intercourse
of life. There are four original or pure castes, namely, ls£,
the Brahmins, or priests; 2d, the Cshatriyas, or military
caste; M, the Vaisyas, or husbandmen ; and, kth, the Su-
dras, or labourers. Of these the Brahmins are declared
to hold the first rank, and to be the lords of all the other
classes. A want of due reverence to them, especially by
the lowest or the Sudra class, is accounted one of the most
atrocious crimes. The laws and manners equally concur
to maintain the honour, and all the substantial privileges,
of this sacred order. They are exempted from taxation,
and from the sanguinary laws which affect the other
classes. Neither the life nor property of a Brahmin can
be touched, even though he commit the most atrocious
crimes ; and the whole scope of the Hindu religion is to
heap gifts and wealth upon them. “ Every offence,” says
Orme, “ is capable of being expiated by largesses to the
Brahmins, prescribed by themselves, according to their
own measures of avarice and sensuality.”1 The duties
of the Brahmins are to meditate on divine things, to read
the Vedas, to instruct the young Brahmins, and to per¬
form sacrifices and other religious acts. The Cshatriyas,
or the military rank, is next in order to that of the Brah¬
mins. Their duty is to bear arms in defence of the state,
and they rank as high above the lower orders as the Brah¬
mins do above them. The Vaisyas, the third caste of
Hindus, tend cattle, or engage in trade and agriculture.
They rank only above the Sudras, from whom, however,
they receive the same deference and submission which
they give to the higher castes. To the Sudra, or the low¬
est class, are allotted all the meanest and most servile du¬
ties ; they are regarded with abhorrence by the other
tribes, to whom religion prescribes their most abject sub¬
mission, as well as every other species of degradation.
They are in a manner excluded from the privileges of the
social state. They pay a higher rate of interest for mo¬
ney than any of the other classes, they are more cruelly
punished for crimes committed against them, whilst an
injury to a degraded Sudra is a light and venial offence.
They are held to be in a state of slavery, they cannot
possess property, and at any time a Brahmin may seize
the goods of his Sudra slave. So degraded are they, that
under this gloomy, unsocial superstition, a Brahmin can¬
not lawfully read the Veda in presence of any of them,
nor give them spiritual counsel or instruction, under pain
of sinking with them into hell. To each of these classes,
into which society is divided, are assigned, under the se¬
verest penalties, particular and hereditary employments.
But the rigid severity of this law is softened by the follow¬
ing exceptions. A Brahmin who cannot find employ¬
ment in his own spiritual line, may descend to the exercise
of military duties, or to tillage and attendance on cattle,
or to traffic, only avoiding certain commodities. In like
manner, a Cshatriya in distress may have recourse to all
inferior employments, though not to the higher duties of
the Brahmins. The practice of medicine and other
learned professions, of painting and other arts, common
labour, menial service, begging, or serving, may be re¬
sorted to upon the plea of necessity. A Vaisya may de¬
scend to the servile work of a Sudra; and a Sudra mayj
subsist by handicrafts, as joinery, masonry, painting, and Vy, ri
writing, by which he may serve the higher classes; or by
trade or husbandry. The loss of caste is one of the most
serious calamities which can befall a Hindu, and may m
fact be compared to the spiritual anathemas of the Ca¬
tholic church during the dark ages of Europe. If the
loss of caste were the penalty of immorality, the fear
of it would impose a salutary restraint. But this is
far from being the case. The most abandoned Brahmin
retains his rank, notwithstanding his crimes; but he will
entirely forfeit it and lose all countenance in society by
touching impure food, or by some such petty delinquen¬
cy. To sit down at a meal with one of an inferior caste,
would be deemed a monstrous pollution; and a naked
Hindu would think himself defiled by the presence of the
first monarch of Europe at any of his meals. “ While
dinner is preparing,” says Tennant, “ and during eating,
a small circle is drawn round the company, which an Eu¬
ropean, if he pass, infallibly defiles the meal; it is thrown
to the dogs, and other victuals provided, though a single
one be all the treasure of the family.”2
Such may be considered as in theory the structure of a
Hindu community. But since, in the progress of society,
this strict division into classes with distinct employments
could not long be maintained, we accordingly find that,
by illicit connexions, the pure races are intermixed, and
children born who, being of no caste, are therefore impure,
and objects of execration to all the other tribes. This
impure race, denominated the Burren Sunker, and classi¬
fied into distinct tribes, have become artisans and handi¬
craftsmen of every description. From the intermixture of
these various races innumerable mixed tribes have sprung,
and the pure blood of the four original tribes is scarcely to
be found; so that Mr Rickards, in his accurate account
of Indian manners, says, “ I have never met with a per¬
son who could prove himself a genuine Cshratriya, Vaisya,
or Sudra; whilst of those who pretend to be of pure de¬
scent, Brahmins and other respectable and intelligent
Hindus have assured me that they have no right to the
distinction; that the genuine tribes above named are ex¬
tinct, and their descendants in this generation all of mix¬
ed blood. If, however, any do now exist, they must be
too thinly scattered to affect the general interests of so¬
ciety by their privileges or numbers. “ A real Cshatriya
prince,” he adds, “ is not to be found in these days ; all
the greater princes of India, excepting the peshwa, a
Brahmin, are base-born.”3 Nor, amidst this confusion of
ranks, has it been possible to adhere to the strict allotmentof
certain employments to particular castes. The Brahmi ns no
doubt still form a distinct order; their privileges are will¬
ingly conceded to them by the superstitious multitude,
and the inferior castes have never encroached on their holy
functions. But those of the other castes have been con¬
founded. War has not been the exclusive employment
of ther Cshatriya caste; for the Indian armies are recruit¬
ed from all denominations and castes. Nor have the
Vaisya and the Sudra castes been more successful in the
monopoly of their employments; seeing that all the vari¬
ous castes follow their allotted duties, and fill every branch
of agriculture, commerce, handicraft, and menial service.1
But the institution of castes, though it has not been strict¬
ly acted upon, being at variance with the fixed order of
human society, has nevertheless deeply affected the as¬
pect and structure of the Hindu communities; and whilst
it exalts the order of priests, it degrades the lower classes
1 Orme On the Government and People of Hindustan, p. 433. 2 See Indian Recreations, vol. i. p. 121.
3 India, or Facts submitted to illustrate the Character and Condition of the Native Inhabitants, &c. By it. Rickards, Esq. vol. i. p-
4 Ibid. p. 30.
29.
HINDUSTAN.
403
idust .to the level of the brutes. It is the source of cruel and
'Y' anti-social prejudices, entirely opposite to those Christian
feelings of benevolence by which man is bound to his fel¬
low men ; and by which the different orders of society, in¬
stead of being harshly separated, are softened and blended,
as in the communities of Europe, into one harmonious
whole.
Besides these degraded castes, whose condition is little
better than that of slaves, numbers of unfortunate per¬
sons are reduced to actual slavery throughout India, es¬
pecially in the southern provinces, and in the Mahratta
states. In Mysore, Coorg, Cochin, and Travancore, sla¬
very prevails. All the jaghiredars, zemindars, principal
Brahmins, and talookdars employ domestic slaves in their
establishment; and in every Mahratta household of con¬
sequence they are considered as indispensable. They are
also employed in the labours of the field, in the cultiva¬
tion of rice, and are in the lowest state of degradation,
ill-fed and worse clothed, and most wretched in their ap¬
pearance. They are often extremely ill treated, and may
be flogged at the discretion of the master, imprisoned, or
put in the stocks ; and there is hardly a criminal calendar
which does not contain cases of wounding or even mur¬
dering slaves. Many are born slaves ; some are kidnap¬
ped by men-stealers of a particular class, or are made
prisoners in battle ; others are sold into slavery in times
of famine by their parents. Numbers are imported from
the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coasts of Afri¬
ca; some bind themselves for a time, or for life, in dis¬
charge of a debt. The population of Canara, amounting
to 600,000, and in 1827 to a million, according to the es¬
timate of Mr Harris, the principal collector, included
80,000 slaves. In Malabar there were, in 1806, 96,386
slaves in a population of 700,000, and out of 1,003,466
in 1827, 20,000 were prisoners of war or their descen¬
dants. In the report of the commissioners of Bengal
and Bombay, of which Mr Jonathan Duncan was presi¬
dent, it is stated, that on the first settlement of Malabar
in 1793, the degraded castes were in a state of villenage,
and attached to the soil. It was the practice of the Bri¬
tish to sell these slaves off the estate in default of the public
dues, and in many cases to separate parents from chil¬
dren, wives from husbands, and thus to rend asunder
the ties of kindred. The sale of slaves in the southern
Mahratta states has been prohibited by a regulation of Hindustan,
the governor-general and council; and in 1819 the prac-
tice of selling slaves for arrears of rent was ordered to be
discontinued by the board of revenue. Children are some¬
times kidnapped and sold for slaves; and the superinten¬
dent of police at Madras says, “ I succeeded in 1818 in
restoring several such children to their parents amongst
the lowest and poorest of the Hindus ; and their anxiety
to recover infants whom they in all probability found it
very difficult to support, would have done honour to the
highest classes of European society.”1
The Hindus are by no means a moral people. Not¬
withstanding the gentleness and feminine softness of their
manners and address, they frequently commit the most re¬
volting acts of cruelty. The practice of murdering chil¬
dren for the sake of the silver ornaments in which, by the
vanity of their parents, they are attired, is common among
them ; and the gang-robbers of India are noted for the
horrible tortures which they inflict on their unhappy victims,
in their eager search after their hidden treasures. “ Pesti¬
lence, or beasts of prey,” says Dr Buchanan, “ are gentle
in comparison of Hindu robbers.” According to the obser¬
vation of Orme, the politics of Hindustan would afford in a
century more frequent examples of sanguinary cruelty than
the whole history of Europe since the reign of Charlemagne.
“ How many princes,” observes this writer, “ have been
stabbed in full durbar” (in open court). “ How many
have been poisoned in their beds. Chiefs of armies cir¬
cumvented and cut off at conferences in the field. Fa¬
vourite courtiers strangled, without previous notice of their
crime, or while they thought themselves on the eve of de¬
stroying their masters.”2 Murders amongst the Hindus,
even by poison, excite no feeling of deep abhorrence, as
among the nations of Europe ; and the cold-blooded villany
of the Hindu is often remarkable. Mr Holwell mentions,
that when he sat as judge at Calcutta, he had heard it stat¬
ed in defence of the most atrocious murders, that it was
the Cali age, when men were destined to be wicked.3
The Hindus, like all the other Asiatics, are great masters
of dissimulation; they are cunning and treacherous, ad¬
dicted to falsehood to a degree that can scarcely be con¬
ceived by a more refined and moral people. Perjury in
courts of justice is universal, amongst high as well as low,
and amongst both the Hindus and Mussulmans, without
1 See Papers relative to slavery in India; Return to the House of Commons, 6th March 1834; Evidence of Joseph Fenn, nine
years a missionary in Travancore; Answers to Questions on Slavery, circulated by the Commissioners for the affairs of India; Evi¬
dence of T. H. Baber, Esq. thirty-two years resident in India; of the Honourable J. Harris, principal collector in Canara; and of Mr
Warden, collector in Malabar. The evidence of T. H. Baber discloses a regular and shameful traffic in slaves, carried on by
Mr Brown, a servant of the Company, and under the authority of the Bombay government. “ How or whence, he observes, this
oppressive and cruel practice, not only of selling slaves off the^estate where born and bred, but actually of separating husbands and
wives, parents and children, and thus severing all the nearest and dearest associations and ties of our common nature, originated, it
would be difficult to say; but I have no doubt, and never had in my own mind, that it has derived support, if not its origin, from
the impolitic measure in 1798, of giving authority to the late Mr Murdoch Brown, while overseer of the Company’s plantations m
Malabar, from the difficulties he experienced, even with ‘ the assistance of the tchsildar’ (the head native authority) and his
peons’ (armed persons with badges of office), to procure workmen, and ‘ of the price of labour being more than he was authorized
to give,’ to purchase indiscriminately as many slaves as he might require to enable him to carry on the woiks of that plantation; ana
of actually issuing orders to the European, as well as to the native local authorities, to assist him, and even to restore slaves who ad
run away and returned to their homes (without any orders to inquire the reason of their absconding), and who, as has been actually
ascertained from the surviving slaves themselves, had been actually kidnapped by the doragha (head police officer), and sent up to
North Malabar, to Mr Brown, which person had continued up to 1811, or for a period of twelve years, under this alleged authority,
granted by the Bombay government, to import slaves and free-born children from Travancore, when, by the merest accident,
this nefarious traffic came to my knowledge, and which, after a considerable opposition on the part of the provincial court of circuit,
I succeeded in putting a stop to, after having restored to liberty and their country 123 persons who had been stolen, of whom 7_
were actually found in Mr Brown’s possession.” Mr Brown’s agent, Assen Ally, acknowledged, that during the time he was at Aleppi,
at Travancore, in 1810, no less than 400 children had been transported to Malabar. The advocate-general’s report alludes to Mr
Baber’s perseverance in restoring the kidnapped children, in spite of very extraordinary opposition,’’ and to the “ extraordinary sup¬
port Mr Brown appears to have received in these dealings in stolen children.” (Fol. 788-) The still more objectionable practice o
realizing the public dues by the seizure and sale of slaves off the land, must have confirmed proprietors m their idea of accounting
the slaves their property. Mr Vaughan, collector, Malabar, in a letter dated 20th of July 1819, argues in favour of this inhuman
practice, saying, “ that the partial measure of declaring them not liable to be sold for arrears of revenue, will be a drop m the ocean ;
though, why government should give up the right every proprietor enjoys, is a question worthy of consideration. lar. , , ? c.
Highest class slaves sold for 250 gold fananas, L.6. 5s.; average price* L.3. 0s.
5 Orme’s Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire, p. 340.
3 Mill, vol. i. p. 407. ' '
HINDUSTAN.
404
Hindustan, the least remorse or shame. The Europeans in the office
of judges in India complain of being perplexed by a host
of perjurers on each side, swearing in the teeth of one ano¬
ther. They are acute dissemblers in all affairs of interest,
and are the sharpest buyers and sellers in the world, main¬
taining through all their bargains a degree of calmness
which no art can penetrate.1 A want of sympathy with
the sufferings of his fellow-creatures is another trait of the
Hindu character, and a sure index to the low state of re¬
finement amongst them. They treat their sick and dying
with indifference, and in many cases with shocking inhu¬
manity. The sick whose life is despaired of are carried
to the banks of the Ganges, and their mouth, nose, and
ears are closely stopped up with mud ; water is then pour¬
ed upon them from large vessels, and thus, amidst the ago¬
nies of disease and of suffocation, life terminates. Ihe
corpse is then burned, if the survivors can pay the expense,
and the relatives retire with every appearance of insensi¬
bility.2 The effeminacy of their persons, and their timi¬
dity, prevent them from fighting or boxing in their quar¬
rels. But this forbearance seems to proceed from no want
of malignity or passion, as, in the event of any misunder¬
standing between two persons meeting accidentally in the
street, they upbraid each other with the foulest epithets,
accompanied by the utmost violence of gesticulation.
Mr Rickards, in his valuable work upon India, seems to
imagine that European writers have exaggerated the vices
of the Hindus, and he exhibits them in a more favourable
light. “ Having lived,” he observes, “ twenty-three years
in India, and passed much of that time in intimate inter¬
course with various natives, I have a different opinion of
their character to that given in several printed works. I
have constantly seen, in their acts and conduct, the practice
of the most amiable virtues. I have experienced from
many the most grateful attachment. I believe them capa¬
ble of all the qualities that adorn the human mind; and
though I allow many of their imputed faults (where is the
individual or nation without them ?) I must still ascribe
these faults more to the despotisms under which they have so
long groaned, and which unhappily we have but slenderly
alleviated, than to natural depravity of disposition, or to
any institutions peculiar to themselves.”3 No writer as¬
cribes to the Hindus any greater natural depravity than
other nations. But certainly their peculiar religion, its in¬
decent and bloody rites, and the laws and usages founded
on it, more especially the institution of castes, tend to ex¬
tinguish in the breast all humane, enlightened, or moral
feelings; and though, even amongst the Hindus, excep¬
tions may be found, and the occasional practice of amiable
virtues, yet the crimes which are proved to be committed
openly and without shame or remorse sufficiently attest the
want of morality, intelligence, and every humane and social
feeling amongst them, and seem to place them in this re¬
spect entirely on a level with the other Asiatic nations.
Ignorance is the parent of cruelty and vice, and with the
progress of knowledge and of civil institutions certain crimes
entirely disappear; and hence their existence amongst
the Hindus bespeaks not so much any innate or peculiar
depravity, as a low state of civilization, and a state of thral¬
dom to a base superstition and to the dominion of priests,
under which the social virtues are blighted in the bud,
and selfishness and vice spring up in the congenial soil.
In every nation the condition of the female sex affords
a sure index to the state of manners and the progress of
civilization. Amongst savages, women are ill treated be¬
cause they are weak and helpless, and there is no moral re¬
straint on the tyranny of the men. In Hindustan, as over
all the East, where polygamy prevails, they are a degraded Hindu,,
caste, shut up in the harem or the seraglio, and not, as in Wy,
Europe, the seat of a purer faith and more refined system
of manners, the friends, the advisers, and equal companions,
of their husbands. And both the laws and manners of the
East lead to this unhappy effect. Whilst marriage is en¬
joined as a religious duty, not to be neglected except for
the higher duty of becoming a devotee, the character of
women is described in the Hindu books of law as stained
with almost every vice. Pride, anger, envy, violence, de¬
ceit, falsehood, immoderate desires, infidelity to their hus¬
bands, and idleness, are pointed out as their ruling passions;
and the treatment they meet with corresponds with those
ideas. They are wholly uneducated, excluded from the
sacred books, and from all knowledge of expiatory texts,
and from any share in the paternal property; and they are
held unworthy to eat with their husbands. They are the
slaves of their domestic tyrants, and often receive the
most barbarous treatment, being beaten and otherwise ill
used; but they are not allowed to leave them, whilst the
husband, on the other hand, may divorce his wife upon any
plausible pretence. Such is the condition of women by
the laws of Hindustan, which, we have no reason to be¬
lieve, are softened in domestic life. Certain it is, that wo¬
men, as long as they are uneducated, will be in a degraded
state. It is only when they cultivate their minds that they
can mix with advantage in society, and that, respecting
themselves, and respected by others, they can acquire that
ascendency to which they are entitled, and give, by the de¬
licacy of their manners, that tone and polish to society
which it cannot receive from the other sex.
The ceremonial of marriage is conducted amongst the
Hindus with great solemnity and expense. The parties,
who are of equal rank, and any other alliance would be ac¬
counted infamous, are betrothed during their infancy by
their parents, but on a full consideration of their respective
rank, skilful genealogists being consulted previously on this
important point. These preliminaries being settled, the
transaction terminates with an elegant feast; and when
the wife comes of age she is conducted to her husband’s
home, with all due ceremony, and a concluding entertain¬
ment ; another set of observances take place when she be¬
comes pregnant, when she passes her seventh month, and
when she is safely delivered. These festivals amongst the
rich are extremely expensive.
The Hindus are ignorant and illiterate. The children
of the poor seem to be mostly uneducated. Those in a
higher station are taught by the Brahmins to read and
write, and to cast accounts, the calculations being per¬
formed by pebbles or small shells. The pupil first begins
to write upon the sand with his finger, and he afterwards
uses palm leaves. After being thus initiated in the rudi¬
ments of literature, he enters on the course of his profes¬
sional study, in which he has no choice, every one follow¬
ing the profession of his father. A student is instructed
chiefly in the Vedas, and in the ceremonial of his religion;
and his course of discipline in the three Vedas maybe
continued for thirty-six years, in the house of his pre¬
ceptor, or for a half or quarter of that time, until he com¬
prehend them. To the state of the student succeeds that
of the married man or the housekeeper, when the youth
begins to sustain his part in the business of life. He may,
however, continue his whole life a pupil, waiting upon
and serving his preceptor the Brahmin until his death.
By this devotion to him he acquires a title to the high¬
est rewards of religion. Of the common people, a few
individuals only are taught to read or write. Ihe great
1 Orme On the Government and People of Industan, p. 431.
s Tennant, Indian Recreations.
4 Rickards’ India, p. 3.
ndus i
HINDUSTAN.
405
body of the people remain in ignorance. They can ex-
‘ D]aii nothing of their own religious system, nor of the
ceremonies which they attend. This gross and universal
ignorance, whilst it is the parent of crime, exposes the
Hindus to all the artifices of priestcraft, and of every
quack who pretends to skill in any art or science what¬
ever. The unbounded influence of the priests is highly
inexpedient, and has in some instances been found dan¬
gerous to the public peace. On one memorable occasion,
as related by Bishop Heber, this influence became a poli¬
tical engine, which was wielded with great effect, to the
alarm of the local government. Among other superstitions
of the Hindus, it is well known that they inflict evils on
themselves or others, even to the sacrifice of their lives,
under the idea that they will be avenged on their enemies.
One of these practices is to sit “ dhurna,” or mourning, in
a fixed posture, without food, and exposed to the weather,
until the person against whom the religious rite is directed
agrees to give redress. It is firmly believed, that if the per¬
son dies in this mourning state, his avenging spirit will
ever afterwards haunt and torment him whose obstinacy
may have occasioned his death. The Hindus resort to this
practice in order to enforce payment of a debt, or forgive¬
ness of one ; and it is a notion amongst them, that whilst
an aggrieved person sits at their door “ dhurna, they can
neither eat nor undertake any business. Brahmins are
even sometimes hired to sit dhurna, and their sacred cha¬
racter is supposed to give a peculiar awe to the ceremo¬
ny. It was in opposition to an unpopular and heavy tax
on houses in the city of Benares, against which they had
in vain remonstrated, that the whole population, far and
near, resolved to sit “ dhurna” till it was repealed. On
this occasion the leading Brahmins took their measures
with surprising concert and unanimity. Handbills were
circulated explaining the causes and necessity of the
measures, “ calling on all lovers of their country and na¬
tional creed to join in it, and commanding, under many
bitter curses, every person who received it to forward it
to his next neighbour. Accordingly,” adds Bishop He¬
ber, “ it flew over the country like the fiery cross in the
Lady of the Lake; and, three days after it was issued,
and before government was in the least apprised of the
plan, above 300,000 persons, as it is said, deserted their
houses, shut up their shops, suspended the labour of their
farms, forbore to light fires or dress victuals, many of
them even to eat, and sat down with folded arms and
drooping heads, like so many sheep, on the plain wine i
surrounds Benares.” There was every reason to dread
some violent issue to such an extraordinary transaction.
The local government, exceedingly perplexed by so strange
and vast an assemblage, acted with consummate prudence,
and this motley multitude being let alone, gradually dis¬
persed. The rulers of India, thus admonished, were fain
to repeal the obnoxious tax. The ignorance of the great
body of the Hindus exposes them to impositions of every
description. In the medical art, charms, incantations, ex¬
orcisms, and the shallowest tricks, are substituted for pro¬
fessional skill; and other impostors, generally Brahmins,
practise astrology, and cheat them out of their money by
pretended prophecies, from the aspect of the skies. Ihe
belief of sorcery and witchcraft is universally prevalent
amongst them, and leads, as it formerly did in our own
country, to cruel enormities. Persons suspected of
witchcraft are the objects of fear and hatred; and their
neighbours often assume the right of trying them for
this crime, by charms and incantations, such as planting
a branch of the saul tree in water, with the name of the
suspected person, and if it wither within a certain time,
the accused is condemned to death as a witch.
The Hindu is distinguished by the slenderness and de¬
licacy of his corporeal frame, which is partly the cause of
his peculiar timidity. His make, his physiognomy, and his Hindustan,
small degree of muscular strength, convey a remarkable
idea of effeminacy, especially when contrasted with the
robust stature of a European who is making the observa¬
tion. “ The sailor,” says Orme, “ no sooner lands on the
coast, than nature dictates to him the full result of this
comparison. He brandishes his stick in sport, and puts
fifty Indians to flight in a moment.” The Indian, how¬
ever, greatly surpasses the European in the sensibility of
his touch, and in the flexibility of his limbs ; and hence,
with tools which would scarcely enable the clumsy fingers
of the one to make a piece of canvass, he weaves the finest
cambrics; and in all feats and contortions of the body,
in the art of tumbling, and in juggling tricks, the Hindus
excel all other nations. They are also patient of bodily
fatigue, and in running or marching will distance more
robust competitors. An Indian messenger will travel on
foot fifty miles a day for twenty or thirty days without in¬
termission. They are withal remarkable for bodily inert¬
ness, and the love of repose. “ It is more happy,” they
say, “ to be seated than to walk; it is more happy to
sleep than to be awake; but the happiest of all is death.”
Their amusements are accordingly all of the sedentary
kind. A game which resembles chess and draughts,
though without either the variety or interest of the for¬
mer, is one of their favourite amusements; and, like all
rude nations, they are passionately fond of gaming, though
it is contrary to the Gentoo code; also of feats of agility
and legerdemain ; and a juggler who erects a stage in any
part of the East is sure to draw a crowd of spectators.
Buffoonery, story-telling, music, consisting of simple me¬
lodies, and dancing, which they enjoy as spectators, com¬
plete the catalogue of Hindu amusements. Their ex¬
treme fondness for hunting forms an exception to their
general indolence; all the different races in India, Euro¬
peans, Moguls, and Hindus, shaking off their natural su¬
pineness, are seen to concur in the ardour of the chase.
Hawking is also keenly pursued by natives of distinc¬
tion. Besides falconers, fowlers, and game-keepers, Hindus
of rank employ persons to ensnare wild animals; and
the contrivances they resort to are not less ingenious than
successful*
Many have given credit to the Hindus for cleanly ha¬
bits, from their frequent ablutions; but the reverse is the
case. A taste for cleanliness is a proof of refinement; it
is a sure mark of a highly civilized people ; and accou -
ingly it is not to be found in any part of Asia. Almost
all the Asiatic cities are distinguished by narrow streets,
into which, as there are no police regulations, all sorts of
filth are indiscriminately thrown. The Hindus form no
exception to this general censure. In all the great towns
the streets are filthy. Nor are the Hindus more cleanly
in their persons. Their linen, being dyed, is seldom
washed ; and, like the Chinese, they frequently allow their
robes to drop off with filth before they think of changing
them.
A simple and despotic monarchy is the only form of Govern-
government which was established under the native prin¬
ces of Hindustan; and it was a despotism in the true
Asiatic sense of the word, under which neither laws nor
manners restrained the excesses of absolute power. In
the most despotic states of Europe, the authority of the
monarch is controlled by the influence of manners, and
life and property are perfectly secure. But this was tar
from being the case in India; the sovereign was supreme
arbiter of the lives and properties of all his subjects. Nor
was this power allowed to lie dormant; it was frequent¬
ly enforced in cruel and arbitrary acts; and the annals
of India are accordingly stained with the most revolting
outrages of abused power. Wealth presented too tempts
in°- a prize to lawless violence; and its possessor, it nc
406
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, neglected to make large and seasonable presents, was sure
to be accused of some pretended crime, thrown into a
dungeon, and plundered. “ Instead of giving him poison,”
says Orme, in his just estimate of the people and govern¬
ment of Hindustan, “ which would not answer the end
proposed, as his treasures are buried, he is beset with
spies, who watch his minutest actions, and probably pro¬
pose to him a commerce with the enemies of the province.
If he avoid these snares, a profitable post in the govern¬
ment is proposed to him, which, if he accepts, his ruin is
at hand, as the slightest of the villanies practised in every
branch of it affords grounds for making him a public cri¬
minal. Should he have escaped this too, it remains that
some more glaring and desperate measure of iniquitous
justice hurry him to destruction.” Mr Orme then pro¬
ceeds to mention the case of a wealthy banking-house,
the partners of which were personally known to him, who,
having dexterously avoided all the snares laid for their
property and life, were at length involved in an accusa¬
tion by the accident of one of the dead bodies which are
continually floating on the Ganges being thrown ashore
under the walls of their house, on which it was surround-
ed by the officers of the civil magistrate, who dragged
them to prison as the murderers of a son of Mahommed,
and having ordered them to be severely scourged, ex¬
torted from them as the price of their liberty a present
of 50,000 rupees. Another wealthy individual was forced
to give in one present, to the nabob of Bengal, a sum
equal to three hundred thousand pounds sterling.1 Bi¬
shop Heber relates of the Rannee, or princess of Jee-
poor, that she murdered a female attendant, a woman
of character, and possessed of considerable wealth, who
was believed, until that time, to stand high in her mis¬
tress’s confidence. Eight other women of the Zenana
believed themselves marked out for destruction. An¬
other princess, who possessed a jaghire or landed estate
near Meerut, frequently ordered the ears or noses of her
attendants to be cut off for slight offences ; and one of
her dancing girls was imprisoned under ground, and
starved to death, she herself keeping watch until she
heard the last faint moans of her expiring victim.2 Such
enormities present a dreadful picture of Indian despotism,
and fully bear out Mr Orme in his contrast between the
manners of Europe under the influence of Christianity,
and those of Hindustan, under which poisonings, treach-
ery, and assassinations, are daily committed by the vota¬
ries of ambition, as are rapines, cruelty, and extortions,
by the ministers of justice.
From the great extent of the Mogul empire, the influ¬
ence of the supreme power was but feebly felt in its dis¬
tant parts, and the kingdom was accordingly divided into
distinct provinces, in which deputies or viceroys, called
nabobs, ruled with delegated power. Those provinces
were again subdivided into districts, which were commit¬
ted to the subordinate administration of rajahs. These
districts might consist of one town and its territory, or of
a thousand towns ; and hence the Hindu system of provin¬
cial government comprehended different degrees of prince¬
ly dignity and dominion, according to the extent and va¬
lue ot the lands that were assigned. But all these va-
nous rulers, though each was amenable to the one above
im, exercised supreme and despotic sway within their
own istncts. There was also a particular rank of princes
called subahs, who ruled in the extremities of the king¬
dom, in which the rigour of the supreme authority was
en^ y distance, with higher rank and greater
p vers than the rajahs. The Deccan was under the ad¬
ministration of a subah, as was also the extensive and dis-HhTu
tant province of Bengal. The absolute power of the — 3
Great Mogul descended without any loss of vigour to all
its inferior delegates; and in this manner the whole of
the country groaned under the dominion of numerous
tyrants. From this extensive delegation of the superior
power, it happened, that on the decay of the Mogul
empire, the provincial rulers gradually acquired inde¬
pendence, and, in their warfare with each other for do¬
minion, filled the country with rapine and bloodshed.
“ Hindustan,” says Major Rennell, “ even under the Mo¬
guls, may be considered as a collection of tributary kin°v
doms, each accustomed to look no farther than its own
particular viceroy, and of course ever in a state to rebel,
when the imbecility of the emperor, and the ambition
of the viceroy, formed a favourable conjuncture;” and
accordingly he observes that “ rebellions, massacres, and
barbarous conquests, make up the history of this fair
country, which, to an ordinary observer, seems destined
to be the paradise of the world.”3 And to the same
purpose Orme remarks: “ If the subjects of a despotic
power are everywhere miserable, the miseries of the people
of Hindustan are multiplied by the incapacity of the
power to control the vast extent of its dominion ; and
thus, he adds, “ the contumacy of vicegerents resist¬
ing their sovereigns, or battling among themselves, is
continually productive of such scenes of bloodshed, and
of such deplorable devastations, as no other nation in the
universe is subject to.”4
. In the Mogul sovereign was vested the whole admi¬
nistration ot the state, the executive as well as the le¬
gislative and judicial powers. In his executive duties
the law assigned him a council of state, the functions of
which generally devolved on some favourite minister.
His legislative duties were simple, seeing that religion
was the law, and that the sacred ordinances constituted
the judicial code, which it would be impiety to alter. The
Brahmins being the sole interpreters of the holy books,
acted as assessors to the nabob or rajah, or his delegates
in the judicial office. The mode of administering jus¬
tice had an appearance of openness and fairness, and
the forms of the court were extremely simple. The seat
of justice was exposed in a large area, capable of con¬
taining the multitude ; and here justice was administered
by the duan or judge, in the absence of the nabob; the
plaintiff having attracted attention by his importunate
clamours, was ordered to be silent, and to advance before
the judge, to whom, after having prostrated himself, he
told his story in the plainest manner. He visited the judge
in private, gave the jar of oil, and his adversary bestowed
the hog, which broke it; the friends who had influence in¬
terceded, but it was the largest bribe that ultimately gain¬
ed the cause. The forms of justice were no doubt pre¬
served; witnesses were heard, but browbeaten, and remov¬
ed if their evidence did not please the judge. “ Proofs of
writing, says Orme, “ are produced ; but deemed forge¬
ries and rejected, until the way is cleared for a decision,
which becomes totally or partially favourable, in propor¬
tion to the methods which have been used to render it
such; but still with some attention to the consequences
of a judgment which would be of too flagrant iniquity not
to produce universal detestation and resentment.” In
Hindustan, accordingly, the judicial tribunals afforded no
refuge to the oppressed ; they were rather instruments of
tyranny, by which the unhappy people were plundered
under the forms of law. Avarice is the reigning vice of
Hindustan, and power is used by all public functionaries
* Orme On the Government and People oflndostan, p. 450.
* Heber, vol. n. p. 278, 279. ’ 1
3 Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. xlix.
4 Orme On the Government and People of Indoslan, p. 309.
HINDUSTAN.
407
lin; an. as the means of its gratification. The havildar, the head
^ ^ ^ of a village, calls his habitation the durbar, and plunders
of their meal and roots the wretches within his jurisdic¬
tion ; the zemindar fleeces him of the small pittance of
silver which his penurious tyranny has scraped together;
the phoosdar, or military commandant of the province,
seizes on the zemindar’s collections, and bribes the na¬
bob’s connivance in his villanies by a share of the spoil;
the covetous eye of the nabob ranges over his dominions
for prey, and employs the plunder of his subjects in brib¬
ing or in resisting his superiors. “ Subject to such op¬
pressions,” says Orme, “ property in Hindustan is seldom
seen to descend to the third generation.” Many suits are,
however, decided amongst the Hindus with equal accuracy
and despatch, by arbitration of friends, the heads of castes,
or the chief inhabitants of the village.
jh. This important subject will perhaps be more properly
considered when we come to treat of the political trans¬
actions of the British in India, and of their administra¬
tion of the revenues of the Mogul empire. In the mean
time it may be observed, that those revenues chiefly arose
from a tax on the land, imposed by the sovereign, or from
a share in its produce, which, according to some, he re¬
ceived as proprietor of the soil. The tax was imme¬
diately paid into the imperial treasury by the zemindar,
who collected it from a variety of under tenants, hold¬
ing by peculiar tenures, which will be afterwards more
particularly considered. The proportion of the crop claim¬
ed by the government varied, according to the fertility
of the land, from a sixth to a twelfth part; and being
ascertained by the proper officers, it was either paid in
kind or in money. Custom-duties were levied on imports
by sea, and by land on the transit of goods at the differ¬
ent toll-bars in the country. These were sometimes
farmed out by the local authorities. Other taxes are
enumerated in the sacred books, on mercantile profits,
on which was levied a fiftieth, or even a twentieth part;
on the accumulation of property in gold, silver, pre¬
cious stones, cattle; on the purchases and sales of mer¬
chants ; and on mechanics and serving-men, who were
liable for a contribution of labour at the rate of a day in
each month. A trifling poll-tax was imposed on the
meaner inhabitants. Exclusive rights of manufacture, and
trade in certain articles, such as salt, arrack, betel-nut,
and tobacco, were also granted to the inhabitants for an
annual payment.1 The Hindu rulers, however ignorant in
other matters, thus appear to have been familiar with all
the most approved modes of plundering their subjects;
and these failing, they had recourse to open violence. It
is mentioned by Mr Rickards, whose views of Indian man¬
ners seem to be equally judicious and accurate, that those
revenue systems of India never were, “ because they
never could be, literally enforced, the real practice being
to exact and plunder, without any fixed rules, all that
could be squeezed out of defenceless subjects.” After
enumerating the various revenue officers who acted under
the sovereign, such as nabobs, dewars, foujedars, amil¬
dars, tchsildars, jaghiredars, zemindars, polygars, talook-
dars, rajahs, naiks, wadeyars, &c., he adds, “ swarms
of harpies were thus spread in every direction, even to
the mundils and potails of villages ; and despotism esta¬
blished, as it were, in detail, in every corner of the land.
Power was here a license to plunder and oppress. The
rod of the oppressor was literally omnipresent; neither
persons nor property were secure against its persevering
and vexatious intrusions. The common transactions of
life became objects of punishment or extortion. And no Hindustan,
other principles being known or dreamt of in India than
arbitrary power on the one hand, and abject submission
on the other, a state of society was fixed and rooted in
the manners, the poverty, and the ignorance of the people,
of which no parallel nor resemblance is anywhere to be
found in European states.”2
The laws of the Hindus which apply to property, and Hindu
which regulate sales or purchases, loans, transfers, and laws,
deposits of goods, though they are founded on the prin¬
ciples of justice, are frequently rude, loosely expressed,
and such as, along with a corrupt judicature, must leave
every thing to the discretion of the judge. The law fixes
the price of commodities, regulates the interest on money,
and on the loan of goods, such as grain, fruit, &c.; and,
by a peculiar injustice, imposes a greater interest on the
servile castes than on the Brahmins and soldiers. The
modes of enforcing debts are the same as in all other
countries. The creditor may seize upon the property or
person of his debtor, whom he may beat or otherwise
maltreat, and, if he be of an inferior caste, compel to la¬
bour for his profit. He may even confine his wife or chil¬
dren. Another mode of enforcing payment is by sitting
dhurna, a ceremony already explained. The laws of in¬
heritance form an important branch of the Hindu code,
though it is justly remarked,3 that “ the slavery to which
the rights of parent and husband subject the female,
abolishes at once all suits of dowries, divorces, jointures,
and settlements.” On the death of the father, his pro¬
perty is divided amongst his children, who frequently live
together, with the elder brother as their head. If they
separate, the eldest receives one twentieth more than the
others. Science and good conduct are mentioned as grounds
of preference, as vice of exclusion; and thus is laid the
foundation of endless disputes. In some cases the gross
and cruel superstition of the Hindus subverts the prin¬
ciples of justice ; the blind, the deaf, the dumb, or those
affected with leprosy, or any other incurable disease, being
deprived of their share in the paternal inheritance. Chil¬
dren of different castes inherit according to the rank of
the mother, and those of concubines receive only half the
share of legitimate children. All property in Hindustan
is regulated by law, the Hindus having no idea of devis¬
ing by rule ; nor are any members of the family at liberty
to alienate, except in certain particular cases, any part of
the common stock.
The criminal code of the Hindus is distinguished, like
that of all rude nations, by severity; and also by caprice
and partiality. The offences of the low-born tribes against
the higher receive a full measure of vengeance, whilst the
latter are but slightly punished for the injuries which they
inflict on their inferiors. It is enacted, that if a Sudra
strike a Brahmin with hand or foot, the offending mem¬
ber shall be cut off; if he insult him with his tongue, it
shall be slit, or a red-hot iron shall be thrust into his
mouth. Murder is punished with death, theft with fine,
and the more heinous cases with various degrees of mu¬
tilation, with impaling, burning alive, and crucifixion.
The multifarious cases of offence which are detailed in
the Hindu code, such as throwing ordure, or the refuse of
victuals, on another, spitting upon him, &c., are many of
them insignificant, and scarcely merit the minute enumera¬
tion which is given. The illicit intercourse of the sexes
is a complicated subject, into the details of which it is
unnecessary to enter. It seems principally directed
against the want of chastity in women, which is punished
1 See Fifth Report of Committee of the House of Commons, 1810, p. 83.
2 India, or Facts submitted to demonstrate the Character and Condition of the Native Inhabitants, by It. Rickards, Esq. p. 255.
8 Orme On the Government and People of Indostan.
408
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, as the most shocking of crimes, by burning on a heated
plate of iron ; or against the lower tribes, in whom adultery
with a Brahmin woman is considered as the climax of hu¬
man depravity, scarcely to be avenged by any punish¬
ment, however dreadful. On the other hand, crimes com¬
mitted by the higher classes against the lower are very
slightly punished; the scale of punishment being in all
cases graduated in an inverse ratio to the rank of the of¬
fenders.
Architec- In architecture, in the fine arts, in painting and music,
ture. the Hindus are greatly inferior to the Europeans. The
pagodas, the tombs, and other structures, the only re¬
maining specimens of their architecture, are, according to
some, more remarkable for the magnitude of their dimen¬
sions than for their just proportions or fine taste. “ The
columns and pillars,” says Tennant, “ which adorn their
immense pagodas, are destitute of any fixed proportions;
and the edifices themselves are subjected to no rules of
architecture.” Pie afterwards adds, that the celebrated
mausoleum at Agra has little to boast of either in simpli¬
city or elegance of design. “ The immensity of its size,
its costly ornaments, and the minute exactness of its de¬
corations in particular parts, are worthy of notice; but
they afford much stronger proofs of the wealth and mag¬
nificence of Shah Jehan, than the correctness of its
taste.” The tombs and religious edifices of Hindustan
are, on the other hand, highly commended by Bishop
Heber for delicacy, beauty, and taste. The mausoleum
at Agra he celebrates as the most splendid building, in its
way, that he had seen in India.1 Humaion’s tomb at
Delhi he also praises as a noble building of granite, inlaid
with marble, and in a very chaste and simple style of
Gothic architecture ; and of the imanbara or cathedral at
Lucknow he remarks, “ The whole is in a very noble
style of eastern Gothic, and, when taken in conjunction
with the Roumi Durwazu which adjoins it, I have never
seen an architectural view which pleased me more, from
its richness and variety, as well as the proportions and
general good taste of its principal features.”2 There
seems no doubt, from the splendid structures that are
still found in different parts of Hindustan, that archi¬
tecture and the kindred arts had flourished amongst the
Plindus of a remoter age; though it is mentioned by
Colonel Todd, that very few good specimens of the art
have been executed within the last 700 years. His de¬
scription, however, of the splendid Jain temples at Aj-
meer and other parts, some of them erected long prior to
the Christian era, and distinguished alike by chasteness
and beauty of design, and by rich and exquisite finishing,
must convince the most incredulous, that in these remote
times the arts had made great progress in Hindustan.
These structures are not merely monuments of labour,
but of taste ; they evince the perfection of art; and in
symmetry, beauty of proportion, unity of design, and
splendid ornament, they rival the noblest productions of
classical Europe. The history of the people who have
raised these structures presents a wide field for antiqua¬
rian research, on which Colonel Todd has entered with
the brilliant promise of interesting results ; and to his
learned inquiries and eloquent and poetical descriptions
we refer for a further account of those ancient monuments Hindu
of Hindu art.3 * ’•
Of the Hindu paintings the chief merit is brilliancy of Paintii
colour, rather than taste in the design or liveliness of ex¬
pression. They imitate most exactly, and are excellent
draughtsmen ; and they draw specimens of natural history
with much neatness and accuracy. “ The laborious ex¬
actness with which they imitate every feather of a bird,”
says Tennant, “ or the smallest fibre on theleaf of a plant,
renders them valuable assistants in this department •
but farther than this they cannot advance one step. If
your bird is to be placed on a rock or upon the branch of
a tree, the draughtsman is at a stand ; the object is not be¬
fore him, and he can supply nothing.4 Since this period,
however, the Hindus have made great advances in the art
of painting ; and some of their portraits display taste and
expression that would not discredit European artists.
The music of the Hindus is rude and inharmonious. Music.
They have numerous instruments, but those are prefer¬
red which make most noise; the beating of the great
drum is reckoned an emblem of sovereign power.
The literature of the Hindus has been generally rated Literal >.
very low by European writers, and has been represented
as consisting in long desultory poems, inflated and extrava¬
gant in their style, containing, under the idea of a history,
a tissue of absurd fables, interspersed with passages or
episodes that are tender and passionate, and possess all
the sweetness of pastoral poetry. They are said to be
totally destitute of historical annals, and their geogra¬
phy is a mass of errors. Nor has their astronomy those
claims to antiquity which were at first allowed. Accu¬
rate inquiry has proved this science to be in its infancy
amongst them.5 The want of historical records by the
Hindus is strongly denied by Colonel Todd, who has him¬
self composed a history of the Rajpoots from native works,
which he found in the libraries of their princes, and he as¬
serts that in those depositories of Hindu literature many
more works exist, which would reward the researches
of the learned. “ The works of the native bards,” he ob¬
serves, “ afford many valuable data in facts, incidents, re¬
ligious opinions, and traits of manners.” “ In the heroic
history of Pirthi-raj, by Chund,” he adds, “ there occur
many geographical as well as historical details, in the de¬
scription of his sovereign’s wars, of which the bard was an
eye-witness, having been his friend, his herald, his ambas¬
sador, and finally discharging the melancholy office of ac¬
cessory to his death, that he might save him from disho¬
nour.” The Brahminical accounts of the endowments of
temples, of their dilapidation and repairs, supply histori¬
cal and chronological details; also the legends respecting
places of pilgrimage and religious resort. Much histori¬
cal information lies hid in the controversial records of the
Jains; and, says Colonel Todd, “ those different records,
works of mixed historical and geographical character,
which I know to exist, rasahs or poetical legends of
princes, which are common, local puranas, religious com¬
ments and traditionary couplets, with authorities of less
dubious character, namely, inscriptions cut on rocks, coins,
copperplate grants, containing charters of immunities, and
expressing many singular features of civil government,
rlospd hv in n.nvAlo j1S c*®scriPtl0n °f flus monument of Hindu art:—“ It stands in a square area of about forty English acres, en-
red rmnit i tiio Ta • e( '!a c octagonal towers at the angles, surmounted by open pavilions, and four very noble gateways of
tree’s w}llc 113 mLid with white marble, and has four high marble minarets. The space within is planted with
tPTN o-i I Win.: nv .m.0 green alleys, leading to the central building, which is a sort of solid pyramid, surrounded externally with clois-
most elaborate 1 itt<^™1|nls^lnn gradually in ascending it, till it ends in a square platform of white marble, surrounded by
delicacv and henntv i° r u ■Sanl1-e niaterlah in the centre ot which is a small altar tomb, also of white marble, carved with a
ment.” 1 ' UC 1 1 ° 11 justlce to the material, and to the graceful forms of Arabic characters, which form the chief orna-
5 For^nore folf’detaut* rm tb- * °f Ra-iaf'han^ vo1- h chap- xxv. p. 670 ; chap. xxx. p. 779. 4 Tennant, vol. i. p. 299.
me full details on this subject, the reader is referred to Mill’s History of British India, vol. ii. p. 85, et seqq.
HINDUSTAN.
dustan. constitute, as I have already observed, no despicable ma-
Y'"'' terials for the historian.” Colonel Todd is of opinion
that the ancient records of the Hindus are more com¬
plete than the early annals of the European states,
story. Prior to Alexander’s expedition into India, which took
place 327 years before the Christian era, the Greeks ap¬
pear to have known little of these eastern countries, ex¬
cept from the confused accounts of travellers ; and nothing
whatever of the countries beyond the sandy desert of the
Indus, which, with its tributary streams, was the limit of
Alexander’s progress eastward. The men of science who
accompanied this warlike prince brought to Europe full
and accurate accounts of the countries which he had con¬
quered ; and the spirit of inquiry, now awakened amongst
the Greeks, was still further gratified by the ample ac¬
counts of Megasthenes, the ambassador sent to India by
Seleucus, and who resided long at Palibothra, the capital
of the Prasii, near the mouth of the Ganges. The Greek
writers, drawing their information from those sources,
describe the leading features of Indian society and man¬
ners, and with an accuracy which stamps authenticity on
their narratives. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the
particulars of Alexander’s expedition, which are fully de¬
scribed in many other works; and from that until the pe¬
riod of the Mahommedan conquest, when the native re¬
cords commence, there is nearly a complete chasm in the
annals of Hindustan. The Hindus had either no records,
or these had been destroyed during the intestine commo¬
tions which have always prevailed in India. The historical
poem, the Mahabarat, is a tissue of extravagant fables. Fe-
rishta’s history, written early in the seventeenth century,
is supposed to have been collected from Persian authors;
and the most valuable part of it begins after the com¬
mencement of the Mahommedan conquests. It was about
the year 1000 that Hindustan, formerly ruled by a pure
Hindu monarchy, fell under the sway of the Mahomme¬
dan conquerors, who subdued all the provinces west of the
Ganges, and formed them into one great empire. On the
fall of this empire, India became one scene of commotion
and war, and her finest provinces were laid waste. It
was then that the Mahratta empire arose, like a meteor in
the political sky, blazing for a while, and soon fading into
obscurity; and by its fall paving the way for the ascen¬
dency of the British, whose powerful sway now extends from
the Himalaya Mountains to Cape Comorin. We shall
endeavour to sketch the leading and most eventful scenes
ot that political drama, which has thus terminated in the
subjection of all India to one great ruling power,
iquest The Mahommedan powers having subdued Persia
l‘e and the neighbouring countries, made occasional inroads
Ians' *n-° ^nc^a; anc^’ about a. d. 1000, Mahmoud entered
Hindustan, in which he effected a permanent establish¬
ment. This prince was the grandson of Subuctagi, the
ruler of Ghizni, consisting of the tract which composed
the kingdom of Bactria after the division of Alexander’s
empire, namely, the countries lying between Parthia and
the Indus, and south of the Oxus. He invaded India
twelve several times, massacring in his intolerant rage
the Hindus as infidels, and defacing and destroying their
temples. “ Nothing,” observes Major Rennell, with his
usual force, “ offends our feelings more than the progress
of destruction, urged on by religious zeal, as it allows men
to suppose themselves agents of the divinity, thereby re¬
moving those checks which interfere with the perpetration
of ordinary villany, and thus makes conscience a party
where she was meant to be a judge.” The last invasion
of India by Mahmoud was in 1024, and in four year?
afterwards he died. His dominions comprehended the
eastern provinces of Persia, nominally all the Indian pro¬
vinces westward of the Ganges, to the peninsula of Gu-
jerat, and from the Indus to the mountains of Ajmere.
VOL. XI.
409
’Ihe Punjab, or the tract watered by the Indus, and its Hindustan,
five tributary rivers, was all that was subjected to the re- y'w/
gular government of the Mahommedans. The rajpoots
of Ajmere defended their rugged mountains and close
valleys with obstinate valour. The Ghiznian empire was
in the year 1158 divided into two; the western portion
being seized on by the family of the Gaurides (so denomi¬
nated from Gaur or Ghir, a province or city lying beyond
the Indian Caucasus), whilst the countries on the Indus were
possessed by Chusero or Cusroe, who fixed the seat of his
empire at Lahore. The Mahommedans now extended
their conquests eastward; and Mahommed Gori, in 1194,
took the city of Benares, which he abandoned to pillage.
He carried his arms to the south of the river Jumna, and
took the fortress of Gualior; he also reduced the eastern
frontier of Ajmere. He was succeeded in 1205 by Cuttub,
who fixed his capital at Delhi, and founded in Hindustan
the dynasty of the Patans or the Afghans, who inhabited
the mountainous tract situated between India and Persia.
The Emperor Altmush succeeded him in 1210, and ex¬
tended his conquests over Bengal. In his reign the re¬
nowned Ghenghiz Khan subdued the western empire of
Ghizni; and the Moguls, or the Monguls, his successors,
about the year 1242, made frequent irruptions into the
north-western provinces of Hindustan. The country was
in the mean time a scene of intestine commotion, from the
contests of rebellious chiefs aspiring to supreme authority,
and from the irruptions of the predatory hill tribes into the
plains below. In 1265, about 100,000 of these plunderers
were put to the sword, and a line of forts constructed along
the foot of the hills. In the mean time, the Patan monarchs
of Delhi were prosecuting their conquests eastward, and
the Moguls were making incursions into the western pro
vinces ; and a considerable number of them under Ferose
II. were at length permitted to settle in the country in the
year 1292. In 1293 this emperor invaded the Deccan, or
the country lying to the south of the Nerbuddah and the
Cuttuck rivers. He was deposed and murdered by Alla,
the governor of Gurrah, who advised the expedition, and
who extended his conquests in the Deccan. Cafoor, one
of his generals, penetrated into the Carnatic, or the penin¬
sula lying to the south of the Kistna river, in 1310. Re¬
bellions breaking out in Tellingana, a principality in the
Deccan, it was again subjugated in 1322 and in 1326, in
which year Alla died, and the Carnatic was ravaged from
sea to sea. Under a succeeding emperor, Mahommed III.,
the Mahommedans were driven from the Deccan and Ben¬
gal, and lost much territory in Gujerat and the Punjab.
Ferose III., who succeeded, was more intent on domestic
improvement, and in constructing canals, than on foreign
conquest. He died in 1388, and Mahmoud III. succeed¬
ed, during whose minority great confusion ensued; and in
1398 the country was invaded by Tamerlane, who advan¬
ced to Delhi, which submitted without a struggle, and was
abandoned to the fury of the soldiery, who continued for
several days to massacre the defenceless inhabitants. The
military irruption of Tamerlane into Hindustan was more
for the sake of plunder than of conquest, though it added
to the existing anarchy of the country. In 1413 Mahmoud
died, and with him ended the Patan dynasty, founded by
Cuttub in 1205. A period of great confusion followed,
and numerous competitors contended for dominion. This
state of anarchy, which came to a height under Ibrahim
II. in 1516, paved the way for the conquest of Hindustan
by Sultan Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane and of Ghen¬
ghiz Khan, who reigned over a kingdom composed gene¬
rally of the provinces situated between the Indus and Sa-
mercand. Being dispossessed of the northern portion of
his dominions by the Usbecks, he invaded India, and in
1525 defeated the emperor of Delhi, and conquered the
north-eastern provinces of India. He was succeeded, after
3 F
410
HINDUSTAN.
Iteign of
Acbar;
Hindustan, a reign of five years, by his son Humaioon, who was driven
from his throne by the rebellion of Sheer Khan, whose
successful usurpation was succeeded by such a period of
disorder, five sovereigns having appeared on the throne
in the course of nine years, that Humaioon was recalled
in 1554, and died the following year, leaving his son, the
celebrated Acbar, only fourteen years of age, the heir to
the throne. His was a long and glorious reign of fifty-one
years, in which the revolted provinces were reduced from
Ajmere to Bengal, and consolidated into one empire by
the unlimited toleration of the Hindus and all others, and
generally by a just and wise policy. In 1585 and the sub¬
sequent years he invaded the Deccan, which, by the dis¬
solution of the Bahmenee empire, was divided among the
sovereigns of Bejapoor, Ahmednagur, and Golconda, whilst
another army was reducing the country of Cashmere in an
opposite direction. At the time of Acbar’s death in 1605,
he had possession of the western part of Berar, Candeish,
Telhyana, a division of Golconda, and the northern part
of Ahmednagur, the capital of which was taken in 1601,'
after a long and bloody siege, and an unsuccessful attempt
to relieve the place by the confederated princes of the
Deccan.1 Acbar died in 1605, at which time his empire
was divided into fifteen viceroyalties, called subahs; name¬
ly, Allahabad, Agra, Oude, Ajmere, Gujerat, Bahar, Bengal,
Delhi, Cabul, Lahore, Moultan, Malwah, Berar, Candeish,
and Ahmednagur. He was succeeded by his son Selim,
under the title of Jehanguire. It was in his reign, in 1615,
that Sir Thomas Roe, the first English ambassador, was
sent to the Mogul emperor of Hindustan ; and the Portu¬
guese had by this time acquired considerable settlements
in Bengal and Gujerat. Shah Jehan, who disturbed his
father’s reign by constant rebellions, succeeded to the
throne in 1627, and pursued his conquests in the Deccan
with renewed vigour, filling the country with plunder and
devastation. It was in this reign, in the year 1633, that the
first serious quarrel took place between the Portuguese and
the Moguls, when the former were expelled from Hooghly
in the Ganges. In 1658 the country was again distracted
by the civil wars of the emperor and his sons, and of the
sons amongst themselves contending for dominion. Shah
Jehan died on the 21st of January 1666, after being seven
years confined in the castle of Agra. The Mogul em¬
pire at his death extended from Cabul to the Nerbuddah,
westward of this river to the Indus, and eastward it com¬
prehended Bengal and Orissa; and to the south the Mo¬
guls had reduced a large tract of country bounded by
Berar on the east, westward by the hills towards Concan,
and by the dominions of Golconda and Viziapore to the
south. These convulsions, by which India was at this time
distracted, ended in the elevation to the throne of the re¬
ef Aurung-nowned Aurungzebe, the youngest son of Shah Jehan,
whom he had deposed ; he had also murdered or expelled
his three brothers. In 1660, Aurungzebe, who took the title
of Allumgere, or Conqueror of the World, was firmly seat¬
ed on the throne ; and from that period until the year 1678,
Hindustan enjoyed more profound peace than it had ever
before known. In the mean time Aurungzebe invaded the
Deccan, which during the latter part of his reign was, with
the exception of a few mountainous tracts, subdued by his
victorious arms, and rendered tributary to the ruler of
Delhi. He was afterwards engaged, in 1678, in quelling
the rebellion of the Patans beyond the Indus, and the Raj¬
poot tribes, by whom he was hemmed in amongst the moun¬
tains, and narrowly escaped. He again invaded the coun¬
try in 1681, and took and destroyed Cheitore, the capital,
and all the objects of Hindu worship found there. The
obstinate resistance of these gallant mountaineers at last
sebe.
extorted peace from the mighty monarch of the Mogul Hint ^
empire. ^ w-
But Aurungzebe had now to contend with another ene- pror
my for the dominion of India. In the south the Mahratta of tl 8
power was fast rising into importance. Sevajee, the founder Mai tas,
of this new state, was a military chief, the illegitimate son of
the rana of Odeypoor, the chief of the Rajpoot princes. In
his youth he resided at Poonah, on a zemindary estate
obtained by his father. Here he collected around him a
numerous banditti, and plundered the country. The num¬
ber of his followers gradually increasing, he extended his
ravages still farther into the dominions of Viziapore, and
acquired an immense booty, which enabled him to increase
his force, and openly to resist the troops of Aurungzebe
which were sent against him. He expired in his fortress of
Raynee, of an inflammation in the chest, at the age of fifty-
two, on the 5th of April 1682. His whole reign was one con¬
tinued scene of war and political intrigue, in which he dis¬
played the talents of a consummate general and an able and
crafty statesman. “ He met,” saysOrme, “everyemergency
of peril, however sudden and extreme, with instant discern¬
ment and unshaken fortitude; the ablest of his officers ac¬
quiesced in the eminent superiority of his genius, and the
boast of the soldier was to have seen Sevajee charging sword
in hand.”2 At his death, his empire, with the exception of
the small territory of Goa on the south, Bombay, Salsette,
and an inconsiderable tract on the north, comprised a tract of
country about 400 miles in length and 120 in breadth. He
was besides in possession at one time, towards the Eastern
Sea, of half the Carnatic. By his own talents he had thus ac¬
quired a permanent sovereignty, “ established,” says Orme,
“ on a communion of manners, customs, observances, lan¬
guage, and religion, united in common defence against the
tyranny of foreign conquerors, from whom they had reco¬
vered the land of their own inheritance.” Sevajee was suc¬
ceeded by his son Sambajee, who was afterwards betrayed
into the hands of Aurungzebe, and barbarously put to death.
Aurungzebe died in 1707, in the ninetieth, or, according to
some, the ninety-fourth year of his age, at Ahmednagur, in
the Deccan, in the subjugation of which he had been enga¬
ged from the year 1678 until his death. He was for the most
part engaged in the field during the last fifteen years of his
life. Whilst he was absent in the Deccan, the peace of the
empire was disturbed by insurrections of the Rajpoots in
Upper India, and of the Jauts, now for the first time known
in any other character than that of banditti.3 Under his
reign the Mogul empire attained to its height. His domi¬
nions extended from the tenth to the thirty-fifth degree of
latitude, with nearly as many degrees of longitude; and his
annual revenue was equal to thirty-two millions sterling.
After the death of Aurungzebe, the sovereignty of the inte al
empire was disputed by his four sons, Munzum, Azem, diso 'rs-
and Kaum Buksh, who severally contended with their el¬
der brother, and Acbar, who thirty years before had been
engaged in rebellion, and fled to Persia. Munzum and
Azem met in the field with armies of 300,000 men on each
side, when the latter was defeated and slain, and Munzum
ascended the throne under the title of Bahader Shah. He
reigned five years, and the empire had been so distracted
by civil wars and anarchy, that it required all his exertions
to restore order. He was soon after his accession called
into the Deccan by a rebellion of his brother Kaum Buksh,
which was quelled by his death. He now turned his arms
against the Rajpoots and the Sikhs, who for the first time
appeared in arms in the province of Lahore. These insur¬
gents he reduced after much trouble and delay; and he
took up his residence at Lahore, where he died in 1712,
after a short illness, having never during his reign visited
Rennell, p. lix.
2 Orme’s Historical Fragment of the Mogul Empire, p. 94.
liennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. 62.
HINDUSTAN.
411
l lustan, either Agra, or Delhi his capital. He left four sons, who im-
yx*/ mediately commenced a contest for the throne. Azem Oo-
shawn, who took possession of the treasures, was killed in a
battle with his other brothers. Jehan Shah, the youngest,
next lost his life in a battle with Jehamder Shah, who was
the eldest, and who successfully disputed the possession of
the throne with the remaining brother. At the end of
nine months, however, he was dethroned by Feroksere, a
son of Azem Ooshawn, and great grandson of Aurungzebe,
who was elevated to the throne by the influence of two
brothers, Abdoola Khan and Hussun Khan, Seids by birth,
or descendants of the prophet, whose talents had raised
them to reputation and power. It was in this reign
that the English East India Company obtained their fa¬
mous firman or grant, by which they were exempted from
all custom duties on the export and import of their goods.
This was considered as the commercial charter of the Com¬
pany as long as they required protection for their trade.
In 1717 Feroksere was deposed and blinded by the two
Seids, Hussun and Abdoola, to whom he owed his eleva¬
tion to the throne. In his place they chose Ruffieh-ul-
Dowlat, a son of Bahader Shah; and in less than a year
deposed and put him to death. His brother, who by their
means was also made king, met with the same treatment;
so that in the course of eleven years from the death of
Aurungzebe, four princes of his line had ascended the
throne, whilst six others had met the usual fate of unsuc¬
cessful aspirants to that dignity. Mahommed Shah, the
grandson of Bahader Shah, was placed on the throne by
the Seids in 1718, from whose influence he contrived at
length to free himself, though not without a rebellion and
a battle, in which they were both slain. In the mean time
Mahommed Shah was deficient in the vigour which his
difficult situation required, and the provincial governors at
a distance began to show symptoms of independence. Ni-
zam-ul-Muluck, the viceroy of the Deccan, was the most
formidable of those pretenders to sovereignty. He had re¬
duced the province of Gujerat and Malwah; and having
paid a visit to the imperial court, and observed the disso¬
lute administration of affairs, he quitted the capital in dis¬
gust, under pretence of a hunting excursion, for his govern¬
ment of the Deccan. He was deprived of the administra¬
tion of Gujerat and Malwah, the two provinces which he
had acquired. In revenge he encouraged the rulers of
these provinces to resist the imperial authority; whilst at
his instigation also the Mahrattas invaded the country, and
after a severe struggle succeeded, about the year 1732, in
completely reducing this long-disputed territory,
asion But a more dreadful calamity was now impending over
' 'adir the distracted empire. The sceptre of Persia had been
long swayed by a feeble race of monarchs, and the coun¬
try became an easy prey to the hardy mountaineers of
Afghanistan, who in 1722 laid siege to Ispahan, when the
feeble Hussun Shah surrendered the crown to the invader.
He had a son Thamas, however, who escaped from the ge¬
neral massacre which ensued, and who was joined by many
partisans, amongst others by Nadir, the son of a shepherd
of Khorassan, who, wdth his band of followers, soon distin¬
guished himself as a brave and active supporter of the
fallen prince. In 1729 he retook Ispahan, and finally, by
his talents, raised himself to the throne of Persia in 1736,
having put out the eyes of the unfortunate son of the late
monarch. Being afterwards engaged in an expedition
against the Afghans, he advanced to the frontier of Hin¬
dustan, but without any ulterior views of hostility, when
a messenger and his escort, whom he had despatched to
the emperor at Delhi, were murdered at Jellalabad by the
inhabitants; an outrage which being approved by Mahom-
med Shah, Nadir prepared for revenge. He gave up the of¬
fending city to be pillaged by his soldiers ; and advancing Hindustan,
to Delhi, was met by the imperial troops, who were totally
defeated. The views of the conqueror, however, were not
hostile, and two crores of rupees would have purchased his
retreat from Hindustan. But this amicable arrangement
was frustrated by a dispute between Saadut Khan, subah-
dar of Oude, and the nizam of the Deccan, for the va¬
cant office of Ameer-ul-Omrah, formerly paymaster of the
forces. Saadut Khan, the disappointed candidate, per¬
suaded Nadir Shah that the proffered sum was no adequate
ransom for Hindustan; on which Nadir advanced to the
capital, which opened its gates to receive him ; and for
two days thereafter the Persian troops observed the most
exact discipline. But in the course of the night a rumour
was spread that Nadir was killed, on which the inhabitants
rose against their invaders, and massacred many of them.
Nadir took severe and immediate revenge. He dispersed
his irritated soldiers throughout every quarter of the city,
with orders to spare neither age nor sex ; and in this in¬
discriminate slaughter 100,000 persons are said to have
perished, whilst the city was set on fire in several places.
The imperial treasure was plundered; plate, jewels, and
specie, were carried off to the incredible amount of thirty-
two millions sterling. Rich bankers and others were forced
by torture to disclose their hidden wealth, and a heavy con¬
tribution of thirty millions was imposed on the city by the
relentless conqueror. Nadir Shah departed from Delhi,
of which he had held possession thirty-seven days, in the
year 1739 ; and the nizam still retained possession of the
whole power of the empire, which he sacrificed to his own
views in the Deccan, where he established an independent
kingdom. Nadir Shah died in 1747. In the subsequent con¬
fusion, the eastern provinces of Persia, and those bordering
on India, were formed by Abdalli, one of his generals,
into an independent state, which comprised the ancient
empire of Ghizni, and was known under the name of the
kingdom of the Abdalli. Mahommed Shah died the same
year, after a reign of twenty-nine years. Every day dis¬
closed the growing weakness of the empire, and strong
symptoms of its early and entire dissolution. In 1738 Decay of
Bengal became independent under Aliverdy Khan, and it the Mo-
was soon afterwards invaded by a numerous army of Mah- S}1' em-
rattas from Poonah and Berar. About the same time the Plie"
Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains which separate India
from Persia, erected an independent state on the Ganges,
within eighty miles of Delhi. Mahommed Shah was suc¬
ceeded by his son Ahmed Shah, and in the reign of the
latter the Mogul empire was finally dismembered. A small
territory around Delhi was all that remained to the house of
Timur, and it was the scene of devastation, massacres, and
famine. The last imperial army that ever assembled was
defeated in 1749 by the Rohillas. The Jauts founded a
state in the province of Agra ; the nizam and Aliverdy ruled
in Bengal and the Deccan ; Oude and Allahabad were each
seized by independent chiefs ; Malwah was divided between
the Poonah Mahrattas and several native princes and ze¬
mindars. Ajmere reverted to its ancient lords, the Rajpoot
princes. The Mahrattas, who now contended for the do¬
minion of India, possessed, in addition to their share of
Mahvah, the greatest part of Gujerat, Berar, and Orissa, be¬
sides their ancient domains in the Deccan. “ The whole
country of Hindustan proper,” Major Rennell remarks,
“ was in commotion from one extreme to another, each
party fearing the machinations or attacks of the other; so
that all regular government was at an end, and villany was
practised in every form. Perhaps in the annals of the
world it has seldom happened that the bonds of govern¬
ment were so suddenly dissolved, over a portion of country
containing at least sixty millions of inhabitants.”1
1 Rennell’s Memoir of Hindustan, p. Ixx.
412
HINDUSTAN.
Mahrattas
and the
Afghans.
Hindustan. In 1753 the Emperor Ahmed Shah was deposed by Gazi,
the son of Gazi o’Dien, vizir to Mahommed Shah, who pla¬
ced on the throne Allumguire II., grandson of Bahader
Shah, and invested himself with the office of vizir. His
perfidious conduct to the family of the viceroy of the pro¬
vinces of Moultan and Lahore, under Abdalli, the king
of the Afghans, involved the emperor in a quarrel with
that powerful prince, who advanced from Candahar to La¬
hore, and thence to Delhi, the gates of which were open¬
ed by the feeble emperor, and the defenceless city aban¬
doned for weeks to a licentious soldiery. After the retreat
of the Abdallis, the vizir advanced with an army to Delhi,
which he entered after a siege of forty-five days. The
Mogul emperor was now reduced to the most abject state
of dependence, and was at last assassinated by order of
the vizir, who was irritated by his correspondence with the
Afghan monarch Abdalli Shah, the Rohillas, and the na¬
bob of Oude, with whom he himself was at war. His son
took the title of Shah Aulum ; he escaped from Delhi when
it was besieged by the vizir, and, after a series of misfor¬
tunes, at last surrendered to the British, who gave him an
asylum, and a pension for his support; and with him, the
last of the Mogul sovereigns who enjoyed independent
power, closes for ever the glory of this renowned empire.
Contest be. In the mean time, amidst anarchy and desolation, the Mah-
tvt eilfn t^le rattas were daily increasing in power; they were engaged
in every scene of politics and warfare, from Gujerat to
Bengal, and from Lahore to the Carnatic ; they possessed
extensive sway and vast armies; and their ambition was
now to reconstruct a new Hindu empire out of the decay¬
ed fragments of the Mogul power. The rising influence
of the Afghans under the rigorous sway of Abdalli was
the only obstacle to this patriotic or ambitious scheme;
and the Mahrattas, in the progress of their conquests north¬
ward, encountered for the first time their great rival for the
dominion of India. Ahmed Abdalli, king of the Afghans,
was taken prisoner when very young by Nadir Shah ; he was
first his slave, afterwards his mace-bearer, and at his death,
having collected a body of troops and other adventurers, he
proceeded to his own country, and proclaimed himself king
of the Afghans, with the title of Doordowran, or pearl of
the age, which was corrupted into that of Dooranee, and be¬
came the name of one of the Afghan tribes. Ahmed had
extended his dominion over the frontier provinces of Moul¬
tan and Lahore, which, in retiring from India, he had left
under the administration of his son. These provinces were
first invaded by the Sikhs, and afterwards by the Mahratta
generals, who advanced to Lahore and expelled the Ab¬
dalli prince, and afterwards extended their conquests to
the Indus. Ahmed Shah, roused by the loss of his pro¬
vinces and the dishonour of his arms, collected his troops,
and encountered the Mahratta army, amounting to 80,000
veteran cavalry, which was almost entirely destroyed, and
the general Duttah Sindia slain. The news of this defeat
spread alarm amongst the Mahrattas, and roused them to
the greatest exertions. A vast army, consisting of 140,000
horse, besides a numerous train of camp followers, com¬
manded by the most renowned chiefs, took the field, and
being unable to cross the Jumna, still swollen by the rains,
proceeded to plunder Delhi, the capital. Ahmed Shah,
with 150,000 well-disciplined troops, now advanced, and, in
his impatience to meet the enemy, plunged with his whole
army into the foaming wraves ot the Jumna, which he cross¬
ed in safety. I he Mahrattas, struck by this daring exploit,
retired to the plain of Paniput, and the armies continued
in sight of each other from the 26th October to the 27th
January 1761, during which interval several bloody skir¬
mishes took place. On this latter day was fought the
battle of Paniput, one of the most decisive and sanguinary
recorded in history. The Mahrattas were overthrown with
a dreadful carnage. The general, Bhaow, the nephew
Battle of
Paniput.
of the peshwa, the chief of the Mahratta nation, was killed Hin t
early in the action ; most of the other chiefs were slain, w ^
and those of the soldiers who escaped from the slaughter
of the field were massacred by the irritated peasantry, in
revenge for the depredations of the Mahratta cavalry. And
of the mighty host engaged in this fatal conflict, only a
small remnant, with three generals, returned to the Dec-
can. This great battle gave an irreparable blow to the
Mahratta power, which from this time sensibly declined,
and the victorious Abdalli sought no other fruit of his
victory. He returned to his capital after remaining a few
months at Delhi, having recognised the son of Aulungeer
as emperor, under the title of Shah Aulum the Second.
A new scene was now about to open in India. The Euro- BjS( a
peans, who as traders had long maintained establishments Eur m
on the coasts, began to assume an entirely different cha- pow
racter; to contend with each other in the field for domi¬
nion, and to mingle in all the wars and politics of the
interior. It was necessary, for carrying on the domestic
trade of India, and more especially in providing goods for
the supply of Europe, that a body of experienced servants
should reside on the spot, in order to collect and to pur¬
chase commodities for exportation ; an employment which,
owing to the poverty and abject state of the natives, and
their peculiar customs, involved duties of the most minute
and laborious detail. During the decline of the Mogul go¬
vernment, the tranquillity of India was frequently shaken
by the contentions of rival chiefs ; and the slight security
afforded, even in the best times, to commerce, became in
this manner more imperfect. For the reception of the
goods which it was necessary to collect and store up, that
cargoes might always be in readiness for the Company's
ships, warehouses were built, which, with the counting-
houses, and other apartments for the agents and business
of the place, constituted the factories of the Company.
These factories contained a valuable store of property,
which, in the disordered state of India, it became necessary
to secure from the rapacity both of governments and of in¬
dividuals. I hey were therefore strongly built and forti¬
fied ; their inmates were armed and disciplined; and, for
better security, regular troops were occasionally maintain¬
ed in those mercantile garrisons. In these defensive ar¬
rangements ot the Company we may discern the rudiments
of their future empire.
The territorial acquisitions of the European companies
were, however, still inconsiderable. The English East In¬
dia Company had in 1698 been permitted to purchase the
zemindaryship ot the three towns of Sootanutty, Calcutta,
and Govindpore, with their districts, to which was after¬
wards added a district extending ten miles from Calcutta,
on each side of the river Hooghly, containing thirty-se¬
ven towns. On the Coromandel coast the English pos¬
sessed Madras, with a small adjoining territory five miles
along the shore, also Fort St David, in 11. 40. north lati¬
tude, with other places, such as Vizigapatam and Balasore;
and on the west coast their principal settlement was the
island of Bombay. Factories were also established at Surat,
lellicherry, and several other places. The business of the
Company was managed by the three independent presi¬
dencies of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The presi¬
dency consisted of a governor and council of nine, twelve,
or any greater number of members, as might seem expe¬
dient, in a majority of whom all power was vested. The
members of the council were not excluded from other
more lucrative offices, which were, in general, shared
amongst them. These offices were chiefly in the gift of the
president, and, by means of his influence, the council were,
in a great degree, placed under his control. The gover¬
nor and council exercised the most ample powers over
the servants of the Company ; and with regard to all others,
they could seize and imprison them, and afterwards send
HINDUSTAN.
t lustan.them to England. The powers of martial law were be-
stowed on them at an early period, for maintaining the
discipline of the troops under their orders; and, in 1661,
a charter of Charles II. gave them the power of adminis¬
tering civil and criminal justice according to the laws of
England.
Pondicherry, with a small appendage of territory, was
the principal seat of the French power on the continent
of India. It had under its authority three factories, one
at Mahe, on the Malabar coast, not far south from Telli-
cherry; one at Rarical, on the Coromandel coast; and
one at Chandernagore, on the river Hooghly, in Bengal.
The form of government was the same in the French as
in the English settlements.
In 1744 France and England, from being auxiliaries, be¬
came principals in the war which was then raging in Eu¬
rope, and the flame soon communicated to their distant
colonies. In India the two rival powers were quickly in¬
volved in hostilities, which, however, were followed by no
important result; and the English settlement of Madras,
which had been taken by the French king, was restored at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. It was soon after this that the
French and English, in supporting the contending claims
of the native princes, again came into collision. At the
respective settlements of the two Companies, the number
of troops assembled during the previous war was greater
than was necessary for defence, and the servants of the
Companies, with such means at their disposal, now began
to meditate schemes of conquest. The intricacies of
Indian politics, and the family connexions of the different
claimants who contended for power and dominion, need
not be described in detail, as it would neither be instruc¬
tive nor acceptable to the general reader. A brief sketch
is all that will be necessary to explain the nature of those
transactions which so deeply affected the future condi¬
tion of India, and the relations of the parties engaged in
them.
When Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed ruler of the Dec-
can, with the title of subahdar, by the Emperor Aurungzebe,
a chief named Sadatullah was nabob of the Carnatic. At
his death, his son Doost Ali succeeded him as nabob,
which proved displeasing to the nizam, who claimed the
right, as delegate of the emperor, to appoint the viceroy
of the Carnatic. He accordingly chose, first his general
Cojah Abdoolla, and afterwards Anwar ad Dien Khan,
known to the English as Anoverdy Khan, to be governor
of the Carnatic in 1745. It was between these two fami¬
lies that the contest now began for the government of the
Carnatic ; Chunda Saheb, a distant relative of the family
of Sadatullah, being supported by the French under their
aspiring and ambitious governor Dupleix. The death of
Nizam-ul-Mulk, in 1748, at the extreme age of 104, occa¬
sioned another dispute in the succession to the govern¬
ment of the Deccan, between Nazir Jung, his son, who
was supported by the English, and Mirzapha Jung, his
grandson by a daughter, who was aided by Chunda Saheb
and the French. The latter in 1749, with 40,000 native
troops, 400 French, 100 Caffres, and 1800 Sepoys, ad¬
vanced against Anwar ad Dien. • His camp was gallant¬
ly stormed by the French troops, he himself was slain, at
the age of 107, his eldest son was taken prisoner, and his
second son, Mahommed Ali, with the wreck of his army,
escaped to Trichinopoly. Nazir Jung, hearing that the
nabob of the Carnatic was defeated, collected an army,
and summoned Mahommed Ali from Trichinopoly to his aid.
He also requested assistance from the English, who sent
Major Laurence from Fort St David with 600 Europeans
to join his army. When the armies approached each
other, D’Auteuil the French commander, being deserted
by some of his officers, suddenly retreated to Pondicherry,
leaving to their fate Mirzapha Jung, who surrendered to
413
his uncle, and was immediately put in irons, and Chunda Hindustan.
Saheb, who followed with his troops to Pondicherry. 'w
But the enterprising Dupleix made new exertions, and
having again taken the field, he attacked the camp of Na¬
zir Jung, his former ally, who in the confusion was shot
through the heart. Mirzapha Jung being now freed from
imprisonment, assumed the authority of subahdar. He
was afterwards shot dead with an arrow in an action with
the rebellious Patan chiefs, and, by the influence of M.
Bussy, who commanded the French troops, Salabut Jung,
the eldest surviving son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, was raised to
the government. After some unsuccessful operations,
the English, with their allies, were compelled to take shel¬
ter under the walls of Trichinopoly, which was now be¬
sieged, though with little effect, by the enemy.
In this indecisive state of affairs at Trichinopoly, it was
suggested by Captain Clive, who had already distinguish¬
ed himself by desperate bravery and great military skill,
that it would be advantageous to carry the war into the
enemy’s country; and being intrusted with the execu¬
tion of his own bold designs, he began an attack on Arcot,
the capital of Chunda Saheb. He had under him 210
Europeans and 500 Sepoys ; and so secret and sudden
were his motions, that he was master of the enemy’s ca¬
pital ere they were apprised of his march. Here he was
soon invested, in the fort which defends the town, by a
numerous army, and several practicable breaches being
made, an assault took place, which was repulsed with loss ;
the assailants were finally compelled to raise the siege,
and being pursued by Clive, were attacked and totally de¬
feated on the plain of Arani, on the 3d of December 1751.
The forts of Tinnery, Conjeveram, and Arani, immediate¬
ly surrendered to Clive, who returned in triumph to Fort
St David. He was soon recalled by the operations of
the enemy, who were encouraged by his absence again to
take the field. With a very inferior force he adventured
on a battle, and by the well-concerted manoeuvre of send¬
ing round a detachment to fall upon the rear of the ene¬
my, whilst the English charged with the bayonet in front,
he obtained a decisive victory, and the hostile army was
saved from total ruin only by the darkness of the night.
On his return to Fort St David, Clive was superseded
in his command by Major Laurence, who detached him
with 400 Europeans, a few Mahratta soldiers, and a body
of Sepoys, to cut off the enemy’s retreat to Pondicherry,
in which he was, as usual, completely successful, having
made the French commander M. d’Auteuil prisoner, with
all his troops. The enemy were now greatly distressed
for want of provisions ; and Chunda Saheb, deserted by his
troops, surrendered to the king of Tanjore, an ally of the
English, by whom he was beheaded, in order to prevent
all disputes with the Mysorean and Mahratta chiefs about
the custody of his person. After the flight of Chunda
Saheb, his army was attacked and routed by Major Lau¬
rence ; and the island of Syringham, where his troops
were encamped, was taken, with about 1000 French sol¬
diers, under the command of Mr Law, the son of Law
the author of the Mississippi scheme. Notwithstanding
these disadvantages, Dupleix was not discouraged. .The
English resolved to commence the siege of Gingee, which
was garrisoned by the French. In this operation they
failed. But the French were afterwards defeated in an
action near Bahoor, two miles from Fort St David; and
the two forts of Coveling and Chingleput were reduced
by Captain Clive.
Early in January 1753 the two armies again took the
field. The French force consisted of 500 European in¬
fantry, sixty horse, 2000 Sepoys, and 4000 Mahrattas, com¬
manded by Morari Row. The English had 700 European
infantry, 2000 Sepoys, and 1500 horse belonging to the
nabob. The two armies, avoiding a general action, watch-
414 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, ed each other’s movements, when General Laurence was proceeded to follow their example, by reducing to obe- Hin t4!1
apprised that Captain Dalton, the commandant of Trichi- dience and plundering the petty chiefs of the country. .J'
nopoly, had only provisions to serve him three weeks. He Whilst the two contending armies were maintaining this
immediately marched with all his forces to his relief, and predatory warfare, the active and enterprising Bussy was
being followed by the French, this place became the ob- in another quarter securing the ascendency of the French;
ject of an active contest, from May 1753 till October and, whether in the cabinet or in the field, he still signa-
1754. We have already stated that the two main points lized his talents as a warrior and a statesman. Salabut
of dispute between the French and English were, first, Jung, influenced by his courtiers, had induced the French
the succession to the government of the Deccan; and, troops to quit his territories, which order Bussy speedi-
secondly, to that of the Carnatic; the English, in the first ly obeyed, and commenced his march. Finding that
of the disputes, supporting the claims of Nazir Jung, the he was betrayed, and his progress intercepted by hostile
son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, against Mirzapha Jung, the grand- chiefs, he skilfully selected a strong position, which he
son of the nizam, who was supported by the French, defended till succours arrived from Pondicherry; when
After the death of Nazir Jung, who was killed in the at- the fickle prince again solicited his alliance, and he was
tack of the French upon his camp, Mirzapha Jung sue- restored to still higher influence than before. Salabut
ceeded to the subahdarship of the Deccan. He was killed Jung, when he had resolved to dismiss the French troops,
in battle, as already related, by an arrow, when, through had applied to the presidency of Madras for a force to sup-
the influence of the French commander, M. ’Bussy, Sala- ply their place; and this opportunity of extending their
but Jung, the eldest surviving son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, was influence would have been eagerly embraced by the Eng-
raised to the vacant throne. But on the death of Nazir lish, but their power was now threatened in another quar-
Jung, his eldest son Ghazee ad Dien solicited and re- ter, by new and unexpected dangers. Bengal now became
ceived from the Mogul the appointment of subahdar of the great scene of Indian warfare, in which were concen-
the Deccan ; and he appeared at Aurungabad in October trated all the resources of the English, from every part of
1752, to support his title, at the head of 150,000 troops, their territories. This extensive province, with Orissa and
The Mahrattas at the same time supported him, and en- the province of Allahabad and Berar, was governed, to-
tered the province of Golconda with 100,000 horse. The wards the latter end of Aurungzebe’s reign, by his grand-
French general Bussy and Salabut Jung now took the son Azeem Ooshaun, second son of Shah Aulum, who
field to meet these armies, with very unequal numbers, succeeded to the throne. Jaffier Khan was appointed his
when Ghazee ad Dien Khan suddenly died. The Mali- deputy; and, as frequently happened during the decline of
ratta generals continued the war, but in every encounter the Mogul empire, from a deputy he became an indepen-
they were repulsed with such fearful loss by the brench, dent sovereign. Sujah Khan, who wras married to the
that they agreed to conclude a peace on the cession of daughter of Jaffier Khan, was appointed his deputy in the
certain frontier districts, to which Salabut Jung willing- government of Orissa. In this elevated station, a distant
ly agreed. relative, Mirza Mahommed, who had once been in the ser¬
in the other point in dispute, namely, the government vice of Azeem Shah, the second son of Aurungzebe, and
of the Carnatic, the English espoused the cause of Mahom- had since fallen into poverty, resorted to his court for em-
med Ali, the second son of Anwar ad Dien, who was ap- ployment, and he was kindly received. He was followed
pointed nabob by Nizam-ul-Mulk ; and the French sup- by his two sons Hadgee Ahmed and Mirza Mahommed Ali,
ported Chunda Saheb, the heir of the first deputy Sada- who both obtained employment; and, by their respective
tullah, appointed also by Nizam-ul-Mulk. On his death talents for business and war, they soon acquired favour and
they claimed the right of appointment for Salabut Jung, influence in the court of Sujah Khan. Jaffier Khan died
the subahdar, and who, owing his throne to their powerful in 1725, and was succeeded by Sujah Khan, who sup-
support, had become a passive tool in their hands. From planted Sereffraz Khan, the destined heir. In 1739 he add-
him M. Bussy had obtained the cession of the four im- ed to his dominions the province of Bahar, and intrusted
portant provinces of Mustaphanagar, Ellore, Rajamundry, its administration to Mirza Mahommed Ali, under the title
and Chicacole, called the Northern Circars. It was in of Aliverdy Khan. In 1739 Sujah Khan died, and was
these circumstances that a suspension of arms was agreed succeeded by his son Sereffraz Khan, who hated Aliverdy
upon in October 1754; and on the 26th of December fol- Khan and his brother, and took no pains to conceal it.
owing a provisional treaty was signed at Pondicherry, by Aliverdy in the mean time obtaining from the imperial
which both parties agreed to abstain from interfering in court his nomination to the government of Bengal, collect-
t le internal affairs of the country, and to establish their ed his troops, and having defeated Sereffraz in a battle in
territorial acquisitions on a principle of equality. These which he was slain, he reduced the country to subjection,
terms were entirely in favour of the English, as they left and governed it with a regard to justice and humanity very
a lommed Ali nabob of the Carnatic, and obliged the unusual in the East. His reign was, however, one con-
rench also to the cession of the four Circars w hich they had tinued scene of commotion, from the irruptions of the Mah-
o tamed from Salabut Jung. But this treaty was in truth rattas, who, though they were often vigorously repelled
a dead letter ; and the moment it was concluded the Eng- by Aliverdy and his troops, always returned with new vi-
lisfi, in virtue of their alliance with the nabob, proceeded gour to the invasion of the country. Aliverdy died on the
to re uce to obedience, and to collect the revenues of the 9th of April 1756, at the age of eighty, and was succeeded
districts of Madura and Tinnevelly. Here, however, they by his nephew Suraja Dowla, who had all the vices of a re-
encountered the Collenes, a fierce tribe inhabiting the gularly educated prince. His first act was to plunder the
n y istucts, who obstinately contested every inch of sister of Aliverdy Khan, who was reputed to possess great
groun , so t at they got abundance of hard blows, and wealth ; he gave orders to seize the treasurers of her fami-
!. e scarcely enough indeed to pay the expense of ly, one of whom, however, contrived to escape, and found
enn^ ac*vei^ure. The English, when they made an asylum in Calcutta. Incensed by the protection given
en rs conquests in India, having conceived vast ideas to this fugitive, and jealous besides of the designs and
o its wealth, set no bounds to their rapacity; they were growing power of the Europeans*, he took the field on the
eagei to revel in the spoil of the country, and it was only 30th of May 1756, with an army of 40,000 foot, 30,000
V1 ,?rj f0!"8 j11 repeated disappointments that at last horse, and 400 elephants. The factory at Cossimbazar was
ispe led their dreams of avarice. The French, after re- seized, and its chief, Mr Watts, and his surgeon, who ac-
mons rating in vain against this conduct of the English, companied him, were retained prisoners. Calcutta was in-
HINDUSTAN.
j lustan-vested on the 18th of June. It was feebly defended, and
-r-' at last a retreat was resolved upon, which was executed so
precipitately that numbers were left behind in the fort
by the ships and boats. In this trying situation Mr Hoi-
well was chosen commander, who, seeing no chance of a
successful defence, proposed a capitulation in a letter which
he threw over the ramparts. In the mean time the troops
having gained access to the liquor, were so intoxicated as
to be incapable of defence, and the enemy entered the fort
without resistance. The subahdar appears on this occasion
not to have intended any inhumanity to the garrison; and
when Mr Holwell was brought into his presence with his
hands tied, he ordered them to be loosed, and pledged his
honour as a soldier to him and his companions that not a
hair of their heads should be touched. But, notwithstand¬
ing these assurances, the tragical scene which ensued has
no parallel in the annals of human misery. When night
approached, it became necessary to secure the prisoners in
some place of confinement; and for this purpose the com¬
mon prison of the garrison was chosen, which was about
eighteen feet square, with only two small windows barred
with iron. Into this small apartment the garrison, 146 in
number, were compelled to enter, by threats of being in¬
stantly cut down if they resisted. Their sufferings from
want of air were dreadful, and bribes were offered to the
guard to obtain a room for them in which they could
breathe. But none dared to awake the sleeping tyrant
whose prisoners they were ; and, after a night of inexpres¬
sible horror, only twenty-three out of 146 were found
alive in the morning. The presidency of Madras being
apprized of these disasters, determined on sending Colonel
Clive, who had now returned to India, to Bengal, with as
large a force as could be collected; and an armament
accordingly sailed from the roads of Madras on the 16th
of October, consisting of five king’s ships under Admiral
Watson, besides transports having on board 900 European
troops and 1500 Sepoys. Having arrived in the Ganges on
the 20th of December 1756, they found the fugitives at
Fulta, a town at some distance from Calcutta, down the
river. The first operation was against a fort} and Clive,
lying in ambush to intercept the garrison, was himself sur¬
prised by the troops of Suraja Dowla, and, after a conflict
long doubtful, extricated himself from the dangers that sur¬
rounded him, by that admirable presence of mind which
never deserted him in the hour of danger. On the 2d of
January 1757, the armament arrived at Calcutta, which
surrendered after a cannonade of two hours. Almost the
whole property of the Company was recovered, having
been preserved for the subahdar ; but the houses of indi¬
viduals were all plundered. On the 10th of January, the
city of Hooghly, about twenty-three miles higher up the
river, was attacked, and a breach being made, and an as¬
sault begun, the garrison sought safety in flight. In the
mean time, intelligence was received from Europe of the
commencement of hostilities between France and Eng¬
land, which placed in a very critical situation the Com¬
pany’s settlements in Bengal. The English were already
engaged in a war with a powerful prince, who had a formid¬
able army in the field; and a coalition with the French,
who could muster 300 European troops, with a train of ar-
tillery, would have overwhelmed their infant power. Hap¬
pily for them, the French were desirous of a neutrality, and
refused the alliance of Suraja Dowla, who advanced wTith
his whole army and surrounded Calcutta. The perils which
now environed the English roused the daring spirit of Clive,
and he resolved to surprise the enemy’s camp before day¬
light. But this bold enterprise failed in the execution ;
t ie troops suffered severely, and a thick mist augmented
the causes of confusion; still the boldness of the design pro¬
duced the desired effect, by alarming the subahdar, and in-
c inmg him to peace. He accordingly concluded a treaty
415
with the English, by which he agreed to restore to the Hindustan.
Company their factories, and all their former privileges ; to
make compensation for the losses they had suffered, and to
permit them to fortify Calcutta. The danger which now
threatened the Company being averted, the active mind of
Clive was directed to other objects; and as war was now
declared between France and England, he resolved, in re¬
turn for the neutrality observed by the French when the
English were involved in hostilities with the nabob, to at¬
tack their settlement at Chandernagur. This scheme was
opposed by the nabob, and was disapproved by the coun¬
cil and Admiral Watson. Reinforcements, however, ar¬
riving, the attack was resolved on, and the English force
advanced. The French defended themselves with gallan¬
try ; and the nabob, alarmed, began to put his army in mo¬
tion. But the fort was in the mean time reduced by the
irresistible fire of the ships. The nabob viewed these pro¬
ceedings with secret alarm and resentment, and refused to
give up the other French factories and subjects in his do¬
minions. He even afforded protection to the fugitives from
Chandernagur, and evinced his decided hostility to the
English, until he received intelligence of the progress of the
Afghans in the north, when he became extremely desir¬
ous of peace. But the English were now dazzled with
other schemes, and Clive strongly insisted on the rooted
disaffection of the nabob to the English, and on the neces¬
sity of dethroning him, and of elevating Meer Jaffier, who
had married the sister of Aliverdy Khan, to the throne in
his stead. It is unnecessary to dwell particularly on the
dark intrigues by which this scheme was carried into ef¬
fect. It was concerted that, for the destruction of Suraja
Dowla, the English should take the field ; and that Meer
Jaffier, who still had a considerable force under his com¬
mand, should join them at Cutwa. The English, having ar¬
rived at Cutwa, found not their expected ally Meer Jaffier;
only an intimation from him that he could not join them be¬
fore the day of battle, but that during the action he would
desert the nabob and join his enemies. This intelligence
damped the ardour of the English, and it was deemed ha¬
zardous to advance further, and to risk a battle, when, “ if
defeat ensued, no one would return to tell it.” But cau¬
tion at length gave way to bolder counsels ; the army
crossed the river a little past midnight, at Plassy. Here
also was intrenched the army of the subahdar, consisting
of 50,000 foot, 18,000 horse, and fifty pieces of cannon.
The English force consisted of about 1000 Europeans and
2100 Sepoys. During the battle, which took place on the
23d of June 1757, Meer Jaffier was observed moving
off with his troops. Clive, now assured of his intentions,
ordered an attack; the subahdar’s army was dispersed, and
he himself fled from the field with only 2000 attendants.
Arriving at his palace, he found no friend on whom he
could rely ; and disguising himself as a fakir, he escaped,
with a favourite concubine and a single eunuch, intending
to make his way to the French. But he was discovered
at Raje Muhl, dragged back to Moorshedabad, and placed
under the custody of Meer Jaffier’s son, who gave orders
for his assassination. On the 25th of June, Clive arrived
with his victorious army at Moorshedabad. Meer Jaffier
took possession of the capital, and on the 29th was in¬
stalled into his high office, in the presence of the rajahs
and grandees of the court. Enormous sums were exacted
from Meer Jaffier as the price of his elevation ; for the
Company 10,000,000 rupees, as a compensation for losses ;
5,000,000 rupees to the English inhabitants, 2,000,000 to
the Indians, and 700,000 to the Armenians; for the squa¬
dron 2,500,000; an equal sum for the army ; and for the
members of the council, which they actually received,
namely, for Mr Drake the governor, and Colonel Clive,
280,000 rupees each; and Mr Becker, Mr Watts, and
Major Kilpatrick, 240,000 each; the whole amountingto
416 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan. L.2,697,750. The English, deluded by their avarice, still
cherished their extravagant ideas of Indian wealth; nor
would they listen to the ungrateful truth. But it was now
found that there were no funds in the Indian treasury to
satisfy their inordinate demands. They were in the end
obliged to be contented with one half the stipulated sum,
which, after many difficulties, was paid in specie and in
jewels, with the exception of 584),905 rupees.
The Company’s servants, whilst their force was so actively
engaged in Bengal, were anxious to remain quiet in the Car¬
natic. In endeavouring to collect the land-rents of the na¬
bob Mahommed Ali, they, however, undertook the reduc¬
tion of Madura and Tinnevelly ; but with no great success,
Captain Calliaud being repulsed in an assault on the fort
of Dindigul, and another division of the English force at
Nelore. The French now resolved to take advantage of the
division of the enemy’s force, and to. strike a decisive
blow; and having collected every soldier that could be
spared from garrison duty, they suddenly with their whole
force invested the fortress of Trichinopoly. On the 14th of
May 1757, Captain Calliaud being apprized of their design
whilst he was besieging Madura, instantly began his march
for the relief of this important place. It was surrounded
by an army five times as numerous as his owm force, and
every avenue to it was strongly guarded. But the Eng¬
lish commander, well acquainted with the localities, took
his route through a large plain consisting of rice fields co¬
vered with water, which was deemed impassable by the
French, and therefore left unguarded ; and thus he enter¬
ed the fort. The French general, disconcerted by this suc¬
cessful stroke, drew off his forces and returned to Pondi¬
cherry. Having thus secured Trichinopoly, Colonel Cal¬
liaud resumed the siege of Madura, and being repulsed,
with heavy loss, in an attempt to storm, he turned the siege
into a blockade. He was at last received into the town on
payment of 170,000 rupees. In the mean time Bussy was
eminently successful in all his operations within the Cir-
cars ; he reduced the fortress of Vizigapatam held by the
English ; and, after some uncertainty in the unstable coun¬
cils of Salabut Jung, he finally established an entire as¬
cendency over that prince and throughout the Deccan.
On the commencement of the war between France and
England in 1756, the French ministry resolved to send a
formidable armament to India; and the Count de Lally,
an Irishman, who had left his country with James II., and
who had distinguished himself in the battle of Fontenoy,
was appointed commander-in-chief of all the French forces
in India. Count Lally, with his armament, arrived on the
coast of Coromandel on the 25th of April 1757. The Eng¬
lish Admiral Pococke had been previously joined by a squa¬
dron of five ships of war, and an engagement took place
between the two fleets, which terminated to the advantage
of the English. Another action took place after the ships
were refitted, with the same result. But neither was de¬
cisive; and, notwithstanding these successes at sea, the
French had a preponderating force on shore, which con¬
sisted of 2500 Europeans, and the same number of Sepoys.
With this force they commenced, on the 17th of May 1758,
the siege of Fort St David. The place capitulated on the
1st of June, and its fortifications were razed. Devicottah
surrendered on the 7th of June, and the English now ful-
ly expected that Lally would next lay siege to Madras.
But the want of money embarrassed all his operations ; and
irl 2^e.r relieve his necessities, he undertook the siege
of ranjore. A breach was effected, and preparations made
for an assault, when the arrival of the English fleet, after
another engagement with the French before Carical,
whence the besieging army derived all its supplies, deter¬
mined Lally to raise the siege ; and, after a disastrous
retreat, his shattered force arrived on the 28th at Carical.
The hostile fleets again encountered on the 2d of August,
and after an hour’s fighting the French bore away, and Hi Usta,
were soon beyond the reach of shot. Lally, to relieve his ^ v-v
pecuniary wants, which were only augmented by the unsuc¬
cessful siege of Tanjore, now prepared for an expedition
against Arcot. This place capitulated on the 4th of Oc¬
tober, and the French force proceeded forthwith to Chingle-
put, about forty-five miles south-west of Madras. But
the English, aware of its importance, reinforced the gar¬
rison, and Lally did not attempt its reduction. His situ¬
ation was beset with difficulties, from the total want of
money and all necessary supplies; and in order to re¬
trieve his affairs, he resolved On the bold enterprise of
laying siege to Madras. His force consisted of 2700 Eu¬
ropean troops, and 4000 Indians. In this attempt he sig¬
nally failed, with great loss, after continuing the siege from
the 16th of December till the middle of February 1759;
and this disaster greatly contributed to depress his spirits,
and to abate his vain confidence in his own schemes. The
French army retreated in the direction of Conjeveram,
whither they were followed by the English. Here the two
armies manoeuvred for some time in sight of each other,
when the English marched upon Wandewash, and after¬
wards on Conjeveram, which they took by assault. On
the 28th of May 1759 both armies went into cantonments.
In the end of September the campaign was resumed
with spirit by the English, who laid siege to Wandewash,
but were repulsed in all their attempts to carry it by storm.
But it was attacked and taken on the 29th of October,
as was also Caranjoly on the 10th of December. Bussy had
been recalled from the Carnatic, where he had exerted
himself so advantageously for the French cause, and he
joir.ed the army the day after the repulse of the English.
Lally had resolved to divide his force ; with one part to
collect the rents of the southern, with the other to pro¬
tect what belonged to the French in the northern dis¬
tricts. He contrived by skilful manoeuvring to amuse the
English, and in the mean time he surprised and took Con¬
jeveram, and thence proceeded to the attack of Wande¬
wash. The English army under Colonel Coote now ap¬
proached, consisting of 1900 Europeans, 2100 Sepoys, 1250
black horse, and twenty-six field-pieces; and the French
general determined to try the issue of a general battle.
The French, including 300 marines and sailors, consist¬
ed of 2250 Europeans, and 1500 Sepoys. The battle
commenced on the 22d of January 1760, at eleven o’clock,
and terminated in the total defeat of the French, who lost
nearly all their cannon. Lally retreated to Chittapet, about
twenty-eight miles from the field of battle, and afterwards
to Gingee and Valdore. The victorious general resolved
on the reduction of Arcot, and having previously taken
Chittapet, he arrived before that fortress upon the 1st of
February, and upon the 9th the garrison capitulated. The
affairs of the French now rapidly declined. The English
had acquired a decided superiority in the field, and for¬
tress after fortress fell into their hands; Tinery on the 1st
of February, Devicottah about the same time, and Trinco-
malee on the 29th. To complete this train of misfortunes,
Admiral Cornish arrived at Madras with six men of war;
and there being no longer a hostile fleet in the Indian Seas,
he readily agreed to co-operate with the land forces. The
consequence was, the reduction of Carical on the 5th of
April, of Valdore on the 15th, of Chittambaram on the
20th, and about the same time of Cuddalore; and on the
1st of May the whole French force was shut up in Pondi¬
cherry, which was their last remaining hope in India, whilst
the English forces encamped within four miles of the
town. It was in the beginning of September that the Eng¬
lish laid formal siege to this place. The batteries were
opened about the beginning of December, and it capitulat¬
ed on the 15th of January 1765 ; and thus terminated for
ever the power of France in this quarter of the world.
HINDUSTAN. 417
ii J |ugtan. Whilst the English were thus establishing their ascen-
^ dency in the south of India, and also in Bengal, Meer Jaf-
] -ation fier; the new nabob, was wholly unable to answer the ex-
c leer orbitant demands of the Company’s servants, who, still de-
( luded with the idea of eastern riches, refused to abate one
1 iota of their demands. His situation thus became extreme¬
ly difficult. His treasury was exhausted, his people impo¬
verished, he had no funds for the expenses of government,
and still less for the demands of his rapacious allies. He
was compelled to extort money from his ruined subjects by
cruelty and terror. He himself, and his son Meeraus, soon
fell into universal odium and contempt, from their merci¬
less exactions, and the weakness, negligence, and disorder
of their administration. The troops mutinied for want of
pay, the rajahs and nobles were discontented, and rebel¬
lions multiplied throughout his dominions. The nabobs
of Oude and Allahabad entered into a dangerous confede¬
racy with the eldest son of the Emperor Aulumgeer II. for
supporting his claim to the imperial throne, and to the sub¬
ordinate provinces of the Mogul empire ; and their com¬
bined forces advanced to the invasion of Bengal. But Eu¬
ropean troops, though few in number, and European coun¬
sels, proved an overmatch for the ill-organized masses of
Indian cavalry ; they were accordingly defeated in every
encounter, and Meer Jaffier secured in the undisputed pos¬
session of the throne. Lord Clive, who bore so conspi¬
cuous a part in these transactions, resigned the government
in February 1760 ; and by his influence Mr Vansittart was
raised to be president or governor of the council, consist¬
ing of from nine to twelve persons, by a majority of whom
the affairs of the Company were now administered. The
English, by their prompt and decisive measures, had de¬
fended the nabob against foreign aggression ; and he had
now to defend himself against their own domestic treason,
which proved to be the more serious danger. In raising
him to the sovereignty they were actuated by purely in¬
terested views ; and being disappointed, they entered into
schemes for dethroning him, and for again selling the
throne to the highest bidder. Meer Cossim, married to
his daughter, was the person now pitched upon to supply
his place. The conditions were, that he should assign to
the Company the revenues of the three districts of Burd-
wan, Midnapore, and Chittagong; that he should pay the
balance due by Jaffier; and besides, make a present of five
lacs of rupees for the war in the Carnatic. Mr Vansittart
now proceeded, with a body of troops under Colonel Cal-
liaud, to persuade, or rather to compel, the nabob to abdi¬
cate the sovereignty. At day-break his palace was sur¬
rounded with troops, and a letter was sent to him explain¬
ing the views of the English, which filled him with rage.
He treated with disdain the assurances of safety for his
person, and that a reform in his government under his son-
in-law as his deputy was all that was proposed ; and he
finally preferred, rather than sway a barren sceptre, to re¬
tire to Calcutta under the protection of the English. Against
the deposition of Meer Jaffier several members of the coun¬
cil protested, and this spirit of opposition for a considerable
time distracted the English councils. The party who had
elevated Meer Cossim highly commended his whole admi¬
nistration, which their opponents were equally solicitous to
criticise and to condemn. Meer Cossim was a person of
quite a different stamp from his weak and indolent prede¬
cessor. By the assistance of his new allies he cleared his
dominions of all invaders, and strengthened his frontiers;
he reduced the rajahs or independent Indian chiefs, who
had rebelled against Jaflier, obliging them to pay the usual
tribute, by which means he repaired his finances; he intro-
uced order and economy into his whole administration, and
y regular pay secured the discipline and fidelity of his troops,
ut his conduct was viewed in a sinister light by the mem-
er& of the council who opposed his elevation; and four of
VOL. xi.
them being dismissed by the directors at home for insub- Hindustan,
ordination to their authority, this faction became the ma- -v"-'
jority; and the most violent amongst them, Mr Ellis, was Disputes
sent to superintend the factory at Patna, the residence 0f ^ith.Meer
the nabob, where his whole conduct was one continued in- Cossim'
suit and defiance of his authority. He made no scruple of
seizing and punishing the officers of the nabob, who acted
under his express sanction ; sometimes throwing them into
prison, or sending them in chains to Calcutta, to be there
punished at the discretion of the council. To these were
added other and more extensive injuries; and at length
the usurpations and tyranny of the English were carried to
such a height, that the authority of the government either
became a mere name, or an instrument of violence and ex¬
tortion in the hands of the Company’s servants. The causes
of these disorders, which led to a new and important revo¬
lution in the political condition of India, we shall now briefly
explain.
In India the transit of goods from one place to another Cause of
was, under the native governments, subjected to a tax; H1686 dis¬
and upon all the roads and navigable rivers toll-houses Putes’ qnd
were erected, where this tax was paid. These toll-houses ^gSS10n
were multiplied, to the great inconvenience and oppression country,
of the internal trade; and as the duties varied in different
places, there was here a wide field for abuse, and the
traders were frequently oppressed by the arbitrary extor¬
tions of the collectors. The East India Company had,
at an early period, procured a firman, which exempted
from all internal duties, both the goods which they im¬
ported from Europe, as they passed into the interior, and
those which they purchased in the interior in their passage
to the sea. They were, in fact, protected by a certificate
signed by the president or chiefs of the factories, called a
dusttick, and shown at the toll-houses or chokeys through
which they passed. The servants frequently endeavour¬
ed to abuse the Company’s privilege, by claiming an im¬
munity from taxation for all their own goods, which they
had neither imported nor were to export, but which, for
the internal supply of the country, they were transport¬
ing from one place to another. The subahdars of Bengal,
whilst they retained their power, restrained the Com¬
pany’s privilege within its appointed limits, and steadily
refused to exempt the trade of its servants from duties to
which all others were subject. But when, by the eleva¬
tion of Meer Jaffier to the throne, the English acquired
the undisputed ascendency, they broke through all the
equitable restraints imposed upon them; in every district,
in every market and village, they dealt in rice, the common
food of the people, paddy, betel-nut, oil, fish, straw, bam¬
boos, &c. and, without scruple, used the Company’s pass¬
port to screen these articles from internal duties ; and so
dreaded was the English name, that the toll-house keepers
no longer exacted the public dues on the transit of their
goods through the country. In some cases where the de¬
mand was made and the goods stopped, the toll-keeper was
arrested by a party of Sepoys, and carried prisoner to the
nearest factories; and he was frequently exposed to even
greater severities, being tied up and lashed. The confu¬
sion into which the country was thrown by the injustice, the
violence, and the cruelty, of those rapacious intruders, can
scarcely be imagined. The native merchant, still burden¬
ed with the heavy duties, which were rigorously levied on
him, was undersold in every market; and the Company’s
servants in a short time engrossed the whole commerce of
the country. The unhappy natives were subjected to va¬
rious other oppressions. It was a common practice of the
Company’s servants to defraud them both in purchase and
in sale; to force goods from them at a lower, and to compel
them to buy their own at a higher rate than the market
price. Nor did the ordinary tribunals afford any protection
against their injustice; a band of foreign adventurers, to call
3 G
HINDUSTAN.
418
Hindustan, them by no harsher name, had usurped the sovereign power,
which they rendered wholly subservient to their own
schemes of enriching themselves at the expense of the
country.1
Just con- Meer Cossim, the ruler who had been set up by the
YrCt °p Company, was extremely displeased with the conduct of
sim^ °S" th611" servants, and he represented in the strongest terms
to the president and council the enormities to which the
private trade had given rise. But the majority of the
council were too deeply interested in these enormities to
be moved by this just appeal of the sovereign in behalf of
his oppressed people. They all participated more or less in
the profits of the private trade, and they had no disposi¬
tion to part with or to restrict this lucrative abuse. They
even refused to pay nine per cent, of transit duties upon
their goods, though this rate was far inferior to that paid
by the native traders; and all that they would agree to
was, out of their own liberality and free choice to pay a
duty of two and a half per cent, on salt alone. The na¬
bob, when he heard of the proceedings in council, and of
the injurious treatment of his officers for duly executing
his orders, was naturally filled with indignation ; and he
came to the resolution of abolishing all internal duties.
There could not possibly have been a more moderate or
equitable measure. It gave freedom and equality to all
parties; it threw down at once all the restraints to fair
and open competition, and gave to the Company’s servants
the unlimited freedom of trade. This just and liberal
policy, however, was far from corresponding with their
views, and it excited amongst them the most violent cla¬
mours. They were discontented at losing so fair an op¬
portunity of amassing enormous wealth. Their conduct,
as Mr Mill justly observes, furnishes one of “ the most
remarkable instances on record, of the power of interest
to extinguish all sense of justice, and even of shame.”
They first insisted on an exemption for themselves from
all internal duties, now they cried out in the rage of dis¬
appointed avarice against the extension of the same pri¬
vileges to the inhabitants; and thus they reversed all the
usual maxims of fair policy, in seeking immunities for fo¬
reigners which were refused to natives.
Arbitrary The conduct of Meer Cossim, in claiming justice for
conduct of his oppressed subjects, was highly displeasing to the ma-
l)an »s Ter j01^ t^le council' The exaction of legal dues upon
vants. S" " English goods was represented as a violation of the Com¬
pany’s rights, and as evidence of a design to expel them
from the country; and, for this new species of treason
against the offended majesty of usurped power, it was
resolved to depose him, and to replace Meer Jaffier on the
throne, as nominal ruler of Bengal, on the well-under*
stood condition of subservience to their views. A treaty
was concluded, confirming the immunity which they
claimed from all internal duties, with the exception only of
two and a half per cent, on the article of salt, whilst those
duties were re-imposed on the goods of all other mer¬
chants. Large presents were bargained for, and other
payments to a great amount, as compensation for losses
alleged to have been sustained by the Company’s ser¬
vants, in the course of their illicit interference in the do¬
mestic trade. These sums, which at first were estimat¬
ed at ten, but soon afterwards mounted up to fifty-three
lacs of rupees, equal to about L.625,000, were rigidly ex¬
acted, whilst large payments to the Company were still
undischarged, and the public finances were sinking un¬
der the burden of an expensive war, great sums having
been borrowed by the Company from its servants, at an
interest of eight per cent., and, with all these aids, sup¬
plies were wanting both for the war and for the in- Hindi n
vestment, the Company’s ships frequently returning, in ^ J
consequence, half loaded to Europe. Meer Cossim, on
his side, saw plainly that matters were fast approaching
to the extremity of war, and he made preparations for the
contest. He transferred his capital from Muxadabad, as
being too near Calcutta, and under the inspection of the
English, to Mongheer, a place 200 miles farther up the
Ganges, which he fortified in the best and most expedi¬
tious manner. He introduced European discipline among
the troops, and he recruited his ranks with all the Arme¬
nian, Persian, Tartar, and other soldiers of fortune whom
he could collect, and especially with such wandering Eu¬
ropeans or Sepoys as had borne arms in the English ser¬
vice. He substituted European muskets for matchlocks,
and formed a train of artillery.
Hostilities commenced sooner than was expected, with B°sti es
the surprise and capture of Patna by Mr Ellis; a violent pith -er
and rash measure, disapproved by several members of the Loss;1
council. The nabob immediately gave orders to stop se¬
veral boats laden with arms that had been seized, and
released on the representation of the English. Resist¬
ance was made, and in the course of the struggle which
ensued, Mr Amyatt, a member of the council, and seve¬
ral other Englishmen, were slain. The contending armies
now hastened to take the field; and Meer Cossim was
overwhelmed by one unbroken series of disasters, which
terminated in his dethronement and flight. A division
of his army, which had advanced for the protection of
Moorshedabad, was totally defeated on the 19th of July,
by the English army, which consisted of 650 Europeans,
1200 Sepoys, two troops of native cavalry, and was after¬
wards joined by a battalion of Sepoys and a hundred Eu¬
ropeans. In advancing to the capital, Major Adam found
the enemy strongly posted, with intrenchments fifteen
feet high, defended by a numerous artillery. These
were stormed, and the city of Moorshedabad was entered
by the conquerors. The English, pushing forward, en¬
countered the Indian army on the 2d of August 1763,
consisting of 20,000 horse and 8000 foot, in the plain of
Gheriah, near Sootie. They resembled European troops
in clothing and accoutrements, and in their division into
brigades; and the battle that ensued was obstinately con¬
tested for four hours. But the discipline and steadiness of
the European troops finally triumphed, and the enemy
fled, leaving all their cannon behind them. From this
time the English were no longer opposed on equal terms
in the field. It was only in strong positions and intrench¬
ments that the enemy made a stand. A strong intrench-
ment at Oodwa was carried on the 5th of September,
after it had detained the English for nearly a month;
and Mongheer, the last stronghold of Meer Cossim, capi- Defo1 n 1
tulated, on which he fled into the dominions of the nabob
of Oude, and afterwards into the Rohilla country. Irri-
tated by his misfortunes, the nabob wreaked his ven¬
geance on the unhappy English prisoners who were in his
power. He had formerly put to death several Hindus
of rank who were thrown into prison on account of their
wealth; and he now gave an order for the execution of
about two hundred English, who had been taken at Pat¬
na ; amongst others, of Mr Ellis, who had formerly tyran¬
nized over and insulted him, and Mr Lushington, also
high in the Company’s service. They were invited to an
entertainment, and, according to the odious maxims of
eastern treachery, were barbarously murdered. A Ger¬
man of the name of Sumroo was the chief agent in this
scene of cruelty. Dr Fullarton, who had gained favour
whirlf <MfiTh? °f \hef H°use.of Commons on India Affairs; also a Letter of Meer Cossim, dated Backergunge, May 25, 1702,
s that the inhabitants who refused to sell to the Company’s servants were flogged or confined.
HINDUSTAN.
418
2 iustan. by his medical services, was the only Englishman who
escaped.
Meer Cossim was received in the most friendly manner
by Sujah Dowlah, the nabob of Oude, who was far from
being well disposed to the English. He considered them
as rapacious usurpers, the natural enemies, as they fatally
proved to be, of Indian independence, and who, under
pretence of commerce, aspired to the dominion of the
country. In reply to a letter from the English, threat¬
ening, that if he assisted the nabob of Bengal, they would
carry the war into his own country, he remonstrated with
them on their ambitious views, and on account of the dis¬
turbances which they had created in the country; and
he added, “ to what can all these wrong proceedings be
attributed, but to an absolute disregard of the court (of
Delhi), and to a wicked design of seizing the country to
yourselves. If these disturbances,” he continues, “ have
arisen from your own improper devices, deviate from such
behaviour in future ; interfere not in the affairs of govern¬
ment ; withdraw your people from every part, and send
them to their own country; carry on the Company’s trade
as formerly, and confine yourself to your own commercial
affairs.” To these reasonable remonstrances, which were
repeated in another letter to Major Carnac, the president
and council were so far from listening, that they deter¬
mined upon commencing an immediate and offensive war
against him.
1 ■ with, Major, afterwards Sir Hector Munro, who had arrived
< at, and from Bombay with a reinforcement, was appointed to the
command. His first care was to repress the mutinous spi-
' rit which had of late prevailed among the troops, and this
he effected by the severe measure of blowing away twenty-
four of the ringleaders from the mouths of cannon. He
then advanced, with a force of 6215 Sepoys and 856 Eu¬
ropeans, towards the Saone, where the enemy, to the
number of 40,000, with a train of artillery, were intrench¬
ed in front of the village and fort of Buxar. On the 22d
of October 1764, a battle took place, in which the Indian
army was completely overthrown, with the loss of about
2000 men. On the side of the British eighty-seven Eu¬
ropeans and 712 Sepoys were either killed or wounded.
Major Munro followed up his success, though in two at¬
tempts to storm the fortress of Chanda he was repulsed
with loss, and it was only through the mutiny of the gar¬
rison that it was at length taken by Sir R. Fletcher, who
had succeeded to the command. Lucknow, the capital
of Oude, was also occupied by the battalions of Sepoys;
the fortress of Chunar was attempted, though without suc¬
cess, and that of Allahabad surrendered. Sujah Dowlah
was abandoned in his reverses by his all}'’ the Mogul, who*
concluded a treaty with the English. But he did not
jet despair of his fortunes; and having received the aid
of a Mahratta force, the combined armies encountered
the English on the 3d of May 1765, when they were de¬
feated; and Major Carnac, again attacking, them at a
place called Calpi, they were overthrown, and driven with
precipitation across the Jumna. The vizir, Sujah Dowlah,
seeing no hope of retrieving his affairs, resolved to trust
entirely to the generosity of the English ; and on the 19th
of May he surrendered to Major, now General Carnac.
I he final settlement of terms was reserved for Lord Clive,
who had arrived in Bengal, with full powers from the di¬
rectors, as governor, to regulate all their complicated con¬
cerns, whether of sovereignty or of trade. It was agreed
that, with the exception of Allahabad and Corah, he
should still retain his dominions, which he was judged
More capable of defending than the Mogul emperor, to
whom they had been promised. For this concession the
vizir agreed to pay fifty lacs of rupees as the expenses
of the war; but he remonstrated so earnestly against the
establishment of factories in his dominions, or any per¬
vants.
mission to trade free of duties, as the certain cause of Hindustan,
trouble, that all such propositions were abandoned. He
agreed not to molest Bulwunt Sing, who held the zemin-
daries of Benares and Gauzeepore, and who had assisted
the English in the late contest, and never to afford an
asylum to Meer Cossim, or the German soldier Sumroo.
With regard to the Mogul emperor, he was told, that of
the thirty lacs of annual tribute due to him from the
subahdars of Bengal, not a rupee would ever be paid;
that twenty-six lacs of rupees, which had been assigned
him as the revenue of these provinces, would be conti¬
nued ; and that he should receive possession of Corah
and Allahabad. In return, the Company received the im- Company
perial firman, dated the 12th of August 1765, granting the receives
duannee, or the right of collecting the revenues of Ben- sove-
gal, Bahar, and Orissa, in which is implied, according to 01
the laws and constitution of the Mogul empire, the right of ”
sovereignty; and thus was this body of merchants con¬
stituted in form, as well as in substance, the rulers of a
vast empire.
To this issue affairs had been evidently tending for Maladmi-
some time past. Meer Jaffier, worn out with anxiety and nistration
indulgence, died in the beginning of the year ; and Jaf- the
fier, his son, was chosen his successor by the Company’s „ omi
i • • • i pany s S0i%
servants, rrom each successive sovereign it was the
custom of the electors to exact not only a large donation,
but also an extension of power and privileges, so that
the native ruler was at length left in possession of little
more than a nominal authority. It was now resolved
by the English that they should take upon themselves
the whole charge of defending the country, and that they
would only allow the nabob a few troops for the sake of
parade, or for other necessary purposes ; whilst, in regard
to the civil government, he was to choose a deputy, with
die advice of the governor and council, on whom the whole
internal administration of the country should be devolved.
So completely had the government fallen under the con¬
trol of the English, that the accountants of the revenue
could not be appointed without their approbation. In the
mean time the directors were distracted by the contradic¬
tory reports of their affairs which they received from In¬
dia ; and it was because they were alarmed by the expen¬
sive wars so readily undertaken by their servants, by their
rapacious proceedings in regard to the private trade, and
by the general embarrassment of their affairs, that they
had resolved to appoint Lord Clive to the supreme govern¬
ment of Bengal, conferring on him and a select committee
of four, full authority to act and determine all matters, with¬
out any dependence on the council; of which authority
they were not slow to avail themselves upon all occasions.
They also sent along with him a strong representation
against the rapacity and tyranny of their servants. In a
letter to the governor and council they observe, “ Your de¬
liberations on the inland trade have laid open to us a scene
of the most cruel oppression.” “ The poor of the country,”
they continue, “ who used always to deal in salt, betel-nut,
and tobacco, are now deprived of their daily bread by the
trade of the Europeans, whereby no kind of advantage ac¬
crues to the Company, and the government’s- revenues are
greatly injured.” The directors accordingly issued the most
peremptory instructions for the prohibition of the inland
trade of salt, betel-nut, and tobacco, or rather of the mo¬
nopoly held by the Company’s servants, by which the coun¬
try was so cruelly oppressed. The practice of receiving
presents from the native rulers and princes, which had been
carried to a great extent, was also prohibited. At a gene¬
ral meeting of proprietors, however, it was urged, in op¬
position to those wise and salutary restrictions, that the
“ servants of the Company in India ought not to be de¬
prived of such precious advantages, w hich enabled them to
revisit their native country with independent fortunes.”
420
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan. This reasoning convinced the majority of the proprietors,
and a recommendation was moved in consequence to the
directors, to re-consider their resolution in regard to the
private trade. The governor and council were therefore
instructed, after consulting with the nabob, to form a
“ proper and equitable plan for carrying on the inland
trade.” (Mill’s British India, vol. ii. p. 217.) In other
words, they were to contrive how they could oppress the
country, and yet adhere to the rules of equity. This trans¬
action places in a very strong light the corrupt nature of
the Company’s government. It was admitted on all hands
that it was by extortion and rapine, that is, by compelling
the oppressed inhabitants both to purchase and sell at prices
fixed by the Company’s servants, that such profits were
gained, and that they were enabled to return to Europe
with enormous accumulations of ill-gotten wealth. It was,
indeed, as we have just seen, acknowledged by the direc¬
tors, that the poor of the country were deprived of their
daily bread by the trade of their European servants, who
monopolized every profitable channel of business; yet,
with these facts before them, we find the sovereigns of In¬
dia delivering over their oppressed subjects to the rapacity
of their servants, for the avowed purpose of enriching them
with the spoils of the country.
Lord Clive assumed the supreme power in India in May
1765. At this period the servants of the Company, in de¬
fiance of the peremptory orders of the directors, still per¬
sisted in all the ruinous practices connected with the in¬
land trade; and instead of abolishing these, and thus re¬
medying some of those abuses of which he so violently
complained, Lord Clive entered into a partnership for the
monopoly of salt, of which large quantities were accord¬
ingly purchased, and sold for a profit of forty-five per cent.,
which was divided amongst three of his own dependents,
his secretary, surgeon, and another friend, for whom he wish¬
ed, as he expresses it, to realize a fortune. The plan of a
more extensive monopoly, including salt, betel -nut, and to¬
bacco, the chief articles of consumption in the country, was
afterwards devised to be carried on exclusively for the be¬
nefit of the superior servants of the Company, amongst whom
the profit, after setting apart L.100,000 per annum to the
Company, was to be divided according to their rank in the
service. At the time this corrupt scheme of monopoly
was established, the select committee wrere in possession
of peremptory orders from the directors for its abolition ;
but these orders, under various pretences, they delayed to
carry into execution till September 1768.
Although the ascendency of the English had for some
years been thoroughly established in Bengal, and although
they were formally invested in 1765 with the sovereignty
of the country, its affairs were still administered in the
name of the native prince, and according to the forms and
policy of the ancient constitution. Justice was still dis¬
pensed by the native courts, and by the nabob’s officers;
the revenues still flowed through the same channels into
the public exchequer; and all transactions with foreign
powers were carried on under the same authority as for¬
merly. But such was the increasing pow'er of the English,
that the government, as far as regarded the protection of
the people, was dissolved. Neither the nabob nor his offi¬
cers dared to offer any opposition to their sovereign will;
and the tribunals of justice, far from being a protection to
the oppressed, became subservient to the rapacity of the
Lromastahs, or Indian agents, employed by the Company’s
servants, and were converted by them into most efficacious
instruments for plundering the people, and for punishing
the wretched victims of their oppression if they dared to
complain, and if they did not patiently submit to be
fleeced and trampled upon by their foreign masters. The
native tribunals had no power to afford protection, whilst
the English had no legal authority beyond the presidency,
either over the natives or over their own subjects; and Hindu
hence the inhabitants lay entirely at the mercy of the Com- Wy !'
pany’s servants. Nor need we wonder that, during this
period of anarchy and disorder abroad, the embarrassments
of the Company’s affairs continued to increase, even during
the peaceable administration of Mr Verdst, who succeeded
Lord Clive as governor when he left Bengal in February
1767. The Indian revenues wTere indeed large, but they were
plundered by their servants. Lord Clive and the first ad¬
venturers were enriched by the presents or bribes of the
native rulers. These they were now prohibited from ac¬
cepting. “ It was expedient for them,” says Clive, “ to
find out some other channel, the channel of the civil and
military changes. Every man now who is permitted to
make a bill makes a fortune.” In lieu of the enormous
gains which accrued from the monopoly of salt and of other
articles, the trade which the directors, early in 1768, sent
peremptory orders to lay open, and also of one eighth
per cent, of the revenues given to the governor, as a com¬
pensation for his share of the salt monopoly, the Company
granted a commission of two and a half per cent, on the re¬
venues. This sum was to be divided into a hundred shares,
and to be distributed amongst the civil functionaries of the
Company, and the military officers, according to their
rank.
Whilst the local rulers of India were thus enriching them- Emban .
selves, their masters were reduced to great pecuniary dis- mentsi
tress. But, in the midst of all their embarrassments, the f01
most flattering accounts of their affairs were circulated in fan- al
Europe; and the directors and proprietors lent a willing ome'
ear to these golden promises, of which their servants were
always liberal. The splendid acquisition which the Com¬
pany had made of the territorial revenues of Bengal, the
political events in which they had been involved, and
the immense fortunes with which a few individuals had
returned to Europe, confirmed the general delusion, and
inflamed the impatience of the proprietors of East India
stock to participate in the inexhaustible treasures of their
new dominions. In pursuance of these views, the divi¬
dend on their stock was raised from six to ten per cent.;
and India stock rose to 263 per cent. A higher dividend
was called for, and it was in vain that the directors repre¬
sented the heavy debts of the Company, and the general
embarrassment of their affairs. The proprietors refus¬
ed to listen to such disagreeable representations, and at a
general court they voted a dividend of twelve and a half
per cent, for the year 1767. The attention of government
being now directed to the Company’s affairs, this vote was
rescinded by act of parliament, and the dividend limited
to ten per cent.
In the mean time, every day’s experience was refuting
the fallacious expectations of annual treasures from India.
So far from possessing any surplus revenue, the servants
were involved in debt for the current expenses of their
government; they drew largely on the directors, but they
remitted little ; and the whole of this complicated scheme
of trade and sovereignty laboured in consequence under
such pecuniary difficulties, that the directors, to avert a
public bankruptcy, were compelled to apply to the bank for
a loan of L.400,000, and afterwards of L.300,000. In con¬
sequence of this state of things, so different from the pleas¬
ing fancies of unbounded wealth, with which the proprie¬
tors of the Company and the country at large had been
amused, great discontent and a violent clamour was raised
against the Company’s servants in India, who by their pro¬
fusion or corruption had failed to realize those golden
dreams. The situation of the Company was at length brought
under the consideration of parliament by the minister, who
introduced two acts for the regulation of their affairs. The
first of these was intended to relieve the pecuniary em¬
barrassments of the Company, and provided that the sum
HINDUSTAN.
jji, stan. of L.1,400,000 per annum, at four per cent, should be
^ -w* lent to them, and that the stipulated annual payment of
L.400,000 from the territorial revenue should not be re¬
quired till the discharge of this debt; the dividend not to
exceed six per cent, till the discharge should be accom¬
plished, and not to exceed seven per cent, till the bond
debt should be reduced to L.1,500,000. Other clauses
related to the appropriation of the surplus revenue, which
was always fondly hoped for, but never received. The
other act, which was heavily complained of as an infringe¬
ment of the Company’s rights of sovereignty, as the first
was said to be an invasion of their rights of property, raised
the qualification to vote in the court of proprietors from
L.500 to L.1000 ; gave two votes to every proprietor pos¬
sessed of L.3000; three votes to those possessed of L.6000;
and four votes to those possessed of L.10,000 ; and only six
directors, instead of twenty-four, the whole number, were
to be annually elected ; and the administration of the pro¬
vinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa was to be vested in a
governor-general with an annual salary of L.25,000, and
four councillors with a salary of L.8000 each. The other
presidencies were rendered subordinate to that of Bengal;
and a supreme court of judicature was established at Calcut¬
ta, consisting of a chief-justice with L.8000 a year, and three
other judges with L.6000 a year, appointed by the crown.
The first governor-general and councillors were to be appoin t-
ed by the king ; and all the political correspondence of the
Company with India was to be laid before the ministry.
These acts received the royal assent on the 21st of June and
1st of July 1773. Under this act Mr Hastings was appoint¬
ed governor-general, with General Clavering, Colonel Mon-
son, Mr Barwel, and Mr Francis, members of council.
Ai s of It will now be proper to revert to the affairs of the Gar¬
th arna- natic. After the departure of Bussy from that province,
tic and the decline of the French influence, Nizam Ali re¬
sumed his power, which he employed in dethroning and
imprisoning, and afterwards murdering, his feeble brother
Salabut Jung, the subahdar of the Deccan. The English
having received from Shah Aulum, the Mogul emperor, a
grant of the Northern Circars, a tract extending 470 miles
along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and uniting the Eng¬
lish possessions in the Carnatic with their province of
Orissa, proceeded to occupy it with a military force. On
this Nizam Ali, or the Nizam as he is called by the Eng¬
lish, made an irruption into the Carnatic, and greatly
alarmed the presidency of Madras. After some operations
of little moment, a treaty was concluded, by which the
English agreed to pay a rent for the disputed territory,
and to give him such military aid as he should require in
the affairs of his government. The first operation in
which this force was to be engaged was the reduction of
the fortress of Bangalore, belonging to Hyder Ali, the sove¬
reign of Mysore ; and thus were the English brought into
collision with that powerful chief. He was one of those
bold spirits who rise to eminence in times of civil confu¬
sion. From a common foot soldier, or peon, employed in
the collection of taxes, he rose to high command, to wealth
and dominion, and finally to the rank of sovereign prince.
The nizam, who had joined with the English against Hy¬
der, soon became his ally, and their united forces made
incursions into the Carnatic. Several battles were fought
to the disadvantage of Hyder, but these were of little ad¬
vantage to the English, owing to his superiority in cavalry,
with which he laid waste the country to the very gates of
Madras, and struck terror into the president and council.
The nizam, however, wearied of the war, quitted the al¬
liance of Hyder, which so elevated the confidence of the
Madras presidency that they resolved on the invasion of
Mysore. But Hyder anticipated their designs, and having
421
by his masterly tactics artfully drawn the English army to Hindustan,
a distance from Madras, he suddenly appeared at the head —
of 6000 cavalry before that city, having marched 120 miles
in three days, and so alarmed the presidency, that a treaty,
offensive and defensive, was concluded in April 1769, by
which it was also agreed that all conquests should be mu¬
tually restored.
At this time the Mahrattas, humbled for a time by the Destruc-
defeat of Paniput, now began to renew their incursions turn of the
into the northern provinces, and greatly to the alarm of the^°^^as'
subahdar of Oude, who dreaded any confederacy between
them and the Rohilla chiefs or Afghans, a hardy race
from the north, who having frequently aided the imperial
armies, were rewarded with lands in the fertile district be¬
tween the Ganges and the mountains, and to the west of
the Oude territories. One of their chiefs, Nujeeb adDowlah,
had been chosen by Abdallee Shah, on his departure from
Delhi, after the battle of Paniput, as the imperial de¬
puty. He had ruled the country with singular prudence and
success, and had transmitted the government to his son,
Zabita Khan, against whom a coalition was now formed by
the Mahrattas and the fallen emperor Shah Aulum, anxious
to regain his former power. By their assistance the em¬
peror, in the year 1771, entered his capital of Delhi, with
all the pomp of imperial dignity. Zabita Khan, unable to
withstand their united attack, fled across the Ganges, leav¬
ing his fertile and flourishing territories to the devasta¬
tions of the Mahrattas, to whom they afforded a rich booty.
The Rohillas, alarmed by this aggression, proposed to form
an alliance with the subahdar of Oude, who on his side
was equally dismayed; and through the intervention of
the English a treaty was accordingly concluded, offensive
and defensive, by which the Rohillas engaged to pay an¬
nually to the subahdar forty lacs of rupees if he would
expel the Mahrattas from their territories. He made no
effort, however, to perform this service ; and the Mahrattas,
after retiring across the Ganges during the rains, soon re¬
turned to ravage the country, and actually extorted a sum
of money from Hafiz Rhamet, chief of the Rohillas, as the
price of their retreat. In 1772 they besieged the emperor,
who had become weary of their alliance, in Delhi; and hav¬
ing entered the city, they extorted from him a grant of the
two provinces of Corah and Allahabad, which he held by
virtue of a treaty with the English. The subahdar was now
really alarmed, and wrote the most pressing letters to the
English for aid. A detachment was accordingly sent under
Sir R. Barker, to assist in the defence of his territories,
when the Mahrattas were recalled to their own country
about the end of May 1773. The subahdar, freed from
danger, now became ambitious in his turn, and was intent,
either by force or fraud, upon gaining possession of the Ro¬
hilla country. With this view, in a meeting with Mr Hast¬
ings in October 1773, it was agreed that the English troops
should assist in the conquest and extermination of the Ro¬
hillas, and that forty lacs of rupees should be paid for this
service. In fulfilment of this iniquitous compact, the unit¬
ed forces, the British under Colonel Champion, entered the
Rohilla territories in 1774, and on the 23d of April a bat¬
tle was fought, in which the unfortunate Rohillas, after an
obstinate defence, were defeated, and their gallant chief
Hafiz Rhamet, slain while rallying his troops; the subah¬
dar and his army, in the mean time, behaving with shame¬
ful pusillanimity. The whole country now lay at his mercy,
and he proceeded to execute his diabolical purpose, which,
as he had expressly informed the English, was the exter¬
mination of the Rohillas. Never, probably, says Mr Mill,
were the rights of conquest more savagely abused; man,
woman, and child were given up to the destroying sword,
and the country was reduced to a desert.1 At length it was
1 History of British India, vol. iii. p. 509.
HINDUSTAN.
422
Hindustan, agreed that FyzooUa Khan, the remaining chief of the Ro-
hillas, should surrender one half of all his effects to the
subahdar or the vizir, and should receive in Rohilcund a
jaghire of fourteen lacs and 75,000 rupees. With regard
to the Mogul emperor, the twenty-six lacs of rupees hi¬
therto paid to him as his share of the revenues of Bengal,
Bahar, and Orissa, were withdrawn, because he had ac¬
cepted the aid of the Mahrattas in his late attempt to re¬
gain the throne of his ancestors. He was also deprived of
the provinces of Corah and Allahabad, granted to him in
terms of a former treaty with the Company.
Sketch of On the west coast of India, the presidency of Madras
the Mah- was at this period involved in disputes, which ended in a
ratta pow- war wjt]1 t}ie Mahratta states ; and, with a view to the sub-
ers' sequent history of India, it may be necessary here to give
a brief account of these disputes, and of the different Mah¬
ratta powers who had now risen to political importance in
India. In the Mahratta government, as originally consti¬
tuted, the sovereign or rajah was assisted by a council of
eight Brahmins, the chief of whom bore the title of peshwa;
and in course of time this principal minister of state, on
whom devolved the duties of government, usurped all the
real power, and the sovereign became a mere pageant in
his hands. In the reign of the rajah Sahoo, the third in
succession from the brave and politic Sevajee, the founder
of the Mahratta power, this revolution had been insensibly
brought about. He was a weak prince, devoted, as most
princes are, to ease and pleasure, and leaving to Kish-
wanath Balagee the chief powers of the state. He assum¬
ed the name of Row Pundit, or chief of the Pundits, or
learned Brahmins, and was invested by the rajah with a
sirpah or robe of office, with which ceremony the pesh-
wras have ever since been installed into their sovereign dig¬
nity. Custom or policy had so completely sanctioned the
usurpation of supreme power by the peshwa, that Kish-
wanath had quietly transmitted his dignity and influence
to his son Bajerow, who confined the rajah as a sort of state
prisoner to Satarah, whilst he himself resided at Poonah,
the future capital of the Mahratta states. Bow, the son of
Bajerow, being slain at the battle of Paniput, the office of
peshwa descended to his nephew, who had two sons, Mad-
hoo Row and Narrain Row, the eldest of whom, Madhoo
Row, a minor, succeeded to his father’s dignity at his death,
and the guardianship of the peshwa now devolved on Ra-
gonaut Row, more commonly known under the name of
Ragoba. The council of state, consisting of the Brahmins,
now made an effort to regain their lost influence; and in¬
triguing with the mother of the peshwa, they succeeded
in sowing division between the nephew and the uncle, and
finally in stripping him of his power. Madhoo died at an
early age in 1772, and appointed Ragoba to be the guar¬
dian of his brother Narrain Row. But he was by the
same influence again stripped of his power; and dissensions
having arisen amongst the council of Brahmins, or Mutsed-
dies as they are also called, a conspiracy was formed,
which ended in the murder of the young prince, when Ra¬
goba was again acknowledged peshwa. But he was still
thwarted by the ministerial factions of the Brahmins, and
the consequence was a civil war, which was carried on with
various fortune, but terminated at length in the flight of
Ragoba from his dominions. The presidency of Bombay had
been extremely anxious to procure the cession of the island
and peninsula of Salsette and Bassein, as adding much to
the security and value of Bombay. But all their efforts
weie in vain. Ragoba uniformly refused to give them up
on any terms. He had now retreated to Surat; and in
the low state of his fortunes the negotiation was renewed.
In the mean time the presidency were informed by their
resident at Goa that the Portuguese were making prepara¬
tions for the recapture of their former possessions, especially
of Salsette and Bassein. No longer hesitating, they sent
a force from Bombay, which carried by assault the princi- Hind
pal fort in Salsette on the 28th of September 1774, and l3’
afterwards took possession of the island; in March 1775 War jh
they concluded a treaty with Ragoba for the surrender oftlle M .
these places, with other advantages; and in return they sentrattas
a body of troops under Colonel Keating, which joined his
army in April, about fifty coss from Cambay ; and this com¬
bined force, amounting to 25,000 men, now advanced for
the purpose of penetrating to Poonah before the commence¬
ment of the rains. The enterprise failed for the present,
but the armies were quartered in convenient positions; and
having concluded a favourable treaty with the rajah of Gu-
jerat, who had agreed, amongst other conditions, to advance
the sum of twenty-six lacs of rupees, they prepared, with a
friendly country in their rear, and greatly increased resources,
to advance to Poonah the next campaign. But all these
promising schemes were now frustrated by the interference
of the Bengal council, which had been invested with su¬
preme authority over the other settlements in India; and
the alliance formed by the presidency of Bombay with Ra¬
goba, the peshwa, and indeedall the other proceedings, were
severely condemned by the governor-general and his coun¬
cil. The council at Madras were ordered peremptorily to
retrace their steps, to withdraw their troops from those of
Ragoba, and to give him no further aid; and they them¬
selves proceeded to treat, by means of their own agent,
Colonel Upton, with the opposite faction of the Brahmin
ministers. A long and perplexed negotiation now ensued,
which had nearly ended in war, when a treaty, that of
Poorunder, was signed on the 3d of June 1776, by which
the Mahratta ministers agreed to surrender Salsette, and
the English Bassein; and the unfortunate Ragoba finally
retired to Surat with only two hundred attendants.
The Mahratta power, which was spread far and wide in
India, was now weakened by the same divisions which had
occasioned the downfall of the Mogul empire. All indeed
acknowledged their allegiance to the peshwa, the repre¬
sentative of Sevajee, their founder, and the nominal head
of the whole confederacy. But there was no unity in the
component parts of their wide-extended empire. They no
longer obeyed one common impulse. The military chiefs
to whom were confided the more distant provinces threw
off the yoke of sovereign authority, as it was gradually re¬
laxed ; and thus, from the extension of the Mahratta power,
arose various independent potentates, who, though united
by a common tie, yet waged war with each other, or with
the peshwa, their head, on any provocation or prospect of
advantage. The most important of these independent
states was, 1st, that of the Bhonslas, which included the
extensive province of Berar, together with Cuttack, a part
of Orissa; 2d, the province of Gujerat, broken off from
the Mogul empire by Pillagee Guicowar, or the herdsman;
3d, the independent chiefs, Holkar and Scindia, whose
names figure in the future annals of India, and who ruled
over extensive territories in Malwah and in the regions bor¬
dering on the territories of Berar and Oude. Other infe¬
rior chiefs, offsets from the main stock, possessed smaller
portions of territory in different parts ; and the internal re¬
lations of Hindustan were thus more than usually compli¬
cated, and presented a wide field for politics and intrigue.
The presidency of Madras, as well as the other two pre-0ppre|,n
sidencies of Bengal and Bombay, were now deeply involv-of the •
ed in the disputes of the native powers. The nabob^vef1
of the Carnatic, Mahommed Ali, wras incapable of ruling
or of defending his country against the Mahrattas or Hy-
der Ali, and he relied entirely upon the English for pro¬
tection and for the collection of his revenues. The dis¬
order of his finances, already great, was much increased
by the extortions of his allies, who were insatiable in
their thirst of gold; and funds failing, as in Bengal, to
supply their exorbitant demands, they anxiously sought
HINDUSTAN.
idustan. elsewhere the means of relief. The kingdom of Tanjore,
by the prudence of its sovereign, had enjoyed peace amidst
the wars and desolations of surrounding countries; his
powerful neighbours, supposing that he had amassed great
wealth, mustered up against him a world of complaints, of
which he readily showed the futility; and when he saw that
his ruin was resolved on, that he was to be stripped of his
dominions, and that he and his family were to be put to
death or imprisoned for life, he pleaded for mercy with the
most affecting earnestness; but avarice had extinguished
every softer feeling in the breasts of his oppressors. The
troops were ordered to advance ; the rajah agreed to terms
which he could not fulfil; and failing to pay within the ex¬
act time which the contribution imposed upon him, though
he made the fairest offers, Tanjore, his capital, was taken
by assault, and he and his family were delivered into the
power of the nabob. This act of oppression, encouraged
at first by the directors, was afterwards disapproved by a
court of proprietors; and Lord Pigot was sent out as go¬
vernor of the presidency, to restore the rajah, and to en¬
force economy and reform. The corrupt and dishonour¬
able practices of the Company’s servants were nowhere
carried to a greater length than at Madras. They were in
the habit of lending, or pretending to lend, money, to the
nabob, at an exorbitant interest, and to receive in security
assignments on the land. Paul Benfield, with a salary of
some hundred pounds a year, had assignments on the
lands of Tanjore to the amount of L.234,000; and Sir
Thomas Rumbold, with a salary of L.20,000 a year, re¬
mitted to Europe the first year he was in office L.45,000,
and in the two subsequent years a further sum ofL. 119,000,
alleging that he had property to this amount in India be¬
fore he left Europe. The lands belonging to the Com¬
pany were let at an under rate to the renters, and large
bribes received in return; and it was by such unworthy
means that the servants of the Company so quickly ac¬
quired their enormous fortunes. Lord Pigot, in carrying
into effect the view's of the directors, by restoring the ra¬
jah of Tanjore, and opposing the existing abuses, was re¬
sisted by a faction. He was at last put under arrest by
the members of his own council, and died after a con¬
finement of about eight months. The authors of this vio¬
lence were afterwards tried in England, and condemned
to pay a paltry fine of L.1000, which was no adequate
punishment for such an offence, and, to men of their for¬
tunes, no punishment at all.
vasion The growing ascendency of the English naturally ex-
the Car- cited the hostility of the native powers ; and Hyder Ali, ir-
|‘j ritated by their increasing influence, and by their breach
' 1,of the treaty of 1769, in refusing the aid which he de¬
manded, was now preparing to assail them with the whole
weight of his power. He accordingly made peace with
the Mahrattas, who formed, with the Nizam Ali and Hy-
der, a coalition for the expulsion of the English from India.
In the year 1778, war having commenced in Europe be¬
tween France and England, the presidency of Madras be¬
sieged and took Pondicherry, and Mahe, a small fort, the
only remaining possession of the French on the coast of
Malabar, and ranked by Hyder amongst his dependencies.
Irritated by this new offence, he assembled his army, and
having seized and guarded the passes of the Eastern Ghauts,
through which alone the Carnatic would be invaded from
Mysore, he suddenly poured down on the country below
with a mighty host of 100,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry,
besides the European troops of Colonel Lally, of undoubt¬
ed bravery and experience in war. Every thing gave way
before this overwhelming flood of invasion ; and the ca¬
valry inundating the open plains, the inhabitants fled from
their homes to the woods or the mountains, whilst the unre¬
sisted invader laid waste the country with fire and sword for
many miles round Madras, and even threatened the city
423
itself. The council were confounded by the intelligence Hindustan,
of this sudden calamity. They w'ere apprized on the 21st
of July that Hyder had come through the pass, that he
had next day plundered Porto Novo on the coast, and
Conjeveram, not fifty miles from the capital. Each suc¬
ceeding day brought its tale of calamity, and on the 10th
of August Madras was alarmed by the approach of the
enemy’s horse, and the inhabitants of the open town be¬
gan to take flight. The governor and council wrere very
indifferently provided for the fearful struggle in which
they were engaged. They wrere destitute both of money
and provisions; their small force was scattered throughout
the country ; and, lastly, their councils were distracted by
the dissensions of the civil and military authorities. Im¬
mediate action, however, was necessary, in order to avert
impending ruin. The scattered troops were therefore di¬
rected to assemble at St Thomas’ Mount, for the defence
of the capital. Colonel Brathwaite’s detachment from
Pondicherry having joined the main body on the 18th of
August, an express was sent to Colonel Baillie at Gume-
roponda, about twenty-eight miles from Madras, directing
him to repair to Conjeveram, whither the main army now
advanced under Sir Hector Munro, consisting of 1500 Eu¬
ropeans and 4200 Sepoys, with a train of artillery, and ar¬
rived after a distressing march of four days, during which
two hundred men belonging to the seventy-third regiment
wrere left lying on the road. They found the town of Con¬
jeveram in flames, large bodies of the enemy’s cavalry ad¬
vancing on both flanks, and no appearance of Colonel Bail-
lie’s detachment, which had been impeded in its march
for a day by a small torrent swollen with the rains. Hyder
Ali having learned from his spies the movements of the
English army, abandoned the siege of Arcot, in which he
was engaged, and, upon the 3d of September, the day on
which Baillie’s detachment crossed the river in its advance
to the main body, he encamped at five miles distance in
front of the English army, near Conjeveram ; thus inter- Colonel
posing between Colonel Baillie’s detachment and the Eng- -Baillie’s
lish forces; and he sent his son Tippoo with 30,000 ca- <letacb-
valry, the flower of his army, and 8000 foot, with twelve ^nt cul
pieces of cannon, to cut off the troops under Colonel Bail-
lie, who had now arrived at a small village about fifteen
miles distant from Sir Hector Munro’s army, the move¬
ments of which he himself watched in the neighbourhood
of Conjeveram. The troops under Colonel Baillie gallantly
repulsed the repeated charges of Tippoo’s numerous ca¬
valry ; and being now joined by a detachment under Sir R.
Fletcher, sent to their aid by General Munro, they resist¬
ed long and bravely-all the attacks of the overwhelming
force by which they were surrounded; they even at times
became the assailants; and an attack by five companies
of Sepoys on the enemy’s guns, which had begun to do
great execution, spread amongst them such terror and con¬
tusion, that a seasonable and bold assault of their camp
would, it is thought, have completed their route. The
English commander maintained the same position till next
morning, for which he has been much blamed ; and when,
at five o’clock, he began the day’s march, he was assailed
by the whole army of Hyder, who had left his ground with¬
out shifting his tents, to conceal his design. Colonel Bail-
lie, with his handful of men, still maintained his ground in
spite of the enemy’s superior fire and the fury of his closer
attacks, when, by an accident, the blowing up of two tum¬
brils, the English line was not only disordered, but the
ammunition was destroyed, and the guns disabled. But
though their fire was now silenced, they maintained a gal¬
lant resistance till three o’clock in the morning, when the
commander, Baillie, despairing of relief, sent a flag of truce
to the enemy; and the men having laid down their arms
on receiving a promise of quarter, Hyder’s troops rushed
on them with savage fury ; and, but for the humane inter-
424
HINDUSTAN.
der All.
Hindustan, position of the French officers, would have massacred all
who survived. After this disaster, Sir Hector Munro re¬
treated to Madras, whilst Hyder returned to the siege of
Arcot, which was taken by storm on the 31st of Octo¬
ber, with an immense quantity of ammunition and military
stores.
Progress On the intelligence of Colonel Baillie’s disaster, the su-
of the war preme council of Bengal requested Sir Eyre Coote to take
with Hy- command of the army in the Carnatic ; and on the 17th
of June 1781, the English force, consisting of 7000 men and
1700 Europeans, marched from the encampment at Mount
St Thomas. Hyder now changed his plan of operations,
and detached different divisions of his force against the
strong places of the Carnatic. But he was so overawed
by the arrival of a new commander with reinforcements,
that he abandoned the siege of Wandewash, and of every
place which he had invested, and retired without even dis¬
puting the passage of the Palaar. The English took the
opportunity of this short respite to secure possession of
Pondicherry, and to disarm the inhabitants, who had re¬
volted. Hyder having received large reinforcements, re¬
sumed the offensive ; and as the plan of the English was
to march southward to protect the district of Tanjore and
Trichinopoly, he resolved to oppose their advance to Cud-
dalore. A battle was fought on the 1st of July 1781, in
which Hyder was driven from his strong position with
great slaughter. On the 27th of August, another battle
was fought on the ground where Colonel Baillie’s disaster
had occurred, when he was again defeated, after an obstinate
action, in which the English suffered severely ; and, some
weeks afterwards, he experienced a third defeat, with great¬
er loss than before. Far from being discouraged, this war¬
like prince proceeded to lay siege to Vellore, eighty-eight
miles south-west from Madras. Sir Eyre Coote, though he
had placed his army in cantonments, advanced to its relief,
and forced his way through a strong pass guarded by the
enemy’s force. Returning by the same pass, he was again
attacked at a disadvantage with the utmost vigour; but
Hyder’s cavalry suffered so severely from the English ar¬
tillery that he retired with loss, while Sir Eyre Coote
returned to his cantonments near Madras. Whilst the war
was thus carried on with doubtful success in the eastern
districts of the Carnatic, hostilities now commenced on
the opposite coast of Malabar. The English detachment,
by which the French settlement of Mahe was captured in
1779, had since that period occupied the fortress of Telli-
cherry, when it was besieged by a superior force of Hyder’s
tributaries. Major Abingdon, the commander, having re¬
ceived a reinforcement from Bombay on the night of the 7th
January 1782, assaulted the enemy’s lines, and threw their
whole army into confusion ; and he soon afterwards gained
possession of Calicut. Here he was joined by Colonel
Humberston Mackenzie with a thousand Europeans, and
offensive operations were undertaken with vigour and suc¬
cess, when the army returned in May, as the rainy season
approached, to its cantonments at Patacalah, in Calicut.
Operations were resumed in September with the reduction
of a strong fort, and the army had arrived at Palacatcherry,
when, being surprised in a narrow defile, the whole bag¬
gage and ammunition was captured. A retreat to the
coast was the only alternative now left to the English, in
the course of which they were attacked from every thicket,
both on their flank and rear, and harassed in their march,
by 20,000 horse under Tippoo. Arrived at the town of
Paniany, on the Malabar shore, their lines were assaulted
by the enemy s force in four columns, including Lally’s
corps, when the forty-second regiment advancing to the
charge, repelled the enemy. Tippoo now hearing of his
father s death, immediately departed to take the neces¬
sary measures for securing his succession to the throne.
In the south of the Carnatic a French fleet landed
2000 men at Porto Novo early in 1782; and Tippoo having Hindu n
arrived with a large detachment from Hyder’s army, by a v»^, j
brilliant and successful movement surrounded Colonel
Brathwaite’s force, consisting of a hundred Europeans,
five hundred Sepoys, and three hundred horse, encamp¬
ed upon the Coleroon, before there was the smallest
suspicion of his march. Forming a hollow square, this
little band held out for twenty-six hours, and repulsed
every attack, until, exhausted with incessant conflict, they
were at last broken by a charge of the French under
Tally, and would have been all massacred as formerly,
but for his vigorous and humane interference. Hyder was
now enabled, by the succours he had received from France,
to invest Cuddalore, which quickly surrendered, when he
determined to undertake the siege of Wandewash. Its
importance brought the army of Sir Eyre Coote to its re¬
lief, when Hyder still declined the hazards of a battle.
The English general then proceeded to the attack of Ar-
nee, the great depository of the enemy’s warlike stores
and necessaries. But Hyder outstripping the slow move¬
ments of the English force, hung upon their march ; and,
whilst they were galled by the attacks of his cavalry, he
dexterously detached a division of his army, which car¬
ried off all his treasure from Arnee, and reinforced the
garrison. In the retreat to Madras, after these opera¬
tions, a regiment of European cavalry, drawn into an am¬
buscade by the skilful tactics of the enemy, was either
killed or made prisoners. Whilst the English army was
cantoned in Madras, Hyder, ever active and enterprising,
was concerting with the French admiral an attack on Ne-
gapatnam, a settlement of the Dutch, which had been con¬
quered by the English at the commencement of the Dutch
war in 1780. But the French fleet having been brought
to an action by the English, was prevented from co-ope¬
rating in this well-planned enterprise. On the return
of the army to Madras, Lord Macartney, who had arrived
as governor in December 1781, now concerted a plan for
the recovery of Cuddalore. But the admiral steadily re¬
fused co-operation in this, or apparently in any other
operations of the land forces. On the 15th of October,
one of the most dreadful tempests ever known occurred
at Madras; the shore was in a short time strewed with
the wreck of a hundred trading vessels, and famine raged
in the city, multitudes daily perishing for want. The
enemy had fortunately no information of the helpless and
starving condition of the place, and considerable supplies
of provisions were received from Bengal and the Circars.
Hyder Ali died in December 1782, at the age of eighty
years; and this event produced a great and favourable
change of affairs. The Mahratta war, undertaken in fa¬
vour of the claims of Kagoba to the dignity of the peshwa,
which had continued since 1778, was now also concluded
by a peace. The capitulation by which a British force
that had invaded the Mahratta country surrendered, hav¬
ing been violated, the Mahrattas joined the confederacy
against the English. But by the great successes of Ge¬
neral Goddard, who, in the course of three months, from
January 1780, had reduced the province of Gujerat, and
completely defeated Scindia, the Mahratta general, they
were now detached from the alliance of Hyder, the great
enemy of the English.
Tippoo, after he joined his army in the Carnatic, un¬
dertook no operation of consequence, and he was recalled
to the defence of his own territories, which were assault¬
ed by the enterprising movements of the English armies,
both from the west and from the south. About the be¬
ginning of January 1783, a force concentrated at Mer-
jee, on the western coast of India, about 300 miles north
of Paniany, under General Mathews, after storming the
forts of Onore, Aranpore, and Mangalore, on the sea
coast, with the slaughter of every man taken in arms,
i
HINDUSTAN. 425
stan. laid siege to Bednore, a rich capital of one of the Mysore
^ provinces, which soon surrendered. A vast treasure,
amounting to L.800,000 in pagodas, besides jewels, was
found in this place, which immediately occasioned dis¬
putes, in consequence of the general refusing to divide the
booty among the captors. He was on this account su¬
perseded by the presidency, and the command given to
Colonel Macleod. But the hope of spoil appears to have
corrupted the virtue of the army, which was dispersed
in plundering detachments over the country, when Tippoo
suddenly took possession of Bednore, making prisoners
of the English garrison, which capitulated, with General
Mathews, and sending all of them in irons to the strong
fortresses of Mysore. Mangalore was next besieged, and
taken after a gallant resistance, on the 23d of January
1784. In the mean time Colonel Fullarton, who com¬
manded a force in the Southern Carnatic, having reduced
to order the districts of Madura and Tinnevelly, and taken,
in April, May, and June, the forts of Caroor, Dindigul,
and Daraporam, advanced to the strong fortress of Pala-
catcherry, which surrendered after a short siege. Coim-
betore was taken possession of in November, and every
preparation was made for advancing to Seringapatam,
and terminating the war by the capture of the enemy’s
capital, when a treaty was signed on the 11th of March
1784, upon the general basis of a mutual restitution of all
conquests.
The state of affairs in Bengal under the administration
of Mr Hastings now claims our attention, and we shall
endeavour briefly to describe the leading transactions of
that memorable period. The new council, to whose care
was committed the administration of India, and of which
Mr Hastings wras president, commenced its deliberations
in October 1774, with an inauspicious appearance of mu¬
tual coldness and jealousy, which quickly broke out into
open dissension. The Rohilla war was the first subject
of deliberation, and it unhappily afforded too good grounds
for doubt and for inquiry. Other subjects succeeded,
equally difficult to handle without offence, as they in¬
volved the governor in a suspicion of corruption in the
business of the revenue. The rannee of Burdwan, a wi¬
dow who enjoyed an extensive district, accused her agent
the duan of corruption, and the English resident of being
bribed to support or to connive at his iniquities. In the ac¬
counts that were presented to the council, a sum of 15,000
rupees was charged to Mr Hastings, and 4500 to his na¬
tive secretary. Another accusation of the same nature
was preferred by one of the natives, namely, that the
phouzdar of Hooghly, out of the salary of 72,000 rupees
which he received from the Company, returned 36,000
to Mr Hastings, and 4000 to the native secretary ; and
Mr Grant, accountant of the provincial council of Moor-
shedabad, produced a set of accounts, from which it ap¬
peared that Munny Begum, a concubine of the late Meer
Jaffier, who had been appointed to the guardianship of
the nabob by Mr Hastings, had received 967,693 rupees1
more than she had accounted for; and when pressed on
this subject, she told that she had given 150,000 rupees
to Mr Hastings for entertainment money, which was at
the rate of L.73,000 per annum, and the like sum to Mr
Middleton, the agent of Mr Hastings. A still more se¬
rious charge was brought forward by the rajah Nundco-
mar, who had been the agent of Mr Hastings in the pro¬
secution of Mahommed Reza Khan, duan or manager of
the revenues of Bengal, whose embezzlements, as well as
those of Shitabray, he now accused the governor-general
of overlooking; and further exhibited the particulars of a
sum of 354,105 rupees, which he affirmed that he had Hindustan,
accepted for the appointment of Munny and Goordass to
their respective dignities and powers. In answer to these
accusations, Mr Hastings chiefly pleaded his dignity as
governor-general. He resented them as personal insults;
and when it was proposed to inquire into them by the
other members of the board, he lost all calmness, and
accused them of a design to supersede him in his office.
“ I declare,” he said, “ that I will not suffer Nundcomar
to appear before the board as my accuser. I know what
belongs to the dignity and character of the first member
of this administration. I will not sit at this board as a
criminal.” After this he dissolved the council, in virtue of
a power which he assumed as president. The majority de¬
clared the dissolution void, and continued the inquiry, when
Nundcomar declared the particular sums which he himself
had paid to the governor-general, gave in the names of
several persons who were privy to those transactions, and
presented a letter from Munny Begum, which, on exa¬
mination of the seal, was found to be authentic, men¬
tioning a gift of two lacs (L.20,000) given to the governor
by herself. The governor being called upon to refund,
refused to acknowledge the authority of the council, and
returned no answer. At this critical stage of the pro¬
ceedings, a prosecution was instituted against Nundcomar,
at the instance of the governor-general and his supporters
in the council, which, after some ineffectual proceedings,
was dropt. But a few days afterwards, Nundcomar, at the
suit of a native, was arrested on a charge of forgery; tried
before the supreme court by Sir Elijah Impey and a jury of
Englishmen, though it was far from clear that the court had
any jurisdiction over him, being a native of Hindustan;
convicted on doubtful and contradictory evidence; and
finally executed, amidst the tears and loud lamentations,
and even shrieks of horror, of a vast assemblage of his
countrymen. This transaction, viewed in all its bearings,
leaves a stain on the character of Hastings, from which it
has never been relieved by the zealous testimonials of his
friends. In reviewing the whole evidence and circum¬
stances of the case, we cannot well doubt, that if Nundco¬
mar had not accused Mr Hastings, he would never have
been arrested; that his real crime, therefore, was the
charge which he had brought against Mr Hastings, and
not the alleged forgery ; and hence that he was tried and
executed because he was a witness whose testimony it
was more easy to put out of the way than to confute. If
this be a just inference, Mr Hastings must be considered
as guilty of murder, committed under the forms of law.
This, we fear, is the character which must be fixed upon
him by the impartial verdict of history ; and his politi¬
cal merits, however magnified by his admirers, cannot
be accepted for a moment as any palliation of his moral
guilt.
In adverting, as we shall now do, to the transactions
of the governor-general with the independent or tribu¬
tary states of India, it may be observed, that when he as¬
sumed the government of Bengal, the Company still la¬
boured under great pecuniary difficulties. Disorder and
waste pervaded every department of the administration ;
the Company’s servants were intent, as we have seen, on
enriching themselves rather than their masters; and the
consequence was a constant want of funds for the pub¬
lic service. The arduous duty of providing these now de¬
volved upon the governor-general; and the necessities of
the state, if they do not justify, afford at least a key to
some of those dark, and, we must add, atrocious transac¬
tions, which distinguished his administration. Bengal
•ir^ne ^aCS sixty-seven thousand six hundred, and ninty-three rupees. A lac of rupees is
millions. We have adopted the English mode of notation, as more familiar to the reader.
VOL. XI.
100,000, and a crore is 100 lacs, or ten.
3 H
HINDUSTAN.
426
Hindustan, had been exposed to such heavy exactions that the coun-
try was exhausted; and Mr Hastings, instead of adopt¬
ing economy, and improving the revenue at home, sought
relief in the plunder of foreign princes, who were now
laid under contribution to the necessities of the state.
The rajah Cheyt Sing, who ruled at Benares, was the son
of Bulwunt Sing, who had sided with the English in the war
with Sujah Dowlah, subahdar of Oude, and’who had been
confirmed in his inheritance by the British for a fixed
tribute, which was paid with an exactness not very usual
in India. Mr Hastings proposed in 1778 to increase
this contribution; and because the rajah pleaded pover¬
ty, and required time, he became offended, replied to
him in harsh and imperious terms, refused to allow time
for raising the money, and threatened military execution
in case of delay. These exactions were renewed from
year to year, and increased, the rajah remonstrating in
the most humble terms, and being treated on account of
his remonstrances as a delinquent whom it was necessary
to punish. “ I was resolved,” says Mr Hastings, “ to
draiv from his guilt the means of relieving the Company's
distresses'' This was truly his object, and he accordingly
found out guilt in the whole conduct of the rajah, though
it was meek and humble, such as the weak naturally as¬
sume when they are in the power of the strong. At last Mr
Hastings proceeded to Benares, and, notwithstanding the
supplications of the rajah, craving forgiveness if he had of¬
fended, on the ground of his youth and inexperience, he
ordered him under arrest; a tumult arose between the
Sepoys and the inhabitants, in which the former were all
put to the sword; the rajah fled; war commenced, which
ended in his discomfiture, and he was dethroned. His mo¬
ther, the wife of Bulwunt Sing, the faithful ally of the Bri¬
tish, took refuge in the fort of Bidgegur; she surrendered
her treasure on condition of being allowed protection for
herself and female attendants. But the articles were shame¬
fully violated; and she and her followers were plundered
of their effects, and their persons subjected to the rude ex¬
amination of the licentious soldiery and the followers of the
camp. In a letter, Mr Hastings says, “ I think that every
demand she has made to you, except that of safety and
respect for her person, is unreasonable.” He afterwards
adds, “ I apprehend she will contrive to defraud the cap-
tors of a considerable part of the booty, by being suffered
to retire without examination. But this is your consider¬
ation, not mine. I should be sorry that your officers and
soldiers lost any part of the reward to which they are so
well entitled.” The ideas implied in this hint not to suf¬
fer these illustrious females to pass without examination
cannot be mistaken ; it is sufficient to sanction the grossest
outrages; and it appears, indeed, that those to whom it was
addressed were not slow to profit by the instructions given
them.
The treasures of Cheyt Sing and his widowed mother fell
so far short of the expectations of Mr Hastings, that they
did not even pay the expense of quelling the revolt which
he had occasioned ; and hence this transaction, impolitic as
well as unjust, increased the embarrassments of the Com¬
pany. The governor-general was therefore compelled to
look elsewhere for treasures that might be profitable to the
state, and he fixed his eye on the two princesses of Oude,
known by the name of the Begums, the one the mother of
Sujah Dowlah, the late nabob, eighty years of age, and the
other his w idow, and mother of the reigning nabob, who
were possessed of treasures to a great amount, and of jag-Hind
hires or estates, from which they maintained their own
state and dignity, and the numerous families of the preced¬
ing nabobs, with a suitable train of attendants. The na¬
bob of Oude, Sujah Dowlah, had long been unable to pay
the contributions imposed on him by the English ; he was
in arrear to the amount of L.1,400,000, and Mr Hastings
now entered into a negotiation with him for the seizure,
or resumption, to use the official phrase, of the jaghires or
estates which belonged to the Begums, for the purpose of
enabling him to pay up this arrear. It is unnecessary
to dwell on the proceedings by which a son was persuad¬
ed or compelled to aid in the spoliation of his mother and
grandmother. Suffice it to observe, that Mr Middleton,
the agent of Mr Hastings, in order to extort the surrender
of the treasure from the princesses, ordered the zenana,
the dwelling of the princesses at Fyzabad, with their nu¬
merous families, to be blockaded by troops ; and these mea¬
sures failing to obtain the treasures, the eunuchs Jewar
Ali Khan and Behar Ali Khan, the confidential servants
of the princesses, w^ere imprisoned and put in irons, and
were kept from all food, and exposed to secret tortures.
These dreadful measures so wrought upon the feelings of
the princesses, that the elder Begum surrendered the trea¬
sure to the amount of the nabob’s bond given to the Company
in 1779-1780. But another balance still remained, and new
severities were applied to the ministers of the princesses,
which drew from them an engagement to complete the
demanded sum; but they were still tortured ; and though
the princesses now delivered their whole effects, even to
their table utensils, and had paid upwards of L.500,000 be¬
fore the 23d of February 1782, and the resident himself re¬
ported “ that no proof had been obtained of their having
more,” yet the prisoners were not released, as they ear¬
nestly entreated. On the contrary, they were threatened
with greater severities to enforce a payment of L.25,000,
according to their account, and of L,50,000, according to
the resident, still due on the extorted bond; and though
they had nowr lain two months in irons, were sickly, and the
officer who guarded them wrote to the resident Middleton,
craving that their irons might be taken off, and that they
might be allow ed to walk in the garden, the nature of his
orders allowed no mitigation of their sufferings ; they were
even threatened a few days after, on the 1st of June, with
being removed, and were actually removed to Lucknow,
where they wrere tortured in secret, of which the letter ad¬
dressed by the assistant x’esident to the commanding officer
ol the English guard affords the odious evidence.1 The cruel¬
ties to which the women and children of the zenana, com¬
posing the household of the late rajahs, were exposed, are
truly shocking to humanity. They were distressed for
want of food to that degree that they uttered the most pi¬
teous cries, and were even driven to the extremity of ap¬
pearing publicly before the Sepoys, an exposure dreaded
more than death by Hindu females of rank; and these
barbarities were executed under the orders of Englishmen,
a disgrace to the name, and by English officers, unwilling
agents, we may well believe, in such cruelties, and whose
letters describe the extreme sufferings of these helpless fe¬
males. In the letter of the commanding officer, it is said,
“ they are in a starving condition, having sold all their
clothes and necessaries, and now have not wherewithal to
support nature.” “ Last night the women of the zenana
assembled on the tops of the buildings, crying in the most
■WUprMr^1G fjrsb dated January 1782, is addressed by the resident to the officer guarding the eunuchs: “ Sir,—
Sic no-rppjihlA tn .n •1Veie . 0 ^ fiavs to desire that you order the two prisoners to be put in irons, keeping them from all food,
officer of the MKSSfS Nath M.d o " ^ of the assisla„t resident to the commanding
^ i Tc -h'-am. -tmiJ-ujaih i uN. Xjetter ox me assistant resident to me commaxiuuig
„ i fi • • t nabob having determined to inflict corporal punishment upon the prisoners under your
fhem as they” shall sec^prooer ,1,S 0^1Cers’ w ien shall come, may have free access to the prisoners, and be permitted to do with
HINDUSTAN.
427
stan. lamentable manner for want of food; that for the last four
-w days they had got a very scanty allowance, and that yes¬
terday they had got none. The melancholy cries of fa¬
mine are more easily imagined than described.”1 These
cruelties were continued for nearly a year, and persever¬
ed in after all the treasures were surrendered, in the vain
hope that some secret hoard might still be retained, which
torture would compel them to bring forth. Amongst other
particulars, it may be added, that Mr Hastings received
from the nabob a present of L. 100,000, and craved per¬
mission to accept it from the directors, whose orders were
positive against the receipt of presents. These princesses
were accused of aiding in the rebellion of Cheyt Sing.
But of this charge no proof beyond mere rumour was ever
adduced; and, in considering all the circumstances of the
case, it appears to have been invented as a pretext for
despoiling them of their wealth. Mr Hastings resolved
to draw from the guilt of Cheyt Sing, to use his own
words, the means of relieving the Company’s distresses;
and the same patriotic motive seems to have dictated the
accusation against the Begums. In other countries it is
the poor, those who are discontented and in debt, that are
turbulent; but here it is the rich, aged women of fourscore
and upwards, living in affluence and splendour under the
protection of the English, that are accused of rebelling
against their benefactors, and of raising disturbances which
could bring no advantage, but, on the contrary, were fraught
with danger, to them. The directors in Europe disapprov¬
ed of these proceedings against the princesses ; they saw
no evidence of their rebellion; and they ordered their
estates to be restored, and an asylum to be offered them
within the Company’s territories. But the authority of the
directors was little respected in India, the governor-gene¬
ral never wanting a pretext for disobeying their express
commands. It appears, however, that some provision was
afterwards made for these princesses, and for the restora¬
tion of a portion of their estates. The remaining transac¬
tions of Mr Hastings before he quitted Bengal relate to
Fyzoolla Khan, who survived the ruin of the Rohilla na¬
tion in 1774; and he now entered into a scheme with the
nabob of Oude for dispossessing him of his dominions. In
a journey which he afterwards undertook to the upper
provinces, in order to regulate the affairs of Oude, he was
a witness to the desolation of the country from the exac¬
tions of his own deputies, a country which was flourishing
and happy under the milder sway of Cheyt Sing.
On the 8th of February he resigned his office and em¬
barked for England. For a more full detail of the con¬
duct and character of Mr Hastings, the reader is referred
to the work of Mr Mill, which contains a clear and well-
digested view of all the dark and complicated transactions
of his stormy administration. The calm and philosophical
tone maintained by Mr Mill; his impartiality and love of
truth and justice ; and the interest which he uniformly
manifests in the cause of suffering humanity, give a pecu¬
liar value to his work as a history. In his estimate of Mr
Hastings’ character, he seems to consider it due to truth
to state the difficulties and temptations under which he
acted, as to a certain extent palliating his guilt. We may
remark, however, that crimes, especially those of a deep
dye, are never committed except under strong temptation ;
and when we consider that those of which Hastings is ac¬
cused are tyranny, extortion, and corruption in his high
office; cruelty, the secret torture by his agents of innocent Hindustan,
individuals, by means of famine, stripes, and imprisonment;
violence threatened to females by the same agents as the
means of extortion, he chiding them all the while for de¬
lay ; his bargain for the extermination of the Rohillas by
fire and sword; and the provinces of Oude and Benares
reduced, under his unhappy rule, from contentment and
prosperity to desolation ; we can scarcely admit the pallia¬
tions suggested by the candour of the historian. Mr Hast¬
ings was impeached, on his return to Europe, before the
House of Peers, of high crimes and misdemeanours, of wdiich
he was declared innocent by a great majority of his judges.
But there were various circumstances which detracted from
the value and authority of this acquittal. The House of
Lords, from its constitution and character, is unfit to act as
a judicial tribunal. It is a political assembly, consisting of
the twTo opposite parties, the one against, and the other in
favour of the ruling power; it is thus exposed to the cor¬
rupting influence of politics, and is generally ruled, even in
its judicial capacity, by the minister of the day, of which, in
our more recent history, we have had ample proofs. It wants
impartiality, therefore, that essential attribute of a court of
justice ; and there were, besides, in the present case other
sources of delusion. The hope of sharing in the wealth of
India had now shed its baneful influence over the land;
that hope swayed all the higher classes, including the
peers, who lent an unwilling ear to the charges; and this,
joined to the reputed favour of King George III. for the
accused, rendered the prosecution unpopular. The value
of the acquittal was also lessened by the mode of conduct¬
ing the defence. Mr Hastings was far from courting in¬
quiry; on the contrary, he availed himself of all the le¬
gal subtilties of a technical defence. He constantly ob¬
jected to evidence, and to the production of papers. He
acted wisely, if he was guilty, in screening his conduct
under legal pleas ; but not so if he was innocent, because
by resisting inquiry he hindered his innocence from being
made clear, to the confusion of his enemies.
The mal-administration of India had now become a
standing topic of declamation at home, in which all par¬
ties in parliament eagerly joined ; and as the privileges of
the Company were to expire after the 25th of March 1780,
some new arrangement became necessary for the future
government of India. Negotiations for this purpose had
been begun between the ministers and the directors; and
an act was at length passed in 1781, which, besides regu¬
lating the dividend, and other financial matters, more
fully detailed in the account given at the conclusion of
this article, of the commercial transactions of the Com¬
pany, ordained that the directors should communicate
to the ministers all despatches sent to India with re¬
spect to revenues, and to civil and military affairs. In
1783 Mr Fox brought forward his celebrated measure for
regulating the commercial concerns of the Company at
home, and for the better government of their territories
abroad. He proposed to supersede the two existing courts
of proprietors and directors, by vesting the whole admi¬
nistration of the territories, revenues, and commerce of
India, in seven commissioners, to be chosen by parliament;
these to have the power of appointing and of dismissing
all persons in the service of the Company; nine assistant
directors, being proprietors of India stock to the amount
of L.2000, to be named by the legislature, and to assist
1 See Hastings' Trial. Letters of Captain Leonard Jaques, of 6th and 7th March 1782 ; also letter of Major Gilpin, dated 30th
October 1782. At last the unhappy females became desperate from want, and resolved to break into the market-place ; and with this
view “ they arranged themselves in the following order; the children in the front, behind them the ladies of the seraglio, and be¬
hind them again their attendants.” They were, however, opposed in their intentions by the Sepoys. On the following day their cla¬
mours wrere more violent than usual. It was resolved to drive them back by force. “ The Sepoys,” it is added, “ consequently as-
sembled, and each one being provided with a bludgeon, they drove them by dint of beating into the zenana.” (Letter to the Resident at
Lucknow.}
HINDUSTAN.
428
Hindustan.in the details of commerce, and to be under the authority
of the superior board. This was the substance of Mr
Fox’s bill, by which the government of India was trans¬
ferred from the directors and proprietors to these seven
parliamentary commissioners. There were, however, nu¬
merous other provisions for securing the punishment of
Indian delinquents, for ensuring publicity; and all the
serious abuses which had been committed by the servants
of the Company were specially enumerated and forbidden.
Monopolies were abolished, the land-tax was to be fixed,
and it was provided that the zemindars should be rein¬
stated in their dignities and lands.
In 1784 Mr Pitt introduced a new bill for the better
administration of Indian affairs, the chief distinction of
which from the other was the institution of a board of
control, or of six commissioners, to be chosen, not by par¬
liament, but by the king, who were not to supersede the
court of directors, but only to “ check, superintend, and
control” all the acts and concerns which in anywise relate
to the civil or military government or revenues of the
Company’s dominions; and with this view all letters and
orders were to be submitted, before being sent out to In¬
dia, to the inspection of the board, who might alter and
amend these as they should deem expedient; and all com¬
munications from India were in like manner to be submit¬
ted to its inspection, and this board might even transmit
orders to India without being submitted to the directors.
The power of the court of proprietors was greatly diminish¬
ed ; a secret committee of directors was appointed ; a pro¬
vision was made for enforcing the disclosure by individuals
of the fortunes brought home by them from India; and a
new tribunal was erected for the trial of offences commit¬
ted in that country. The nomination of the commander-
in-chief was vested exclusively in the king ; that of go¬
vernor-general, presidents, and members of all the coun¬
cils, in the directors, subject to the approbation of the
king; which clause, rendering the approbation of the king
necessary, was afterwards repealed, but he was still al¬
lowed the power of recall. The servants in India were
forbidden to engage in war, to receive presents, or to dis¬
obey orders transmitted by the board; and provision was
made for the restoration to the zemindars of the lands from
which they had been ejected. In the year 1786 no less than
three acts were passed for the amendment of this act,
by one of which power was given to the governor-general
to act without and even against the consent of this coun¬
cil ; by another the military was subjected to the civil
power ; and by a third act, the most efficient clause of
Mr Pitt’s bill was repealed, which ordained every public
functionary of the Company, on his return to Europe, to
make a full disclosure on oath of the property he possess¬
ed. This was considered as too severe a test for the Com¬
pany’s servants, though it could not have affected those
who acted honestly. It is the guilty only who suffer by
inquiries of this nature.
Mr Pitts bill defined rather loosely the respective
p®wers of the board of control and the directors; and the
consequence was, that they speedily came into collision.
The first question which came under their joint consi¬
deration, was the settlement of the nabob of Arcot’s debts.
These debts were owing to the Company’s servants, and
it was not very clear that any equivalent had been given
for them. Paul Benfield, a principal creditor, who, as we
have already mentioned, acted as a junior clerk of the
Company, with a salary of some hundreds a year, advan¬
ced a claim, which, with interest, amounted to L.592,000.
Such transactions, therefore, were of so very doubtful a
character, that they presented a prima facie case for in¬
quiry ; and Mr Pitt s bill accordingly provided that the
court of directors “ should take into consideration the
origin and justice of such demands.” But how great was
their surprise when the board of control ordered thatHin
these debts, some of them contracted in 1767, should be ^ J
all paid without inquiry, and with the addition of interest
at the rate of twelve per cent. The directors remonstrated
against this proceeding, but in vain. The board ordered
the debts to be paid immediately, though, in a similar
case in 1805, the commissioners appointed to inquire into
the more modern debts of the nabob of Arcot, out of
claims to the amount of L.20,390,570, allowed only
L.1,346,796. These facts too clearly point to the parlia¬
mentary influence of the East India interest as the true
spring of this corrupt transaction ; and the same interest
also prevailed in subverting the plan which Lord Macart¬
ney had adopted for the management of the Carnatic re¬
venues, and in restoring the administration of the nabob,
which was a system of misrule that impoverished the
country exactly as it tended to enrich the Company’s
servants. This, and other differences which arose, indu¬
ced the directors to question the powers of the board of
control; and a declaratory act was in consequence brought
forward by Mr Pitt explaining these powers, according to
the interpretation, not of the directors, but of the minis¬
ters. This act vests the real power in the board of con¬
trol, though in practice a large share both of power and
patronage has been still left to the directors.
Lord Cornwallis assumed the government of India in War i
September 1786. He had ample instructions both fromTipp 1
the court of directors and the board of control; and he
carried into effect several very important reforms, both in
the management of the revenue and in the administra¬
tion of justice, whilst in his arduous contests with Tippoo
he fully maintained the honour of the British arms. To
the native and dependent powers his conduct was mode¬
rate and just; and one of his first cares was to relieve
the nabob of Oude from the extortions of the former go¬
vernment, by which the country was impoverished, and in
many places deserted and desolate. The wretched con¬
dition of the people is described in strong terms by Lord
Cornwallis; and he now reduced the annual payment of
the nabob from eighty-four lacs, equal to L.940,000, to
fifty lacs, and left in his hands the internal government of
his country. But the mind of the governor-general was
soon engrossed by other and more momentous concerns.
Tippoo, who naturally viewed with jealousy the growing
ascendency of the British, began to take hostile measures.
He descended from the Ghauts with a large military force,
and spread alarm along the whole western coast. At length,
throwing off all disguise, he commenced an attack on the
rajah of Travancore, an ally of the British, and invaded
his dominions. Lord Cornwallis now prepared for war.
He formed a league with the Mahrattas and the nizam,
who agreed to aid with a military force in the approach¬
ing contest. The plan of the campaign was, that a divi¬
sion of the British under General Meadows should pene¬
trate through the province of Coimbetore into the heart
of the Mysore country, whilst General Abercromby should
reduce the territory of Tippoo on the coast of Malabar,
and Colonel Kelly remain to protect the Carnatic from
the ravages of the enemy. The division of General
Meadows marched from the plain of Trichinopoly on the
15th of June 1790, and all the fortresses in the line of
its march, namely, Caroor, Daraporam, Erroad, Coimbe¬
tore, Sattimungul, Dindigul, and Palacatcherry, were ne¬
cessarily occupied, by which the army was divided into
three bodies, one at Coimbetore, another at Sattimungul,
sixty miles distant, and a third at Palacatcherry, about
thirty miles in the rear. In this situation, Colonel Floyd
at Sattimungul, was attacked and forced to retreat with
loss, and with great difficulty effected a junction with
General Meadows. The sultan now resolved to attack,
and, if possible, surprise the English chain of posts. He
HINDUSTAN. 429
tan. retook Erroad; approached Coimbetore, which had been cerity in the cause, produced general satisfaction in the Hindustan.
^ previously reinforced ; and afterwards turned to Darapo- British camp, and a conviction, that the ruin of the sultan, —
ram, which capitulated. Colonel Maxwell with his corps though delayed, was now certain and inevitable. 1 ippoo, Treaty
being ordered to invade Barramahal, the sultan, leaving overawed by this formidable confederacy, made overtures T-
part of his army to watch General Meadows, hastened to to Lord Cornwallis for the conclusion of a peace ; but that
attack, and, if possible, to cut off this detachment. The nobleman would listen to no terms of accommodation in
British, and a regiment of cavalry, inveigled in a defile, which his allies were not included, and which were not
were driven back with great loss. But the able dispositions preceded by the release of all the prisoners that had been
of Colonel Maxwell frustrated any further attempts on detained during the present and former wars. The arrival
the part of Tippoo; and he soon afterwards effected his of the Mahratta troops, amounting to 32,000 cavalry, how-
junction with General Meadows. The sultan having thus ever fortunate it might be deemed at the critical moment
succeeded in defeating the original plan for the invasion in which it happened, brought little additional effective
of Mysore by a rapid march into the Carnatic, arrived strength to the allied army. Their battalions were un-
before the English depot of Trichinopoly, whither he was wieldy, irregular, and ill disciplined; their force had de-
followed by General Meadows, and afterwards to Trinco- dined as much as Tippoo’s had advanced in improvement;
malee ; and thus ended this indecisive campaign. The and they were at present far inferior to those troops who,
Malabar country was in the course of three weeks com- under Madha Row, had defeated Hyder Ali in 1772.
pletely reduced under the British power by the force un- The combined armies amounted to about 80,000 men ;
der General Abercromby. and if to these be added four times the number of camp
Lord Cornwallis now resolved to assume the command followers, brinjarries or grain carriers, and the carnage
of the army, and, advancing to the Ghaut Mountains in department, the number of strangers to be subsisted in the
the direction of Velore, to lay siege to Bangalore, and Mysore alone could not be much less than half a million,
thence to proceed against Seringapatam, the capital of That no distrust, jealousy, or counteraction, should have
Mysore. Early in February 1791 he was on his march to disturbed the combined operations of such an immense
Velore ; and on the 5th of March the English army sat multitude, must be ascribed to the unexampled modera-
down before Bangalore, which on the 2lst was carried by tion and the vigilant conduct of the commander-in-chief,
assault; an event which, fixing the seat of war in the Such a vast army had never taken the field in India in
enemy’s territory, proved decisive of its success. On the the British cause; yet no murmurs, nor even the slightest
28th Lord Cornwallis began his march from Bangalore, appearance of distrust, were ever manifested by the allies
in the course of which he was joined by the nizam’s force, towards the British commander. They submitted with
amounting to 10,000 cavalry, which were found to be of implicit confidence, not only to his arrangements in carry-
little service. On the 13th of May the British army ing on the war, but, which was little to be expected among
reached Anika, about nine miles from Seringapatam, des- allies so much alive to their particular interests, they ac-
titute both of provisions and of draught cattle. It was quiesced in his distribution of the conquered territories,
the intention of Lord Cornwallis that General Aber- with a deference which evinced the most perfect confi-
cromby, ascending through the passes of the Ghauts from dence in his liberality and justice. With these coadju-
Malabar with the Bombay army, and the Mahratta force tors, Lord Cornwallis set out in the month of June to-
under Purseram Bhow, should penetrate into the centre wards Bangalore. He determined on a new and circui-
of the sultan’s dominions, and co-operate with the main tons route northward by Naggemungulum ; and in order
army in the attack of the capital. Of the movements of to facilitate the communication between the Mysore and
this force Lord Cornwallis had received no intelligence ; the Carnatic, from which the supplies were chiefly to be
and having defeated Tippoo’s army in the vicinity of Se- drawn, the various hill forts which command the ditter-
ringapatam, he now resolved, as the Cavery was too large ent passes were to be reduced. Amongst these forts, re-
to be crossed in safety, to ascend to a ford at Cansam- markable for natural strength, Oossoor, Rayacottahud, and
baddy, eight miles above Seringapatam. In this march Nundydroog, were assaulted and taken. There remain-
the troops were exposed to unexampled hardships; to ed Kistnaghery, Savendroog, and Ootradroog, on tne
disease, from scarcity of food, and of the means of convey- first of which an unsuccessful attack was made. _ Saven-
ance owing to the complete failure of the draught cattle; droog consists of a vast mountainous rock, which rises
and all their calamities were aggravated by the small-pox, above half a mile in perpendicular height above its own
which raged in the camp. It was now apparent that the base, which covers a space of eight or ten miles in cir-
army could only be saved by a timely retreat, and by the cumference. This rock is surrounded by walls on every
sacrifice of the battering train and all the heavy equip- side, and defended by cross barriers wherever it was
ments. On the 21st of May, accordingly, the retreat deemed accessible. lowards the upper part, the im-
was begun ; and immediate orders were sent to General mense pile is almost precipitous, and has the further ad-
Abercromby to follow the same course, which occasioned vantage of being divided on the top into two hills, which
a similar destruction of the battering train and other have each their defences, and are capable ot being main-
heavy equipments. So great was the destruction, that the tained independently of the garrison in the lower works,
ground on which the army of Lord Cornwallis had en- To the siege of this tremendous fortress, Lieutenant-Co-
camped at Cansambaddy was covered to an extent of se- lonel Stewart, commanding the right wing ot the main
veral miles with the carcasses of the cattle and horses; army, was appointed. The attempt commenced on the
and the last sight of the gun-carriages, carts, and stores 10th of December. In three days a practicable breach
of the battering train, left in flames, was the melancholy was effected, and both hills were stormed, with only one
spectacle which the troops beheld, as they passed along, private soldier wounded. Colonel Stewart s detachment
on quitting this deadly camp. marched in two days against Ootradroog, another fortress
Fortunately for the British army, it was met, before the strengthened by five different walls, and so steep as to
end of the first day’s march, by the allied force of the prove tenable by a handful of men against the largest
Mahrattas, under Purseram Bhow and Hurry Punt. army. After the refusal of a summons to surrender, the
Every despatch sent to these chiefs had been intercepted lower fort was escaladed with such rapidity, that the kil-
by the vigilance of the enemy, and they were astonished ladar requested a parley. But on some appearance of
when they learned the disasters which had been occasion- treachery in the upper fort, the assault was ordered;
ed by their delay. Their arrival, which evinced their sin- some of the gates were instantly broken, others were es-
430 HINDI
Hindustan, caladed, till five or six different walls on the face of the
steep rock were passed, when the troops gained the sum¬
mit, and put the garrison to the sword. The assault of
these fortresses, which had hitherto been deemed impreg¬
nable, made so serious an impression on the enemy, that
in none of the hill forts, however inaccessible, did they
afterwards make any attempt to resist the British troops.
Hence the strong mountainous country between Banga¬
lore and Seringapatam, which, studded with forts, had so
much checked all communication, now afforded security
to the convoys. These henceforth reached the army with¬
out opposition ; and the supplies of warlike stores of every
description were as completely re-established as they had
been at the beginning of the last campaign.
To prevent any future scarcity of the great article of
grain, the commander-in-chief encouraged the native brin-
jarries, a class of men of whom we have already given
some account. They form a peculiar caste, who are
traders in grain, and whose utility is so universally ac¬
knowledged that they are regarded as neutral in war, and
are not hindered by either of the belligerents from carry¬
ing supplies of grain to the other. By constantly afford¬
ing regular payment and a good price to these native mer¬
chants, they supplied the camp to an extent far exceed¬
ing what could ever be furnished by the most extensive
carriage establishment. With such ample supplies, pre¬
parations were made for the commencement of the cam¬
paign. The Bombay troops, destined again to act from
the same quarter as last season, marched from Cananore,
and arrived at the foot of Poodicherrim Ghaut in the
month of December. Several weeks of hard labour were
necessary to drag the artillery through woods extending
nearly sixty miles, and over mountains of immense height,
when this force, consisting of 8400, with all their baggage
and artillery, and a supply of rice for forty days, penetrated
with safety into the Mysore frontier, which they reached
on the 22d of January 1792. To facilitate the return of
the army, batteries were constructed to defend the pass ;
a precaution which, if the sultan had not overlooked, he
would have suffered no invasion on this quarter of his do¬
minions.
The Mahratta forces, after taking the important post
of Simoga, which, however, was soon retaken by one of
Jippoo’s generals, and defeating Reza Saib and nearly
10,000 of the sultan’s cavalry, effected their junction with
the Bombay army, though somewhat later than the ap¬
pointed season. The main army under Lord Cornwallis,
being joined at Ootradroog by the battering train under
Colonel Duff, and the last convoys under Colonel Floyd,
and also by the army of the nizam, was at last fully pre¬
pared to resume its enterprises against the sultan, who,
in imitation of his father when formerly attacked in 1767,
had encamped with the whole of his force in a strong po¬
sition under the walls of his capital. On the 1st of Feb-
ruaiy the allied armies marched from Hooleadroog, the
last hill fort of which they had taken possession, lying at
the distance of only forty miles from Seringapatam. The
last march, of the 5th of February, stretched across a
range of barren hills lying six miles north-east of Serin¬
gapatam. Prom these heights a view of the whole city
was presented to the army, and the encampment of the
sultan under its walls. Every circumstance was eagerly
viewed by our troops ; and, from the sultan’s position, it
was evident that he meant to defend the place in person,
and to make it the grand concluding scene of the war.
1 he camp of the allies was pitched on the north side of
the island. The British formed the front line, and extend¬
ed along both sides of the Lockany, a small river which
at this place flows into the Cavery. The reserve was
placed a mile in the rear, to afford space for the baggage
and stores; and the nizam and Mahrattas were stationed
J S T A N.
still farther in the rear, to prevent interference with the Hindu n
British camp.
Opposite to Seringapatam, on both sides of the river, a
large space was enclosed by a bound hedge, which marks
the limits of the capital, and afforded a refuge to the pea¬
sants during the incursions of cavalry. Tippoo’s front
line, or fortified camp, lay immediately behind this hedge,
where it was defended by heavy cannon in the redoubts*
and by a large field train advantageously placed. In this
line there were a hundred pieces of artillery, and in the
fort and island which formed his second line there were
above thrice that number. The redoubts on his left were
intrusted to two of his best officers, and a corps of Euro¬
peans commanded by Monsieur Vigie; Sheik Ansar, a
general of established reputation, was stationed on the
right, and the Carighaut Hill; whilst Tippoo himself com¬
manded the centre, having his tent pitched in the sultan’s
redoubt. The fort and island, where there was the great¬
est number of guns, were intrusted to Syed Saib and
other commanders. The whole army of the sultan thus
stationed consisted of about 50,000 men.
The whole attention of Tippoo, on finding that he could
not keep the field, was directed to the fortifying of this
camp, and the strengthening of his defences in the fort
and island, under the idea that the want of supplies, or
the approach of the monsoon, would again force his ene¬
mies to abandon their enterprise, as they had been com¬
pelled to do on former occasions. In these circumstan¬
ces, Lord Cornwallis resolved on the bold enterprise of a
night attack on the enemy’s fortified camp. Accordingly,
on the evening of the 6th of February 1792, just after
the troops had left the parade, orders were issued for an
attack at seven o’clock, of the enemy’s camp and lines, in
three divisions. The British camp was left to be defend¬
ed by the artillery and cavalry ; whilst the assailants, who
were instantly furnished with guides and scaling ladders,
marched in perfect confidence that muskets alone, for
they were unprovided with artillery, would prove the fit¬
test instruments for opening their way into the enemy’s
camp. The allies of the British, to whom this design was
not communicated till after the columns had marched,
were struck with surprise and consternation on learning
that Lord Cornwallis, like a common soldier, was perso¬
nally to lead the attack on the enemy’s fortified camp.
Ihey not only deemed his success impossible, but they
dreaded that the ruin of the allied army would be in¬
volved in the attempt.
The three columns into which the assailants had been
divided marched with equal intrepidity to execute the
different objects which had been allotted them. Many ob¬
stacles intervened; various conflicts ensued in different
quarters of the enemy’s camp; each party was uncertain
of the fate of the rest, and each individual of his asso-
ciates. The return of day at last removed their fears and
uncertainty, by disclosing the complete success which had
crowned their exertions throughout the whole line of at¬
tack. Fhe enemy having lost all their positions on the
north side of the river, where the siege was to commence,
and almost the whole of the island, every material ob¬
ject of the assault was secured. On the side of the Bri¬
tish, the loss, though considerable, amounting to 536 men,
was small in proportion to the importance of the victory
and the disasters of the enemy, of whom it afterwards ap¬
peared that 4000 had been slain in the various con¬
flicts during this night of enterprise, danger, and death,
besides a much greater loss which was suffered by de¬
sertion.
I he British army, now in possession of the island and
town of Seringapatam, and flushed with the pride of vic¬
tory, immediately began to make the necessary prepara¬
tions for the siege of the fortress or citadel. The mosques
HINDUSTAN.
431
industan. and religious buildings on this enchanting island, watered
by the Cavery, and the seat of perpetual verdure, were
converted into hospitals for the wounded and sick; and
the trees, now for the first time assailed by the axe, fur¬
nished materials for fascines and gabions for the approach¬
ing siege. The sultan was now seriously alarmed; and
after vain efforts to retard the siege by a distant cannon¬
ade, which occasioned little injury, he at last began to
meditate seriously on the necessity of a peace. In order
to smooth the way for his overtures, he previously liberat¬
ed two British officers, who had been detained contrary to
capitulation in Coimbetore. These officers, who had not
been treated with his usual rigour, he loaded with pre¬
sents, and made the bearers of a letter to Lord Cornwallis,
suing for peace. He at the same time had recourse to
another daring expedient, which might have been attend¬
ed with fatal consequences. He despatched a small party
of horsemen in the night to surprise the tent of Lord
Cornwallis, and to put him to death. The party were
detected by their eager inquiries after the commander’s
tent; and being fired upon, effected their retreat. The
Bombay army, which was at this time approaching, effect¬
ed its junction with the main army on the 16th ; and on
the second night after this event the trenches were open¬
ed, and a parallel formed within eight hundred yards of
the north face of the fort. General Abercromby, station¬
ed on the southern quarter with a strong detachment, was
ordered to cannonade it from the heights. This attack
being directed against the weakest part of the fort, occa¬
sioned the greatest alarm. Tippoo himself, therefore, at
the head of his troops, marched to dislodge the general.
Being supported by the guns of the fort, he maintained
the action for the whole day; but towards evening he was
forced to retreat. This desperate effort was the last that
Tippoo made for his defence. His affairs hastened to a
crisis; cabals were formed by the chiefs, and his troops
deserted in multitudes during the night. He saw his ca¬
pital blockaded on every side by a powerful army, plenti¬
fully supplied with provisions, which must infallibly re¬
duce his troops by famine, should they even prove suc¬
cessful in repelling its assaults ; even his last hopes of re¬
lief from the monsoon, and the swelling of the river, were
thus finally cut off.
On the 23d of February, therefore, the preliminaries of
peace were signed by Tippoo, amidst the conflicting emo¬
tions of pride, resentment, and fear; and orders were is¬
sued to the troops on both sides to cease from further hos¬
tilities ; a stipulation of which the dread of an immediate
assault alone enforced the observance.
By the terms of this treaty, Tippoo was compelled to
pay, as an indemnification for the expenses of the war,
three crores and thirty lacs of rupees, at two instalments,
the first to be advanced immediately, and the second at
the end of four months. Other articles of this instrument
provided further, that all the prisoners taken from the
allied powers, from the time of Hyder Ali, should be un¬
conditionally restored; that no less than one half of his
territories should be ceded to the allies, and that two of
Tippoo Sultan’s three eldest sons should be given as host¬
ages for the due performance of the treaty.
About noonday on the 26th, the young princes, the one
eight, and the other ten years of age, mounted on their ele¬
phants richly caparisoned, and attended with a splendid
retinue, left the fort, the walls and ramparts of which were
crowded with spectators. Amidst the vast multitudes
whom curiosity or affection had drawn out to witness this
scene, Tippoo himself was beheld standing above a high
gateway, through which, as they passed, the princes were
saluted by the guns of the fort; a compliment which they Hindustan,
again received as they approached the British camp.
They were seated in silver howdahs, attended by their
father’s minister and a numerous retinue. The procession
which they thus formed was equally grand and interest¬
ing. It was led by several camel harcarras and standard-
bearers, carrying green flags suspended from rockets, fol¬
lowed by one hundred pikemen, with spears inlaid with
silver. Their guard of two hundred Sepoys, and a party
of horse, brought up the rear.1
Lord Cornwallis, attended by his staff, and the princi¬
pal officers of his army, and a battalion of Sepoys, receiv¬
ed them at the door of his tent, and embraced them with
a cordiality and tenderness that resembled parental affec¬
tion. The manners, dress, and appearance of the young
princes themselves, formed an interesting spectacle to
their European hosts. They were clothed in red turbans
and long white muslin gowns, everywhere sparkling with
emeralds, rubies, and pearls. Thus attired, the young
princes, immediately after their reception, were seated on
each side of Lord Cornwallis, when Gulam Ali, the head
vakeel of Tippoo, thus addressed the British general:—
“ These children were this morning the sons of the sultan
my master; their situation is now changed; they must
look up to your lordship as their father.” The scene now
became most interesting; the faces of the children bright¬
ened up ; and not only their attendants, but all the spec¬
tators, were delighted to observe, that any fears they might
have harboured were removed, and that they would soon
be reconciled to their change of situation. After being
regaled, in the eastern manner, with ottar of roses and
betel-nut, the princes were presented each with a gold
watch from Lord Cornwallis, a gift from which they seem¬
ed to receive great delight. Lord Cornwallis next day
visited them in their tents; and each of them made him
a present of a Persian sword, and he made them a present
of some elegant fire-arms in return.
Some difficulty occurred in adjusting the terms of a
definitive treaty. When the territory of the Coorga ra¬
jah, in particular, was required, the demand seemed unex¬
pected both by the sultan and his ministers, and was at
first received with astonishment and disdain. This rajah
was considered as a chief cause of the war, and Tippoo,
therefore, wished to crush him. Lord Cornwallis seemed
equally resolute in his defence; for he again manned the
works, and threatened to recommence the attack. Hap¬
pily, his stock of provisions was ample; and although up¬
wards of 400,000 strangers and half a million of cattle
were daily to be fed, the supply was sufficient for the
whole; whilst one million sterling of the fine imposed on
Tippoo had already been paid. The firm determination
of the commander-in-chief, aided by these circumstances,
which were not unknown to the sultan, damped his reso¬
lution. His resentment cooled, and he finally acceded to
the terms agreed upon, and copies of the treaty were de¬
livered to the confederated powers.
From the conclusion of this treaty, dictated to Tippoo Nabob of
by an English army at the gates of his capital, no great Oude.
event occurs in the history of India till the renewal of the
war in 1798, during the administration of Lord Morning-
ton. The affairs of the nabob of Oude, and his dominions,
were both hastening to ruin under his own mismanage¬
ment and that of the English ; and, with a full knowledge
of this, his sway was now extended over the district of
Rampore in the Rohilla country, granted to Fyzoolah
Khan, the Rohilla chief, who survived the ruin of his na¬
tion, and who died at an advanced age in 1794, leaving
the territory of which he was ruler in a high state of cul-
1 For the substance of this account, see Major-general Dirom’s narrative of this campaign.
432
HINDUSTAN.
Transac¬
tions at
Madras.
Hindustan, tivation. On the pretence of the usurpation of the reign-
ing prince, who had made his way to the throne by the
murder of his brother, the British troops made war on the
Rohillas, and defeated them. The treasures of the late
chief, amounting to 332,000 gold mohurs (L.607,000),
were given to the vizir or ruler of Oude, who returned
twelve lacs of rupees (L.127,000) to the British army ; ten
lacs of revenue were assigned for the support of the law¬
ful prince, now dethroned; and the unhappy country was
handed over to be pillaged and destroyed by the vizir
and his English allies. He soon afterwards died, and was
succeeded by Mirza Ali or Vizir Ali, who was set aside by
the English on the reputed spuriousness of his birth, and
Saadut Ali, the eldest surviving son of Sujah Dowlah, was
placed on the throne. The annual subsidy to the English
was at the same time raised to seventy-six lacs of rupees.
The Nabob Mahommed Ali, the first ally of the Eng¬
lish, died in 1795, at the age of seventy-eight, and was
succeeded by Omdut-ul-Omrah, his eldest son. Lord
Hobart, governor of Madras, now determined to interfere
with a strong hand in the affairs of the Carnatic, and, if
possible, to rescue the country from the merciless exac¬
tions to which it had been exposed. These evils he de¬
scribes to arise from the numerous loans of the English
to the nabob. “ Some of the principal houses of business
in Madras," he observes, “ or even some of the Company’s
servants, enter into an agreement with the nabob for the
payment of sums which may have become due to the
Company’s treasury. They receive a mortgage upon a
portion of the territory. To render this availing, they
stipulate for the appointment of the manager of the terri¬
tory. It is also requisite to establish an understanding
with the military commanding officer of the district.
And then the chain of power is complete. Then the
unhappy ryots (husbandmen) are delivered over to the
uncontrolled operations of men who have an interest in
nothing but exacting the greatest sums in the shortest
time ; of men hardened by practice, and with consciences
lulled to rest by the delusive opiate of interest upon in¬
terest.’’ Lord Hobart prepared to remove these evils by
assuming the management of the nabob’s revenues, and,
in short, the internal government of the country. But
these arrangements being opposed by the supreme go¬
vernment, were not at this time carried into effect.
The British had now acquired an undisputed ascen-
, deucy in India. The other ruling powers were the Mah-
ritoriefbvrattaS’ Under the Peshwa and Scindia; the nizam of the
Srindia. ' Deccan> an ally a»d dependent of the British ; and Tip-
poo, so greatly humbled and weakened by the late war
as to be no longer formidable. Each of these powers was
jealous of the others, though the balance of power was
chiefly endangered by the ascendency of the British. The
nizam, after the conclusion of the war with Tippoo, was
extremely desirous of forming an alliance with the Eng¬
lish as a defence against the encroachments of the Mah-
rattas, who, he was well informed, were planning an in¬
road into his dominions, for the purpose of levying the
contribution of the chout, amounting to one fourth of the
land revenues, to which they laid claim, on condition of
guaranteeing the remainder. The English, though bound
to the nizam by a treaty offensive and defensive, refused
to join in any alliance against the Mahrattas, who, under
the command of Dowlut Row Scindia, Mahadjee Scindia
being lately dead, now invaded the nizam’s territories,
and having defeated his army and shut him in one of his
fortresses, dictated a treaty of peace to him, by which he
ceded a country yielding thirty-five lacs of revenue, paid
them a large sum, and gave up his minister as an hostage
for the performance of these conditions.
Lord Mornington arrived in Calcutta as governor-gene¬
ra in May H98, and he had scarcely been a month in
Invasion
of the ni-
India when he ordered “ an immediate attack” on Tippoo Hindus
Sultan, not upon any tangible ground of offence, for it was 'w-v-
not asserted that he had violated a single article of the Admini
last treaty, but upon vague accusations of alleged hostilitytrati™
and correspondence with the French, against whom the ^
new governor-general had so thoroughly imbibed the pre- w ’
judices of the day, that the mere suspicion of such a con- Tippo'j
nection seemed sufficient to justify an “immediate attack” 1798.
on his once formidable but now humbled power. Tippoo,
as the event too fatally for himself proved, was unprepared
for war. Stripped of half his dominions and revenues by
the last treaty, he had not the means of maintaining war;
whilst the power of his rivals was formidably increased, and
their numerous and well-appointed armies, and extended
dominions, justly excited the dread and the jealousy of
the native powers, and probably of Tippoo amongst others.
But the humbled king of Mysore was no longer himself an
object of jealousy and dread ; the last treaty was dictated
by a victorious army at the gates of his capital; its terms,
from his unprovoked aggression of the British allies, were
necessarily severe, and no circumstance had since occurred
to justify the British in exacting additional securities from
the fallen prince. That he was the enemy, the natural
enemy, to use a common and much abused phrase, of the
foreigners who now trampled on the independence of India,
no one can doubt. They were his rivals in the great con¬
test for the dominion of the country ; they were the gainers,
he the loser, in this game of ambition ; and w ho can doubt,
that in such a situation he should feel the stings of disap¬
pointed pride, and that he should hate the English, as it
was clear that they hated him, from their continual and
unmeasured abuse of him ? But whatever might have been
the feeling of Tippoo towards the British, certainly no hos¬
tile act was proved against him, nor any thing beyond vague
surmise. The governor general, finding he could make no
immediate attack on the sultan, secretly proceeded with his
military preparations, and as these advanced, his surmises
were converted into certainty, and he rose in his demands.
His views were at first limited to the establishment of an
English resident at Seringapatam, and to the dismission and
perpetual exclusion of all the French from his armies and
dominions. He now insisted, in order to prevent all com¬
munication by the sea-coast with the French, on the cession
of the maritime province of Canara, and the payment of a
considerable sum of money by Tippoo to defray the expense
of the military preparations for his own destruction. In
answer to these arrogant demands for additional securities,
fippoo referred to the existing treaty between the parties,
and expressed the greatest surprise at the measures of pre¬
caution and self-defence adopted by the Company. The
governor-general construed this reply into a new proof of
hostility, and accused him of prevarication, falsehood, and
criminal evasion; and Tippoo, alarmed, as he well might
be, by the great military preparations of his known ene¬
mies, despatched two natives along with a French officer
on a mission to the executive directory of France. The
governor-general now resolved to commence the war, and
to raise his terms ; to exact as the price of peace the ces¬
sion of one fourth, and, if any decisive military advantage
should be obtained, one half, of Tippoo’s whole dominions,
and the payment, in addition, of two crores or twenty mil¬
lions of sicca rupees, equal to L.2,250,000. Three armies
were now assembled for the invasion of Mysore, namely, the
army of General Harris at Velore, which was to advance
from the east; the army of General Stuart at Cananore,
on the western coast; and a force under Colonels Read
and Brown in the southern districts of the Carnatic. On
the 9th of March the army made its first united movement,
and in the course of its advance experienced no serious re¬
sistance. The greatest obstacle to its progress arose from
the want of provisions, and an adequate supply of carriages.
HINDUSTAN.
433
«jn ,tan. All these difficulties were, however, overcome ; and on the
5th of April the united army took up its position for the siege
of the capital, exactly one month after it had crossed the
frontier. Tippoo made a last and vain appeal to his ene¬
mies. But the governor-general was now resolved on the
conquest of the country. His views expanded with the
success of his arms ; and towards the end of April he de-
iDefi and dared his opinion, that “ it would be prudent and justifiable
dea >f entirely to overthrow the power of Tippoo and “ that the
Tip • power and resources of Tippoo Sultan should be reduced
to the lowest possible state, and even utterly destroyed, if
the events of the war should furnish the opportunity.” On
the 3d of May a practicable breach was made, and next day
the assault took place, which, notwithstanding an obstinate
defence, was successful at every point. The assailants, carry¬
ing every thing before them by the impetuosity of their at¬
tack, met over the eastern gateway; and the palace, in which
were the family of the sultan and a body of his most faithful
adherents, was the only place within the fort that still held
out. From motives of humanity, the English were extreme¬
ly averse to expose its inmates to the horror of an assault,
and they at length succeeded in effecting its peaceable sur¬
render. Major Allan, who was admitted to the apartments
of the young princes, endeavoured, by every expression of
tenderness, to soothe the agitation of their minds. They
were conducted to the presence of General Baird, who as¬
sured them, in the kindest manner, of protection from vio¬
lence and insult, and gave them in charge to two officers,
to be conducted to the head-quarters of the general. The
sultan lost his life in the defence of his capital, and his
body was found amidst heaps of slain. He had been re¬
peatedly wounded in the course of the conflict; and his
attendants having placed him in his palanquin, he wras ob¬
served by the English soldiers who first entered. One of
them, in attempting to pull off his sword-belt, which was
very rich, received a wound from the sultan, who still held
his sabre in his hand ; on which, putting his musket to his
shoulder, he fired, and the sultan, receiving the ball in his
temple, expired.
The kingdom of Mysore, which was now in possession
of the English, was partitioned amongst the allied powers.
The English and the nizam received equal portions of
the conquered territory, and a smaller portion was reserv¬
ed for the Mahrattas. The possessions of the sultan on
the Malabar coast, the district of Coimbetore and Daram-
poram, the whole country which lay between the Com¬
pany’s territory on the eastern and western coasts, the
passes of the Ghauts, the district of Weynaad, and the
city and island of Seringapatam, were surrendered to
the British, who now occupied the country from sea to
sea. A territory of equal revenue was ceded to Nizam
Ali, in the districts of Gooty, Gurrumcondah, and the
tract of country which lies along the line of the great
forts of Chittledroog, Sera, Nundydroog, and Colar, with
the exception of the forts. The territory ceded to the
Mahrattas, from one half to two thirds of the other por¬
tions, was to include Harpoonelly, Soonda above the
Ghauts, Annagoody, and some other districts; also the
territory, though not the fortresses, of Chittledroog and
Bednore. The remaining portion of the sultan’s territo-
nes was erected into a separate state, over which was
placed a descendant of the ancient rajahs, who had been
retained in confinement by Tippoo and his father; with
such provisions, however, as really vested the whole
powers of the new state, both civil and military, in the
hands of the English. The treasures of Tippoo, amount¬
ing to sixteen lacs of pagodas (L.640,000), and his jewels,
valued at L.360,000, were divided amongst the troops.
The fortress of Velore was commodiously fitted up for the
future residence of the royal family, to whom, and to all
Hppoo’s confidential servants, such pensions were assign-
VOL. XI.
ed, that they were no less surprised than gratified by the Hindustan,
liberality of the conquerors. —
The transactions of the East India Company’s servants Arbitrary
with the native princes of India consisted in continualconduct °f
encroachments, until at length they engrossed both the
civil and military powers of the state, and reduced the the native
sovereign to a mere pageant. The first step was the sub-p0wers.
sidiary alliance, by which they placed a resident at the
court of the native prince, with a body of British troops
for the defence of his dominions. Thus they acquired
the power of the sword, and might at any time also usurp
from the native ruler the civil administration of the coun¬
try. Under this system of progressive ascendency, the
native princes were seen in every stage of degradation. A
treaty had been recently concluded with the nizam, by
which he agreed to dismiss a force under French officers,
which he had hitherto maintained, and to receive and to
pay a British force in its stead, whose aid, it is certain,
was absolutely necessary for the defence of his dominions.
This was therefore the commencement of British ascen¬
dency in that country. In Oude the military power had
long been vested in the Company; and the country was
languishing, and in some parts reduced to desolation, by
the mal-administration of the nabob, and the still increas¬
ing extortions of his English allies. The disorder of the
finances, and the oppression and complaints of the people,
always afforded a pretext for interference; and though
the affairs of Oude, as the directors supposed, had been
permanently settled by a definitive treaty which Sir J.
Shore concluded at Lucknow in 1798, by which they ex¬
pressed their satisfaction that not merely an immediate
payment of twelve lacs of rupees had been secured, but
an annual increase of upwards of twenty lacs, yet it was
now resolved by the Marquis Wellesley to overturn all
these arrangements, and to take from the nabob the whole
civil and military power of the country in form, as had
already been done in substance. The governor-general,
that he might save appearances, and avoid any recourse
to actual force, was desirous to obtain from the nabob an
abdication of his sovereignty. But he manifested the
strongest aversion to relinquish his dignity and power.
He reasoned, he remonstrated, he entreated in the most
humble terms; and though he was in the power of the
British, he refused, in defiance even of threats, to com¬
mit such an act of flagrant dishonour as to sign away the
inheritance of his fathers. The governor-general was
highly incensed at this display of dignity by the fallen
prince, which somewhat disconcerted his plans, and the
nabob was alternately cajoled and threatened. He still
remained firm, and repelled every proposition for the vo¬
luntary resignation of his dignity. At last a middle course
was adopted. The annual contribution imposed on Oude
by the treaty of Sir John Shore was seventy-six lacs,
the additional expense of the troops which he was now
to maintain was 5,412,929, together 13,012,929 rupees,
equal to L. 1,463,953 sterling. It was now agreed that
he should cede in perpetuity to the English, a terri¬
tory yielding revenue to this amount, which was not
much less than two thirds of his dominions, and that he
should still continue the nominal sovereign of his re¬
maining possessions. A treaty to this effect was ac¬
cordingly concluded. In this transaction we may trace
throughout, the two parties, in their distinct characters of
the oppressor and the oppressed; on the one side fear,
supplication, humility, grief of heart; on the other cold¬
ness, cruelty, haughtiness, all the harsh features and aus¬
tere policy of absolute power; and we have given this
brief sketch as an illustration at once of the decided as¬
cendency of the British in India, and of their policy in
using or abusing that ascendency for the overthrow of
the native powers. By the same authority, the nabob of
3 i
434
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan. Surat, the nabob of Arcot, against whom a lucky disco-
very was made of a criminal correspondence with Tippoo,
and the rajah of Tanjore, were all dethroned, and pensions
assigned them for their support. The badness of the go¬
vernment was still urged as a reason for these measures ;
and if this was the motive, and the increased happiness of
the people the consequence, they merit praise instead of
blame. Yet some suspicion must attach to the motives
of those who, after the death of Fyzoolah Khan, could
transfer the flourishing country of the Rohillas from the
mild sway of its lawful rulers to the misrule and oppres¬
sion of the nabob of Oude. A bad was here substituted
for a good government, and a happy people delivered over
to merciless extortion. Besides, if good government was
the object, how greatly would it have been promoted by a
remission of the heavy contributions levied by the English?
But these were still increased; and it was the amount of
these exactions, as well as the mode of raising them, which
oppressed the country.
The Mah- The Mahratta powers, namely, the peshwa, the nomi-
ratta pow- nal head of the confederacy, whose capital was Poonah,
ers‘ the rajah of Berar, Holkar, and Scindia, now remained the
only rivals of the English for the dominion of India; and
it was the policy of the Marquis Wellesley, as he him¬
self explains at large in his correspondence with the resi¬
dents in India and the directors at home, to form subsi¬
diary alliances with them, on the same terms as with the
other states of India; namely, that a British force should
be permanently stationed within their dominions, and that
they should assign a sufficient quantity of land for its
maintenance and pay. The effect of this alliance, as in¬
deed its object, as stated by the marquis, was to secure
the dependence of the different states of India on the Bri¬
tish power. “ The measure of subsidizing a British force,
even under the limitations which the pasha has annex¬
ed to that proposal (namely, its being stationed with¬
out the limits of his dominions), must immediately place
him in some degree in a state of dependence on the Bri¬
tish power.” This effect was very plainly seen by the
Mahratta princes, as well as by the governor-general; and
accordingly, though the arrangement was very zealously
pressed upon the peshwa, as well as on Scindia, it was
steadily rejected by both, until the former was reduced
by necessity to accept the alliance of the British on their
own terms. This necessity was brought about by conten¬
tions amongst the Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Scindia,
for political ascendency in the court of Poonah. Mahadjee
Scindia, who was the founder of the family, was the son of
Ramojee Scindia, whose humble employment at the court
of Poonah was to carry thepeshwa’s slippers, but who after¬
wards rose to eminent rank, and was known as an enter¬
prising soldier. Mahadjee was also a soldier, and was pre¬
sent in the fatal battle of Paniput, from which he nar¬
rowly escaped with a severe wound in his knee by a bat¬
tle-axe. He afterwards acquired land and troops, and
rose, as the power of the peshwa declined, to the rank of
an independent chief. He died at Poonah in 1791, leav¬
ing to his grand-nephew, Dowlut Row Scindia, only thir¬
teen years of age, vast possessions and a well-disciplined
army.1 Mulhar Row, the founder of the Holkar family,
was born about the year 1693. He was at first a keeper
of sheep, afterwards a commander of horse in the service
of the peshwa, and at last one of the great military lead¬
ers of the Mahratta confederacy. He died in 1766, at the
age of seventy-six years, with the character of a plain and
generous soldier. Mulhar Row Holkar had only one son,
Kundee Row, who was slain, some years before the battle
of Paniput, at the siege of Kumbhere. This prince had
married the renowned Ahalya Baee, by whom he had one Hindu
son and one daughter, both of whom died, the daughter j
on the funeral pile of her deceased husband. Ahalya
Baee succeeded to the sovereignty, and assumed as the
commander of her army, and her minister for those du¬
ties which a female could not perform, Tukajee Holkar,
the chief of the tribe, though not related to Mulhar Row.
The administration of Ahalya Baee, who is celebrated by
Sir John Malcolm as a shining example of great qualities
and amiable virtues, was fraught with blessings to her
subjects, the country enjoying under her rule more than
thirty years of prosperity and peace. Tukajee Holkar,
who reigned till the year 1797, left four sons, Cashee
Rao, Mulhar Rao, Eithojee Holkar, and Jeswunt Rao
Holkar. The succession was disputed by the two elder
brothers, who repaired to Poonah for the decision of the
peshwa. The influence of Scindia was at this time pa¬
ramount at Poonah; and having made his terms with
Cashee Rao, he surprised and murdered Mulhar Ilao,
with all his attendants, at Poonah, in September 1797.
The wife of Mulhar Rao left a posthumous child, Khun-
deh Rao, of whose person Scindia got possession, and re¬
taining Cashee Rao in a state of dependence, proposed to
govern the dominions of Holkar in his name. The two
brothers, Eithojee and Jeswunt Rao, who were at Poonah
at the time of the murder, made their escape, the first to
Kolapoor, where he was taken, sent to Poonah, and exe¬
cuted ; the latter to Nagpoor, where he was arrested and
thrown into confinement. Having made his escape, he
fled to Mehysser on the Nerbuddah. Here he collected
a band of adventurers, and in October 1801 was enabled
to fight a battle with Scindia, in which he was defeated
with the loss of his baggage and artillery. Before the
middle of 1802 Holkar had assembled a new and well-dis¬
ciplined army. He insisted on the release of the posthu¬
mous child Khundeh Rao, the head, as he proclaimed
him, of the house of Holkar ; and to enforce his demand,
he advanced with his troops from Malwah towards Poonah.
Scindia collected his army, and on the 25th of October a
battle was fought, in which Holkar obtained a decisive
victory.
It was during these transactions that the governor-Foreif
general deemed the occasion favourable for drawing theP°l'c.v ^
Mahratta chiefs into a subsidiary alliance with the Bri-Lor(1
tish; and it was proposed to Scindia that he should re¬
ceive a British force into his dominions, that he should
cede to the Company a territory sufficient to maintain
this force, and that he should admit the arbitration of the
British in all disputes with the nizam and with the other
states of Hindustan; and the governor-general explains,
that if he consent to receive a British force within his do¬
minions, “ the arbitration of the British government will
necessarily be admitted to an extent proportioned to the
ascendency which that government will obtain over Scin¬
dia under the proposed engagements, and to the power
which it will possess of controlling his designs.” Was
this system, we may ask, of general alliance and subjec¬
tion to the British, now proposed by the governor-general,
a scheme of benevolence for establishing universal peace
throughout India, or one of ambition ? War is no doubt the
great scourge of humanity; and if it could be superseded
by the peaceable arbitration of neutral powers, a great
blessing would be conferred on mankind. But it is vain
to suppose that the potentates of the earth will voluntari¬
ly submit to the curb of reason ; and vain was it therefore
for the governor-general to endeavour, by persuasion or
address, to draw the powers of India into an alliance which
would reduce them from the rank of independent princes
1 Memoir of Central India, by Sir John Malcolm, vol. i. chap. v.
HINDUSTAN. 435
Mlustan.to mere dependents on the British. That the entire as-
\ cendency of the Company’s government in India would,
in preventing intestine war, have been, as it has since
proved, highly beneficial to India, no one could doubt;
though, before we can ascribe to the governor-general
these benevolent views, we must be convinced that the
peace of India was the end, and the ascendency of the
British only the means. But, whatever may have been
his motives, it is clear that the end, namely, the supre¬
macy of the British, was to be gained, not by peaceable
means, but by the sword ; that the immediate tendency of
his policy was war;—and, in point of fact, it is by war that
all India, happily we sincerely believe for the people, has
been at length brought under the control of one ruling
power, and that universal peace now reigns over that vast
continent. It was not yet time, however, for this desirable
consummation ; and the Mahratta chiefs, as might have
been supposed, received with decided aversion the propo¬
sitions of the governor-general, which amounted to no¬
thing less than a renunciation of independent power. In
the defeat of Scindia, however, by Holkar, and the ad¬
vance of this latter chief to Poonah, the peshwa saw
the overthrow of his power; and he quitted his capital,
leaving in the hands of the British resident a preliminary
engagement, by which he agreed to receive into his ter¬
ritories six battalions of troops, with their proportion of
artillery, and to cede a territory for their support either
in Gujerat or the Carnatic, yielding twenty-five lacs of
rupees.
1 tyof This treat}'’, in which it was further agreed that the
^ pin, peshwa should, by the aid of the British, be restored to
^ dominions and to his sovereign authority, was for-
J ratta ma^y signed at Bassein on the 31st of December 1802;
cl s. and immediately Sir Arthur Wellesley, on a report that
Poonah was in danger of being burned, advanced on that
city by a rapid and unexpected march, with a body of ca¬
valry. At the approach of the British, Holkar’s disorderly
bands fled with precipitation, and soon abandoned the ter¬
ritory of Poonah ; and the deposed prince returned in tri¬
umph to his capital, amid the acclamations of the people.
The treaty of Bassein, and the entire ascendency of
the British at the court of Poonah, excited the jealousy of
the other powers; and Scindia and the rajah of Berar
now entered into a confederacy for repressing this desire
of encroachment on the native states. But their mo¬
tions were narrowly watched by the British; and their ar¬
mies having taken hostile positions, from which they re¬
fused to withdraw, the British were induced to take the
field. A vast force was collected. An army under Gene¬
ral Lake assembled on the north-western frontier of Oude,
which on the 7th of August marched from Cawnpore, and
crossing Scindia’s frontier on the 28th, took by assault
the fort of Allyghur, and on the 9th of September totally
defeated, about six miles from Delhi, the Mahratta force,
formerly under Perron, a French officer, and still com-
v manded by one of his countrymen, with the loss of all the
^ ;sses artillery and baggage. General Lake entered Delhi, eva-
L ^ cuated by the enemy on the 14th, and paid his respects to
Si mhurthe ^reat Mogul Shah Aulum, afflicted with age, infirmi-
" esley. V68’ an<^ poverty, in all respects a touching spectacle of
fallen dignity. On the 4th he reached Agra, which was
taken by assault after a severe contest; and on the 31st
defeated, in the well-fought battle of Laswaree, the remain¬
ing force of Scindia; and thus in the course of three months
overran all his territories in the region of the Jumna. Nor
was General Wellesley, who now gave an early promise of
that genius for war which was afterwards more fully dis¬
played in the arduous conflicts of Europe, less successful in
the south. His first operation was the assault and capture
of the strong fortress of Ahmednuggur on the 12th of Au-
gnst; after which, being apprised that the combined ar¬
mies of Scindia and the rajah of Berar meditated a march Hindustan,
on Hydrabad, he concerted with Colonel Stephenson, who '--y'w
commanded a separate corps, a joint attack on the 24th.
In the mean time, apprehensive that the enemy meditated
a retreat, he attacked with his own division alone the com¬
bined Mahratta armies, encamped on the Kaitra river, near
the village of Assye, and obtained the victory after a san¬
guinary conflict, in which, out of 4500 men, the British lost
428 killed and 1138 wounded, and were entirely disabled
from pursuing the enemy. Colonel Stephenson, who join¬
ed on the 24th, was sent on this duty, and was also instruct¬
ed to attack Boorhanpore and Asseerghur, of which, and of
all Scindia’s territories in the Deccan, he took possession.
The British arms were now turned against the rajah of
Berar ; his army was entirely defeated on the plains of Ar-
gaun on the 29th of November. Colonel Stephenson, ad¬
vancing to Ellichpoor on the 5th of December, laid siege to
the strong mountain fortress of Gawilghur, near the source
of the Taptee, which was carried by assault. The British
were equally successful in every other quarter. The country
of Bundelcund was speedily reduced ; a force from Bombay
attacked Scindia’s possessions in Gujerat; and a division
of the Madras army the maritime province of Cuttack.
The Mahratta chiefs now bethought of peace as their
only refuge from impending ruin. A treaty was accord¬
ingly concluded with the rajah of Berar, by which he ceded
to the Company the province of Cuttack, with the port of
Balasore, to their ally the nizam, the country lying be¬
tween his own frontier and the river Wurda to the east¬
ward, and between his own frontier and the hills, in which
are situated the forts of Gawilghur and Nernulla to the
northward. By the treaty concluded with Scindia, he
ceded in full sovereignty the country between the Jumna
and the Ganges, to the northward of the territories be¬
longing to the rajahs of Jeepoor, Joudpoor, and Gohud,
the fort and territories of Barooch, of Ahmednuggur, and
all the possessions which he held on the south side of the
Ajuntee Hills to the Godavery river. Provision was made Treaty
for the independence of all those minor states in the re- vvit.h the
gion of the Jumna which had joined the English in the j‘ajah of
late war. Of these cessions, it was agreed that the terri- witlTsrin
tory situated to the westward of the Wurdah, and to thedia.
southward of the hills on which were the forts of Gawil¬
ghur and Nernulla, together with the territory between
the Ajuntee Hills, should be given to the nizam ; that the
fortress of Ahmednuggur and its territory should belong to
the peshwa, and that the English should have the remain¬
ing portion. The minor princes near the Jumna, namely,
the rajahs of Bhurtpore, Joudpoor, Jeepoor, Machery, and
Boondi, the ranah of Gohud, and Ambajee Ilao Englah,
now became dependents on the British, by whom they
were guaranteed in the possession of their dominions, they
defraying any charge which might be incurred. Scindia,
now weakened by the loss of territory, was really anxious
to secure a subsidiary alliance with the English for the se¬
curity of his remaining dominions against the designs of
Holkar. It was agreed that six thousand infantry, with
the usual complement of artillery, should be allotted for
his defence; that they should be maintained by the Eng¬
lish from the revenues of the ceded territories; and that
they should be stationed near the frontier, but not within
his dominions. It was further agreed, as formerly in the
treaty of Bassein, that the British should not in any case
interfere between him and his subjects, but that the sub¬
sidiary force, if required, should aid in suppressing rebel¬
lion and internal disturbances; a condition of doubtful
policy, since it evidently implies that the British were to
stand still, the quiet spectators of any cruelties the Mah¬
ratta chief might inflict upon his subjects ; but, the moment
they took up arms in their defence, they were to aid in
crushing them, as disturbers of the public peace.
HINDUSTAN.
436
Hindustan. The short period of tranquillity that succeeded the peace
with Scindia was speedily interrupted by Holkar, who,
<>nS he kept aloof from the confederacy of his country-
jfoik ir. men, with an indifference which seemed to argue at once
a deficiency of patriotism and a want of sound policy, was,
nevertheless, alarmed by the success of the British arms,
and his whole conduct evinced his determination to try the
fortune of war. His power and resources had gradually
been increased, like that of the other chiefs, by the intro¬
duction of European officers into his army, and by an im¬
proved system of discipline, Which he had established.
He was, besides, protected by the nature of his country,
which is very mountainous, and, during the rains, impas¬
sable from jungles and morasses. His skill in maintaining
the predatory warfare, so congenial to a Mahratta army, was
far superior to that of the other chiefs, whose ruin had so
fully taught him the danger of any regular engagement with
European troops. Thus, although his territories were in¬
vaded on all sides by detachments of the Company’s forces,
he constantly eluded their attacks; and, by the singular ra¬
pidity of his movements, he was enabled suddenly to as¬
semble almost his whole force, and overpower whatever de¬
tachments he might find at a distance from support. In
this situation, the troops under Colonel Monson were sur¬
prised. This officer, in concert with Colonel Murray, who
invaded Holkar’s dominions from Gujerat, and captured In¬
dore, the capital, without much opposition, had advanced
fifty miles beyond the Mokundra Pass, towards the Chumbul,
when, alarmed by the fear of his supplies running short, he
resolved to retreat. Being betrayed by his guides, and de¬
serted by part of his troops, he was attacked by a superior
force under Holkar himself, before which he was forced to
retreat towards Agra, through a country impassable from
the rains, and destitute of provisions. After several dis¬
astrous conflicts, during a retreat of seven weeks, which
degenerated into a flight, the greater part of his guns, and
the whole of the baggage and military stores, were lost. A
few only of the troops reached Agra at midnight, in a state
of extreme distress; the greater part had been overtaken
in their flight, and were either massacred, or cruelly mu¬
tilated, by their ferocious pursuers.
Colonel Willot of the Bengal artillery was almost equally
unsuccessful in an attack which he had planned against a
strong post in the interior: he failed in the attempt, and
soon after 'died of the wounds he had received. It was in
Bundelcund, and the country of the Rohillas, that Holkar
received the most considerable checks, which produced a
reverse in his fortunes. From both those territories he was
completely driven by Lieutenant-colonel Fawcet and Ge¬
neral Smith. On the escape of Colonel Monson to Agra,
Holkar advanced with his whole army to Muttra, whither
he was followed by General Lake, who arrived at Muttra
on the 1st of October 1804, Holkar retiring as he advanced.
Here he put in practice a stratagem, which had nearly gain¬
ed for him great advantages. Leaving his cavalry to engage
the attention of the British general, he proceeded with his
infantry in secret and by forced marches, and on the 8th
he appeared before Delhi, on which he opened a heavy
cannonade. Next day he erected breaching batteries, and
made a determined assault. But this and a subsequent at¬
tack was repelled with such determined gallantry by the
small garrison under Colonels Ochterlony and Burn, that
he desisted from all further attempts, and departed during
the night with his whole force.
1 arties of his cavalry had been repeatedly defeated by
Lord Lake; but the rapidity of their movements as often
saved them from destruction, and it was not till the de¬
cisive battle of Deeg, on the 13th of November, that the
main strength of this enterprising chief was completely
broken. At this place his army, trusting to the great
strength of its position, behind successive ranges of bat¬
teries, was induced to hazard a general action. From H ^
these different batteries, which extended to the depth of ^
two miles, they were successively driven by the gallant
General Frazer, who had the credit of forcing a post which
had been deemed impregnable, and which at this period
was defended by twenty-four battalions of infantry and
150 pieces of cannon. In this brilliant achievement the
general received a wound in the leg, of which he afterwards
died, and was carried off the field. The completion of the
victory thus fell to Colonel Monson, who now saw com¬
plete vengeance inflicted for his past disasters, and for the
unexampled cruelty of his enemy, 2000 of whom were
killed, either in the battle or during the retreat. An im¬
mense number was wounded, and amongst these many con¬
siderable chiefs; whilst eighty-seven pieces of cannon fell
into his hands, which partly consisted of the same guns
which he had himself lost during his disastrous retreat
to Agra. The important fortress of Deeg was besieged
and taken at night, by assault, on the 23d of December.
Had Holkar confided merely to his effective force in the
field, his cause might have now been regarded as desperate.
His boldness, however, and his unexampled success, had
gained him the support of several of the native princes.
Among these he had seduced the rajah of Bhurtpore, an
ally of the British, and the chief of the celebrated caste of
the Jauts, the most warlike tribe in upper India. General
Lake was therefore obliged to concentrate his army, and
to employ it in the x-eduction of Bhurtpore, a fortress which
experience has proved to have been the strongest and most
impregnable in the whole peninsula. Whilst thus employ¬
ed, the dispersed troops of Holkar had time to rendezvous
in distant quarters, and were successful in cutting off his
supplies of provisions, and in plundering the surrounding
districts, by that predatory mode of warfare for which the
Mahrattas have always been celebrated. Scindia, also,
who had been engaged in continual disputes with the Bri¬
tish respecting the treaty which had been concluded, now
openly showed his hostile dispositions by invading the ter¬
ritories of the British allies, by attacking and plundering
the camp of the British resident, and by his ill-concealed
correspondence with Holkar, whom he now openly joined.
The reduction of Bhurtpore, defended by the indefa-Sieo >f
tigable efforts of Holkar, by its intrepid garrison, and its Bhi lore,
own natural strength, proved the most arduous enterprise
which the British troops had ever undertaken in Asia.
The success of the besieged in repelling four different as¬
saults animated them with fresh courage and intrepidity.
The rajah and his whole tribe were united by the ties of
blood, as well as of civil authority. They laid claim to a
high caste among the natives, which they knew must be for¬
feited for ever by unconditional submission. Unfortunate¬
ly these were the only terms which General Lake, in the
peremptory instructions which w ere given for its reduction,
was permitted to accept. The rajah, therefore, having col¬
lected in the fort his women, his children, and his trea¬
sures, resolved to bury them all with himself under its
ruins, rather than submit to terms which were deemed as
disgraceful to his religion and his rank, as they were mor¬
tifying to his feelings as a soldier. Compelled by the orders
of his superior, and undaunted by all the past disasters
which the troops had already suffered, General Lake re¬
solved to hazard another attempt, which was equally un¬
successful with all the others. In the official account given
of this last attack, it is said, “ the bastion, which was the
point of attack, wras extremely steep, the resistance oppos¬
ed to them was vigorous, and as our men could only mount
by small parties at a time, the advantages were very great
on the side of the enemy. Discharges of grape, logs of
wood, and pots filled with combustible materials, imme¬
diately knocked down those who were ascending; and the
whole party, after having engaged in an obstinate contest
HINDUSTAN.
437
idustan. for two hours, and suffering very severe loss, was obliged
to relinquish the attempt, and to retire to our trenches.”
The loss of the British army in this last assault, and that
of the 20th, amounted to 300 killed, and 1564 wounded;
its whole loss, during the different attacks, amounted to
upwards of 3000 of the bravest of our troops, whilst the
unconditional surrender of the place, though the ultimate
object of all these perilous attempts, was never attained.
The rajah, however, again proposed the terms he had
formerly offered, and consented to pay three lacs of ru¬
pees to the army, and the expenses of the war. Hostages
were given for the regular discharge of these sums, at dif¬
ferent instalments. Thus the last prince in India who re¬
sisted the British arms was found to have made the most
glorious defence of his independence, and to have secured
for himself the most honourable terms. Holkar, unable
any longer to face the British troops, was reduced to the
condition of a fugitive ; and flying from place to place, of¬
ten beaten, and at last deserted by almost the whole of his
troops, was obliged to escape with a retinue so scanty as
was hardly sufficient for the protection of his person,
rival of The directors of the Company in Europe, though they
rd Corn-were dazzled for a time by the splendid successes of the
Uis. Pa-British arms, were at length startled by the warlike policy
cIl0‘1(7‘and prodigal expenditure of the Wellesley administration ;
and, with a view to retrieve their embarrassed affairs, the
Marquis Cornwallis was sent out as governor-general to
Calcutta, where he arrived on the 30th of July 1805. He
entirely disapproved of the system of subsidiary alliances
adopted by his predecessor, by which the British were en¬
tangled in the labyrinth of Indian politics. He censured
in strong terms the treaty of Bassein, which reduced the
British, as he states, to “ the alternative of mixing in all
the disorders and contentions incident to the loose and in¬
efficient constitution of the peshwa’s administration, or of
suffering the government and dominion of his highness to
be completely overthrown by the unrestrained effects of
general anarchy and rebellion. Under such circumstances,”
he adds, “ the alliance with the peshwa, far from being
productive of any advantage to the Company, must involve
us in inextricable difficulty, and become an intolerable
burden to us.” In pursuance of these views, he resolved,
as soon as Scindia should release the British residency, to
conclude a treaty with him, and to restore to him Gualior
and Gohud, the points in dispute. At this critical period
Lord Cornwallis, languishing under age and infirmities, ex¬
pired. But his successor, Sir George Barlow, entered en¬
tirely into his views. A treaty was concluded with Scindia
on the terms proposed ; the British agreed to renounce all
interference, by treaties or otherwise, with the rajahs of
Odeypoor, Joudpoor, Kotah, and other chiefs, the tributa¬
ries of Scindia, in Malwah and Mewar. A treaty was con¬
cluded with Holkar, on the 24th of December 1805, by
which all his former territories were restored to him, both on
the north and on the south of the Chumbul. According to
his system, Lord Cornwallis dissolved all the alliances which
had been formed with the petty princes of India, several
of whom had aided the British in the late contest. Lord
Lake earnestly remonstrated in vain against this abandon¬
ment of the British allies, several of whom were now left,
contrary to the faith of protecting treaties, to the ven¬
geance of the Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Scindia.
From the year 1805, when a general peace was esta¬
blished by Lord Cornwallis, to the year 1813, when Mar¬
quis Hastings assumed the government, the political rela¬
tions of the Company with the native powers had under¬
gone little alteration. The tranquillity which prevailed
was, however, more apparent than real; and it was natural¬
ly to be supposed, indeed, that the widely extending domi¬
nation of a foreign power would excite the jealousy of the
native princes of India. • Such of them, accordingly, as re¬
mere!
ice.
'Paulese
tained any sense of national honour were naturally hostile Hindustan,
to the British, and were well disposed to unite against them v—
as the common enemies of Indian independence. In 1814
the war with the Nepaulese commenced, and in the outset
the reverses sustained by the British in their attempts to
penetrate into the hill country strongly excited the hopes
of the native princes. In the following year, the valour
and military talents of Sir D. Ochterlony brought that war
to a brilliant close ; and the bravery and discipline display¬
ed by the troops in the course of the campaign renewed
among the Indian princes the former impression of their
invincible superiority. Whatever might be their ulterior
views, therefore, they were compelled for the present to
temporize, and to soothe their conquerors by an outward
show of humility and peace.
A more favourable opportunity, as they conceived, soon Incursions
occurred for successful resistance to the British power. °f A16 Bin-
From the constant wars and commotions in which India ^arees’
had from time immemorial been involved, it happened that *
a great proportion of the native population were trained to
habits of disorder and military license. At the general
settlement concluded in 1805, it was naturally supposed
that those bands of adventurers, having no longer any
scope for their predatory enterprises, would betake them¬
selves to pacific pursuits, and would thus be gradually dis¬
solved among the mass of the people. It happened other¬
wise. Those hordes of freebooters, known under the ge¬
neral denomination of Pindarees, improved both in strength
and union, and Scindia and Holkar, in whose neighbour¬
hood they were settled, if they did not openly abet them,
made no active efforts for their suppression. The nature of
their force may be shortly described. It consists of a spe¬
cies of light cavalry, which was formerly attached to the
native armies, in the same manner and for the same pur¬
pose as the Cossacks are to the armies of Russia. Their
horses were trained to long marches and hard fare, it being
their object to plunder the country, and to elude pursuit
by the celerity of their movements. They were generally
armed with a bamboo spear, from twelve to eighteen feet
long; every fifteenth man carried a matchlock; about
four hundred out of every thousand were well mounted ;
of the remaining six hundred, four hundred were indifter-
ently mounted, and the rest were slaves, attendants, and
camp-followers, mounted on wild ponies, and keeping up
with the corps as they best could. About the year 1814,
these predatory bands comprised about 40,000 horse, who
followed plunder as their mode of subsistence, and were
indeed a most formidable species of gang-robbers; but,
like other robbers and murderers on a great scale, they
assumed all the form and pomp of military array. The
strength and numbers of this disorderly mass were daily
increasing by deserters from ITolkar’s irregular bands, and
from the loose cavalry establishments of Scindia and others,
where they were retained by no tie but that of present ad¬
vantage, and where their pay was always in arrear. The
central situation of the Pindarees, at an equal distance
from the three presidencies, rendered their hostility still
more formidable, and enforced on the British the neces¬
sity of maintaining an extensive .line of defence, which
was always penetrated by those flying hordes, and the
territories of our allies exposed, in consequence, to annual
devastations. In 1808-1809, and in 1812, they carried
their incursions into the British territories, and returned
loaded with spoil. The fame of these successful exploits
recruited their bands, and enabled them to extend their
ravages. In October 1815, a force of 8000 Pindarees
crossed the Nerbuddah in a north-west direction, and
dividing into two parties, they penetrated to the Kistnah,
though they were watched, and one party was surprised
by a body of infantry and cavalry, which did them, how¬
ever, little damage. They were only deterred from cross-
438
War with
the Pin-
darees.
War with
the Pesh-
wa.
HINDUSTAN.
• ing into the Madras presidency by the swollen state of
the river, along the fertile and populous banks of which
they took their course, plundering as they went along, and
committing every kind of enormity. In their return
along the line of the Godavery and the Wurda, they
passed the British positions, making good their retreat
with an immense booty, and with utter impunity. A se¬
cond expedition was soon planned, which, crossing the
Nerbuddah, appeared on the western frontier of the dis¬
trict of Masulipatam, under the Madras presidency, on
the 10th of March 1816. Next day they made a march
of thirty-eight miles southward, plundering ninety-two vil¬
lages, with every circumstance of unheard-of cruelty ; and
on the 12th they marched thirty-eight miles, plundering
fifty-four villages. By the 17th May they had nearly all
recrossed the Nerbuddah, loaded with spoil, and with
scarcely any loss. During the twelve days that they had
remained within the Company’s territories, it was ascer¬
tained that 182 persons had been put to a cruel death,
505 were found severely wounded, and 3603 had been
put to different kinds of torture.1
It now became necessary to adopt efficient means for
protecting the country against these destructive visitations.
For this purpose a defensive line of posts was extended
along the Nerbuddah, and across the country for about
150 miles. This was, as usual, soon penetrated by the ac¬
tivity of the enemy, and various expeditions advanced
southward for the purpose of plunder. By the singular
activity of the different corps, and by a train also of fortu¬
nate accidents, almost all of these expeditions were inter¬
cepted, broken, and discomfited, so that very few of the
plunderers made good their retreat. It was resolved, how¬
ever, in the year 1817, to commence offensive operations ;
to attack the enemy in their native haunts, and either to
exterminate them, or to drive them from the advantageous
position which they occupied, in the very centre of India.
The season of inaction was accordingly spent in making pre¬
parations for a great military effort; and, by the end of the
rainy season of 1817, a numerous and well-appointed army
was ready for the field. The plan of the campaign was,
that the armies of the different presidencies should advance
northward, and gradually converging to a common centre,
hem in, on every side, the devoted territory of the free¬
booters.
But whilst this plan was in progress, it was interrupted,
and part of the troops engaged in executing it were sud¬
denly recalled, by the unexpected hostility of the native
powers. Bajee Rao, the peshwa or prince of Poonah, who
had long been impatient of the British yoke, availed him¬
self of this opportunity to make a fresh attempt to recover
his independence. With a view of more vigorously prose¬
cuting the w'ar against the Pindarees, all the troops had mov¬
ed northward, with the exception of a brigade which had
been left at Poonah; and it wras to overpower this small
body ot troops that the peshwa’s first efforts were directed.
They wrere completely unsuccessful; he was repulsed at all
points by the steadiness of the Company’s troops. This ac¬
tion took place on the 5th of November. On the 13tli, the
British were joined by General Smith’s division, which had
advanced on the Godavery, on an understanding, that if he
did not hear daily from the resident at Poonah, he should
countermarch to that place. It was resolved to attack the
enemy’s camp next day ; but it was found deserted. Ge¬
neral Smith immediately commenced an unremitting pur¬
suit of the peshwra, who was hunted from place to place by
the different corps of the British army, until he at length
deemed it prudent to surrender. He was deposed from
his throne; a residence in a particular city was fixed upon Hindus)
for him ; and a pension of about L.l 00,000 per annum as-
signed him for his support. His dominions were of course
taken under the administration of the British.
The rajah of Nagpoor, Appa Saheb, who was held in War wit
the same thraldom by the British, pursued a similar course, the Raja
and with the same results. On the 26th of November, at Nag-
sunset, he attacked, with a great superiority of force, thepoor'
brigade left at the residency, which was in consequence in
great peril. A doubtful contest was maintained through
the night, and next day the attack on the British was re¬
newed with fresh vigour. Under every disadvantage those
attacks were finally repulsed, and the weak prince, Appa
Saheb, taking fright, sent to ask forgiveness from his ene¬
mies. The conditions offered him were, that his territories
should be placed at the mercy of the British government;
that he should give up all his artillery, disband his troops,
and come in person as a hostage into the British camp; on
an understanding that if he acceded to these terms, the
former relations between him and the British would be re¬
stored ; it being at the same time understood that he should
cede part of his territory, and that due provision should be
made for a greater degree of internal control over his fu¬
ture movements. Being threatened with an immediate at¬
tack, he came to the British camp with a few attendants.
His troops, as if to shame their pusillanimous prince, fought
an unsuccessful battle for his rights and independence;
after which the city of Nagpoor, with its fort, was surren¬
dered to the conquerors, and this second war was brought
to a triumphant close. Appa Saheb, afterwards repenting
of his spiritless conduct, began to plot new schemes, when
he was arrested by the British resident, and detained in
close confinement. He found means to escape in the sum¬
mer of the following year, and making good his retreat to
the hills, where he was joined by a band of irregular fol¬
lowers, he distracted the country for a time by desultory
hostilities. Having thus fled from his dominions, the con¬
querors determined to invest Bajee Rao, a grandson of liag-
hojee Bhoonsla, with the sovereignty, and to take the in¬
ternal administration wholly under their own control. It had
been the professed intention of the Anglo-Indian govern¬
ment, according to its usual arbitrary mode of treating the
native powers, to force the two independent chiefs, Scindia
and Holkar, into an acquiescence with its views in regard to
the Pindarees, and also the Patans, a species of infantry, bet¬
ter appointed, and more regularly disciplined, than the Pin¬
darees, but associated together on the same unlawful prin¬
ciple of indiscriminate plunder. Scindia had been com¬
pelled to temporize, and finally to accede to the British
propositions. The court and administration of Holkar
were distracted by contending factions. The late prince,
after the unfortunate issue ofhis war with the British, be¬
came deranged, and soon afterwards died. His heir, Mul-
har Rao, wras at the time under age; and Toolsye Bhye,
the widow of Holkar, and now appointed regent, contend¬
ed for supremacy with the Patan chiefs. Their views were
entirely discordant, the queen-regent soliciting an alliance
with the English, on condition of receiving a subsidiary
force ; a measure so strongly opposed by the military chiefs
and the troops, that they conspired against Toolsye Bhye,
and having seized her person, carried her to the banks of
the river, where she was put to death. After this out¬
rage, they prepared for war, and troops were concentrated
in such hostile positions, that Sir John Malcolm judged it
expedient to fall back. Having effected a junction with
the corps under Sir J. Hislop, they attacked, on the 21st
ot December 1817, the army of Holkar, encamped at
T Prinsep^chap ^^dv*^ ^ MiUtary Transactions °f British India under the Administration of the Marquis of Hastings. By Henry
HINDUSTAN.
idustan. Mehedpoor, and advancing to close action under a severe
'-y^ fire of artillery, the enemy’s troops gave way at all points,
and the camp, artillery, and baggage, fell into the hands
of the victors. Peace was sought and obtained by the
Patan chiefs, who ruled in the councils of Holkar; they
accepted the protection and alliance of the British ; and
thus they enrolled themselves amongst the dependents and
tributaries of the new sovereigns of India.
The main object of the war, which was the destruction
of the Pindarees, was not, in any material degree, imped¬
ed by these incidental contests. According to the plan
proposed, the different divisions of the grand army pro¬
ceeded northward, converging as they advanced for the
purpose of surrounding the haunts of these freebooters,
and preventing their escape. They were driven out of
the province of Malwah, retiring as the British advanced ;
but were at length so effectually hemmed in, that in at¬
tempting to retreat they were intercepted at all points,
and the greater part of them destroyed. The remainder
were so humbled by fatigue and misery, that they were
glad to submit upon any terms; and at length the three
principal leaders surrendered on condition that their lives
should be spared.
dement All open resistance being thus successfully put down,
the more important task still remained of quieting and con-
mtiy. cijiating the country, overrun by lawless hordes of troops
or banditti. The history of Hindustan is, from its earliest
period, one unvarying scene of intestine violence, of war,
rapine, rebellion, and bloodshed. For twenty years prior
to the Pindaree war, these disorders had been increasing;
and to still this intestine storm, to overawe the turbulent,
and to settle on a permanent and equitable basis the con¬
flicting claims to dignity, power, and property, which had
arisen in a long period of trouble, when might was the
test of right, was a task that required unusual prudence,
firmness, and patience. This difficult and all-important
duty now devolved on Sir John Malcolm, who to his glory
as a warrior now added the still greater glory of a le¬
gislator and a statesman. Whilst he distributed his troops
in such positions throughout the disturbed districts, as
entirely to overawe the fiercer mercenaries and turbulent
Arab soldiers, he conciliated the peaceable inhabitants
by mildness, moderation, and justice. To all ranks, to
the head of a village as well as to the sovereign of a king¬
dom, to the leader of a gang of robbers as well as to the
commander of an army, he explained that his sole object
was to establish the peace of the country. By kindness
and conciliation he succeeded in reclaiming the Grassia,
Rajpoot, and Bheel freebooters, and the discharged Patan
mercenaries, accustomed to prey on the country. Per¬
secuted and oppressed as outcasts and robbers, they were
won by the generous confidence of Sir John Malcolm,
who offered them pay in the British service, and employed
the most notorious of the Bheels to guard his person and
treasure, in which they proved invariably faithful. Thus
the disorderly bands amongst the Pindarees and Patan sol¬
diery, for many years the disturbers of India, were gra¬
dually converted into its industrious cultivators; and a
great and happy change was effected in the habits of the
people and in the aspect of the country. The several
princes and rajahs of Central India were enriched by in¬
creased revenues and diminished expense. The troops
maintained by Scindia were reduced from 39,000 to
22,000; and those maintained by the rebellious chiefs
and tributaries, always ruinous to the country, were dis¬
banded. His revenues were increased twenty-five per
cent., and the expenses of collection reduced fifteen per
cent. The revenues of Holkar were increased from four
lacs in 1817, to sixteen lacs in 1819-1820. The condition
of all the other inferior rulers and feudatories was improv¬
ed in the same degree. “ In 1817,” says Sir John Mal¬
439
colm, in his admiraole work on Central India, “ there was Hindustan,
not one district belonging to Scindia that was not more
or less disturbed; in 1821 there existed not one enemy
to the public peace.” Colonel Todd, the political agent of
the British in the Rajpoot states, and who was present at
the great pacification of 1818, describes, with his usual
force, the desolate state of the country. From Jehaij-
poor westward to Komulmer, a space of 140 miles, he
mentions that “ all was desolate; even the traces of the
footsteps of men were effaced. The babool (niimosa Ara-
bica) and gigantic reed, which harboured the boar and the
tiger, grew upon the highways; and every rising ground
displayed a mass of ruin. Bhilwara, the commercial
entrepot of Rajpootana, which ten years before contained
6000 families, showed not a vestige of existence. All
was silent in her streets; no living thing was seen, ex¬
cept a solitary dog, that fled in dismay from his lurking
place in the temple, scared at the unaccustomed sight of
man.” Odeypoor, the capital of Mewar, which formerly
contained 50,000 houses, had not above 3000 occupied;
the rest were in ruins, the rafters being taken for fire¬
wood. Money was scarce, and the prince was obliged to
borrow at the rate of thirty-six per cent. In the tracks
near the Vindhya range and the Nerbuddah, where the
Pindarees, Gonds, and Bheels had their homes, hun¬
dreds of villages were to be seen deserted and roofless.
Of 3701 government villages which belonged to Holkar,
only 2038 were inhabited in 1817. In 1818, 269 villages
were restored ; in 1819, 343 ; and in 1820, 508. These vil¬
lages exhibit a lively portrait of an Indian community;
and it is remarkable, that on the proclamation by the Bri¬
tish of protection and peace throughout India, these com¬
munities instantly revived in their original structure, with Reviving
all their native functionaries, who re-assembled at once prosperity,
from the different countries into which they had been
scattered by the wars and revolutions of the last twenty
years. Well may Colonel Todd exult with a generous en¬
thusiasm on the revival of this oppressed country from
desolation and misery. The commercial mart of Bhil¬
wara rapidly rose from ruin, and in a few months contained
1200 houses. “ Bales of goods, the produce of the most
distant lands, were piled up in the streets lately over¬
grown with grass; and a weekly fair was established for
home manufactures. The most enthusiastic proofs were
afforded, that neither oppression from without, nor ty¬
ranny from within, could expel the feeling for the bassota,
the land of their fathers. Even now, though time has
chastened the impressions, we should fear to pen but a
tythe of the proofs of the devotion of the husbandmen of
Mewar to the solum natale. It would be deemed romance
by those who never contemplated humanity in its reflux
from misery and despair, to the ‘ sweet influences ’ of hope ;
he alone who had witnessed the day of trouble, and be¬
held the progress of desolation, the standing corn grazed
by Mahratta horse, the rifled towns devoted to flames,
the cattle driven to the camp, and the chief men seized
as hostages for money never to be realized, could appre¬
ciate their deliverance. To be permitted to see these
evils banished; to behold the survivors of oppression
congregated from the most distant provinces, many of
them strangers to each other, and the aged and the help¬
less waiting the lucky day to take possession of their
ruined abodes, was a sight which memory will not part
with.” After mentioning that on a lucky day three hun¬
dred husbandmen, preceded by music and banners, march¬
ed into Kupasun, to take possession of their properties,
and that above three hundred towns and villages were
simultaneously re-inhabited, he adds, in a strain of just
exultation, “ Well might the superstitious fancy that
miracles are abroad; for even to those who beheld the
work in progression, it had a magical result; to see the
HINDUSTAN.
440
Hindustan* waste covered with habitations, and the verdant corn
growing on the fields, where lately they had roused the
boar from his retreat. It was a day of pride for Britain.
By such exertions of her power in these distant lands,
her sway is hallowed; by Britain alone can this fair pic¬
ture be defaced ; the tranquillity and independence she
has conferred, by her alone may be disturbed.”1
Petty After the contest was brought to a close, the country
states of was still overspread with disorderly bands of Arabs, Me-
India. kranies (from Meckran in Persia), Mewassies, and Patans ;
and the general result of the arrangements now adopted
was the expulsion of these disturbers of the country, and
the restoration of the just rights and dignities of Scindia
and Holkar, as well as of a crowd of petty feudatories
and renters, who were before the prey of freebooters.
The same system was extended to the Rajpoot states to
the north-west of Malwah and the Chumbul river. The
petty rajahs who occupied this country were continually
at war; and the country was besides laid waste by the
predatory bands of Ameer Khan, Holkar, and Scindia,
who, on pretence of espousing the quarrels, invaded and
plundered the territories of the different chiefs. These
evils had risen to such a height, that they were all desi¬
rous of being admitted into a federal union with the Bri¬
tish government, offering in some cases half their domi¬
nions for protection. In 1818 they were admitted into
this union, of which the British are at the head. They
agreed, in the event of any future differences amongst
them, instead of appealing to arms, to submit their dif¬
ferences to the arbitration of the British government. In
this manner their country, freed from the scourge of in¬
ternal war, has progressively improved. The military
adventurers who fled before the victorious armies of Bri¬
tain, were reduced to submission by the wise and con¬
ciliatory measures of Sir D. Ochterlony, combined with
skilful military movements. The Patan battalions, with
about 3000 horse, were taken into the British service,
the officers being dismissed with pensions. These mea¬
sures have been followed by the happiest effects. The
wretched peasantry have emerged from their hills and
fastnesses, the usual refuges of the oppressed, and have
occupied their deserted villages ; the ploughshare is again
at work on a soil undisturbed for years, except by the
hoofs of predatory horse; and although the fierce habits
of war may occasionally recur, yet the foundation of im¬
provement is laid. The daring robber, moulded by time
and the force of circumstances, will gradually exchange
his wild and disorderly habits for those of the peaceful
cultivator, and commerce and industry succeed to scenes
of desolation and war.
Policy of A wise and beneficent policy on the part of the British
would realize all those happy prospects. But Colonel
Todd seems to doubt whether this line of policy will be
adopted. He censures in strong terms the treaties which
have already been concluded with the Rajpoot princes,
by which they are laid under a heavy annual contribu¬
tion, and their territories, to use Colonel Munro’s ex¬
pression, converted into rack-rent estates for the British.
I he rana of Odeypoor is bound to pay one half of his re¬
venues for five years, and three eighths in perpetuity;
which condition not only imposes a heavy burden on the
cultivator, but lays the foundation for British interference
in all the concerns of the tributary state, and for endless
disputes in consequence, and finally, for the subjugation
of the country. After observing that the dread of being
incorporated with our empire prevails amongst this proud
people, Colonel Todd observes, “ With our present system
of alliances, so pregnant with evil from their origin, this
fatal consequence, far from desired by the legislative au-Hindu^
thorities at home, must inevitably ensue. If the wit of
man had been taxed to devise a series of treaties with a
view to an ultimate rupture, these would be entitled to
applause as specimens of diplomacy. There is a perpe¬
tual variation between the spirit and the letter of every
treaty; and while the internal independence of each state
is the ground-work, it is frittered away and nullified
by successive stipulations; and these positive and nega¬
tive qualities continue mutually repelling each other, un¬
til it is apparent that independence cannot exist under
such conditions. Where discipline is lax, as with these
feudal associations, and where each subordinate vassal is
master of his own retainers, the article of military con¬
tingents alone would prove a source of contention. By
leading to interference with each individual clyeftain, it
would render such aid worse than useless. But this is a
minor consideration to the tributary and pecuniary sti¬
pulation, which, unsettled and undetermined, leaves a
door open to a system of espionage into the system of
their revenue accounts ; a system not only disgusting,
but contrary to treaty, which leaves internal administra¬
tion sacred. These openings to dispute, and the general
laxity of their government, coming in contact with our
regular system, present dangerous handles for ambition;
and who so blind as not to know that ambition to be dis¬
tinguished must influence every vice-regent in the East;
while deeds in arms, and acquisitions of territory, out¬
weigh the meek eclat of civil virtue, the periodical visi¬
tations to their kingdoms will ever be like the comet’s,
‘ Foreboding changes to princes.’ ” The rapid progress of
the British dominion in the East too fatally confirms the
truth and wisdom of these admirable remarks.1
The country of Lahore, or the Punjab, as far as the Runjee
Indus, is occupied by the rajah Runjeet Singh, who, inSui^
the year 1805, when Lord Lake had an interview with
him, seemed to be one amongst many petty chiefs. But
between this and 1812 he had subdued the whole coun¬
try, and was proceeding to extend his power over all
the petty chiefs as far as the Jumna, when he was op¬
posed in 1808 by a strong military detachment of British
troops stationed at Ludiana. A treaty was concluded
in 1809, by which it was mutually agreed that the rajah
should not encroach on the territory to the north of the
Sutledge, nor the British on the territory to the south of
that river.
The peace of India has since been interrupted by the Siege o
Burmese war, and by the siege of Bhurtpore. The rajah, BhurtP *
confiding in the strength of his fortress, committed seve¬
ral enormities in his government, such as the seizure of
the infant rajah, and the murder of his uncle and followers;
and he even treated the remonstrances of Lord Amherst
with indifference or contempt. In these circumstances, the
reduction of this formidable stronghold was essential to
the glory of the British arms, on which former failures had
left a stain. The siege was accordingly commenced with
25,000 efficient troops; and as no impression could be
made by cannon on walls of clay sixty feet in thickness,
they were thrown down by the explosion of a mine. The
assault took place next day, the 17th January 1826, which
was completely successful, with the loss of 163 killed, and
466 wounded. The principal works of the fortress have
since been demolished.
The British rulers of India and the Burmese monarch Burme
had long been involved in mutual disputes, and thesewar'
were brought to an issue in 1822, by a claim set up by the
sovereign of the Burmese to the petty isle of Shapuree, in
the province of Bengal, on the Chittagong frontier, and
1 Annals of Rajast'han, vol. i. p. 482, 483.
J Ibid. vol. L chap. viii. p. 122.
HINDUSTAN.
441
stan.by aggressions on the British territory, which were repel-
led by a force stationed at Chittagong, whilst a large ar¬
mament was sent to Rangoon, the naval arsenal of the
Burmese empire, which was captured; and, after a series
of hard-fought actions by the British, who endured much
privation and distress, the monarch of Ava was compelled,
in 1826, to sue for peace, by the near approach of the army
to his capital.1
al The wars and commotions of India have thus at length
i of come to a close, and Great Britain remains the sole ruler of
that vast empire. The native princes, rajahs, and petty feu¬
datories of the country, hold their several dignities and sta¬
tions in the great political system of which they form a
part, under the guarantee of her sovereign authority. The
nature of the subsidiary alliances of the British with the
Indian states has been already described, namely, the
furnishing a force, which is stationed in the dependent
state for its protection, and the latter a territory equiva¬
lent to its maintenance, and further submitting, in its fo¬
reign relations and differences with other states, to the ar¬
bitration of the British government, though free from all
control in its internal concerns. The powers with whom
subsidiary alliances have been formed are the nizam or
subahdar of the Deccan; the nabob of Oude; the Gui-
cowar, whose dominions are in the province of Gujerat;
Holkar, who has been deprived of all his dominions south
of the Nerbuddah; the rajah of Nagpoor, reduced, since
1817, to insignificance; the rajahs of Cutch, of Mysore,
of Travancore, and of Cochin. The protected states are so
far reduced to dependence that they agree to maintain no
correspondence with foreign powers of a political tendency
without the privilege or consent of the British government,
and not to go to war, but to submit all their differences
with other states to the arbitration of the British. They
are independent in their internal concerns, and have not,
like the others, a British force stationed within their terri¬
tories. They are bound to furnish a contingent of troops
when required, which in the field act in subordination to
the British commanders. These states are, ls£, in the
north-west, Siccim and the Sikh and Hill states, on the
left bank of the Sutledge : 2d, Rajpoot states ; Bicanere,
Jesselmere, Jeepoor, Joudpoor, Odeypoor, Kotah, Boondi,
Serowey, Kishengurh, Dowleah and Pertaubgurh, Doora-
poore, Banswarra : 3c?, Jaut and other states on the right
bank of the Jumna; Bhurtpore, Ulwar or Macherry, Ke-
rowlee : kth, Boondelah states ; Sumpthur, Jhansi, Jaloun,
Oorcha or Tehree, Dutteah, Rewah : bth, States in Mal-
wah ; Bopaul, Dhar, Dewas, Rutlaum, Silana, Nursinghur,
Amjherra, &c.: Qth, States in Gujerat; Pahlunpore, Rah-
dunpore, Rajpeepla, Loonawara, Soonth, the states in
the Myhee Caunta, the Kattywar states: 1th, States on
the Malabar coast (chiefly Mahratta) ; Sattarah, Sawunt
Warree, Colapore, Collabba: %th, Burmese frontier;
Cachar, Jyntia. States not under British protection;
Scindia, the rajah of Dholapore, Barree and Rajakera
(formerly rana of Gohud), Runjeet Singh of Lahore, the
ameers of Scind, and the rajah of Nepaul. Scindia, though
not formally a protected or dependent state, is substan¬
tially under the control of the British, who now settle with
many of his tributaries, collecting his revenue, and paying
it over to him ; so that they have secured their ascendency
m all the western and southern districts of his dominions,
which, in the event of a war, they might employ against
him for his destruction. Of this, according to Sir John
Malcolm, he is so sensible, that he has abandoned all idea^
of ever again opposing the British government.
!,0f Ihe rise of the British power, from small beginnings in-
" to so vast an empire, is one of those surprising revolutions
VOL, XI.
in human affairs which gives to history the air of a ro-Hindustan,
mance. The managers of a trading company in London -y-w'
are now the lords of a kingdom ten times the size of Eng¬
land, and containing a hundred millions of inhabitants;
they engage in war and make peace; they rule over kings
and princes, dethroning some and setting up others in
their stead; and in their counting-house in Leadenhall
Street they regulate, not the chances of profit and loss,
but the concerns of a vast empire. Yet the causes of this
great revolution are simple and obvious. The extensive
dominion acquired by the British in India is the conse¬
quence of long-continued military success; it is the fruit
of victory in many a well-fought field, the triumph of Euro¬
pean discipline and science over the rude valour of the hasty
levies and imperfectly trained militia of the East. In
the course of this long contest the British had frequently
to contend with few against many, and their empire some¬
times tottered on the verge of ruin, as in the invasion of the
Carnatic by Hyder Ali. But the steadiness of the Euro¬
pean infantry still repelled the irregular charges of the
Mahratta horse, and triumphed in the end; and to this pow¬
erful instrument, namely, a well-disciplined military force,
wielded by skilful hands, the British are indebted for the
conquest of Hindustan. The extension of their empire in
India was always discountenanced by the Directors at home,
who issued their repeated and peremptory commands on
the subject. Yet it might have been easily foreseen, that,
the foundation once laid, the superstructure would natu¬
rally arise; that having made the first step, the British
would not readily stop short in their course. The frailty of
man has never been able to resist the allurements of am¬
bition ; the dazzling prize of extensive dominion has in all
ages been pursued through the paths of blood; and it was
scarcely to be imagined that the Company’s servants in
India would resist its temptations, more especially as there
were many circumstances which gave a plausible colour to
their ambitious views. The native powers, alarmed by
the territorial acquisitions of the British, naturally combined
against them as the common enemies of Indian indepen¬
dence. The British, on the other hand, convinced of
their strength, and of the hatred and jealousy which they
had excited throughout India, and easily yielding to the
least surmise of hostile coalitions, often took up arms to
avert distant and doubtful dangers; and victory being still
the result of each new struggle, they assured their safety
by the ruin of their enemies, and by the extension of their
power. Thus the hostile designs of Tippoo rested upon
mere suspicion, and he was overthrown when he was no
longer formidable, and when he was thought to be an easy
prey; and thus have all the independent states of Hin¬
dustan been successively crushed by their great rival, and
war only ceased when no enemy remained to be conquer¬
ed. Peace now reigns throughout the wide precincts of
Hindustan,—of itself an unspeakable blessing, especially
in India, so long the scene of ruthless war, massacres, and
devastation; and this is no doubt the consequence of Bri¬
tish ascendency. Happy, if, along with this blessing, we
diffuse among the ignorant, superstitious natives, the arts,
the knowledge, the improvements, and the enlightened
morality, of Europe.
It will now be proper to give a brief account of the do- Internal
mestic policy of the Company as sovereigns of India, es- policy of
pecially in those important departments in the civil ad--Bri_
ministration of every country, namely, the revenue, the tlsh'
judicial establishments, and the police.
Under the Mogul government, the public revenue was Land-tax
chiefly derived from a general land-tax, and the regular under the
payment of this tax- was the tenure by which property Mogul
J empire.
For a full account of the operations of this war, see the article Ava.
3 K
442
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, was held throughout the empire. The lands were pos-
sessed by different descriptions of owners or occupiers,
under the titles chiefly of zemindars or polygars, the
military chieftains of the Carnatic, talookdars, ryots, ma-
liks, meerassadars, nair mulguenies, bhoomias, &C.1 When
Hindustan was brought under the sway of the British, they
were necessarily ignorant of the manners and usages of
the people, and of the peculiar structure of a Hindu
community; and hence the nature of the tenures under
which land was held, and of the different descriptions of
land owners and occupiers, has been a standing subject of
controversy amongst the Company’s servants, some insist¬
ing that under the Mogul despotism, as over all the East, the
sovereign is the sole proprietor of the lands within his do¬
minions ; that no private right of property has ever been
recognised in any of the great monarchies of Asia; and that
all grants of land are resumable at the pleasure of the prince.
According to this theory, the zemindar is considered mere¬
ly as a species of steward or factor, appointed by the go¬
vernment, to collect and superintend the land revenues;
and after reserving a suitable portion for his own main¬
tenance, to remit the surplus to the imperial treasury.
The rights of the talookdars, an inferior description of
holders, and the ryots, and other occupiers of land, were
still more imperfectly understood by the English when
they acquired the dominion of Bengal; but, under the
idea of the sovereign’s indefeasible right in the soil, they
naturally considered them as tenants at will, to be dealt
with like other tenants in the same situation, at the pleasure
of the proprietor. This hypothesis of the sovereign’s pro¬
prietary right was eagerly adopted by the English, and
has been boldly followed up in practice. It has, as might
have been expected, led to extensive confiscations of land,
to great changes in the state of property, and to much
distress and confusion, as will be afterwards narrated;
and it will be proper, therefore, briefly to inquire how far
this claim accords with any legal right, and still more
with any principle of enlightened policy.
Sovereign’s In a government purely arbitrary, where every man
R1 ”P^etary holds life and liberty at the mercy of the sovereign, it is
SLred!”* extremely difficult to distinguish between the exercise of
legal rights and the outrages of abused power. That the
despotic rulers of the East might take possession of the
land, or of any other description of property belonging to
their subjects, and that this was their practice, can hardly
be questioned. But might does not constitute right; nor
by such acts of tyranny can they become lords of the soil
in any legal sense, any more than of the lives and liberties
of their subjects, because they often massacre and torture
them at their pleasure. The law of conquest, which is the
law of the strongest, gave to the Mahommedans possession
of India, which they desolated with fire and sword, and took
possession of the lands and properties of the inhabitants,
who, according to their approved practice, might have been
all put to the sword, as the redemption price of their blood.
This was the only title which the Mogul emperor could
have had to the lands within his dominions, namely, that
he had seized upon them by force; and in countries long
subject to Mahommedan rule, or to the Mahrattas and other
domestic tyrants, all the ancient rights of the proprietors
have accordingly been obliterated. But these acts ofHin,
tyranny and spoliation can never be construed into legal W
precedents, nor can they ever confer any title ; and6 it
seems a gross abuse of words to call that a right which is
merely a deed of violence.
The monarch or the emperor was no doubt styled, in the
true strain of oriental flattery, the sole proprietor of the soil,
and the lord of the universe; and this he mayhave been origi¬
nally, in the same manner as the monarchs of Europe were
under the feudal system. According to the feudal law, they
were the supreme lords of all the conquered territories, which
they granted as fiefs to their vassals, on condition of mili¬
tary service; and from the monarch a subordinate chain
of vassalage extended downward to the lowest tenant.
These lands were at first granted for a year, but afterwards
for life; at length they became hereditary, and descended
to the son, or to more distant relations; and thus they fi¬
nally became a permanent property. But the form of the
original tenure is still maintained. They still hold of the
sovereign, to whom, at the death of each heir, a formal
surrender is made of the property, and a new charter is
granted as a matter of course. But this right of the crown,
by which in former times the property was actually re¬
sumed at the death of the proprietor, has now become a
mere legal fiction, an evidence only of the original tenure
by which the property was held; and we may easily ima¬
gine the disorder and injustice that would be introduced
into any European country by a conqueror, who, guided
by feudal forms, in opposition to immemorial usage and
fixed law, was to resume all property holding of the
crown, or of any other superior. In like manner, in Hindu¬
stan, though the sovereign was styled the proprietor of all
the lands within his dominions, and in legal theory might
be so, it would be rash to infer from this the actual extinc¬
tion of all proprietary rights. Under the Mogul government
a heavy tax was, no doubt, laid on the land, which was the
main source of the public revenue. But individual rights
of property might nevertheless exist; and their non-ex¬
istence has certainly never been satisfactorily proved; so
far from it, that the advocates of the sovereign proprietary
right seem to have nothing to oppose to immemorial
usage, and to the principles of justice, but legal forms and
the acts of despotic pow er.2
But the abstract question of right here merges into the
higher question of policy. It w ould be the interest of a sove-
reign, even if he were proprietor of the soil, to commute his
rights for a moderate and fixed assessment, which in the end
would bring in the greatest amount of revenue. A land-
tax which leaves a bare maintenance to the cultivator dis¬
courages agriculture, population, and the grow’th of capital;
it is indeed an interdict on all improvement. Its produce
cannot be increased except by the most ruinous extortions,
though it will necessarily decrease with the desolation of
the land, which it tends to promote. No country can be
improved and cultivated where the rights of property are
loaded by a public tax. Would the wastes of America,
we may ask, be so quickly converted into fruitful fields,
if the government were to come in for the largest share of
the produce, if the owner were placed under the strict sur¬
veillance of the excise, and obliged to account for every
Th' S.S'n!! T°fdd, °’lflfpudal System in Rajasthan, vol. i. chap. i. p. I67. See also Fifth Report, p. 822-23, Extracts from Mr
inackeray s Iteport, dated 4th August 1807. 1
tliA linrf lefl011*'s A16 Company's collectors in Southern India all concur in stating the hereditary rights of individuals in
rollpptnrs “ ^n,lVestionod from the most remote ages. “ In tracing their (the Hindus’) past situation,” says one of the
downfall of Hip 1 ° fiC 1^overech that during the revolutions of many ages, from the reign of their first princes, until the final
lands of the ronntrv1 .f,nx fi^sdons ever existed, in any stage of the Hindu history, as to the right of the people to the
to Invp fppn transm’ti- ^ vl ^Ses or lands totally waste, and that had escheated to government. On the contrary, they appear
nortpd tw mnrrpc wU; 0.t/lem, dom the most remote era, down to the present time, without interruption ; these rights are sup-
and theiiOaws^ wo ,iaVe Prevai'e(k but f°r their universal acknowledgment; and, in the repositories of their history
of Tollpptor of Sra.Hi r if die to property in lands repeatedly acknowledged and preserved.” (Extract from Report
ot Collector oi Southern Polygar Peshcush, 29th December 1800, Fifth Report, Appendix, p. 828.)
HINDUSTAN.
J lustan. particle of his crop. In Europe the church tithes have
been justly complained of as a great obstruction to improve¬
ment. But a tax such as we have described, which, how¬
ever it varied in its amount from a fourth, a third, or
half the gross produce of the soil, generally left only a bare
maintenance to the cultivators, is far more pernicious in
its operation; and it is indeed owing to its pressure that so
large a portion of Hindustan still remains a primitive wilder¬
ness. Mr L. Place, to whom W'as committed, in 1790, the
settlement of the Jaghire, a tract of country in the Carnatic
that had been ruined by the invasion of Hyder Ali, after
mentioning the desolation of the country, and that the in¬
habitants would not cultivate any fields except under a
secure tenure, adds, that “ by granting them lands to them
and their heirs for ever, so long as they continued in obe¬
dience to the circar (government), and paid all just dues,
he was enabled to convert the most stubborn soil and thick¬
est jungle into fertile villages.”
I ] d titles It was extremely natural for those who had succeeded
a ng the to the rights of the sovereign to exaggerate the extent of
] dus. those rights, and to believe in the convenient doctrine of
his proprietary title to the land. But although many an¬
cient rights were unquestionably trampled down and for
ever lost in the violence of the Mahommedan conquest, yet
recent investigations have discovered, amidst the ruins of
Hindu institutions, many relics of ancient manners, and
the clearest titles of individual proprietors to the possession
of the soil. In carrying into effect the permanent settle¬
ment by Lord Cornwallis of the land revenues ih Bengal,
the collectors were embarrassed by the claims of the petty
talookdars, who insisted on a hereditary right of property
in the soil; and the maliks, who with vehemence urged the
same claims, and affirmed that the zemindars and talook¬
dars had no deeds to show that could deprive them of their
just rights. They claimed the land as their paternal inhe¬
ritance, and refused to settle for the public revenue on
any other terms than as proprietors. The collector was
deeply impressed with the justice of their claims; and Mr
Rickards, in his masterly work on Indian finance, affirms
that the maliks were really proprietors, stripped of their rights
by the usurpations and exactions of the zemindars and
their aumils or collectors.1 In the district of Dacca, the
private rights of property were found to exist in their full
force; even the unproductive jungle and waste around the
town was claimed by individuals, “ who,” says the collec¬
tor, “ though they receive no profit from it, and are too in¬
dolent themselves to make it productive of any, will not
443
suffer others to bring it into a state of cultivation without Hindustan.
some recompense; and so very tenacious are they of it,
that even in the suburbs of the city, which for three or four
miles is almost an impenetrable jungle, infested by wild
ferocious animals, a man cutting down a single tree will
be sued by the proprietor for damages.”2 A clearer idea
cannot possibly be conveyed of the rights of property, and
of the solid foundation on which they rest in Bengal, as in
all other countries. The accurate researches of Colonel
Todd, who drew his information not merely from written
records and deeds, but from the more durable tablets of
stone found amidst the ruins of the fallen pile, have laid
open the ancient tenures and institutions of Northern India;
and in his lively delineation of those ancient manners we
recognise all the peculiar features of the feudal system.
There were in Rajast’han or Rajpootana two classes of land¬
holders, the one the Grasya-t’ha-cour or lord, the other the
bhoomia ;3 the first holding land by a grant from the prince
on the condition of military service, “ renewable,” says Co¬
lonel Todd, “ at every lapse, when all the ceremonies of
resumption, the fine of relief, and the investiture, take
place ;”4 the other an allodial proprietor, who holds prescrip¬
tive possession, who succeeds to his inheritance without
any fine, though he pays a small annual quit-rent, and
may be called upon for military service in the district where
he resides, which is chiefly composed of the rocks and wilds
that afford a refuge from oppression, and where the bhoo-
mias, being numerous, form a species of local militia.
In the southern countries of India, in Tanjore, Tin- Landed
nevelly, Canara, Malabar, &c. where the Mahommedan rule property in
had only been temporary or partial, the rights of property
were not extinguished; they were indeed encroached up- 0 11 ia‘
on, and were, as Mr Rickards observes, “ in progress of
actual extinction, and approached nearer and nearer to
this term in proportion to the duration of Mussulman ty¬
ranny.” The tyranny and exactions of Hyder Ali and his
son Tippoo had nearly extinguished all proprietary rights
in Mysore and in Malabar; and most of the Hindu land¬
holders were compelled to seek refuge in Travancore. “ I
was,” says Mrllickards, “ personally acquainted with some
who, from the same causes, deserted their estates, and re¬
tired for safety into Coimbetoor.”5 But those rights were
not obliterated, and the investigations of the British func¬
tionaries, skilled in the native languages and manners,
brought to light in these countries the ancient condition of
property, and the clearest titles of individual proprietors.6
The notion of the sovereign’s proprietary right to the whole
1 See Fifth Report, p. 493, Copy of a Letter from the Collector of Shahabad to the Hoard of Revenue, dated 29th September 1789.
Rickards, vol. i. chap. i. sect. iv. p. 3G8. Mai, says Rickards, is an Arabic word, denoting wealth, property, revenue, rent, particu¬
larly that arising from land; and Malik means master, lord, proprietor, owner of such rent.
2 Fifth Report, Appendix, p. 495, Letter from the Chief of Dacca to the Board of Revenue, dated 23d July 1786. Tt was pro-
posed that the government should clear away this jungle, and cultivate the land. But this u laudable plan,’ says Mr Day, chief of
Dacca, cannot therefore be carried into effect, “ without creating great dissatisfaction,” as every seizure of private property necessa¬
rily does; yet he observes, that the “ prejudice (i. e. the robbery) of a few individuals, should be no impediment to the adoption of a
plan which has for its object the benefit of the community at large.” _ .
3 The term bhoomia is, according to Colonel Todd, a most expressive and comprehensive name, importing absolute identity with
the soil; bhoom meaning land. (Todd, vol. i. p. 168.)
4 Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han, by Lieutenant-Colonel Janies Todd, vol. i. p. 164.
5 Vol. i. p. 283.
6 See Fifth Report of Select Committee, p. 714, Report of Mr Place respecting the land tenures in the Jaghire; Report of Mr
Hodgson on the revenues of Tinnevelly, Fifth Report, p. 832 ; Report on Revenues of Dindigul, p. 978. Mr Place at first agreed to the
favourite theory that the sovereign was lord of the soil, and that the occupants of land in India were meretenants at will. But on
further inquiry, he was convinced that the meerassadars were hereditary proprietors. Report of Collector of Tanjore and Trichinopoly,
8th September 1805 : “ Immemorial usage,” he observes, “ has established, both in lanjore and Irichinopoly, that the occupants,
whether distinguished by the names of meerassadars or mahajanums, have the right of selling, bestowing, devising, or bequeathing their
lands in the manner which to them is most agreeable.” “ It is fortunate that, at the moment when we are consulting on the means of
establishing the property and welfare of the numerous people of these provinces, we find the lands of the country in the hands of men
who feel and understand the full rights and advantages of possession ; who have enjoyed them, in a degree more or less secure, be¬
fore the British name was known in India ; and who, in consequence of them, have rendered populous and fertile the extensive pro¬
vinces of Tanjore and Trichinopoly. The class of proprietors to whom I allude are not to be considered as the actual cultivators of
the soil; the far greater mass of them till their lands by means of hired labourers, or by a class of people termed pullers, who are of
the lowest, and who may be considered as the slaves of the soil. The landed property of these provinces is divided and subdivided
in every possible degree. There are proprietors of 4000 acres, of 400 acres, of forty acres, and of one acre.”
444
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, produce of the land was interwoven with the Mogul system
of finance, and the East India Company had always acted
on the same maxims. Accordingly, Mr Place and others,
when they entered on the management of the Jaghire,
Canara, Malabar, &c. were prepossessed with the same
ideas, and gave the most liberal interpretation to the Com¬
pany’s proprietary rights, considering the occupants and cul¬
tivators of the land as mere tenants at will. But they were
soon undeceived by glaring facts. They found that the
possessors of the land had the right of selling, bestowing,
devising, or bequeathing their lands, in whatever manner they
might deem expedient; that the lands, whether they be¬
longed to villages, and were cultivated in shares by their
common labour, or to individuals, were their absolute pro¬
perty, of which they could only be deprived by an act of
violence. This proprietary right was termed meerass, a
Persian or Arabic term for land and the proprietor a
meerassadar. “ Whatever may have been the origin of
these rights,” says the Fifth Report (p. 105), “ they are re¬
garded by the people as hereditary rights,” and were, ac¬
cording to the Hindus, far more ancient than the Moorish
conquest. Estates were found to consist of from 4000 to
one acre of land; and where they were large, or were di¬
vided amongst a numerous proprietary, they were tilled by
parakudis or pyacaris, who were paid for their labour, and
who possessed hereditary rights of occupancy as cultiva¬
tors. Common labourers were also occasionally hired;
and slaves are numerous all over the country, attached to
the soil, and in a state of villenage, as were formerly the
cultivators in Europe. In Canara, the same rights of pro¬
perty exist in the land; and the proprietors are known
under the appellation of nair mid guenies, who, like the
meerassadars, have tenants in perpetuity, or shud mul
guenies ; and tenants at will, or chalie guenies. Of these
tillers it is observed in the Fifth Report of the Select Com¬
mittee on the affairs of the East India Company, that “ the
lands in general appear to have constituted a clear private
property, more ancient, and probably more perfect, than
that of England. The tenure, as well as the transfer, of
this property, by descent, sale, gift, and mortgage, is forti¬
fied by a series of regular deeds, equally varied and curi¬
ous, and which bear a very strong resemblance in both
parts of the country. The proprietary right is either
vested in individuals, or in copartnerships of persons, each
of whom possesses an unalienable interest in the estate,
proportioned to the share of the property of which he has
become possessed.”
There is another class of landholders in Malabar, deno¬
minated jelmkars, or jenmkars, who possess allodial rights,
acknowledging no superior, and who were exempt from the
government-tax.2 When Hyder conquered the country,
his first act was to declare half the produce of the soil to
belong to the sovereign; and it was in this manner that in
Hindustan all private rights were trampled upon and gra¬
dually obliterated. But these exactions of tyranny are
not to be confounded with the legal claims of the state.
Mr Hodgson, in his report on the revenues of Coimbetoor,
justly observes, that whatever abuses took place under the
Hindu or Mahommedan princes, “ what was fair assessment,
and what was exaction, was well known to the party go- Hin L
verning and those governed.”3 From all this concurring evi- *- >
dence, it is clear that the sovereign’s proprietary right in
the soil was in Hindustan, as in Europe, more nominal than
real; that prior to the Mahommedan conquest the land was
divided amongst individual proprietors, and that the bhoo*
mia of Rajpootana, the malik of Bengal, the meerassadar of
Southern India, the nair mul guenies of Canara, and the
jelmkars of Malabar, were all hereditary landholders, with
legal rights, of which they could only be dispossessed by
the violence of despotic power.
The Mahommedan conquest subverted most of the ancient Zer [
rights and titles of the Hindu landholders, and introduced dars
into Bengal the title of zemindar or landholder, from the
Persian word zemin, land; respecting whose rights and
duties so wide a difference of opinion has prevailed. With¬
out entering further into this controversy, which, as re¬
spects the zemindar, is more a speculative than a practical
question, it may be observed, that the zemindars had lived
for centuries in great splendour on the produce of their
lands, which had quietly descended under the existing te¬
nure through successive generations; that they had the
power to sell, to alienate, or to mortgage; and that as long
as they paid the annual tribute to government, they enjoy¬
ed secure possession of their lands. Under a despotic
government arbitrary ejectments might no doubt occur;
but these were rare, and they were universally regarded,
both in law and in usage, as the illegal outrages of abused
power. It is admitted on all hands that these rights be¬
longed to the zemindars; and the only point that still re¬
mains in dispute, and it does not appear very material,
seems to be, whether, according to the theory of the Mo¬
gul constitution, the receipt of the land-tax by the sove¬
reign, or of his allotted share of the produce by the zemin¬
dar, entitled the one or the other to the character of pro¬
prietor of the land.
I he zemindars, being bound to the state for the reve¬
nue, were necessarily invested with the power of collecting
the land-tax from the subordinate landholders and tenants.
They united, in this manner, legal authority with the pos¬
session of property, whilst, as judges and magistrates, they
administered both civil and criminal justice, and were held
responsible for all crimes committed within their respective
boundaries. These powers they frequently abused, and
oppressed the inferior landholders, the talookdars and the
ryots, the hereditary cultivators, or, as others consider
them, the proprietors of the land, by the most cruel exac¬
tions. It was to the principal landholders that government
looked for the discharge of its demands, whilst the inferior
occupants and tenants were bound each to his immediate
superior for their several proportions of the stipulated tax.
Ihere were various other tenures by which lands were Otk ;•
held in Bengal, namely, the Jaghire, Altumgha, Muddud nure
Mash Ayma, and others. The first were grants of land on
the condition of military service, or for the support of garri¬
sons or any other public establishment, especially of a mi¬
litary nature. This would appear also to have been the
conditions of the zemindary tenure, as Mr Rickards states
that the zemindars of Bengal are expressly mentioned in the
iipraiw fiiTu 0^w™^.was intr°duced by the Mohammedans. “ Swastrium,” says Mr Hodgson, “ is the Sanscrit word, and is ge-
"y the Brahmins ^ and cancatchy by those Shudras (cultivating castes) who may not have adopted the general term mee-
a • Report' Appendix, p. 832, Extract from Hodgson’s Report on the Revenues of Tinneveliy, 24th September 1807-)
of Dindigulf 28th MarchToOS IJr0prlet0r’ and fully answers to jelmkar. (See p. 833, Fifth Report, Mr Hodgson on the Revenues
3 or means an allodial proprietor; the term jenm meaning properly allodial right,
to be irniisrmfWhl i ’ ^either the Hindu nor Mussulman government appear (supposing their right in the soil as proprietors
the rlX PW^ J ’ an?.pr°pnetary nght,t0 be a to demand what the proprietor pleases for his land) ever to have exercised
tri.e where!* 'P* asse®s"aen\and what was exaction, was well known to the party governing and those governed. It is
not counteract onnfe!^nPPn°v, Sultapun, s rei£"’ exaction had no limit, landed property could have no value; but where fraud could
to bear, and emigration the onAsour^’ofrclief^ 0rinabUity t0 reS1St’ Produced submission, till the load became too heavy
HINDUSTAN. 445
:LJ tan, Ayeen Akberry as furnishing their several contingents of
^ cavalry, infantry, and artillery. The Altumgha grant, ac¬
cording to the terms of it, was in perpetuity. The other
grants were for the support of learned men, or religious
establishments. Many of the public functionaries of the
Company denied the validity of these grants ; they estimat¬
ed the average loss, as it was called, as if there could be any
loss where there never was any right, on these grants in
Bengal and the ceded provinces at two and a half millions
sterling, and contended that they were resumablc, and
were often actually resumed, at the pleasure of the prince.
Colonel Todd, however, mentions, that in Rajpootana this
right of resumption had fallen into disuse. “ The right to
resume,” he observes, “ may be presumed to exist; while
the non-practice of it, the formalities of renewal being gone
through, may be said to render the right a dead letter
and, quoting a passage relative to the fiefs in Europe, that
they were first moveable or resumable at pleasure, then
perpetual or for life, and finally hereditary, he adds, “ this
is the precise gradation of fiefs in Mewar, a division of Raj¬
pootana. There is reason to believe that these grants were
in a progress to permanency all over India.” But all per¬
manent property in land was discountenanced by the policy
of the British in India, who were perpetually picking holes
in the tenures by which it was held, even where the deed
of grant expresses in the plainest terms that it is perpetual,
“ from generation to generation.”1
Div n The country of Hindustan is divided into villages or
oft! districts, each comprising some hundreds or thousands of
|0U1 f acres of arable and waste land. Every village is a separate
jntc ' community or township, and has its own establishment of
public officers and tradesmen. These consisted of the po-
tail, or head inhabitant, whose business it was to superin¬
tend the affairs of the village, to settle disputes amongst the
inhabitants, to attend to the police, and to the collection
of the public tax; the curnum, to whom it belonged to
keep an account of the cultivation and produce of the land,
to register the proprietors of the village, and to attest
all deeds of sale, transfer, or assignment; the boundary-
man, who preserves the limits of the village, or gives evi¬
dence of them in case of dispute; the priest, the school¬
master, the astrologer; the smith, the carpenter, the pot¬
ter, the washerman, the barber, the cowkeeper, the doc¬
tor, the dancing-girl, the musician, the poet, who were each
rewarded for their labours out of the produce of the village
lands. The amount of their shares on the gross produce
is estimated at five and a half per cent. The collectors
were allowed ten per cent., and the remaining proportion
of the crop was divided between the sovereign and the cul¬
tivator, in the proportion of ten elevenths to the former,
and one eleventh to the latter. “ Under this simple form
of municipal government,” says the Fifth Report, “ the in¬
habitants of the country have lived from time immemorial.
The boundaries of the villages have been but seldom alter¬
ed ; and though the villages themselves have been some- Hindustan,
times injured, and even desolated, by war, famine, and dis-
ease, the same name, the same limits, the same interests,
and even the same families, have continued for ages. The
inhabitants give themselves no trouble about the breaking
up and division of kingdoms; while the village remains
entire, they care not to what power it is transferred, or to
what sovereign it devolves; its internal economy remains
unchanged; the potail is still the head inhabitant, and still
acts as the petty judge and magistrate, and collector or ren¬
ter of the village.” So deeply attached are the Hindus to
their native villages and local manners, that, however they
may be scattered by the desolation of war, their affections
still centre in one common and cherished spot; insomuch
that, in 1817, as is mentioned by Sir John Malcolm, and as
has already been noticed, when peace was re-established in
Central India, by the expulsion of the Pindarees and other
freebooters, who laid waste the country, the inhabitants and
officers of the villages re-assembled from every quarter, and
the resurrection of these communities into life and action
seemed to have been the work of an instant.
The land-tax of the village is collected by the potail, as- Land-tax.
sisted by a train of petty officers or under collectors, the
putwarries, the peons, the pykes, and others, whose salaries
form a deduction from the gross rent. The potail pays his
collections to the zemindar, from whom they were receiv¬
ed, under the Mogul government, by a higher officer, and
finally remitted to the imperial treasury. The accounts of
the curnum, or the canongoe, were also transmitted through
various gradations of accountants, who superintended and
checked the collection and receipt of the public revenue.
In the year 1573, during the reign of Akbar, when the
Mahommedans had completed the conquest of Hindustan,
Rajah Torrel Mull, minister of finance to the emperor, from
the accounts furnished by the canongoes and collectors ol
the revenue paid by the ryots, formed a general rent-roll
for all the country, as well as a scheme of division, fixing the
separate proportions of districts and villages. The reve¬
nue thus settled, and usually called tumar jumma (rent), or
standard assessment, is estimated by Sir John Shore at
Rupees.
10,693,152, at 2s. 3d. L. 1,202,979
In 1722, being a
period of 149 years,
it was increased, un¬
der Jaffier Khan, by
means of Abwabs,
which are arbitrary
taxes added to the
original or standard
assessment, to 13,115,907 1,475,537
In 1728, by the
additional taxes of
Sujah Khan 16,418,513 1,847,082
1 Colonel Munro, a great authority on all Indian questions, in a paper of remarks on a decision of the chief justice of Madras re¬
specting a jaghire estate that was resumed by the Company, argues, from the arbitrary practices of Indian princes in taking away
these rights, that no such rights exist, although they are defined in the clearest terms. “ The grant,” he observes, “ is in the usual
form,—> to be enjoyed by him and his descendants for ever, from generation to generation.' He is authorized to divide it among his
descendants; and the local officers are required to consider the perwannah ‘ as a most positive peremptory mandate, and not to re¬
quire a fresh sunnud every year.’ The terms employed in such documents, ‘ for ever,’ ‘ from generation to generation,’ or, in Hindu
grants, ‘ while the sun and moon endure,’ are mere forms of expression, and are never supposed, either by the donor or the receiver,
to convey the durability which they imply, or any beyond the will of the sovereign. The injunction with which they usually con¬
clude—> Let them not require a fresh sunnud every year,’ indicates plainly enough the opinion that such grants were not secure from
revocation.” (In Consultation, 15th March 1832.) The language here may be a “mere form of expression,” yet it is impossible to
lame in words a clearer legal title ; and the doubt is, whether the subversion of such a title, however common amongst the despotic
princes of Hindustan, ought not to be regarded as a tyrannical act rather than a legal precedent. No landed proprietor would, with
such a title, surrender his estate, except to the power of the strongest. Custom may have rendered such acts familiar to the pros-
>ate people of Hindustan ; but if words like these are to be held as mere official forms, it is clear that no legal title to property can
exist in India. Sir Thomas Munro mentions several examples of land held under common jaghire grants descending through seve¬
ral generations. He still insists, however, that, by the invariable custom of the country, they are resumable at the pleasure of the
pnnce, though it seems extremely doubtful how far the practice of a despotic government in resuming lands can be received as a pre¬
cedent against such a clear legal title.
446
Hindustan
HINDUSTAN.
Rupees-
In 1755, by Ali-
verdy Khan, to 18,644,067
In 1762-3, by
Cossim Ali 25,624,223
In 1763-4  17,704,766
L.2,097,550
2,882,724
1,991,785
The arbitrary taxes termed Abwabs, added to the ori¬
ginal standard assessment, consisted of duties on the transit
of goods through the different chokies or toll-bars of the
country, of taxes on cattle and stock of every description ;
of a capitation tax; of a tax on shops, manufactures, or
stock in trade ; and of fines and other arbitrary exactions;
and, in proportion to the demands made on the zemindar,
he was empowered to augment the contribution of his te¬
nants. The standard revenue of Torrel Mull, amounting
to L. 1,202,979, appears to have been all that the country
could bear; for, inconsiderable as was the augmented reve¬
nue of JafRer Khan, it was only obtained by the most cruel
tortures inflicted on the zemindars, many of whom he con¬
fined in pits filled with ordure, which he termed in derision
Bykaut, or Hindu Paradise. In the reign of Meer Cossim,
who was set up by the English, to whom he promised large
sums as the price of his elevation, these oppressions were
carried to a still greater height. The policy was to ascer¬
tain, by exact money, the produce of the land; and the
whole surplus, after allowing a bare maintenance to the
cultivator, was swept into the treasury.
English Although the ascendency of the English had for some
invested years been thoroughly established in Bengal, and although
sovereign- they were formany invested in 1765 with the sovereignty
ty of Ben"- of tlie country* its affairs were still administered in the
gal. name of the native prince, and according to the forms and
policy of the ancient constitution. Justice was still dis¬
pensed by the native courts, and by the nabob’s officers;
the revenues still flowed through the same channels into
the public exchequer; and all transactions with foreign
powers were carried on under the same authority as for¬
merly. But such was the increasing power of the Eng¬
lish, that the government, as far as regarded the protection
of the people, was dissolved. Neither the nabob nor his
officers dared to offer any opposition to their sovereign
will; and the tribunals of justice, so far from being a refuge
to the oppressed, became subservient to the rapacity of the
gomastahs, or Indian agents, employed by the Company’s
servants, and were converted by them into most efficacious
instruments for oppressing and plundering the people.
The directors had been long dissatisfied with the pro¬
ceedings of their servants, and with the produce of the
land levenues, which had fallen far short of their expec¬
tations, and they now resolved to put an end to the double
administration of the nabob and the Company; and, dis¬
pensing with the empty name of the former, to take upon
themselves, ostensibly as well as really, the entire care
and management of the land revenues. The dewanny
of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, or the office of collector of
the public revenues, which in the East implies the right
of sovereignty, was conferred in perpetuity on the East
India Company by a grant from the Mogul Shah Au-
lum dated the 12th of August 1765. The assessment im¬
posed on the country by Cossim Ali is stated by Sir John
Shore to have been mere “ pillage and rack-rent;” and it
7 oSqco t7oSfeSlment on PaPer’ as> out of’ the sum of
t i oq^ak;’ there remained a balance undischarged of
ii •i*, "^withstanding the cruelty with which the
collection had been enforced. It was found necessary to
reduce the assessment, in 1763-64, to L.1,991,785, out of
which the sum realised was only L.857,070.1 In 1765-66,
the first year of the Company’s administration, the assess-H'
ment was 16,029,011 rupees, equal to L.1,-803,263, of U
which 14,704,875 rupees (equal to L.1,803,263) were
actually collected. In 1765 the assessment imposed
amounted to L. 1,692,237, and in 1766 and 1767 it
amounted to L.1,713,677, from which deductions were
afterwards made, as it was found impossible to collect it.
Yet the sum actually realised was greater than ever was
extorted from the country by all the cruelties of Jaffier
Khan. But the methods by which it was collected were
most ruinous. The landholders, failing almost univer-
stdly in their engagements, were left to the mercy of the
revenue-officers, by whom they were grievously oppress¬
ed. In many parts, the villages were deserted by the
cultivators, and the land was left desolate. All these
evds were still Tarther aggravated by a grievous famine
which prevailed in Bengal in the year 1770, by which it
is computed that about one third of the inhabitants pe¬
rished. But, in the midst of all this misery, the revenue
was still violently kept up to its former standard. The
deficiencies occasioned by the famine were re-assessed on
those who survived this calamity; and so strictly were
they levied, that the land revenue for that year exhibited
an increase above that of the year preceding. The ruin¬
ous effects of this heavy exaction are stated at length in
the different letters from the governor-general to the direc¬
tors. In a letter, dated the 3d of November 1772, he ob¬
serves, “ It was naturally to be expected that the dimi¬
nution of the revenue should have kept an equal pace with
the other consequences of so great a calamity; that it did
not, was owing to its being violently kept up to its former
standard.” He then describes the method by which this
was accomplished, which was by “ an assessment upon
the actual inhabitants of every inferior division of the
lands, to make up for the loss sustained in the rents of
their neighbours, who are either dead or have fled the
country.’ “ I he tax, he continues, “not being levied
by any fixed rate or standard, fell heaviest on the wretch¬
ed survivors of those villages which had suffered the
greatest depopulation, and were of course the most enti¬
tled to the lenity of government. It had also this addi¬
tional evil attending it, in common with every other vari¬
ation from the regular practice, that it afforded an oppor¬
tunity to the farmers, or shiedars, to levy other contri¬
butions off the people under colour of it, and even to in¬
crease this to whatever magnitude they pleased, since
they were in course the judges of the loss sustained, and
of the proportion which the inhabitants were to pay to re¬
place it. lo the same effect, Mr Middleton, one of the
superintendents of the public revenue, observes, “ When
a very considerable portion, supposed even a third of the
whole inhabitants, had perished, the remaining two thirds
were obliged to pay for the lands now left without culti¬
vators. I he country has languished ever since, and the
evil continues enhancing every day. The first remedy,
without the adoption of which all other measures will be
fruitless, is an universal remission of some considerable
portion of the revenue throughout the provinces. Such
remission should have been made immediately on the fa¬
mine. Its not taking place then has made it more and
more necessary every day; and the longer it is delayed,
the more ruinous the consequences must be to this coun¬
try and its revenue.”
To correct these evils, supervisors, chosen from the
Company’s servants, were in 1769 stationed in different
parts of the country, to superintend the native officers in
the collection of the revenue and in the administration of
justice ; and two councils were appointed over the super-
See Sir John Shore’s Minute, Fifth Report, p. 176.
C Is
HINDUSTAN.
□indi in. visors, one at Moorshedabad and another at Patna,
w- ^ These supervisors were instructed to procure information
respecting the amount of the land revenues, the manner
of collecting them, the amount of the cesses or arbitrary
taxes, the origin and progress of those modern exactions,
and also to inquire concerning the regulations of com¬
merce and the administration of justice. The reports
made by these supervisors concurred with all the other
evidence received as to the wretched and oppressed state
of the natives. “ The nazims,” they observed, “ exact¬
ed what they could from the zemindars and great farmers
of the revenue, whom they left at liberty to plunder all
below; reserving to themselves the prerogative of plun¬
dering them in their turn, when they were supposed to
have enriched themselves with the spoils of the country.”
It was now resolved to make a settlement of the land
revenues for five years commencing from the year 1772.
For this purpose, a committee of the board, consisting of
the president and five members, named the “ Committee
of Circuit,” was appointed, who were to make a journey
through the country, and were empowered to receive pro¬
posals for a new lease of the lands, first from their ancient
possessors, and if their offers were deemed unsatisfactory,
they were to be let by public auction to the highest bid¬
der. These persons proceeded in their circuit through
the country, publicly advertising and letting in farm, for
the highest rent that could be obtained, the estates of
such as hesitated to contract for the assessment proposed.
A great proportion of the landed property throughout
Bengal was thus exposed to auction; and, in the general
sale, the former owners and the great nobility of the
country were outbidden by adventurers, to whom proper¬
ty was acceptable on any terms; and were generally dis¬
possessed of their lands, from the surplus produce of
which a provision was assigned them by the indulgence
of the revenue committee.
The supervisors who had been stationed in the different
districts were invested with the necessary powers for the
collection of the revenue, and were henceforth denomi¬
nated collectors. A native officer was to be joined with
them under the title of duan, to confirm and to check ac¬
counts, and to assist in all those multifarious details which
were intelligible only to a native. Various regulations
were adopted to check the exertions of the collectors ; but
the governor and council express their regret that it was
not in their power wholly to remedy this evil. Under the
Mogul government, the duty of collecting the revenues and
of administering justice was united, as formerly mentioned,
in the person of the zemindars. The new scheme for the
management of the revenues subverted this ancient order
of things. The zemindar was superseded both as collec¬
tor and as judge, and his place was supplied by two courts,
the one for civil, called the Dewanny Court, the other, call¬
ed the Fonjdarry Court, for criminal proceedings, esta¬
blished in each district. In the criminal court the new
collector of taxes was to act as president, to be assisted
by two Mahommedan officers, the cauzee and the muftee,
and by two Mohlavies, as interpreters of the law. The
civil court consisted, in like manner, of the collector as
president, assisted by the duan and other officers of the
native court. Two supreme courts were, at the same
time, established at Calcutta, for the review of the infe¬
rior courts, the one for civil cases, being called Dewanny
Sudder Adawlut, and the other the chief court of criminal
justice, or Nizamut Sudder Adawlut. To one of these all
capital cases were reported, and were ultimately referred
to the governor and council, who, finding the labour too
great, restored, in 1774, this branch of administration to
the nominal nabob, and carried back the court to Moor¬
shedabad. It appeared that, for a long period before this,
the administration of criminal justice was wholly at a
447
stand. In the new arrangements all disputes about pro- Hindustan,
perty not exceeding ten rupees in value were referred to
the head man of the district to which the parties be¬
longed.
In considering those regulations, the question naturally
occurs, how these supervisors, who were now to act in the
double capacity of collector and judge, became qualified
for the discharge of such important functions. In all
other countries, it is only by a previous course of labo¬
rious preparation that any one is qualified for the office
of a judge; and to appoint an unqualified person would
be reckoned both dangerous and absurd. But how much
more dangerous and absurd was it to appoint uninstructed
persons to act as judges in a foreign land, with whose lan¬
guage they are but imperfectly acquainted, and of whose
laws, manners, and customs, they are thoroughly igno¬
rant ? If, among a comparatively rude people, the mode
of proceeding be loose and arbitrary ; if there be no books
of written law, or of precedents to govern judicial deci¬
sions, which must consequently depend on the imperfect
lights and analogies afforded by manners, religion, or cus¬
toms, the incapacity of a foreigner for the discharge of
such nice duties becomes even more glaring. By dispos¬
ing of the administration of justice in this manner, it was
clear that the judicial duties would either be neglected,
or that they would still be performed as before, and with
no increased chance of amendment by native officers.
This new arrangement was, therefore, like many others, a
useless innovation on the established practice of the coun¬
try. There is another weighty objection to the union in
one person of the duties of collector and judge, namely,
that it was in the collection of the duties that the gross¬
est oppression had been committed ; the powers of the
collectors being frequently perverted to the most iniqui¬
tous ends. Under this new project, those who sought re¬
dress from the courts of justice met with their oppressor
in the capacity of judge. He judged in his own case, and
of complaints brought against his own conduct. Justice
was in this manner an empty name, unless it was supposed
that the judge would pronounce himself an oppressor.
Under the five years’ lease on which the land revenues
had been farmed in 1772, the country was grievously
overtaxed. The revenues fell into a heavy arrear the
very first year, and the lands were let on a progressive
rent. To collect the outstanding balances, and to force
up the revenue to its standard, a host of extortioners was,
under the name of aumils, or collectors, let loose upon the
afflicted country. But the rents contracted for by the
farmers of the revenue were greater than they could pay,
and, notwithstanding all their efforts, the arrears conti¬
nued to increase. On the five years’ lease, they amount¬
ed to a sum equal in value to L.l,4)54,277, which was
judged to be wholly irrecoverable; while, during the
same period, the sums remitted, even under the rigorous
management of public farmers, amounted to L.1,336,451.
Nor was this the only evil arising from the mal-adminis-
tration of the Company’s servants. The zemindars, who
are admitted on all hands, even by those who advocate
the sovereign’s right to the possession of the soil, to have
lived in splendour on their hereditary possessions ; in all
cases to have possessed the powers of magistracy within
their district, and, where the territory was large, to have
exercised a species of sovereignty ; were either despoiled
of their estates, or, where they were induced, by a heredi¬
tary attachment to their possessions, to engage for the
rent proposed, they were overwhelmed with taxes which
they could not pay, and were thus involved in poverty and
ruin. Where the zemindar was himself the farmer of the
revenue, he exercised the same extortion on his inferiors
which was applied to himself; where a money-jobber,
having no interest whatever in the property of the ten-
448
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, ants, was the farmer, there was no limit to his extortion the different orders of people who shared amongst them the Hind
and cruelty. produce , of the soil, were well understood. All that was w!!)’
The defects in this system for the administration of the distinctly known was the amount of the revenue ; but whe-
land revenues soon began to disclose themselves ; and the ther it was too high or too low was still a disputed point
rulers of India, whose government was one continued in- amongst the English in India, although the country was
novation, immediately resolved to make another consider- visibly declining under the weight of assessment. In such
able change in the state machinery which they had just diversity of opinion, the governor-general, anxious to pro¬
set in motion. They abolished the superintendence of the ceed with caution, delayed for a little the plan of a perma-
collectors ; and the country, with the exception of Chitta- nent settlement. He let the lands, in the mean time, from
gong and Tipperah, being formed into six grand divisions, year to year, through the agency of the district collectors;
viz. Calcutta, Burdwan, Moorshedabad, Dinazepore, Dac- and information on which to found a more durable ar¬
rangement was diligently sought from every source.
In 1799, Lord Cornwallis had resolved on the perma- pe
nent settlement of the land revenues. This he conceived nenu
to be essential to the relief of the country, the condition of tlemen
which he described to be wretched in the extreme. “ I of bon
am sorry,” he observes, “ to be obliged to say, that agri- Corn"': l
ca, and Patna, a council was appointed for each of the last
five, consisting of a chief and four senior servants, to whom
were transferred the powers and duties of the collectors.
They were to preside in the courts of justice, and to super¬
intend the collections; and, in subordinate districts, they
delegated their powers to naibs or aumils, who were na¬
tives, and who w^ere appointed, like their superiors, to col- culture and internal commerce have for many years been
lect and to judge in all cases under the value of 1000 ru- gradually declining; and that at present, excepting the
pees. The empty privilege of appeal was, as formerly, re- class of shroffs and banyans (bankers and merchants), who
served to the unsuccessful suitor in the provincial courts; reside almost entirely in towns, the inhabitants of these pro-
and, to superintend the whole collections of the country, a vinces are advancing hastily to a general state of poverty
grand revenue-office was established at the presidency, and wretchedness. In this description I must even include
The district of Calcutta was placed under the peculiar su- every zemindar in the Company’s territories, which, though
perintendence of a committee of revenue, consisting of two it may have been partly occasioned by their own indolence
members of the council and three inferior servants. These and extravagance, I am afraid must also be in a great mea-
regulations, which were declared to be temporary, and only sure attributed to the effects of our former system of ma-
preparatory to something more permanent, failed as usual nagement.” “I may safely assert,” adds he, “ that one third
in all their important objects. The defective administra- of the Company’s territory in Hindustan is now a jungle,
tion of justice amongst the natives was admitted and com- inhabited only by wild beasts.” In pursuance of his plan,
plained of by all parties, and the peace of the country was Lord Cornwallis entered into a permanent settlement of
in consequence disturbed by the general prevalence of the land revenues for ten years, which was afterwards de¬
robbery and other enormous crimes. The truth is, that dared unalterable ; and the zemindars of Bengal, Bahar,
the new arrangements had subverted the ancient institu- and Orissa, were formally constituted legal and perpetual
tions and local manners of the country, and had thus left a proprietors of their respective estates, on the payment of
void in its internal economy which the government was in a fixed rent to the state. The ten years, or, as it is called,
vain endeavouring to fill up. the decennial settlement, was completed in every district in
The lease of the lands expired in 1777; and, after va- 1793.
rious suggestions and consultations, it was resolved that the In regard to this measure, there cannot be a doubt, that its defe
rent should be regulated by the average collections of the in abolishing a land-tax, increasing at the discretion of the
three preceding years, and that the lands should be let, government with the produce of the land, Lord Cornwallis
not by auction, but by an agreement with their ancient pos- acted upon a just principle. But the advantage of a perma-
sessors in preference to other competitors. The liberal nent tax depends on its amount. If it be a moderate tax,
views of Mr Francis, who proposed that, in lieu of the mo- its permanency is an advantage ; but not so if, as in this
nopoly of salt and opium, a moderate duty should be im- case, it was exorbitant, higher than the land could bear,
posed on those articles, and that a long series of oppression and inconsistent with the progress of cultivation. The le-
should thus be terminated, by giving freedom to trade, gislators of India had not yet acquired the necessary know-
were rejected by the governor-general. In pursuance of the ledge of the country for such a measure. They had no
plan proposed, the lands were let from year to year until the data on which they could, with any certainty, adjust the
necessary arrangements could be completed for the system tax to the capacity of the soil; and, after long discussions,
it was at length fixed at the average amount of the collec¬
tions for the last three years. In the division of the produce,
accordingly, two fifths were, as before, allotted to the ryots,
after deducting the expense of collections; of the remain¬
ing three fifths, constituting the rent of the estate, ten ele¬
venths were taken as the government share, and one eleventh
left to the zemindar. If we suppose, therefore, an estate of
which the gross produce is L. 1000 a year, the respective
which was now to be adopted of a permanent land-tax.
The attention of the British parliament had frequently
been directed to the state of our Indian possessions, and to
the transactions of the resident government; and, in 1784<,
a new system, of which we have already given an account,
was established in Britain for the control of the local ad¬
ministration, under which Lord Cornwallis, who was chosen
governor-general, was specially directed by the act of par
1 lament, as well as by instructions from the directors and shares of the three claimants will be, L.400 for the ryots,
the board of control, “ to inquire into the alleged grie- L.540 for the government, and the remaining L.60 for the
vances oi the landholders, and, if founded in truth, to af- zemindar. In scarcely any instance, however, were these
ford them redress; and to establish permanent rules for proportions practically enforced. But the tax was exorbi-
t ic settlement and collection of the land revenue, and for tant. During the three preceding years, the average collec-
tne administration of justice, founded on the ancient laws tions of which had furnished the standard of the assessment,
an oca usages of the country.” it had been a general complaint that the country was over-
°r ^®rn^allis: on arrival in India, did not deem taxed ; and to this cause was ascribed its misery and decline,
matters fully ripe for the execution of the proposed plan, From this high standard of taxation no systematical re-
namefy, the permanent settlement of the land revenue, duction has ever been made. Arrears, which had been
^ n ^11^ uuportant subject he found that the most intelli- long accumulating, and which could not be recovered, had
gent of the Company’s «ervants differed widely in opinion, indeed been remitted; but every method of extortion had
i. either the nature of the land tenure, nor the rights of been practised, in order to realize as large a revenue as
HINDUSTAN.
Hi istan. possible; and the country was now charged with aperma-
^ nent assessment, founded on the actual revenue of those
years, which was exorbitant, and greater than the land
could bear; and this radical defect, even if there had been
no other, would have ensured the failure of the plan.
The zemindar, who was bound, in the first instance, for
the public tax, depended, for the means of discharging it,
on the produce of his rents; and the state, by imposing an
immoderate tax on him, laid him under the necessity of
plundering all below him.
There was another defect in the decennial settlement,
that it provided no security for the under-tenants and ry¬
ots in the hereditary privileges which they claimed in the
soil. As they varied in different places, and depended on
different rules, the subject appeared to involve details too
intricate for European management; and the important
task of settling with the ryots was, therefore, devolved
upon the zemindars, with a mere general recommendation
to be guided by the custom of the place, and to give
the ryot a written copy of his lease. According to this
plan, it was the great proprietors only who had any per¬
manent interest in the lands, while the inferior proprie¬
tors and tenantry were at the mercy of the principal
landholders, who might exact from them whatever they
pleased. The under-tenants and cultivators, in this ill-
defined state of their rights, had no interest whatever
in the improvement of the soil, being well assured that
they would in no case be left more than a bare mainte¬
nance ; and this was one among the other errors of the
settlement, that it was made entirely with the zemindars,
who were notoriously ignorant, oppressive, and corrupt.
Maliks and other inferior landholders were crushed, and
the just titles of the talookdars and ryots were extinguish¬
ed; they were placed in the power of the zemindars, on
whom alone the government relied for the improvement
of the country; though no country was ever yet improved
by its great lords, who are generally inactive, wasteful,
and improvident. The putwary or hereditary officer of
the village was now made a servant of the zemindar ; and
the office of canongoe, the hereditary village accountant,
was abolished, and his land resumed, that is, seized by
the government. Though humanely intended, therefore,
the plan was calculated to entail ruin upon the higher
classes of landholders, by the tax which it imposed on
them; while by necessitating them, and at the same time
giving them the power, to oppress all below them, in or¬
der to satisfy the exorbitant demands of the state, it ne¬
cessarily had the effect of extending this ruin downwards
to the lowest tenant. Its effects have entirely correspond¬
ed to this view of its principle.'
Co . It soon appeared, that, in order to realize the revenue,
qui es of h would be necessary to sell the lands; and this evil
tllE x. once begun, continued to increase. The revenue was not
punctually paid, and, for the recovery of outstanding ba¬
lances, lands to a great amount were at stated times ex¬
posed to auction. In the year 1796-97, the lands adver¬
tised for sale bore a rent of 2,870,061 sicca rupees
(L.332,927), and those actually sold yielded an annual
rent of 1,418,756 rupees (L.164,576). In 1797-98, the
quantity of lands sold bore a rent of 2,274,076 rupees
(L.255,833), and it is observed in the Fifth Report, p.
56, that “ among the defaulters were some of the oldest
and most respectable families of the country “ the dis¬
memberment of whose estates,” continues the Report,
“ at the end of each succeeding year, threatened them
with poverty and ruin, and, in* some instances, presented
449
difficulties to the revenue officers in their endeavours to pre- Hindustan,
serve undiminished the amount of the public assessment.” ''—’'‘v
In order to check those evils, several alterations were
made from time to time by Lord Cornwallis. But they
appear to have been unavailing; and, in the year 1802, in
a report from one of the collectors, we have the following
melancholy picture of the state of the country:—“ ‘ All
the zemindars,’ it is observed, ‘ with whom I ever had
any communication, in this and in other districts, have
but one sentiment respecting the rules at present in force
for the collection of the public revenue. They all say
that such a harsh and oppressive system was never before
resorted to in this country; that the custom of imprison¬
ing landholders for arrears of revenue was, in comparison,
mild and indulgent to them; that though it was no doubt
the intention of government to confer an important bene¬
fit on them, by abolishing this custom, it has been found
by melancholy experience, that the system of sales and
attachments, which has been substituted for it, has, in
the course of a very few years, reduced most of the great
zemindars in Bengal to distress and beggary, and pro¬
duced a greater change in the landed property than has
perhaps ever happened, in the same space of time, in any
age or country, by the mere effect of internal regulations.’1
In another part of the same document, the collector, after
commenting on a regulation then recently introduced, ob¬
serves, ‘ Before this period (1799), complaints of the in¬
efficacy of the regulations were very general among the ze¬
mindars, or the proprietors of large estates ; and it requir¬
ed little discernment to see that they had not the same
powers over their tenants which government exercised over
them. It was notorious that many of them had large ar¬
rears of rent due to them which they were utterly unable
to recover, while government were selling their lands for
arrears of assessment.’ The collector adds, ‘ Farmers and
intermediate tenants were, till lately, able to withhold
their rents with impunity, and to set the authority of
their landlords at defiance. Landholders had no direct
control over them; they could not proceed against
them, except through the courts of justice ; and the ends
of substantial justice were defeated, by delays and costs
of suit.’” To the same purpose Sir Henry Strachey ob¬
serves, “ That the men of opulence are now all men of
yesterday; that the greatest men formerly were the Mus¬
sulman rulers, whose places we have now taken, and the
Hindu zemindars. These two classes are now ruined and
destroyed.”2
It was the intention of Lord Cornwallis to include in the Waste
permanent settlement of the land-tax in Bengal, all the waste lands re.
lands, which were fertile and extensive, and which, yield- assessed,
ing, when improved, a valuable produce, would enable the
zemindar to pay the exorbitant tax upon the cultivated
parts. The Europeans at this time did not know the fer¬
tility and the vast extent of those lands; and when it
was discovered that the zemindars were enriching them¬
selves by the cultivation of their untaxed wastes, it seems,
as Mr Rickards observes, to have excited a notion amongst
the British that they had got too good a bargain ; and
an error of this nature, on the side of liberality, was so
monstrous an anomaly in the Company’s policy, as behoved
to be corrected with all due speed. Accordingly, doubts
were suggested respecting the right of the zemindars to
these waste lands, though they all laid claim to them as
part of their assessed estates, and though it does not ap¬
pear how the mere fact of their non-cultivation should
invalidate or in any degree affect the title to the land.3
1 Fifth Report, printed in 1812, p. 60. 3 See Answers to the Interrogatories of Government, dated 30th Jan. 1802.
1 Mr Hodgson, in his Report on the Revenues of Tinnevelly, observes, “ If the meerassadars (proprietors) should be unable or un¬
willing to procurepyacarries (cultivators) to cultivate that part of the meerassee (estate) which is waste, and the circar (government), or
VOL. XI. 3 L
450 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan-Inquiries were from time to time made, and in 1815 com-
missioners were appointed, apparently with no other
view than to find a flaw in the titles of the zemindars,
and to resume or to seize upon these waste lands, the
cultivation of which was so great a source of wealth.
Thus it appears that it was no more safe to grow rich un¬
der the rule of the British in India, than under any of the
native despotic states; and the too luxuriant prosperity
of the thriving zemindars was accordingly pruned by the
tax-gatherer’s rapacious hand. It was suggested by one
of those commissioners in 1817, whose inquiries, the fur¬
ther they were pursued, involved him in greater difficul¬
ties, that all the.waste lands should, without more ado,
be declared the property of government, leaving to the
zemindar the tardy and uncertain remedy of proving
his title to the satisfaction of those who were despoiling
him of his property. The greatest difficulties were every¬
where experienced in carrying this scheme of spoliation
into effect. In Bahar and Benares the commissioner de¬
clared the unassessed lands to be everywhere claimed as
a portion of the zemindary estate. It is clear that the
permanent settlement of the land-tax in 1793 was in¬
tended by Lord Cornwallis as a full discharge of all the
public dues. It was a solemn deed, by which all doubt¬
ful and conflicting claims were for ever set at rest;
and to open up this settlement at the distance of twen¬
ty years, and to harass the landholders with new and
undefined demands, was a breach of faith, a cruel mock¬
ery of private rights, calculated to inflict a deep wound
on the prosperity of the country. Such vexatious inqui¬
ries, conducted by those who had an interest in the con¬
fiscation of the lands, terminated as might have been ex¬
pected. Those which were exempted from taxation by
the permanent settlement of 1793 were now resumed
and assessed; and the zemindar had his remedy in a suit
against the government before the British revenue courts,
which generally gave judgment against him. It is men¬
tioned in evidence before the Lords’ Committee, that
the proprietor of a great estate in the Sunderbunds, who
had brought into cultivation an extensive waste, was call¬
ed upon, notwithstanding the permanent settlement of
his land-tax, to pay an additional tax on the produce of
this land.^He disputed the claim; but being cast in a
suit before the revenue courts, he was subjected to a ry-
otwar settlement, and compelled to pay fifty times more
than the original rent.1 Thus the tax was not only ex¬
orbitant, but provision was made for continuing it at a
rack-rent, so that there was no prospect of relief under
any circumstances to the oppressed country; and thus we
find extortion to be still the true feature of the Com¬
pany’s government. It is this grinding system of taxation,
this continual desire for an improving revenue, the stand¬
ard by which the zeal of the Company’s servants is judg¬
ed of, and promotion regulated, that defeats all the'bles¬
sings that might otherwise flow from European rule ; that
spreads pauperism far and wide, and is the standing source
of misery throughout the country.
The ruin of the zemindars was partly occasioned by ano¬
ther cause, namely, the want of any effectual method of
enforcing their claims against the small tenants. The pub¬
lic officer was empowered to proceed against defaulters
by a summary process, and to attach and sell, by public
auction, the zemindar’s land for the discharge of arrears;
whilst against the under-tenants the zemindar had to seek
redress by an ordinary suit at law, which was both tedious
and expensive. To heighten this! evil, the courts of jus-Hindu
tice were overloaded with a long arrear of undecided v ’
causes, so that no decision could be expected before the belay
lapse of years. There were in the district of Burdwanjust«e
above thirty thousand undecided suits; and no decision
could be expected within the ordinary duration of human
life. The zemindar, in this manner, whilst he was compel¬
led to pay, by the prompt and efficient process of govern¬
ment, was left to seek redress Trom his tenants through a
labyrinth of endless litigation; and the knowledge of this
impediment to justice gave great encouragement to the
tenants to refuse payment of their rents. The ruin of the
zemindar, therefore, was the inevitable consequence of
this summary process to which he was exposed, while he
could have no similar recourse on his tenants; and these
regulations were universally complained of, and on thejust-
est grounds. In an address from one of the collectors to
the board of revenue, in behalf of the zemindar of Burd-
wan, who had in vain applied for redress to the civil courts,
it is observed that he (the zemindar) begs leave to “ sub¬
mit to your consideration, whether or not it can be possible
for him to discharge his engagements to government with
that punctuality which the regulations require, unless he
be armed with powers as prompt to enforce payment from
his renters, as government had been pleased to autho¬
rize the use of in regard to its claims on him; and he
seems to think it must have proceeded from an oversight,
rather than from any just and avowed principle, that there
should have been established two modes of judicial pro¬
cess under the same government; the one summary and
efficient for the satisfaction of its own claims, the other
tardy and uncertain in regard to the satisfaction of claims
due to its subjects; more especially in a case like the pre¬
sent, where ability to discharge the one demand neces¬
sarily depends on the other demand being previously rea¬
lized.”
The system which impoverished the zemindars proved Oppres
equally ruinous to the ryots. It was the practice of the sion of I
zemindar to contract for a certain rent with a land farmer,
who subdivided the land into smaller portions, and let it
to a variety of inferior tenants. To this head farmer it
appears that a written agreement was given, according to
the regulations; but the under-tenants were left, without
any security, to the mercy of their superiors. It is well
known, and admitted by the servants of the Company,
that the ryot, even when he receives written agreements
from the zemindar, is liable to indirect oppressions which
no law can remedy; and though, owing to the expense
and delay in the administration of justice, he could reta¬
liate on the zemindar, by refusing payment of his rents,
this privilege could be of little advantage to him, whilst it
tended still farther to widen the breach between the land¬
lord and the tenant, and to add to the hatred, strife, and
violent distraction of interests by which the community
was now, as it were, torn in pieces. To remedy the griev¬
ances which the zemindars suffered from the evasion of
payment by their tenants, it was enacted in 1799, that
they might have recourse to the same summary process
against defaulters, as was used by the government against
themselves. They were empowered to seize the property
of their tenants for arrears, previous to any legal judg¬
ment, or any proof of the justice of their claim. This re¬
gulation gave to the zemindars the power of unbounded
oppression, against which the ryot had no redress, as he
was effectually shut out of the courts of justice by the
the meerassadar wmuhf considpr^^^lr °r should assign the land to be cultivated to a stranger of his or their procuring,
onth^gro^Tproduce) andSnotI('nn?He^i[>'r0?w1ie^r ^ land’ claim his boSum (a deducti™ for himself 134 Per cenU
1 See SSs of EvtdenPP W t hl8,t^le Related by his temporary inability.” (See Fifth Report, p. 832.)
see Minutes ot Evidence before Lords’ Committee, 26th February 1830, Evidence of Mr Mangles, p. 49.
HINDU STAN.
jl ustan. enormous expenses of law proceedings.1 It was undoubt-
f edly just that the zemindar should have the same efficient
process for enforcing payment as was used against himself;
but such was the unhappy condition of India, under the
unskilful management of strangers, that every plan of re¬
form seemed only to increase the general disorder. Her
rulers wanted intelligence for the delicate task of domestic
legislation ; their schemes were crude and inapplicable, nor
could they ever mould the various and jarring interests of
the Indian community into any consistent scheme of civil
order; so that, though they were continually patching
their imperfect work, it still bore the same incongruous
character, and the cure of one evil .was constantly followed
by an irruption of other and worse evils from some other
quarter.
The state of society which prevailed in Hindustan arose
from the mixed operation of a peculiar system of laws, cus¬
toms, manners, religion, and policy; and such an artificial
structure required to be nicely and skilfully handled, in¬
stead of which it was lacerated in all its delicate parts by
the rude hand of foreign interference. The English were
ignorant even of the language of the people whom they
had brought under their sway, and whom they now attempt¬
ed to govern ; and though they might know generally that
the public revenues were derived from an impost on land,
they were entirely inexperienced in the usages of the coun-
try, and in the financial details of the Mogul government.
With what effect, therefore, could they interfere in such
complicated details ? how could they decide between the
claims of justice and of fraud ? how could they judge of
cases connected with the peculiar usages of the country,
and with all those minutiae of local manners with which no
foreigners can ever become thoroughly acquainted ? The
Company’s servants, involved in such a labyrinth of com¬
plex concerns, possessed no clue to guide them to any
equitable issue. Supposing their views to have been ho¬
nest, they wanted intelligence to give them effect; and al¬
though they could enforce submission to their decrees, the
country, under their usurped and ill-directed authority,
presented one vast scene of anarchy and oppression. The
directors in Europe readily ascribed all these evils to the
misconduct and rapacity of their servants, which they hea¬
vily censured; and, in their correspondence with India,
they express the most just, humane, and enlightened sen¬
timents, and a sincere desire to promote the happiness of
their subjects. But if they had only said to their servants
“ lower the assessment,” these three words would have been
of more avail than volumes of fine sentiment. The truth
is, that extortion has all along been the vice of the Com-
pany’s government. The eastern maxim of the sovereign’s
proprietary right to the soil was too readily adopted into
their European creed, and was the ground and the excuse
of immoderate assessment. The new sovereigns of India
could never relinquish the idea of profit, and the wealth
of India was now expected to swell the balance-sheet.
I he land and labour of the country were to be laid under
contribution for the benefit of the mercantile proprietors
in Europe. The glory of a sovereign consists in the feli¬
city of grateful millions, and this is the only true and legi¬
timate end of all government. But the East India Com¬
pany were intent on profit, on enriching themselves at the
expense of their subjects ; and the duty of the servants to
their masters consisted in sending home a large invest¬
ment. They were to possess themselves of as large a
quantity as possible of the produce of the country, giving
nothing in return, and to send it to Europe to be shared
451
amongst the proprietors ; and it was, accordingly, the boast Hindustan,
of successive administrations how well they had succeeded v—-v'*—'
in this matter; not how happy they had made their sub¬
jects, but how much of their property they had taken from
them and sent to Europe.
The institutions of Lord Cornwallis, for the administra- Judicial
tion of civil and criminal justice, appear to have been equal- s.ystem
ly unsuccessful with his finance measures; and it soon ap- ^ Lord
peared, as has already been stated, that the new courts of CcKmvai 1S
judicature had more business than they could manage, and
such an arrear of undecided cases accumulated that the
course of justice was nearly stopped. In this dilemma, the
costs of suit were raised for the purpose of discouraging li¬
tigation ; and this expedient being found ineffectual, they
were raised a second time. To place justice out of the
reach of the poorer and more numerous class, by laying a
heavy tax on it, was indeed an easy and effectual method
of discouraging litigation. It was, in fact, a denial of jus¬
tice, a direct refusal to hear the complaints of the poor,
who might, therefore, be harassed for ever after with im¬
punity. Notwithstanding this discouragement, however,
the evil went on increasing, and at last amounted to an al¬
most total dissolution of civil order. As no decision was
to be procured before the regularly-constituted tribunals,
every man began to arm himself in his own quarrel, and
the country thus became the scene of bloody affrays be¬
tween armed individuals, unhappily left without any other
resource for the decision of their differences. In some of
those conflicts 4000 or 5000 persons were arrayed on each
side, and many lives were lost. In a letter of the court
of directors, dated October 1814, it is observed, “ As to
affrays respecting the possession and boundaries of lands
and rents, this has been long a serious evil, and must, we
conceive, have existed in a greater or less degree in every
part of the country.” “ These affrays,” continue the di¬
rectors, “ which often lead to homicides and woundings,
have been very naturally ascribed by several of the judges
to the difficulty of obtaining judicial redress.”2 In the dis¬
trict of Tirhoot, where the public peace had been frequent¬
ly disturbed by those private feuds, the judge for the divi¬
sion of Patna observes, that they chiefly “ arose from the
accumulated arrears of suits,” and “ that the parties finding
a delay in obtaining redress, had resorted to force.”3 Mr
Melville, also a judge in the division of Dacca, expresses
himself to the same purpose. “ With respect to affrays,”
he observes, “ attended with homicides and wounding, it is
known that those disorders arose from attempts to retain
by force possession of lands, or rents of lands, to which the
different parties alleged separate claims.” The same per¬
son afterwards states, that “ in Chittagong, they (meaning
these quarrels) had not only been frequent, but violent;
that the police authority had been often resisted, and in
one instance overpowered; that it would be wrong to dis¬
guise the length of time a claimant must wait, with the sa¬
crifices he must make, before the decision of a civil court
can be obtained.”
We shall now briefly advert to the system of penal judi- Penal ju- ’
cature and police established by Lord Cornwallis; the ob- feature
ject, in this case, being to give security to the people by and Poiice-
the suppression of crimes. With reference to this object,
however, the scheme has notoriously failed. Since the
year 1793, India has become a prey to disorders of every
sort, and to the worst of crimes. The crime of robbery,
accompanied with murder, rose to a most alarming height'
and was prosecuted with a degree of union, perseverance,
and cruelty, inconceivable to those who live in the civiliz-
s ^tIl®colIectors invariably bear testimony to the oppressions of the zemindars, after the passing of the regulation of 1790
House ofCo^mmo^T/l? 0 21^ AdminUtration °f Ju,tke in BenSal> from HH0 to the present time. Printed by order of the
* Ibid. p. 22. ’ I • •
452
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, ed communities of Europe. Robbery is a regular profes-
'-’-v'*-'' sion, which is handed down from father to son ; and the
deceits, or gang-robbers, are formed, as the title implies,
into powerful confederacies, and make their irruptions on
the peaceful country with a force which it is vain to resist.
They are described by Mr Hastings as “ a race of outlaws,
who live from father to son in a state of warfare against
society, plundering and burning villages, and murdering
the inhabitants.” In the year 1772, the robbers are men¬
tioned by the committee of circuit, and stated to be “ not
like robbers in England, individuals driven to such courses
by sudden want; they are robbers by profession, and even
by birth ; they are formed into regular communities, and
their families subsist by the spoils which they bring home
to them.” .
Increase of All the reports of the judges employed in the adminis-
crimes. tration of criminal justice concur in representing the de¬
plorable prevalence of the atrocious crimes of gang-robbery
and murder. Sir Henry Strachey, writing on this subject
in 1802, observes, that the crime of decoity (that is, rob¬
bery by gangs) has increased greatly since the British ad¬
ministration of justice. Another judge, writing on the
same subject in 1808, observes, “ That decoity (gang-rob¬
bery) is very prevalent in Rajeshahye has been often stat¬
ed. But if its vast extent were known; if the scenes of
horror, the murders, the burnings, the excessive cruelties,
which are continually perpetrated here, were properly re¬
presented to government, I am confident that some mea¬
sures would be adopted to remedy the evil. Certainly
there is not an individual belonging to the government
who does not anxiously wish to save the people from rob¬
bery and massacre.” (Mill, vol. iii. p. 311.) He after¬
wards adds, that such is the state of things which prevails
all over Bengal; and as to his own particular district, he
expresses his persuasion that no civilized country ever had
so bad a police. To the same purpose Mr Dowdeswell,
the secretary to the government in 1809, observes, in a re¬
port which he drew up on the general state of Bengal,
“ Were I to enumerate only a thousandth part of the atro¬
cities of the deceits, and of the consequent sufferings of the
people, and were I to soften that recital in every mode
which language would permit, I should still despair of ob¬
taining credit, solely on my own authority, for the accura¬
cy of the narrative.” “ Robbery, rape, and even murder
itself,” continues he, “ are not the worst figures in this hor¬
rid and disgusting picture. An expedient of common oc¬
currence with the deceits, merely to induce a confession of
property, supposed to be concealed, is to burn the proprie¬
tor with straw or torches, until he discloses the property,
or perishes in the flames. And when they are actuated by
a spirit of revenge against individuals, worse cruelties, if
worse can be, are perpetrated by these remorseless crimi¬
nals. If the information obtained is not extremely erro¬
neous, the offender, hereafter noticed, himself committed
fifteen murders in nineteen days; and volumes might be
filled with the atrocities of the deceits, every line of which
would make the blood run cold with horror.” (Fifth Re¬
port, p. 603.)
It would far exceed our limits to trace in detail the
cause of those evils which necessarily arose out of the
very nature of the government now established. The
truth is, the British were never qualified to act as legisla¬
tors in India. They were too ignorant of the habits,
manners, and character of the people, to meddle with
their institutions, on which, however, they were continu¬
ally innovating. By altering the old mode of settling
the land revenues, they compromised the rights of the
different classes of landholders and occupiers. Strife and
contention immediately ensued, litigation burst upon so¬
ciety like a flood, the civil courts were overwhelmed with
suits which they could not decide, and the people, des¬
perate from a denial of justice, were involved in furious Hindu
affrays with each other in prosecution of their rights, or, ^v
being driven from their lands, they had recourse to rob¬
bery for a subsistence. Business was thus, from various
sources, accumulated in the criminal courts, which being
encumbered with the delay, the expense, and all the te¬
dious formalities of the English practice, proceeded with
their decisions at much too slow a pace for the wants of
the country; and the evil in this manner daily increased.
The mischief of this delay was twofold : It allowed
criminals, during the long interval between their appre¬
hension and trial, to prepare the certain means of their
escape, by the suborning of false witnesses, who, in the
gross dissolution of morals in Hindustan, were always to
be readily procured, and in any number; and, 2dly, It en¬
tailed a grievous hardship on the innocent, great numbers
of whom were crowded into jails with the worst of felons,
there to wait until the tardy hand of justice should bring
them relief.
The inefficient state into which the police had fallen, Defect
was also one cause of the general prevalence of crimes, police.
By the ancient institutions of the Mogul government,
ample means were provided for the preservation of the
public peace. In every village a permanent body of
guards and watchmen was maintained, whose business it
was to assist in all the subordinate details both of the re¬
venue and police, to convey the rents of the ryot to the
district collector, to watch those ryots who were in ar-
rear, to guard their crops from depredation, to act as
guides and protectors to travellers, to collect information
of any offences committed, and to report the arrival in the
villages of suspicious persons. For these various services
they had grants of land rent-free, or on very easy terms.
Beshles this standing force of guards and village watch¬
men, the zemindar, who was at the head of the police,
and was held responsible for all crimes committed within
his boundaries, had under his orders a large body of pykes,
or armed constables, whom he could call out in aid of the
police service, either for the apprehension of offenders,
or to prevent breaches of the peace. These establish¬
ments, though they had fallen into a state of decay at the
time of the permanent settlement in 1793, and though
they were frequently perverted from their original pur¬
poses, yet existed in all parts of the country, and the po¬
lice force was found to be in great efficiency and strength.
The zemindary of Burdwan, a tract of country seventy-
three miles long by forty-five broad, which was in the
highest state of cultivation, and well stocked with inhabi¬
tants, maintained a body of 2400 village watchmen, who
were distributed under their respective chiefs amongst the
different villages, for the double purpose of protecting the
inhabitants and of procuring information ; besides 19,000
pyhes, or armed constables, who were liable to be called
out, under the orders of the zemindar, in aid of the po¬
lice. Instead of improving upon those ancient establish¬
ments which had taken root in the country, which were
interwoven with the frame and texture of Indian society,
and which were, generally speaking, efficient, though fre¬
quently perverted from their original purposes, Lord Corn¬
wallis demolished the whole structure. According to his
new scheme of police, the zemindary constables were dis¬
banded, and their lands, which were allowed them in lieu
of pay, were resumed, that is, were seized by government.
The country was divided into districts of twenty miles
square, over which a native police officer or darogah was
placed, with fifteen or twenty armed men under his or¬
ders ; he was assisted also by the village watchmen, and
such of the zemindary constables as were still retained in
the public service. It was soon found, however, that the
new police officers could not effectually call out this array
in aid of the civil power. They wanted the personal con-
HINDUSTAN.
Hir Stan, sideration of the zemindars, who had long been looked up
^ -w' to with respect and reverence as the hereditary aristocra¬
cy of the country. The system, therefore, proved emi¬
nently inefficient; nor were the officers employed under
the new plan found to be less corrupt than the disbanded
constables of the zemindars. The merits of the plan ap¬
pear to be pretty fairly estimated in the Fifth Report (p.
71), in which it is observed, that the head police officers,
and “ the inferior officers acting under them, with as
much inclination to do evil, have less ability to do good,
than the zemindary servants employed before them.”
How vain was it to imagine that any better materials
could be found for the regulation and government of the
country than those which the country itself afforded.
To complain of them was to complain of the general state
of society out of which they were produced ; and to throw
them away because they were corrupt or otherwise imper¬
fect, evinced an ignorance of the legislator’s province,
which is not to create materials, but to make the best use
of those which are provided to his hand. Herein, then,
consisted the error of the British legislators. They cast
from them the only efficient instruments which were to
be found for the government of the Indian community,
while they had nothing to substitute in their place; and
their plans, when tried in practice, were accordingly found
to be idle theories, at variance with the whole frame and
order of the society for whose use they were intended.
Pr lence The pernicious consequences of thus rashly subverting
ot 8- the ancient establishments of the country were soon dis-
roi played in the alarming increase of crimes. The disband¬
ed zemindary constables, whose lands were seized, were
deprived of the means of living, and they necessarily be¬
took themselves to theft and rapine for a subsistence. The
country became infested with gangs of robbers and mur¬
derers, whose horrid cruelties struck terror into the peace¬
able inhabitants, whilst lesser crimes also became more
frequent. The police was inadequate to the detection of
offenders, the courts of justice to their conviction; and,
amongst other evils, a host of false witnesses now arose,
amid the general corruption of morals, who swore in the
teeth of each other, perplexing all judicial proceedings,
and confounding the innocent with the guilty. For re¬
medy of these complicated evils, various expedients were
resorted to. Amongst others, a feeble attempt was made
to revive the ancient powers which the zemindars had
over the police; but this was attended with so little suc¬
cess, that it was abandoned in 1810. In 1808 a superin¬
tendent of police was appointed, with a view, as was
stated, of concentrating, in his office, all the information
which might be obtained from different quarters, and of
giving unity and vigour to the measures aclopted for the
apprehension of offenders; and, as a last resource, a regu¬
lar establishment of police spies, called goyendas, was or¬
ganized, and placed under a species of superintendents
called girdwars, the office of the first being to point out
the robbers, that of the latter to apprehend them. Not¬
withstanding all these measures, crimes of every descrip¬
tion appear to have gone on increasing; and in a minute
of Lord Minto, dated November 1810, it is observed,
“ That a monstrous and disorganized state of society ex¬
isted under the eye of the supreme British authorities, and
almost at the very seat of that government to which the
country might justly look for safety and protection; that
the mischief could not wait for a slow remedy; that the
people were perishing almost in our sight; that every
week’s delay was a doom of slaughter and torture against
453
the defenceless inhabitants of very populous countries.” Hindustan.
The directors, in whose letter of the 28th of October 1814
this passage appears, confirm the truth of the statement by
the following brief observation: “ That this representa¬
tion of the late governor-general is not too highly colour¬
ed, would appear from the minute of Mr Lumsden, and
the reports of Mr Secretary Dowdeswell, forming also part
of the proceedings in regard to Mr Ernst.”1
The new scheme of employing spies, howrever useful in Spies,
some cases, was in other respects highly detrimental to the
peace of the community. Those spies, and more espe¬
cially their superintendents (girdwars), became, in many
cases, the pests of society. They took advantage of the
power which they possessed of apprehending suspected
persons, to extort money from them ; and frequently, un¬
der threats of immediate apprehension, they laid under
contribution all classes indiscriminately. It is stated, in a
letter of the directors, dated October 1814, on the autho¬
rity of Mr Dick, a circuit judge, that “ whole villages
are put under contribution, or subjected to the rapacity
and spiteful machinations of the vilest members of society.”2
In some cases the innocent were brought to trial, and con¬
victed, on suborned evidence, procured by these wretches.
Amongst the other causes of these evils may be enume- Incapaci-
rated the incapacity of Europeans to officiate as judges in ty of Eu-
a society so peculiarly constituted as that of India. This is f°Pean
a fact which is deeply regretted by all the most experi- JU(t£es-
enced servants of the Company, from Sir John Shore
downwards. Europeans are sent out to India with the sole
view of amassing a fortune. They have no interest in
the country from which they draw such important bene¬
fits ; they know nothing of its habits and manners, ne¬
ver mixing with the natives in their ordinary business or
amusements, and never attaining to more than a theo¬
retical knowledge of their characters; yet they soon begin
to officiate as judges, but how miserably ill appointed for
such an office their own experience quickly teaches them.
They soon find the difficulty of appreciating or understand¬
ing even the most ordinary transactions of a society, with
the rules and principles of which they are entirely unac¬
quainted. What is intelligible by intuition to a native, is
a mystery to them; and it is easy to conceive how these
difficulties must be accumulated on them in any case in¬
volving a long train of circumstantial or contradictory evi¬
dence. It is not, as every one knows, on the mere naked
testimony of a witness, that a judge entirely relies; it is
the tone, the manner, the living evidence of expression and
character, which impresses upon testimony the stamp of
truth, which carries conviction to the mind, and saves a
judge from the miserable dilemma of being blown about
by every wind of opposite evidence. These discrimina¬
tions are, however, far too nice for a European judge in an
Indian court, and he frequently knows not what to believe.
He cannot, by any judicious cross-examination, extort the
truth from contradictory witnesses. In any train of ques¬
tions involving the peculiar usages of the country, his stock
of knowledge is soon exhausted. A story which hangs to¬
gether in all its main circumstances, may yet be inconsis¬
tent in some of its minute and delicate points. But a Eu¬
ropean can never detect inconsistencies which are wrapt
up in the veil of local manners, and hence he lies at the
mercy of every perjured witness who chooses to practise
upon his ignorance. The truth of this statement is illus¬
trated and confirmed by the concurring reports of many
of those who have acted in this trying situation. Sir Henry
Strachey, whose reports to the supreme government abound
1 See Papers relating to the Police and to the Administration of Civil and Criminal Justice in Bengal, Fort George, from 1810 to the
present time. Printed in 1819, p. 24. 1 J
* Papers printed by order of the House of Commons, 1819.
454
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan, in most just, enlightened, and comprehensive views of
Indian society and manners, observes, that “ nothing is
more common, even after a minute and laborious exa¬
mination of evidence on both sides, than for the judge
to be left in utter doubt respecting the points at issue.
This proceeds chiefly from our very imperfect connection
with the natives, and our scanty knowledge, after all our
study, of their manners, customs, and languages. With¬
in these few years, too, the natives have attained a sort
of legal knowledge, as it is called; that is to say, a skill in
the arts of collusion, intrigue, perjury, and subornation,
which enables them to perplex and baffle us with infinite
facility.” “ We perhaps judge too much by rule ; we ima¬
gine things to be incredible because they have not before
fallen within our experience. We make not sufficient al¬
lowance for the loose, vague, and inaccurate mode in which
the natives tell a story; for their not comprehending us,
and our not comprehending them. We hurry, terrify,
and confound them with our eagerness and impatience.”
“ We cannot,” adds the same discriminating observer,
“ study the genius of the people in its own sphere of ac¬
tion. We know little of their domestic life, their know¬
ledge, conversation, amusements, their trades and castes,
or any of those national and individual characteristics
which are essential to a complete knowledge of them.
Every day affords us examples of something new and sur¬
prising ; and we have no principle to guide us in the in¬
vestigation of facts, except an extreme diffidence of our
opinion, a consciousness of inability to judge of what is
probable or improbable.” “ The evil I complain of is ex¬
tensive, and, I fear, irreparable. The difficulty we expe¬
rience in discerning truth and falsehood among the na¬
tives, may be ascribed, I think, chiefly to our want of
connection and intercourse with them; to the peculiarity
of their manners and habits, their excessive ignorance of
our characters, and our almost equal ignorance of theirs.”
The following passage, from the same document, gives a
striking view of the inefficiency of European judges:
“ The evidence on every trial convinces us, that innume¬
rable robberies and murders, that atrocities of the worst
conceivable kind, are committed, and that very often the
perpetrators are before us; yet do we find ourselves, from
causes of the nature above described, constrained to let
them loose again to prey on society, or, at the utmost,
to direct that they be discharged, on giving security for
their good behaviour.” “ The judge of circuit is from day
to day engaged in trying large gangs for robbery and mur¬
der, and letting them go; and the country continues to
be overrun with them, to a degree truly deplorable.”1
New mea- The directors of the Company in Europe, as soon as
sures. they were informed of these vices and disorders in their
Indian government, displayed the most praiseworthy zeal
in their endeavours to remove them. Far from blaming
the freedom with which they were exposed, or seeking,
by palliations, to evade the truth, they listened to the
representations of their servants; and, in many cases,
followed their judicious and enlightened suggestions.
One of their first cares was to re-establish the vigour and
efficiency of the police. It was soon found that the sys¬
tem established in 1793, not being connected in any de¬
gree with the institutions or local manners of the country,
was ill adapted to its end; and that the subversion of the
ancient establishments, on the ruin of which it was found¬
ed, had been attended with the worst effects, and had
paved the way for all the disorders and evils with which
the country had been afflicted. Hence it has been the
policy of the government to restore the ancient institu¬
tions of the country, and to revive for the public service
the ancient array of village watchmen and zemindary con¬
stables, formerly disbanded. In many cases their efforts
have been attended with success. A new energy has
been infused into the police ; and this, joined to the ac¬
tivity of the local magistrates, has had the effect of great¬
ly diminishing the crime of gang-robbery, as well as other
crimes. This fact is placed beyond a doubt by the re¬
cords of criminal justice, from which it appears, that in
Bengal the atrocities which formerly spread terror through¬
out the peaceful country, have been greatly diminished in
number by the vigilance of the police and the great ex¬
ertions of the local magistracy.
Number of Persons sentenced to Death by the Court of
Nizamut Adawlut (chief Criminal Court) of Bengal.
From 1816 to 1821, including a period of six years...490
From 1822 to 1827 366
Decrease 124
Sentenced to Transportation or Imprisonment for Life.
From 1816 to 1821  1758
From 1822 to 1827 880
Decrease 878
Number of Persons tried before the Circuit Courts of Ben¬
gal.
From 1816 to 1818, three years,—Burglary 2853
From 1825 to 1827, do do 1036
Decrease 1817
From 1816 to 1818, three years,—Cattle stealing 203
From 1825 to 1827, do   do 31
Decrease 172
From 1816 to 1818, three years,—Larceny 1516
From 1825 to 1827, do do 223
Decrease 1293
In the Lower and Western Provinces of Bengal.
No. Sentenced. Decrease
1826. 1827. of Crime.
Arson,  U54 31 123
Burglary 2,433 1,995 438
Frauds 6,161 3,302 2,859
Larceny 8,301 7,927 374
Plundering,   768 97 671
17,817 13,352 4,465
In the western and lower provinces the number of mur¬
ders without depredation were,
Western Provinces. Lower Provinces.
In 1818 and 1820 496 319
In 1827 and 1828 255 194
Decrease 241 125
Number of Depredations accompanied by Torture and
Wounding.
Western Provinces. Lower Provinces.
In 1818 and 1820 1000 545
In 1827 and 1828  512 221
Decrease 488 324
Hindustj
Decreasi
of crime
1 Answers to Interrogatories of Government, 30th January 1802, Fifth Report.
HINDUSTAN.
Hi istan.
In 1807, gang-robberies amounted to 1481
In 1824, to 234
Decrease... 1247
In 1807, wilful murders amounted to...406
In 1824, to 30
Decrease...376
In Kishnagur, formerly notorious for gang-robberies, they
decreased from 329 in 1808, to 10, their amount in 1824.
These records present a satisfactory view of the de¬
crease of crime under the British rule in India; and it is
ascribed, not to any improvement in the morals of the peo¬
ple, but to the great efforts of the magistracy, and to the
increased efficiency of an improved police, in which the
native officers are remarkably active.
Ji ial The judicial establishments of Bengal consist of,
es lish- A high court of appeal, termed the Sudder De-
Ki wanny Adawlut; and the Nizamut Adawlut, or the chief
civil and criminal court, which sits in Calcutta. A chief
judge presides, with a salary of L.6000 a year, assisted by
three puisne judges with L.5000 each. This court has
power to revise the sentences of the inferior courts, and to
mitigate them if excessively severe; to suspend provincial
judges; and to receive appeals from the inferior courts.
Its construction of the regulations or edicts issued by the
governor-general is final.
2d, There are six provincial courts of appeal in Bengal,
with a chief and puisne judge in each, for the trial of ci¬
vil cases, in which the matter in dispute exceeds 10,000
rupees in value. They may try suits not exceeding 5000
rupees, if the plaintiff desire their decision. In the case
of appeals their decision is final, except in special cases.
3d, There are twenty commissioners of circuit in Ben¬
gal, who combine revenue with judicial functions. They
are criminal judges, who hold sessions of jail delivery at
least twice in each year, who have also the direction and
control of the magistrates, revenue officers, and police.
They have each a salary of L.4000 a year.
4^, The city and zillah or district courts amount to
forty-nine in Bengal. They have a judge, magistrate,
and registrar, or, where the business is not extensive, a
judge and magistrate, or a magistrate and registrar.
These courts take cognizance of affrays, thefts, burglaries,
&c., try original suits to the value of 20,000 rupees, de¬
cide appeals from registrars in cases not exceeding 500
rupees in value, and from sudder aumeems (native judges)
and moonsifs. By a regulation of the governor in 1832,
three zillah judges may be invested by the governor-
general with power to hold sessions and jail delivery.
From the zillah courts an appeal lies to the provincial
courts ; and, by a regulation in council, it was declared
competent for the governor-general to establish in any
part of the presidency a native court, to be superintend¬
ed by a native judge; and also, by a regulation passed
or. the 11th of September 1821, he was empowered to
authorize any judge of circuit to assemble native juries in
criminal cases. Many distinguished persons in the service
of the Company, and thoroughly acquainted with the
Hindu character, have long recommended the employment
of natives in the administration of civil and criminal jus¬
tice. Native courts of justice have accordingly been con¬
stituted, and it would appear that they had satisfactorily
executed their duties; for we find, in consequence of the
455
heavy accumulation of suits in the zillah and city courts, Hindustan,
a regulation of the governor-general, dated the 27th of
December 1827, extending their powers to suits in which
British subjects are engaged, to the amount of 1000 rupees,
which were formerly excepted from their jurisdiction. In
1832 an extensive establishment of zillah and city courts
was begun. A regulation passed in that year by the su¬
preme council of Bengal ordains, that such of the natives,
of whatever caste or religion, as are found qualified, by their
attainments and good character, are to be employed in the
zillah (district) and city courts, as civil and criminal judges,
with liberal salaries, and, more recently, as assessors on the
bench, along with European judges.
A similar plan of judicature is in force at Madras and
Bombay. At Madras Colonel Munro, when he was go¬
vernor, was extremely anxious for the introduction of the
trial by punctayet, or native juries ; and a regulation, dat¬
ed the 31st of August 1827, was issued for allowing na¬
tive juries to be assembled in criminal cases.1 The office
of a native judge was also constituted for the trial of cri¬
minal cases, by a regulation issued the 31st of August
1827. By the governor and council of Bombay a regula¬
tion was issued in 1830, extending the jurisdictions of na¬
tive courts to all original suits, of wdiatever amount.
.At each presidency there is a supreme or king’s court,
with a chief judge and two puisne judges, a master in
equity, registrar, an established number of attorneys and
barristers, at the discretion of the judges ; and at Calcut¬
ta a Hindu and Mahommedan law officer is attached to
the court. The jurisdiction of this court extends over
the presidency, with certain exceptions not well defined;
and in certain cases a jurisdiction is claimed beyond the
presidency, though it has been doubted whether such
claims rest on any sure foundation of law. There are at
Calcutta and Bombay courts of requests for the recovery
of small debts, the recorders of which are Europeans.
The zemindary settlement was extended to Benares in Tenures.
1795. It was introduced into the ceded territories of Oude
in 1801 and 1803. The country was divided into seven dis¬
tricts, with a judge and magistrate and collector in each ;
and a court of appeal and circuit, with a suitable establish¬
ment of officers, fixed at the town of Bareilly. The lands
were let at first for three years on increasing annual rents,
by which the tax was raised from its amount in 1801, of
13,523,474 sicca rupees (L.1,600,000), to 19,161,486 ru¬
pees, being an increase on the existing tax of more than
40 per cent, and a foretaste to the oppressed peasantry of
the blessings they were to derive from British rule. In
1805 it was proposed to extend the permanent zemindary
settlement to the provinces acquired from Scindia and the
rajah of Berar, being the Doab, and a tract on the right
bank of the Jumna, the province of Cuttack, and of Bun-
delcund on the right bank of the Jumna above Allahabad.
Objections, however, having been made to this measure, the
lands have been let since 1810 to the zemindars, on leases
of five years; and the assessments have as usual been enor¬
mously increased, from 19,426,787 rupees (L.2,266,457),
the amount in 1807, to 31,427,494 (L.3,666,540) in 1818-
1819. But here, as in all other cases, the revenue has been
improved at the expense of the country ; and accordingly
we find Lord Moira regretting the sale of lands in these
provinces for outstanding balances, and the evasion of
the copartnery rights by which these estates were held,
at “ the expense,”lie adds, “of the well-being and peace
of the district, which it invariably disturbs.”2
nmvJri18 remarlcabie that these enlightened regulations of Colonel Munro, for improving the condition of the natives, were disap-
rim . k 0t ^ tWi° °f the three Jud8es tiie Judder Dewanny Adawlut, and by ten out of the twelve judges of the courts of cir-
rpa ’ 3_seveial °f the other members of the council at Madras, namely, Sir G. T. Walker, who alleged, and with some appearance of
2 t>’- i corrupt morals of the natives. This was, however, a difficulty to be overcome,
itickards’ India, vol. i. p. 399.
456
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan. The ancient territories attached to the presidency of
Madras contained two descriptions of land-tenures, name¬
ly, the lands occupied by the zemindars or polygars, and
the Havelly lands under the immediate management of the
government. In letting these lands, it was the practice
either to receive from each cultivator his tax in kind, in
which case it was necessary tomaintainalarge establishment
of revenue officers, or to let the lands to a revenue farmer,
on whom extensive powers were necessarily conferred,
and consequently ample means of oppression. Another
mode of settlement was with the head inhabitants of the
villages, who contracted for the public tax, which they col¬
lected from the ryots. The ancient possessions attached
to the presidency of Madras were, the Jaghire, which
had been desolated by the invasion of Hyder Ali in 1780,
and the Northern Circars. The revenues of the Jaghire
had been collected by village settlements from 1789 to
1802-3, when it was divided into sixty-one estates of
from 2000 to 5000 pagodas of annual rent, and sold to the
highest bidder. The permanent settlement was intro¬
duced into the Northern Circars in 1802 and 1803. The
assessment in some of the zemindaries exceeded a lac, or
100,000 pagodas, though it did not include the sayer
duties, which consisted of imposts on houses, implements
of agriculture or trade, on merchants, artificers, &c. This
assessment was not framed on any accurate knowledge
of the resources of the country, but any error that was
made was on the side of excess. It was the poor peasantry
who suffered for the ignorance of the collectors, who were
determined not to underrate the lands.
Quidquid delirant reges, plectuntur Achivi.
The Jaghire, in 1784, had not recovered from the devas¬
tation of Hyder’s invasion; it still remained a monument
of the miseries of war; and to all these calamities was now
superadded, Mr Rickards justly observes, “ a revenue
administration, the basis of which was the exaction of
a land-tax from the wretched remaining inhabitants, equal
to one half the gross produce of the soil.”
The modern possessions of the Madras presidency are
by far the most extensive, and comprise the Carnatic and
Mysore ; the whole peninsula of India, in short, south of
the Toombudra and Kistnah rivers. Most of these lands,
except such as are held by the polygars or zemindars of
Southern India, had been farmed out in extensive tracts
by the native rulers to individuals, by whom they were
subset to the head men of the villages, who collected
the tax from the cultivators. This mode of farming the
revenues was after some time given up for the village or
mouzawar settlement, according to which the interme¬
diate agency of the renter or farmer was superseded by
that of the government collector, who contracted for the
whole assessment with the head man of the village. This
plan of village settlements was again abandoned for the
ryotwar or the kulwar settlement, which only differed
from the village settlement in this, that it substituted the
government collector for the head man of the village,
and thus abolished all intermediate agency between him
and the ryot. In the village settlement, the great far¬
mer or revenue speculator was superseded in his agency
by the potail or head man of the village; in the ryotwar Him
settlement, the potail or head man of the village was su- ^
perseded by the government collector, who undertook the
duty of settling individually with each ryot for his rent.
With this view an exact scrutiny was instituted into the
whole produce of the country. Every field was surveyed,
measured, and re-measured ; its name was entered in'the
register, and where it had no name it received one; red
land was to be distinguished from black land ; trees, rivers,
wells, forts, open villages, were to be all specified; the
inhabitants to be enumerated; their cattle, buffaloes,
sheep, goats, &c., in short, every thing taxable, was to
be brought to account in the ryotwar survey.1 The as¬
sessors followed in the train of the surveyors, and a host
of revenue officers was spread over the harassed coun¬
try. The object of this severe scrutiny into the produce
of the land, was to ascertain the highest assessment which
it could possibly bear. It was not to lighten the burdens of
the poor ryot that his means were so rigidly inquired into,
but to find out how much he could pay without being utterly
ruined. “ The survey valuation,” it is observed in the Fifth
Report of the Select Committee (p. 120), “regulated on the
principles which have been described, rather constituted the
maximum of assessment, than the absolute demand upon the
cultivator for that assessment.”2 * * This maximum of assess¬
ment is what is also called the standard rent., or jumma.
“ Alterations in the assessment,” says the Report, “ were
also occasioned by the gradual increase made to it, as the
circumstances of the cultivators and the state of agricul¬
ture improved, in order to raise it to what was considered
the standard rent.” Thus it was obviously a scheme for
racking the country. From the survey a maximum or
standard assessment was calculated, that is, the highest as¬
sessment which the country could possibly bear; and this,
tncugh not immediately taken from the ryot, was the stan¬
dard to which it was understood that his assessment would
be ultimately raised as his circumstances improved. It
was the reward that awaited his successful cultivation of
the land ; and in this case he had little encouragement to
sow, when another was to reap. “ Under this mode of ad¬
justing the rents of a village,” it is said in the Fifth Report,
“ the ryot knew before he set his oxen to the plough, and
dropped his seed into the ground, what was the utmost limit
of rent that he could be called upon to pay ; and that the
advantage of additional labour upon his field would be all
his own, as well as the advantage of additional produce in
an abundant season. He also knew that in an unfavour¬
able season an abatement would be made in his favour if
his diminished means rendered him unable to satisfy it. He
further knew, that if the potail required him to pay more
than the sum at which his rent was finally fixed by the collec¬
tor, he had only to prefer his complaint.” (P. 121.) When
the standard rent, as it is called, was greater than the ryot
could pay, being calculated not on the produce, but on the
producing capacity of the soil, of what advantage was it to
him that it could not be raised higher ? He did not, as is
here stated, know either that the advantage of additional
labour upon his field, or that the additional produce in an
abundant season, would be all his own, as the assessment
was raised with his improving circumstances ; and the ex-
2 WimanfchapbnSFsaS who^’^nf01^61 Mu”^0’ the Sreat Pa^ron of the ryotwar settlement, Fifth Report, Appendix, p. 787-
classification, and assessment was undertaken ^ ^^r under Sir T. Munro in the Ceded Districts, after mentioning that a survey,
elusive evidence respecting thp mt,. > r h ^ ir Munro in the year 1801, and completed in 1806-7, gives the following con-
thought fit in any case to exact for tlip^0 1 evassess“ent: “ ^Tas the assessment fixed the highest assessment which it was
it was a maximum assessment hevnna wu- i ' en .• WaS a maximum assessment, which was never expected to be wholly raised;
was avowedly too high at the time to he .JV C0 .\e1ftl0,n was ®ver to he made afterwards; it was an assessment, the total of which
be reduced. Was any abatement rm s tvt26 3occasional and partial remissions; and it was recommended afterwards to
bv the collector, whenever there wax a m f was at that time made. A discretionary abatement was every year made
sum demanded was the max!^ drought’ or.from Poverty of the inhabitants/ Still the
Lords’ Committee, 30th March 1830 p 176 ) ^ SUm ^enmnded was the maximum.” (See Minutes of Evidence before the
HINDUSTAN.
jstan. tra produce of an abundant year was taken to compensate
. the remissions of a bad year.1 Besides, as the harvest ad¬
vanced, the revenue officers again spread over his fields to
gauge the produce and to fix the annual rent. When the
crop failed to a great amount, the deficiencies of one village
were re-assessed on the neighbouring villages; so that the
ryot was far from “ knowing, before he set"his oxen to the
plough, and dropped his seed into the ground,” the utmost
limit of rent he had to pay; and w ith regard to any com¬
plaints against the potail, the directors observe, <£ it is vain
to say that the ryots are protected against harassing and
vexatious proceedings by courts of justice ; for the loss of
time and the expense incident to a legal process, and the
delay in decision, will in nine cases out of ten prevent the
ryot from appealing to the court.”2 The revenue board at
Madras observe on the ryotwar settlement, “ the system
then was, to make as high a settlement as it was practicable
to realize; if the crop was good, the demand was raised
as high within the survey rate as the means of the ryot
would admit; if the crop was bad, the last farthing was
notwithstanding demanded, and no remission was allowed,
unless the ryot was totally unable to pay the rent. On
this point the most severe scrutiny was instituted ; for not
only was the whole of the collector’s detailed establish¬
ment of servants employed in an investigation of his means,
but his neighbours were converted into inquisitors, by being
themselves made liable for his failure, unless they could
show that he was possessed of property.”
It is thus obvious that the much boasted ryotwar settle¬
ment is, like all the other continually changing plans in¬
troduced by the East India Company’s servants, an elaborate
scheme of extortion, founded on the idea of the proprietary
right of the sovereign to all the lands within his dominions.
But, besides the land-tax, amounting to forty-five or fifty
per cent, on the gross produce of the soil, there are other
taxes, called sayer, molurpha, or weesabundy, being taxes
on the profits of merchants, traders, manufacturers, crafts¬
men, taxes on houses, shops, looms, tolls, mechanical and
agricultural implements, all which are embraced in the col¬
lector s survey, and appear to have been rigidly exacted.
“ Ihe mode of settling the moturpha on looms,” says one
oi the collectors, “ has hitherto been very minute; every
circumstance of the weaver’s family is considered ; the
number of days which he devotes to the loom, the num¬
ber of his children, the assistance which he receives from
them, and the number and quality of the pieces which he
can turn out in a month or year; so that let^him exert him-
sell as he will, his industry will always be taxed to the high¬
est possible degree.” Colonel Munro has described the tax
on house-rent, or, as he calls it more properly, a tax upon
income, to be levied in a manner the most arbitrary, and
which offends against every principle of taxation. It ex¬
tends to the poorest class of labourers, who pay one or
two rupees, though their hut is not worth more than from
five to ten rupees. This tax Colonel Munro points out as
a source of increasing revenue; and when he found it
higher in one district of the ceded provinces than another,
le eci'ialized the tax, not by lowering, but by raising it
everywhere to the same level, and even suggested that it
flight be increased “ as the circumstances of the country
improve ;”3 so that it would appear as if there were no
end to the demands of the state, thus prowling into the re¬
cesses of domestic industry, and casting as it were its evil
eye on every species of increasing wealth. This rigid
scrutiny, not so much into the actual resources, as into the
productive capacity of the soil, was with a view to a per¬
manent settlement of the land-tax; and this permanent
settlement was prospective, as the tax was to keep pace
with the improvement of the country.
The ryotwar settlement was substituted for the vil¬
lage settlement in the southern parts of the peninsula, in
Salem and Kistnaghery, amongst the Carnatic polygars or
military chieftains of the country, and in Ramnaud and
Dindigul; and in 1802 and 1804< the permanent settle¬
ment with the zemindars or polygars was introduced, the
land being divided into estates,"and sold to individuals
under the burden of the standard rent, to which the ac¬
tual rent had not yet risen. The country had previously
been the scene of great confusion, from the rebellion of
the polygars; the land-rent had risen 117 per cent.,
irom 168,305 to SdT, 682 pagodas ; and the standard rent,
now fixed, was, as usual, higher than the country could
bear. 1 he estates of the landholders were accordingly
brought to sale for arrears of rent, and the lands which
had been purchased were mostly resumed by the govern¬
ment. The province of Dindigul is in particular describ¬
ed by Sir Thomas Munro himself, as being in 1821 in a
state of deplorable disorder and oppression from high taxes.
A keen but very useless controversy has been maintain¬
ed amongst the Company’s servants regarding the respec¬
tive merits of the zemindary, the village, or ryotwar settle¬
ments. But it is not the mode of levying the tax, but the
amount, which is the grievance, and the standing source
of misery all over India. The permanent settlement hav¬
ing been discontinued in 1804 by order of the directors,
was not extended to the other territories under the pre¬
sidency of Madras.
In the country known under the name of the Ceded
Districts, being ceded to the Company by the nizam in
1792, extending south-east from the Toombudra river as
far as the Eastern Ghauts, equal in extent to Scotland,
and containing about two millions of inhabitants, the ryot¬
war settlement was introduced by Colonel Munro in 1800,
and continued till 1807—8. During this period the land
.revenues were raised from 1,006,593 pagodas (L.402,637),
to L517,272 (L.606,9091; and in 1808-9 they amounted
to 1,802,570 (L.721,038), of which the sum of 1,669,908
pagodas (L.667,963) consisted of land revenue. The
ryotwar was superseded by the village settlement, which
comprised three years from 1809, after which, in 1811-12,
commenced a decennial settlement of the Ceded Districts.
The country was oppressed by this heavy assessment;
and under the village settlement the head men of the vil¬
lages (potails) declined to contract for the rent. Specu¬
lating renters were accordingly introduced, whose severe
exactions increased the general distress, and numbers of
the ryots emigrated to Mysore. In 1817 it was deter¬
mined again to try the annual ryotwar settlements, when
the decennial village settlements would expire in 1820-21;
and Sir Thomas Munro, now governor of Madras, prepar¬
ed to carry into effect the views of the directors. Many
humane and excellent regulations were passed to prevent
the oppression of the ryots; and the benevolent inten¬
tions of the court of directors may be traced in their va-
457
Hindustan.
a,h,al0 0ne! Munro himsejf states this to be the rule of settling. “ Were it even possible,” he observes, “ to estimate exactly the
viino.l V1 ®very 7ear’ 11 would not follow that it ought to be remitted ; for the same cultivators who have lost this year may'have
ever *VaSt 1 and ?S n° extra assefsment was laid upon their profit, no remission can now fairly be claimed for their loss. What-
jjg a-v have b.efn ,t le croP’ s^oulli lt have even heen less than the seed, they should always be made to pay the full rent, if thev can
only annK- bei?g suPP°sed to be equal 111 the long run, the loss is merely temporary, and the making of it good is
imfs of fi r? to l!ie deficiencJ of a year of scarcity, the funds which have arisen from one of abundance.” (See Extracts of Proceed-
f , Board of lievenue at Fort St George, Ibth May 1803, Fifth Report, p. 748, 749.)
8 Rickards’ India, vol. i. p. 482. ‘ J
Vol6 Rep0rt^ APPer)dix, p. 942, Extract from the Report of the Principal Collector of the Ceded Districts, 15th August 180-7,
3 M
HINDUSTAN.
458
Hindustan, rious despatches on the subject. But still the only mode
of relieving the country was to lessen the amount of
the tax, and without this, no regulations, however wise,
will ensure the prosperity of the subject.
In the southern division of Arcot the ryotwar system
was introduced in 1805-6, by Mr Ravenshaw, who gives
a melancholy picture of the state of the country. “ The
miserable appearance of the villages,” he observes, “ a
great portion of the inhabited houses of which are with¬
out roofs ; and of the inhabitants, a great number of whom
are clothed in the garb of extreme misery; must touch
the heart of one who has any spark of sensibility for his
fellow creatures.” From this state of extreme depression
the country gradually revived, and the revenue improv¬
ed under the judicious management and moderate assess¬
ment, of which the collector was a strenuous advocate.
On the western coast of India, the provinces of Malabar,
Canara, Coimbetore, &c. were subjected to the rigorous
survey of the ryotwar settlement. In Malabar, the col¬
lectors under the Bombay government, on the notion of
the sovereign’s proprietary right to the lands, claimed
fifty per cent, on the gross produce, which it was impos¬
sible to realise, though the clearest rights of property were
trampled under foot, and the prejudices of the country deep¬
ly wounded, by the sale of lands, the consequence of over
assessment, and by the ruin of the ancient aristocracy.1 A
rebellion was the consequence, which was rigorously and
with all due severity put down, and the province transfer¬
red to the Madras government, whose collector, we are
told, in 1801-2, effected a sudden rise of about fifty per
cent, in the land revenue, by adopting rates of assessment
inconsistent with long-established local usage, and from
which it was soon after found expedient to recede.2 The
lands were over-assessed ; in many cases, after they were
sold, the proprietors were thrown into prison, and there
kept for years, by the severity of the collector.3 A
ryotwar survey of the province was undertaken by the
principal collector, who, being obliged to leave the pro¬
vince, its revenues were successfully administered by the
new collector Mr Warden, by whose judicious advice a
fresh survey was averted for a time, as inconsistent with
the customs of the country, and the existing state of pro¬
perty. In 1833, against the earnest remonstrances of the
inhabitants, a strict ryotwar survey was begun, of the
most inquisitorial nature, not only into the produce ofHindiL
land, but into the profits and all the implements of trade j
and manufactures. The absurdity and injustice of this
assessment, and the hardship which the people suffered
from the monopolies on timber, tobacco, salt, &c. appear,
from the evidence given in 1830 before the Lords’ Com¬
mittee on the affairs of India, to have been very great. By
the timber monopoly, which was the source of great com¬
plaints, the price was raised so as to stop ship-building.
In many parts the timber on an estate constituted its chief
value ; and the government monopoly therefore amount¬
ed to an extinction of the rights of property, and was the
cause of unspeakable discontent and distress. A conser¬
vator of the public forests was appointed ; and as the dis¬
tinction between public and private property was often
doubtful, the proprietors and occupiers of land were pre¬
vented from cutting down wood even for the most necessary
purposes, under pretence that it belonged to the Company,
though by his orders all the wood on their estates might
and often was cut down.4 This monopoly was abolished
in 1823 by the advice of Sir Thomas Munro, who, though
he administered a bad system, acted on this as on other
occasions with the most enlightened humanity. The mo¬
nopoly of salt was equally grievous to t'he inhabitants, and
occasioned dreadful complaints. The landholders depend¬
ed in many cases on the manufacture of salt for paying
the rents of their lands. They were accordingly ruined
by the suppression of the salt pans in Malabar, the com¬
pensation given them being very inadequate ; and it was
besides estimated that 6438 persons were thrown out of
employment.5 Tobacco, almost a necessary of life in the
moist climate of Malabar, where the fall of rain is 140
inches, three times more than in the adjoining province
of Coimbetore, or on any part of the Coromandel coast,
was raised 800 per cent, by the monopoly. One of the
collectors, Mr Baber, made strong representations against
these enormous abuses, by the continuance of which he
was afraid that the people would be driven into rebel¬
lion. Tobacco was in consequence smuggled into the coun¬
try from Coimbetore by gangs of contraband traders, of
bad character, and ripe for any villany.1 The revenue
was raised from 217,619 pagodas, its amount in 1800-1,
to 638,488.
The province of Canara was committed to the manage-
1 See Lords’ Committee, Evidence of T. H. Baber, Esq. Have there been any sales of land for arrears of revenue? Very con¬
siderable. So much so, that almost an entire revolution has taken place in property within the last thirty years. When a tenant of
a small estate failed to pay, did the collector immediately sell that portion of his estate ? No. In the first instance his person was
liable, then his moveable property ; every article of every description, every thing which could be laid hold of, was seized and sold;
and that failing, then the land; even slaves have been sold, the same as cattle. 31st March 1830.
2 Fifth Report, Appendix, p. 798, Extract from the General Report of Revenue at Fort St George, 5th October 1808, on Ma¬
labar revenues.
3 See Evidence of T. H. Baber, p. 206.
4 The cruelty of this monopoly, and the misery and vexation which it occasioned to the inhabitants, are forcibly described by Sir
Thomas Munro in a minute which he drew up on the subject. After pointing out the situation of the ryot when he had the com¬
plete control over his wood of every kind, he observes, “ But what is his situation now ? He cannot cut down or sell a bit of wood
on his own property, for the most ordinary purposes; he cannot even remove the young teak plants which spring up from seeds scat¬
tered by the winds, though they are injurious. Though he cannot himself cut down his own trees, the conservator cuts them down
at pleasure, both on his hills and in his fields and gardens, and makes him pay duty on the wood ; and he not only levies duties, but
he confiscates property. A monopoly, or even any restriction, on the cutting of wood, is, in Malabar, vexatious and oppressive in the
highest degree. Wood is wanted in large quantities for every purpose, for boats, houses, barns, and granaries. In a country where
the fall of rain during the five monsoon months is from a hundred to a hundred and sixty inches, and sometimes nearly fifty inches
in one month, it is almost impossible to make any building water-proof. The houses of all the more substantial rayets (cultivators)
have a double roof, or two stories: in the lower the family resides; the upper serves as a lumber-room, but its chief use is to defend
the lower, and carry off the water. The barns and granaries are necessarily constructed in a still more substantial manner, because a
great part of the grain is reaped in the rainy season, during short intervals of sunshine, and, in order to be dried instantly, carried
into the barns, which are made large for that purpose. The principal public buildings were formerly covered with copper, as the only
means of completely excluding the water. The copper was stripped off and coined into money by Tippoo Sultan ; but we go beyond
him ; he only deprived them of copper, but we of their roofs, or, what is the same thing, we prevent them, by our restrictions, from repla¬
cing them. These harsh measures have had their natural result; clamour and confirmed aversion and discontent, if not open resistance.”
* See Evidence before Committee of Lords, by T. H. Baber, Esq. p. 214, April 1830. Commissioner Graeme, in his letter to the
board of revenue, 31st August 1830, mentions other frauds connected with the salt monopoly. He says that the government, on pur¬
chasing salt, are in the habit of pressing it down with hands and feet in the wooden measure; but when they sold it, of filling it up
as light as could be, which made a difference of 20 per cent. ; and other differences of measurement made an additional 20 per cent.
See also Rickards, himself a principal collector in the province at the time, vol. i. sect. xvi. p. 542, et seqq.
HINDUSTAN.
459
istan.ment of Colonel Munro, who, by his vigilant administra-
ti0n, restored tranquillity in the country. Yet Colonel
Munro, with all his great qualities, was a strict assessor;
and the rent imposed upon this district must have been
high, as, though he mentions that he disapproved of the
numerous additions made to the ancient land-rent by
Hyder and Tippoo, and says, “ had such an assessment
as that introduced by Hyder and Tippoo existed in an¬
cient times, Canara would long ago have been converted
into a desert,” yet he adds, “ I did not think myself at
liberty to depart widely from the system which I found
established, as it is the same as that which exists in all
the provinces which the Company have acquired in the
last and former wrars. I have made no other reduction in
the assessment of Tippoo Sultan than such as was abso¬
lutely necessary in order to ensure the collection of the
rest. I considered myself merely as a collector, w ho wras
to investigate and report upon the state of the country,
but who was to leave it to the board to decide as to the
expediency of lowering the assessment.”1 2 The zemindary
settlement has never been extended to any portion of the
territories under the Bombay presidency, nor to the dis¬
tricts ceded on the Nerbuddah and by the rajah of Berar
in 1826; the greater part of these territories being all
assessed by villages.
nue The other sources of the East India Company’s revenue
^a* are the monopolies of salt and opium, custom duties both
by sea and land, though the latter, from the obstructions
which they occasion to trade, are in the way of being abo¬
lished ; a stamp duty on conveyances, contracts, leases, po¬
licies of insurance, and deeds of every description ; also on
judicial proceedings. The mint, in which a seigniorage of
two per cent, is charged on the coinage, and the post-office,
yield an inconsiderable revenue. Of these various modes
of taxation, the monopolies of salt and opium are the most
objectionable. The opium monopoly wras formerly a
source of fraud and oppression, the cultivator being com¬
pelled to raise this article on pain of losing his land, and,
in the event of a deficient produce, though occasioned by
adverse seasons, being liable to punishment unless he
made up the quantity, wdiich he could only do by buying
at a higher price than he expected to receive. Other
frauds were practised by the collector or his agents, such
as making pecuniary advances to the ryots in a light cur¬
rency, and in using light weights in the weighing of the
produce.3 These frauds were inquired into and checked
by the humanity of Lord Cornwallis in 1788. Treaties,
as has been already mentioned, were entered into with the
native princes for extending the opium monopoly to their
territories. But these treaties, at the request of the
princes, to whose subjects they were a continual source
of vexation, were relinquished ; and the trade in opium
being now free, except in the Company’s territories, the
monopoly can scarcely be so profitable, owing to the re¬
duction of price in the China market, from the competi¬
tion of opium from Malwah and other provinces. The
profits of the opium monopoly amounted in 1828-29 to
L. 1,930,891.
The monopoly of salt, which is so necessary to give a
relish to the insipid food of the poor Hindu, is a still more
pernicious device for raising money, and was formerly the
source of great oppression ; the molungees or salt-workers
in Bengal being one half of them (the Adjura molun¬
gees) held under a species of bondage, and compelled to
work at half the rate of wages received by the Ticka
molungees, who worked by free compact.4 This injus¬
tice was also inquired into and redressed by Marquis Hindustan.
Cornwallis. Still the restraint under which such a mono-
poly lays the industry of the country, and the high price
to which it raises a necessary of life, is a serious oppres¬
sion, more especially as a revenue of equal amount might
to a certainty be raised by a tax on the article with a free
trade. The following table contains the latest account of
Indian taxation :—
Direct Taxation.
Land-revenue L. 12,895,366
Farms, licenses, and tax on professions, 152,780
Sayer and Abkaree 861,196
Territories on Nerbuddah 457,923
Burmese cessions 117,326
Mysore and other subsidies 392,355
Ava, Bhurtpore, &c 491,249
Marine receipts   77,787
L.15,445,982
Indirect Taxation.
Salt sale, and licenses L.2,700,147
Customs (sea and land) 1,869,634
Opium 1,930,891
Post-office 135,617
Tobacco 85,128
Mint receipts .., 19,414
Stamps 368,431
Judicial 126,464
L.7,235,726
It will now be proper briefly to revert to the mercan- Mercantile
tile character of the East India Company ; to give some character
account of its cash transactions and its commercial privi- of the East
leges, together with the general result, as it appears in India Com-
the present state of its affairs. pany.
The capital stock of the Company was originally
L.2,000,000, and by successive enactments was increased
as follows :
In 1708 L.2,000,000
1786  800,000
1789  1,000,000
1794  1,000,000
L.6,000,000
Part of this capital was subscribed at a rate greatly ex¬
ceeding the nominal amount. In 1794 there was paid for
one million of stock the sum of L.2,027,295; and the
whole amount paid into the Company’s treasury for capi¬
tal stock amounts to L.7,780,000.
As long as the attention of the Company was confined
merely to trade, the annual dividend, which, from the
year 1708 to 1766, varied from five to ten per cent, may
be taken as a tolerably fair criterion of the profit gained.
The acquisition in 1765 of the sovereignty and revenues
of Bengal gave rise amongst the proprietors to the most
extravagant anticipations of wealth, and, on the faith of
these, the dividend, as already mentioned, was raised to
ten, and afterwards to twelve per cent. But these expec¬
tations proved fallacious, and it was, in 1773, lowered to
six per cent. It was afterwards raised to eight, and in
1793 to ten and a half per cent. Ever since the acquisi¬
tion of the sovereignty of Bengal, it was not so much from
trade as from revenue that the Company’s profits were ex¬
pected to arise. It was by the remittance of a large sur-
1 See Evidence of T. H. Baber before Lords’ Committee, p. 212.
2 Fifth Report, Appendix, p. 803, Extracts from the Report of the Principal Collector of Canara.
s Revenue Consultation, 1789, Answers of the Collectors in the opium districts to the Queries of the Board of Revenue, 1738.
4 See Appendix to the Second Report of the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company, p. 169.
460
HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan.plus revenue from India that the proprietors hoped to be
enriched. These hopes, however, have not been fulfilled.
A large and increasing revenue has indeed been collect¬
ed, but it has been invariably followed by an increase of
charge and of debt. The constant increase of the charge
is a standing subject of complaint in the correspondence
of the directors with their servants in India, whom they
frequently accuse of the grossest profusion and corrup¬
tion, reproaching them with the enormous expense of
their establishment, and urging them, in the most ear¬
nest manner, to retrenchment and economy ; whilst the
servants, on the other hand, always hold out the fairest
promises of their future management, and flattering state¬
ments of revenue, to be regularly overturned by the in¬
creasing charges of the succeeding year.
When Lord Clive was sent out to India in 1765, it was
for the purpose of securing the Company’s revenue from
the profusion and mismanagement of corrupt servants,
against whom the clamour in this country was loud and
general. No amendment, however, took place, and the
directors continued their complaints. During the ten
years administration of Mr Hastings, which commenced
in 1772 and ended in 1783, the Company were deeply
involved in the wars and politics of India, the effect of
which, on the finances, appears to have been to increase
both the revenue and the charge, and in the same pro¬
portion to accumulate debt. In 1772 the revenues of
Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa amounted to L.2,373,850, and
the charges to L.1,705,279; producing a surplus of
L.668,371. The India debt amounted to L.l,850,166. In
1785 the revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, including
the new revenue of Benares, amounted to L.5,315,197, and
the charges to LA,312,519; thus producing a surplus of
L.l,002,678; to counterbalance which, however, the debt
in India was increased to L. 10,464,955. With the man¬
agement of their affairs in India the directors seem never to
have been satisfied; for we find them about this period com¬
plaining that certain late revenue regulations were made,
“ rather with a view of creating lucrative posts for a cer¬
tain description of men, than with any design either of in¬
creasing the revenue or of promoting commerce.” In
the same strain we find them complaining, in a letter to
Lord Cornwallis, of a disposition in their servants to “ in¬
novation and experiment, without urgent necessity or ap¬
parent cause, new institutions, and almost instant devia¬
tions from them, multiplication of offices, and increase of
salaries.” These, they continue, “ are always introduced
with flattering schemes of increase to the revenue and di¬
minution of expense, which has hardly, in any instance,
been realized by the event.” In consequence of this con¬
stant increase of expense, though the Company’s revenues
were increased, the surplus revenue was diminished. In
the same letter the directors state that it was one million
less than in the year 1766, when the Bengal revenues were
acquired.
In 1793 the revenues amounted to L.8,225,628, and
the expense to L.7,007,050, thus yielding a surplus of
L.l,218,578 ; and the debt was reduced to L.7,971,665.
This state of the Company’s affairs became the subject of
the most extravagant declamations both in parliament and
elsewhere. The old delusion of Indian wealth, nearly as
absurd as the South Sea bubble, was successfully revived ;
annual remittances of treasure were anxiously expected
and confidently promised ; and the expected surplus was
most gravely appropriated by acts of parliament to its ap¬
pointed ends. Mr Dundas was the principal actor in this
solemn farce, in which, being probably credulous himself,
he imposed on the credulity of others, boasting that India
would be a vast source of wealth to the Company, and to
the nation. But these predictions were soon falsified by the
event. The surplus of Indian revenue, for the appropria¬
tion of which so many wise provisions were passed, soon Him
vanished, and in 1797 a deficiency appeared, which con- w
tinned till 1810. The revenues had, in the mean time,
increased from L.8,225,628, their amount in 1797, to
about 15^ millions sterling; but, instead of any surplus
being remitted from India to Europe, there appears a ba¬
lance against India, from 1797 to 1807, to the amount of
L.l,629,701 ; whilst, during this period, there was sent
from England to India, more than was received, a sum
of L.5,691,689. This was the sum, therefore, which Eng¬
land lost during those ten years by its connection with
India. From another account also, it appears that,
from 1793 to 1816, England remitted of cash to India
L.8,824,067 more than was received. (See East India
Annual Accounts laid before Parliament, p. 19.) In 1811
the revenues began again to exceed the charges, and
in the three following years there was a large surplus
of nearly three millions sterling in each year. In 1816,
1817, and 1818, this surplus continued to be above two
millions annually; and it is stated by Mr Prinsep, in his
narrative of the last Indian war, that there was actually
accumulated in the different treasuries of the Company,
bullion to the amount of eight millions sterling. Here,
then, was an opportunity of making a large remittance to
the directors in Europe. But of this large accumulation
of treasure they received not one shilling. The Indian
government was involved in a series of new wars, in the
carrying on of which not only was all this wealth expend¬
ed, but an additional sum of about four and a half millions
sterling was borrowed; so that the Indian debt, which in
1814 amounted to about twenty-nine millions sterling,
was raised to nearly L.34,775,792, its amount in April
1818. Mr Prinsep, however, in his interesting account
of the administration of Marquis Hastings, still confi¬
dently held out the hope of a surplus revenue ; and he
founded his expectations, ls£, on a reduction of expense in
consequence of the peace recently concluded ; and, 2dly,
on a great increase of revenue from the late extension of
the Company’s territories. But so far from any surplus of
revenue being realized, we find the whole produce of the
taxes collected throughout the extensive dominions of the
Company, amounting to L.22,019,310, regularly swallow¬
ed up in the increasing charge; so that, on the seventeen
years ending 1830-1831, the annual deficit amounts to
L.18,994,036, as will appear from the following table:—■
INDIA.
Surplus. Deficit,
1814-15 1,342,273
1815- 16
1816- 17
1817- 18
1818- 19
1819- 20
1820- 21
276,893
955,451
487,489
1,648,798
1821- 22.2,057,051
1822- 23 3,087,960
1823- 24
1824- 25
1825- 26
1826- 27
1827- 28
1828- 29
1829- 30
1830- 31
426,387
71,303
1,022,130
1,138,238
1,799,633
42,766
80,833
Home
Charges.
Surplus.
1,445,487
3,039,625
1,190,575
£
1,391,865
1,402,472
1,390,359
1,347,052
1,446,001
1,544,857
1,414,210
1,507,773
1,628,153
1,287,560
1,651,077
1,817,232
2,429,894
2,069,141
1,967,405
1,748,740
1,473,565
234,586
549,278
1,459,807
326,068
£
49,592
1,125,179
434,908
859,564
1,488,767
1,625,690
861,173
3,096,564
4,856,857
2,358,591
3,250,716
945,275
610,502
2,569;741j21,563,777
2,569,741
Total deficit...
18,994,036
:an,
V
Revenues and Indian Charges {independently of the Home Expenses') of each Presidency, with the Deficit or Surplus in each Year, from
1814-15 to 1832.
stan.
HINDUSTAN, 461
Hindustan-
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462 HINDUSTAN.
Hindustan. The commercial monopoly of the East India Company Grant, for the future administration of the vast dominions of Hin,;
was granted by William III. in the year 1698, and it was the Company, and for the general regulation of their affairs. ^ !'
confirmed by 9 and 10 William III. c. 44. The legisla- By this act the commercial privileges of the East India Com-
tive enactments regarding the territorial possessions of pany were abolished, and the trade to India and to China act-
the Company commenced in 1767. In that year it was was thrown open to all British subjects. The government
agreed that, in consideration of an annual payment of of India was still vested in the directors of the company,
L.400,000, the territorial possessions should remain in in conjunction with the board of control, according to the
possession of the Company for two years, and afterwards provisions of Mr Pitt’s bill. It was declared lawful for all
for five years from the 1st of February 1769. There was British subjects to settle in any part of the East India Corn-
paid to the public, under these two acts, from 1768 to pany’s dominions throughout India without any license
1775, the sum of L.2,169,398. In 1773 the affairs of the merely making known to the chief officer of the customs
Company were much embarrassed, and they presented a their names, places of destination, and their business; to
petition to parliament soliciting a loan for four years, and hold lands for a term of sixty years, and in perpetuity by a
a sum of L. 1,400,000 was accordingly lent; and at this grant from the governor-general; and all classes in Hin-
time parliament first assumed the regulation of the Com- dustan, of whatever religion, colour, caste, or country, are
pany’s affairs. The dividend was restricted to six per declared equally eligible to all public offices. The value
cent, till this loan should be repaid, and afterwards to se- of the Company’s stock is guaranteed to the proprietors at
ven per cent. It was enacted that the directors should the rate of L.100 for every L.5. 5s. of annual dividend,
be elected for four years, six of them, being a fourth part, For this purpose a fund of two millions is set apart, to ac-
to vacate their office annually by rotation ; the qualifica- cumulate at compound interest, until it amount to twelve
tion to vote in the court of proprietors to be raised from millions, the price of six millions of stock at ten per cent.,
L.500 to L.1O0O. A new court of judicature was at and the dividend is in the mean time to be paid out of
the same time established at Calcutta, consisting of a the territorial revenues. The whole capital of the East
chief justice and three principal judges, appointed by the India Company, amounting to L.7,780,000, having been in
crown ; and a superiority was given to Bengal over the this manner lost, the inhabitants of Hindustan are taxed to
other presidencies ; an appropriation was made of the re- make up the loss. For more than forty years a dividend
venues and profits of the Company, and they were re- of ten and a half per cent, has been paid upon East India
quired to make half yearly statements of their debts, and stock, though in the course of this long period not a shil-
of the profit and loss incurred on their trade and revenues, ling of profit has ever been made. So far from it, the
Ihe loan of L.1,400,000 having been discharged, two Company’s affairs have been every day sinking deeper into
other acts were passed, by which the territory was con- embarrassment, and a pretended dividend has been paid
tinued to the Company for one year. In 1781 an act was with borrowed money, by which the original value of the
passed continuing the territorial revenues and privileges stock has been nearly doubled in the market, and at this high
of the Company till the 1st of March 1791, and then to be value it is to be redeemed at the expense of the Hindus,
taken awayoniy on a three years’notice; providing also that who, though they had no share in the profits, are thus
the Company should pay annually L.400,000 to the public, brought in to bear the loss. It may be doubted, however,
besides three fourths of any surplus revenue that might whether any other arrangement would have been practi-
acciue.1 Under this act the Company paid to the pub- cable. The error was in allowing so large a dividend to
at k-fOlMhW io satisfaction of all claims up to the 1st be paid with borrowed money; and this evil having gone
March 1/81. But of the annual sum of L.400,000 which so far, and many proprietors having purchased stock on
was afterwards to be paid, the public received only the faith of the existing dividend, it would have been a
.M >000; and in 1783 the Company were allowed to bold measure to have at once annihilated the value of the
borrow L.800,000, and out of this borrowed money to stock to the amount of twelve millions. The reform of ju-
P?y a d‘yidei)d of eight per cent. .By the act of 33 Geo. dicial proceedings, and the compilation of a uniform code
. c. o2, pa&sed in 1793, the British territories in India, of laws for Hindus and Mahommedans as wrell as European
toget ler with the exclusive trade, were continued to the subjects, a great and important undertaking, forms part of
Company for twenty years; and the Company agreed to this comprehensive and enlightened plan for the government
pay L.000,000 annually, unless prevented by war expen- of India. Owing to the recent extension of the British em-
diture. But only two payments were made, of L.250,000 pire towards the north, it has been found expedient, for the
eac i, undei this act, in 1793 and 1794. In 1814 the more efficient administration of these distant territories, to
charter of the Company was renewed for twenty years ; erect a fourth presidency and council at Agra,with the same
t le tiade to India opened under certain limitations, with powers as the Other presidencies, and subject also to the su-
t ic exception of the trade to China, the monopoly of which, preme authority of the president and council of Bengal.
11 ^ ii oof territorial revenues, was continued till 20th of The following is the latest statement of the Company’s
April 1834. In 1833 a new act was brought forward by Mr affairs :
Territorial and Political Debts Abroad
total debts in India bearing interest 
Debts in India not bearing interest 
. Total territorial debts abroad, 1st May 1831 
territorial and political debts at home 
Commercial debts abroad, 1st May 1832 
At home 
Commercial bonded debt bearing interest 
Not bearing interest 
   —       Carry forward L.66,669,130
se Colonel Munro justly observes, “ This is converting India into a rack-rent estate for England.”
L.41,204,416
11,496,162
L.52,700,578
8,497,204
  L.61,197,782
. L.719,499
.. 1,208,995
  1,928,494
,..L3,527,437
15,417
  3,542,854
HINDUSTAN.
463
Brought forward...L.66,669,130 Hindustan.
{indi
> Territorial and Political Credits Abroad.
Consisting of cash and bills receivable, &c. at Bengal, Fort George, and Bombay L.9,018,281
Stores in the several departments, 1st May 1831   7,098,683
Debts, including arrears revenue  9,268,484
Amount of securities purchased by commission for reduction of Indian debt  2,783,624
Bills of exchange   L.522,139
From which is deducted on various accounts  519,617
 2,522
Exports of military stores, cargoes, bills of exchange drawn on government, bullion, dead
stock, buildings in India L.400,000, buildings of colleges at Halesbury, &c 
Commercial Credits Abroad.
L.28,171,594
1,407,929
L.29,579,523
Cash, goods, merchandise at the several presidencies, Cape of Good Hope,
China, Canada, Halifax, and debts L.1,416,246
At Home.
Value of goods, cargoes, ships, East India House, warehouses, debt due
from public cash  20,230,903
  21,647,149
  51,226,672
Balance deficient L.15,442,458
The East India Company consists, according to the latest
calculation, of 3579 proprietors, who meet in a general
court and vote. A proprietor of the Company’s stock, pro¬
vided it has been in his possession for twelve months, to
the amount of L.1000, has one vote ; of L.3000, two ; of
L.6000, three ; and of L.10,000, four votes ; 396 proprie¬
tors hold stock under L.500, and are not qualified to vote.
The total number of voters is estimated at 2600. The
proprietors meet every quarter. Their powers were limit¬
ed to the election of directors, to the framing of bye-laws,
and to the control of salaries or pensions exceeding L.200
a year, or gratuities exceeding L.600. In the court of di¬
rectors and the board of control is vested the sovereignty of
India ; they regulate by their supreme authority the policy
of the resident government, and the court of proprietors
has no power to interfere with their orders.
•esid India is divided into the four presidencies of Bengal,
?s> Madras, Bombay, and Agra. The presidency of Bengal
is the head of the government, and the president is styled
the governor-general. He exercises the executive and
legislative powers within his presidency; the regulations
which he issues having the force of laws, though subject
to the revision of the directors and the board of control at
home. Formerly these ordinances were not valid until
they were publicly exposed for fourteen days, then regis¬
tered by the king’s supreme court, and afterwards subject¬
ed to a further ordeal at home. By the new charter of
1833 these restraints on the powers of the governor-gene¬
ral have been removed, and by his authority in council he
can even make laws for the regulation of the supreme courts.
The business of the executive is divided among five boards ;
1^, that of revenue; 2<i, that of customs, salt, opium ;
3c?, that of trade ; 4^A, the military; and, 5t/<, the medical
board. There are three boards at Madras, namely, the
first and the two last, and one at Bombay. These boards
make suggestions, or present drafts of regulations in their
respective departments ; and all their minutes are laid be¬
fore the government monthly, and transmitted home for
the consideration of the directors and the board of control,
fhe council of the governor-general consists of five mem¬
bers, three of whom are taken from the servants of the
Company of three years standing, but the fourth not from
the Company’s servants; and all are appointed by the di¬
rectors, subject to the approbation of the king. The com¬
mander-in-chief forms the fifth member. In all state ques¬
tions the governor-general may act without or even against
the advice of his council, on his own responsibility. In
virtue of his commission as captain-general, he may head
the military operations in any part of India. The chiefs
of the other presidencies possess the same authority within
their respective districts, but may be controlled in all mat¬
ters of general policy by the governor-general, who has the
power of declaring war and of making peace, and of entering
into treaties with foreign states; and who may suspend the
governors of the other presidencies, proceed thither, and,
assuming the supreme authority, sit as president in their
councils.
Each presidency has its separate army, commander-in- jn(jjan ar.
chief, and military establishment. But the commander- my.
in-chief of the supreme government has a general authority
over the military force in the other presidencies. The to¬
tal armed force in British India is above 200,000. This
force consists, ls£, of the king’s infantry and cavalry; 2c?, of
the East India Company’s European engineers, artillery,
and infantry; and, 3c?, of the Company’s native artillery,
cavalry, and infantry. The European troops in India
amount, according to the latest accounts, to 30,864; the
native troops to 181,517, highly distinguished by their va¬
lour, good conduct, and discipline. The complement of
European officers. to each regiment is, one colonel, one
lieutenant-colonel, one major, five captains, eight lieute¬
nants, and four cornets or ensigns. Of native officers there
is a subahdar and jewadar to each company. But no na¬
tive can ever attain a rank equal to the youngest European
ensign. The number of European officers in India was,
by a late return, 5531. The expense of the Anglo-Indian
army, at each of the three presidencies of Bengal, Ma¬
dras, and Bombay, in 1830, was, respectively, L.4,329,537,
L.3,216,275, L.1,849,510. The Indian marine is inconsi¬
derable, consisting of one frigate, with ten or twelve smal¬
ler vessels, and two armed steamers. The British eccle¬
siastical establishment in India consists of seventy-six Eu¬
ropean chaplains, who are under the charge of a diocesan
at Calcutta, with L.5000 a year, and three archdeacons at
each of the presidencies, with a salary of L.2000 a year. By
the new charter of 1833 a bishop is to be stationed at each
presidency, with a salary of L.2400. There are also Scottish
Presbyterian churches at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
From the preceding view which we have given of the Conclu-
British administration of India, it will be seen that the in- sion.
habitants have suffered many serious evils from a foreign
yoke; and that the land-tax levied by the East India Com-
HINDUSTAN.
464
Hindustan, pany is the standing obstacle to improvement. It is this tax
which retards the progress of cultivation, and consequently
of population and capital; and is the cause of large tracts of
wilderness being still found in a country naturally fertile. All
the different collectors in India, and amongst others Colonel
Munro, are of opinion that, but for this obstacle, population
would increase even faster in Hindustan than in America.
Those provinces of India, however, such as Bengal, which
have been long under the sway of the British, now exhibit,
notwithstanding the high assessment, sensible marks of im¬
provement. The ancient order of landholders, the zemindars,
as well as the inferior tenants or occupants, have many of
them no doubt been crushed under the pressure of taxation,
and have mostly disappeared ; but in their place, under the
protecting influence of the British government, a middle order
has arisen, who have acquired wealth by industry. In the
great towns commerce has flourished ; large capitals have
accumulated, and in many cases have been employed in pur¬
chasing the forfeited lands of the zemindars. A new race of
proprietors has thus arisen, more enterprising and industrious
than the great lords to whom they have succeeded; and by
their industry and exertions the land has been improved, and
cultivation slowly extended over the jungles and wastes of
the lower provinces. With the progress of commerce and
of wealth, rice, the great staple of the farmer, has risen in
price, and at the same time the wages of labour; a sure
criterion of the improving condition of the people. In
the interior of Bengal and the upper provinces, the towns
are improving both in size and in appearance; and the
equal protection extended to all classes by the British ru¬
lers lias diffused throughout India a sense of security never
before experienced under the despotic rulers of former
times, and far less amidst the massacres, the pillage, and
the intestine disorders, which from time immemorial have
afflicted India, and more especially during the last twenty
years preceding the Pindaree war. These evil days have
passed away ; India is now freed from the scourge of inter¬
nal war, by the decided ascendency of the one great ruling
power ; and peace, which now reigns over all Hindustan, is
of itself so great a blessing, as to compensate in some de¬
gree the evils of foreign rule. The European sovereigns of
India have committed great errors, first, in discouraging
the colonization of the country by Europeans, and, second-
ly, in the rigorous exclusion of the natives from every place
of power, honour, or emolument. In their jealousy of coloni¬
zation, the East India Company have evinced all that narrow
spirit of monopoly by which they would hold possession of
the country by any means, however exceptionable. The
hereditary aristocracy of India having been ruined by the
rigid exactions of the government, the want of their natu¬
ral influence has been severely felt in all the details of
domestic policy. The business of the revenue, the magis-
tiacy, and police, fell, as has been shown, into almost irre¬
parable disorder; and these evils were, by all the most ex¬
perienced servants of the Company, and by the directors
at home, ascribed to the degradation and ruin of the an¬
cient gentry and landholders, who had great authority and
respect among the people, and who were universally looked
up to as the guardians of civil order. On this subject, Mr
Stuart, judge in the Benares division, in a report to govern-
ment, reasons with great force and clearness, and observes,
that the extinction of the aristocracy “ may be traced
throughout the country as one principal source of the dis¬
orders which prevail.” (Fift/i Report, p. 574.) These disor¬
ders would have been most effectually remedied by a body of
Europeans naturalized in the country, who would have filled
up the void in society occasioned by the ruin of the zemin¬
dars, and would have diffused amongst the natives the arts, Hindus
the sciences, the literature, and enlightened morality of Eu-
rope; they would have improved the general aspect and
condition of Hindu society ; and their descendants, familiar
with the laws, character, manners, and language of the
natives, would have been qualified to act as the rulers and
legislators of the country. Owing to the exclusive policy
which has been followed, the government of India has been
composed of a small body of foreigners, who engross from their
rightful owners every part of honour or profit. The stand¬
ing policy of the Company has been to exclude the natives
from every fair object of ambition. Their rise in the army
wa£ limited to the command of a platoon of Sepoys; in the
civil service to some petty office, alike insignificant in its
functions and its pay. A proscription so universal was cal¬
culated to produce the most unfavourable effects on the na¬
tional character. By narrowing the sphere of ambition, we
diminish the incentives to active exertion, we take away
from mankind the motives which prompt them to cultivate
their faculties, we weaken the animating principle of all
improvement, we relax the moral tone of society, and thus
pave the way for the progress of vice and disorder. All
accounts accordingly agree that the state of morals in Hin¬
dustan has not been improved under the rule of the Eng¬
lish. “ The decline of morality,” says Lord Moira, in his
judicial minute, dated the 2d of October 1815, “ is stated to
be a subject of reproach against us by all the natives whom
birth or education have inspired with concern for the good
order or well-being of society.” Mr Stuart, whose reports
on the state of India abound in the most masterly views of
the state of property and manners, expresses this opinion
in the strongest terms: “ As we proceed,” he observes,
“ these provinces will soon present the singular spectacle
of a great empire, the government of which rigidly ex¬
cludes its subjects from every object of fair ambition,
which, in the pursuit, could stimulate men to cultivate
their faculties, or, in the possession, enlarge their under¬
standings and elevate their mind's.” “ My speculations,”
he adds, “ may have perhaps misled me, but I am persuad¬
ed that very unfavourable effects from these causes may
already be traced in the habits of our native subjects; and
their long continuance must, I think, infallibly end in re¬
ducing the whole population to one ignorant, grovelling,
litigious, and profligate herd.” Colonel Munro, one of the
most distinguished officers in the Company’s service, de¬
cidedly censures the illiberal policy of exclusion ; and de¬
scribes the natives as more patient and laborious than Eu¬
ropeans, as better accountants, as more efficient men of bu¬
siness ; and he expresses his surprise that “ men of respect¬
able talents should recommend the abolition of Indian and
the substitution of European agency to the greatest pos¬
sible extent. With our limited number of servants,” he
observes, “ we could not do the work of natives, with ten
times the number we could only do it ten times worse.”1
The just and liberal views of Colonel Munro and others
have been approved of, and the natives have been for
seine years admissible to civil offices, and to act as civil and
criminal judges ; and this tardy justice to the natives may
be expected to produce the best effects. They are now
summoned to sit in the punctayets (native juries), to try in
some places criminal, in others both civil and criminal ques¬
tions. And this enlightened policy has been still further
confirmed by the great and memorable measure introdu¬
ced into parliament by Mr Grant in 1833, for abolishing the
commercial privileges, and regulating other complicated
concerns, of the East India Company. The free admis¬
sion of the natives, of whatever religion or caste, to all offi-
dicLmmStira's^Ju^mT8 °f C°Uncil at the Presidencies of Madras, by Sir T. Munro, Mr Gnome, Mr Lushington.
HINDUSTAN. 465
Hind an.ces, and of British settlers into any part of India, there to cutta, the pupils are instructed in natural philosophy, Hindustan.
^ ^ acquire property or land, or to carry on any trade or pro- theology, law, astronomy, mathematics, geometry, arith- 's—
fession, is calculated to promote the lasting advantage of metic, logic, rhetoric, oratory, grammar, in medicine and
India, establishing as it does the principles of freedom, not surgery, and in the English and Arabic languages. There
upon the mere arbitrary regulation of the supreme council, is also a college for the cultivation of Sanscrit and Hindu
which may be recalled, but on the solid authority of a Bri- literature; besides the Anglo-Indian college for instruction
tish act of parliament, which no inferior power can dis- in the English languages. Colleges have been establish-
annul. ed at Delhi and Agra, and primary and elementary schools
Under this liberal and comprehensive law, the Magna are dispersed over the whole country. In many cases, the
Charta of Indian freedom, the British merchant may transfer native schools, generally ill conducted, have been improv-
his capital, and his superior intelligence and industry, to the ed under the superintendence of the British. In the pre-
most remote parts of Hindustan ; he may engage in trade, in sidencies of Bombay and Madras numerous schools have
manufactures, or in agriculture; and this free intercourse been established for the instruction of the natives in all
of India with Britain must in time produce important effects the elementary branches of education ; in geography, in
on the character and manners of the people. Hindustan ap- mathematics, and in the English language, the knowledge
pears, indeed, to be on the eve of a great moral revolution, of which is gradually extending amongst the Hindus.
The spirit of improvement has long slumbered amongst And with these institutions for the education of the people
that singular people; and the division of the people into is now combined that mighty engine the press, which,
castes, and those superstitions to which they are attached though opposed in its first efforts, and rigorously perse-
with a blind devotion, are unfavourable to its progress, cuted, has in India, as in all other countries, finally bro-
But the influence of European manners now begins to be ken down all the restraints of despotism, and achieved its
seen; and, considering that the Hindus are a conquered own freedom. It is not above twenty years since one
people, long bowed under a foreign yoke ; that, on the newspaper only was published in Calcutta. In 1833 eight
other hand, power, dominion, honour, and promotion, daily newspapers, political and commercial, issued from
belong to the British; it is no wonder that the prostrate the Calcutta press; two three times a week, one twice a
and servile Hindu should be induced gradually to for- week, and seven weekly newspapers, some political, others
sake the manners and superstitions, and even the lan- commercial; besides fourteen newspapers in Bengalee or
guage, of his forefathers, for the enlightened views and Persian, and monthly, quarterly, and annual publications,
purer faith of his victorious preceptors. This great and At Bombay and Madras political intelligence is dispersed
signal revolution is already begun. The manners, the in various journals, some in English, others in the native
customs, the language of Britain, are beginning to take languages ; and throughout the provinces English news-
root in India. They have been adopted by many na- papers are established; whilst at the different courts, at
lives of distinction, by zemindars, as well as by the ra- Delhi and at Meerut, the journals are numerous and daily
jabs and princes of the country ; and from their example increasing. To those various sources of improvement may
they are spreading amongst the other classes. Hindu chil- be added the missionary labours, which are ardently pur-
dren of both sexes crowd the British seminaries establish- sued all over India ; in the establishment of schools, in
ed at Calcutta; the rising generation resort to the col- the sending out of preachers, and in the printing and dis-
leges, and are instructed in English literature and science ; persing of the sacred volume and other works in the native
they frequent the medical and surgical schools; and languages, on which large sums of money have been ex-
there is a growing disposition to adopt the free and li- pended. Such are the various institutions which are in
beral manners, and all the other improvements, of modern progress for the civilization of Hindustan, and which are
Europe. This moral change, which is already begun, will destined ere long to produce important results, not only
soon, by the free influx of Europeans, reach the remotest in that country, but throughout the whole extent of Asia,
parts of Hindustan. Capital will be introduced, agriculture But those great moral changes which affect the condition
will be promoted, and improved modes of labour will be of society are in their nature slow and gradual; they
adopted. And all these changes will be brought about, cannot be hastened forward, more especially amongst such
not by any violent subversion of existing institutions, but a people as the Hindus, whose minds are enthralled by
gradually, through the quiet influence of moral causes. the force of their peculiar habits and religion, by imme-
Amongst other sources of improvement in Hindustan, morial usages, and by the deep-rooted prejudices of ig-
may be reckoned the laudable zeal of the government for norance. We cannot expect that long-established habits
the instruction of the people, by the institution of colleges will be suddenly relinquished, or that fixed impressions
and schools throughout the country, in which are taught will at once yield to the voice of truth. But Great Britain
all the different branches of literature and science. It was has at last, and in earnest, undertaken the task of instruct-
stipulated by the charter in 1814, that a sum of L.10,000 ing her Indian subjects ; the foundation is laid ; the work
should be annually applied to the purposes of education; of improvement is begun; the seeds of knowledge have
which sum has been augmented by the liberality of the been widely dispersed over the congenial soil, and they
government toL.21,884, to L.66,563, and to L.44,330, its will assuredly spring up, and in due season yield the de¬
amount in 1830. In the Mahommedan College at Cal- sired increase. (f.)
3 N
*
VOL. XI.
4G6 H IP HIP
Hingham HINGHAM, a town of the county of Norfolk, in the
II hundred of Forehoe, ninety-six miles from London, situat-
^PPar* ed at the source of the river Yare. The land around is
fertile, and there is a market on Thursday. The inhabi¬
tants amounted in 1801 to 1203, in 1811 to 1311, in 1821
to 1442, and in 1831 to 1539.
HINNOM, or the Valley of Hinnom, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a place which lay to the south of Jerusalem. It was
also called the Valley of Tophet, and was remarkable for the
cruel and barbarous worship of Moloch, being the place
where parents made their children pass through the fire in
honour of that idol.
HINZUAN, one of the Comora Islands, situated between
Madagascar and the continent of Africa, and otherwise
called Anzuame, Anjuan, Juanny, and Johanna.
Hinzuan resembles, according to Sir William Jones’s
description of it, a vast amphitheatre, of which a general
notion may be formed by conceiving a multitude of hills
infinitely diversified in figure and magnitude, and thrown
together with artless symmetry in all conceivable positions.
A series of mountains forms the background. One of
these is pointed, about half a mile above the level of the
sea, afid not more than three miles from the shore; and
the whole are richly clothed with fruit trees of exquisite ver¬
dure. Beyond this there is another range, partly barren
and partly verdant. Nearer the shore there is a vast mul¬
titude of cliffs, which push their verdure almost to the wa¬
ter’s edge. The rows of palm trees with which it abounds
give an enchanting beauty and variety to the scene, and
almost appear to have been planted by design. The north
side of the island shoots out into two points, which are
twenty-six miles distant from each other, with a large bay
between them. It is justly considered as a proper place of
refreshment for vessels bound to and from the East Indies,
yielding limes, lemons, oranges, and many other valuable
antiscorbutics.
HIPPARCHUS, the most celebrated astronomer of
antiquity, was a native of Nicaea, a city of Bithynia. We
have no means of discovering the exact date of his birth or
of his death, but we find from Ptolemy that his observa¬
tions of the heavenly bodies extended from b. c. 162 to 127.
His observations were principally taken in the island of
Rhodes ; but we know' nothing of his private history, ex¬
cepting that he was remarkable for unwearied industry and
great love of truth. He seems to have first directed his
attention to the rising and setting of stars; and whilst en¬
gaged on this subject he composed a commentary on the
work of Aratus, and discovered many mistakes, which the
latter, or rather Eudoxus, whom he copied, had made in
respect to the position of stars. It was not, however, till
a much later period that he discovered that the aspect of
the heavens had undergone a considerable change since the
observations of Eudoxus had been made. His anxiety to ar¬
rive at the truth induced him to subject the whole science of
astronomy as then known to the strictest examination; and
with this view deemed it a matter of the utmost consequence
to the success of his ulterior objects, that he should fix with
precision the equinoctial and solstitial points, as well as the
time which the sun took to pass from one of these points to
the other, or, in other words, the exact length of the year.
He compared his own observations with those which had
been made before his time, and he discovered that the
period of 365 days six hours, which had hitherto been
considered as the true length of the solar year, was too
great by about five minutes. He was the first to perceive
that the stars appeared to have a movement parallel to
the ecliptic, and he established this doctrine in a work on
the retrogradation of the equinoctial points. It was im¬
possible in those early times to calculate with precision
the exact quantity of this movement, as he had no obser¬
vations with which to compare his own except those of
Timocharis and Aristillus, who had lived only a short time Hipn
before. He imagined, however, that it could not be more chus.'
than 36" a year, though it is now known that it is in rea-
hty 50". This important discovery would have been suf¬
ficient to have immortalized his name, but he possesses
many other titles to the admiration of posterity. He was
the first to discover the means of determining the inequa¬
lity of the movement of the sun, or what is called the ap¬
parent eccentricity of the solar orbit. He observed that
the four parts into which the year is divided by the sol¬
stices and equinoxes are by no means equal, the sun oc¬
cupying ninety-four days and a half in passing from the
vernal equinox to the summer solstice, and only ninety-two
and a half from the same solstice to the autumnal equinox.
It was evident, therefore, that the sun remained 187 days
in that part of the ecliptic which lies between the equator
and the north pole, and only about 178 in the other part.
The only way in which he could account for this apparent
inequality of the sun’s motion, was by supposing that the
earth was not placed exactly in the centre of the circular
orbit of the sun, and that his distance from the earth is
therefore subject to variation. The distance of the earth
from the centre of the orbit is called the eccentricity; and
it produces an equation between the real and apparent mo¬
tions, which is called the equation of the centre. Hippar¬
chus determined the magnitude of this equation in terms
of the radius of the ecliptic, and fixed the position of the
line of the apsides, or that which joins the two opposite
points of the orbit at the greatest and least distance from
the earth. With these data he constructed the first tables
of the sun which are mentioned in the history of astrono¬
my. W ith equal industry and acuteness Hipparchus la¬
boured to bring the still more difficult theory of the moon
to a more scientific form. By comparing a great number
of observations of eclipses recorded by ancient writers with
his own, he was enabled to determine more accurately the
period of the moon’s revolution relatively to the stars, to
the sun, to her nodes, and to her apogee. He calculated
with remarkable precision, for the time when he lived, the
distance of the moon from the earth, as well as the size of
the sun and moon.
The appearance of a new star in the heavens induced
Hipparchus to undertake the formation of a catalogue of
all the stars visible above his horizon, to fix their relative
positions, and to mark their configurations, in order that
posterity might be able to detect any changes which might
take place in the aspect of the heavens. His catalogue
contained 1080 stars. He also invented the planisphere,
or method of representing the starry firmament on a plane
surface, which aft'orded the means of solving the problems
of spherical trigonometry in a manner often more exact
and more commodious than the globe itself. He was the
first who demonstrated the methods of calculating tri¬
angles, whether rectilineal or spherical; and he construct¬
ed a table of chords, from which he drew nearly the same
advantages as we derive at present from the tables of
sines. Geography is also indebted to him for the happy
idea of fixing the position of places on the earth by means
of their latitudes and longitudes, and he was the first who
determined longitude by the eclipses of the moon. His
writings have all unfortunately perished, except a com¬
mentary on the poem of Aratus, and a work entitled As-
terismi. They were first published at Florence, 1567, and
afterwards by Petavius in his Uranologium, with a Latin
translation, Paris, 1630. See Delambre, Histoire de lAstro¬
nomic Ancienne, tom. i. p. xxi.; Marcoz, Astronomic solaire
dHipparque soumise a une critique rigoureuse, et ensuite
rendue d sa verite primordiale, Paris, 1828. The views ol
Marcoz are ably controverted by Letronne in the Journal
des Savans, 1828 and 1829, January; also by Littrow in
the Vienna Jahrbuch, 1830, January and March.
H I P
Hi; cen- HIPPOCENTAUR (composed of 'iTtfos, horse, xsvtsu,
r putir/o, I spur, and ravoo;, bull), in Antiquity, a fabulous
monster, supposed to be half horse and half man. The
f 1°’ hippocentaurs seem to have differed from the centaurs in
/ this, that the latter only rode on bullocks, and the former
on horses, as the names themselves indicate.
HIPPOCRATES, the greatest physician of antiquity,
was born in the island of Cos, in the eightieth Olympiad,
and flourished during the Peloponnesian war. He was
the first who laid down precepts concerning physic ; and,
if we may believe the author of the life, which goes under
the name of Soranus, he derived his materials from Hercules
and Alsculapius. He was first a pupil of his father Hera-
clides, then of Herodicus, then of Gorgias of Leontium,
the orator, and, according to some, of Democritus of Ab-
dera. After being instructed in physic and in the liberal
arts, he lost his parents, upon which he left his own coun¬
try, and practised physic all over Greece, where he was
much admired on account of his skill. He was publicly
sent for, along with Euryphon, a man superior to him in
years, to Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, who was then
thought to be consumptive; but Hippocrates, as soon as
he arrived, pronounced the disease to be entirely mental,
as in truth it proved. Upon the death of his father Alex¬
ander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his father’s mis¬
tress ; and this Hippocrates discerned by the great change
which her presence always wrought upon him. The cause
of his malady being thus ascertained, a cure was soon ef¬
fected.
Being entreated by the people of Abdera to come and
cure Democritus of a supposed madness, he proceeded thi¬
ther ; but, upon his arrival, instead of finding Democritus
mad, he discovered that all his fellow-citizens were so, and
that Democritus wras the only wise man amongst them.
From this philosopher he heard much, and learned a great
deal of philosophy ; a circumstance which has led Corneli¬
us Celsus and some others to imagine that Hippocrates was
the disciple of Democritus, though it is probable they never
saw each other till this interview, occasioned by the Abde-
rites. Hippocrates also received public invitations to other
countries. Thus, when a plague attacked the Illyrians and
Pseonians, the kings of those countries begged him to come
to their assistance. He did not comply with their request;
but learning from the messengers the prevailing direction
of the winds, he concluded that the distemper would at
length reach Athens; and having foretold what would hap¬
pen, he applied himself to devise means for mitigating the
evil when it should occur. So ardent indeed was his love
of Greece, that w hen his fame had reached Persia, and Ar-
* taxerxes entreated him through the Persian governor of
the Hellespont to come to him, at the same time promis¬
ing him great rewards, he refused to go. He also deliver¬
ed his country from a war which was just ready to break
out, by prevailing upon the Thessalians to come to the as¬
sistance of his countrymen, a service for which he receiv¬
ed the sincere acknowledgments of the Coans. The Athe¬
nians also conferred great honours upon him. They ad¬
mitted him next to Hercules in the Eleusinian ceremonies,
conferred on him the freedom of the city, and voted a pub¬
lic maintenance for himself and his family in the Pryta-
neum or ^council-house at Athens, where none were main¬
tained at the public charge excepting such as had done
public service to the state. He died amongst the Laris-
saeans, at a very advanced age, having, according to some,
outlived the usual term of human life, and attained up¬
wards of a hundred years of age.
A complete bibliographical account of the editions, ge¬
neral and partial, of the works of Hippocrates, would occu¬
py many pages ; for, independently of the numerous Greek
and Latin editions, almost all the modern languages have
been enriched with translations of the different treatises of
HIP 467
the Greek physician. The number of special editions of Hippo-
his principal works is prodigious. Thus, there have been crene
more than thirty of the Protestation, as many of the book . II
on the Nature of Man, and of that on Airs, Waters, and HlPPol7-
Places ; about fifty on the Books of Epidemics ; more than . tus
seventy of the Prognostics, and upwards of three him-
dred editions, wdth almost as many commentaries in all
languages, of his Aphorisms, “ ce chef-d’oeuvre de 1’esprit
humain.” The following classification is made on the
principle recommended by Erotian, the eldest glossator of
Hippocrates, and adopted and improved by Foes : 1. Greek
Editions, Venice, 1526, in folio, Aldus and Asulanus;
Basil, 1538, in folio, Froben, a more complete and exact
edition than the preceding: 2. Greek and Latin Editions,
Venice, 1588, in folio, Mercuriali; Frankfort, 1595, 1621,
1624, and 1645, in folio; Geneva, 1657, in two vols.
folio; Leyden, 1665, in two vols. 8vo; the Variorum edi¬
tion, Vienna, 1743-1749, in two vols. folio, Stephen
Mack: 3. Latin Editions, Rome, 1525, in folio, Calvo ;
Rome, 1549, 1610, 1619, in folio ; Basil, 1526, in folio;
Venice, 1545, in folio, the version of Cornarius; Basil,
1588, in folio; Venice, 1575, in folio, Marinelli; Frank¬
fort, 1596, in 8vo, Foes; Altenburg, 1806, in three vols.
8vo, Pierer, with a learned dissertation on the state of
medicine before the time of Hippocrates: 4. Greek and
French Edition, Paris, 1811, 1815, in four vols. 12mo:
5. Numerous editions in French and other modern lan¬
guages.
HIPPOCRENE, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of
Mount Helicon, on the borders of Bceotia, sacred to the
Muses. Some of the poets, as Ovid, make Hippocrene the
same w ith Aganippe.
HIPPODROME, Hippodromus (composed of br-ffe;,
horse, and d»oyog, course), in Antiquity, a list or course
where chariot and horse races were performed, and horses
exercised. The Olympian hippodrome or course was a
space of ground of six hundred paces in length, surrounded
with a wall, near the city Elis, on the banks of the river
Alpheus. It w'as uneven, and in some degree irregular, on
account of the situation; in one part there was a hill of a
moderate height, and the circuit was adorned with temples,
altars, and other embellishments. Constantinople had a
famous hippodrome, which was begun by Alexander Se-
verus, and finished by Constantine. This circus, called
by the Turks Atmeidan, is four hundred paces in length,
and above a hundred paces in breadth. At the entrance
of the hippodrome there is a pyramidal monolith obelisk
of granite, about fifty feet in height, terminating in a point,
and charged with hieroglyphics. The Greek and Latin
inscriptions on its base show that it was erected by Theo¬
dosius ; the machines which were employed to raise it are
represented on it in basso-relievo.
HIPPOLYTE, St, a city of the arrondissement of St
Vigan, in the department of the Gard, in France, situated
on the river Bidourle, at the foot of the Cevennes, con¬
taining 650 houses and 5479 inhabitants, wdio carry on
many tanneries, and considerable manufactures of silk,
woollen, and cotton goods.
Hippolyte, St, a town of the arrondissement of Col¬
mar, in the department of the Upper Rhine, in France,
on the river Eckenbache. It contains 500 houses, and
1994 inhabitants, some of whom dig good coals in the vi¬
cinity.
HIPPOLYTUS, a son of Theseus and Hippolyte, and
celebrated in fabulous history for his virtue and his mis¬
fortunes. His stepmother Phaedra fell in love with him,
and when he refused to pollute his father’s bed, she ac¬
cused him to Theseus of offering violence to her person.
Her accusation was readily believed, and Theseus entreat¬
ed Neptune to punish the incontinence of his son. Hip-
polytus fled from the resentment of his father; and as he
468
Hippo-
manes
II '
Hire.
H I R
pursued his way along the sea shore, his horses were so
frightened at the noise of sea calves, which Neptune had
purposely sent there, that they ran amongst the rocks, in
j consequence of which his chariot was broken and his body
torn in pieces. Temples were raised to his memory, par¬
ticularly at Troezen, where he received divine honours.
According to some accounts, Diana restored Hippolytus
to life.
HIPPOMANES, a sort of poison, famous amongst the
ancients as an ingredient in love-charms. The word is
Greek, ivvoiMini, composed of ir-irog, a horse, and /iccwa,
fury or madness. At the end of Bayle’s dictionary there is
a very learned dissertation on the hippomanes, and all its
virtues, both real and pretended.
HIPPONAX, a Greek poet of Ephesus, son of Pythes
and Protis (Suid.), who seems to have flourished in the
times of Croesus and Cyrus, b. c. 546 (Marm. Arund.),
which agrees sufficiently with the statement of Pliny, that
he lived about the sixtieth Olympiad (b. c. 540). He was
thus about half a century subsequent to Archilochus, to
whose history that of Hipponax bears a strong resem¬
blance. Hated by the tyrants of his country, Athena-
goras and Comas, he was obliged to fly, and proceeded to
take up his residence at Clazomenae, another city of Ionia,
where, according to some, he died of hunger and want. In
the history of poetry he is celebrated as the inventor of a
species of iambic verse, which is called choliambi, because
the line is imperfect. It is said that we are indebted for its
invention to the circumstance of his dispute with two sculp¬
tors of Ephesus, Bupalus and Anthermus, who had exposed
the poet to the ridicule of his countrymen by a hideous
and grotesque representation of him. The poet took am¬
ple revenge on the sculptors by a lampoon of so cutting a
character that they are said to have hanged themselves.
(Plin. xxxvi. 5; .Elian. V. H. x. 6; Hor. Epod. vi. 11;
Callimach. Fragm. xc.) The quality for which he was
most distinguished was bitterness ; and, in allusion to this,
it is said that his grave was strewed with thorn bushes in¬
stead of vine branches and ivy. (Alcaeus Messen. Anthol.
I alat. vii. 536.) Besides the choliambi, he wrote also
poetry in regular iambic measure. Little of the poetry
of Hipponax has been preserved ; only a few lines quoted
by scholiasts and grammarians have been transmitted to
us, but these have been carefully collected by Welcher
Hipponactis et Ananii lambographorum Fraqmenta Got¬
tingen, 1817. *
HIPPOPODES, Hippopedes, or Hippopodice (com¬
posed of horse, and foot), in Ancient Geoqra-
an appellation given to a certain people on the shores
of the Scythian Sea, who were supposed to have had horses’
ietinr !e^PT?eS.are mentioned by Dionysius (Geogr.
v.SiO.) IVlda (hb.m. cap. 6), Pliny (lib. iv. cap. 13),
and St Augustin (De Civit. lib. xvi. cap. 8). But it is
conjectured that they received this appellation on account
of their swiftness. Pennant supposes them to have been
the inhabitants of the Bothnian Gulf, and that they were
t le same people as the Finni Lignipedes of Olaus. Thev
wore snow-shoes, which, he thinks, might fairly eive the
h°rSeS’ lloofetl and shod-
maxia.1 0P01AMUS’ the River-Horse. See Mam-
in Ast[™omy> a fixed star of the first mag-
nituciCj tii6 Sciinc with Ccipclla. &
nTO“uStfulP„7,hIp' t 0TO of the most l!lbOTi»“ “„d
in the year 1640 Hu f',f was bom at P*™
i . ’ iRs father, who was painter to the kinp-
designed to bring up his son to the safne profession and with
his view taught him drawing and such ^rts of the maThS
matics as are intimately connected wirK it A t A mame;
twenty he visited l«al/t„ e„C Ws'hfff
te art, and resided in that country abouf four years.
H I R
But the study of the mathematics, which he continued to pro- H'
secute on his return to his native city, afterwards engaged bm
his whole attention ; and the publication of some works hav- IIh
ing procured him a high reputation, he was chosen a mem- Uktiu
ber of the Academy of Sciences in the year 1678. When
the minister Colbert conceived the design of constructing
a better map of France than any at that time to be met
with, Lahire was nominated, in conjunction with Picard,
to make the necessary observations ; and this engaged his
attention for some years in the different provinces. In the
year 1683 he was employed in continuing the meridian
line which had been commenced by Picard in 1669. He
continued it from Paris towards the north, whilst Cassini
carried it on towards the south; but on the death of Col¬
bert, which happened the same year, the work was discon¬
tinued. He was afterwards employed, in conjunction
with other eminent philosophers, in taking the necessary
levels for the grand aqueducts about to be constructed by
Louis XIV. I he works published by Lahire are very nu¬
merous ; and as he was professor of the Royal College and
Academy of Architecture, he must have been* constantly
employed. He had the circumspection and prudence of
an Italian, which made him appear reserved in the estima¬
tion of his versatile countrymen, yet he was regarded by all
as an nonest and disinterested man. Lahire died in the year
1718, at the advanced age of seventy-eight. His principal
works are, 1. Nouvelle Methode de Geometric pour les
il?o10as des SuPerficies Coniques et Cylindriques, Paris,
1613, in 4to; 2. De Cyclo'ide Opusculum, ibid. 1676, in
4to; 3. Nouveaux Elements des Sections Coniques, les
Lieux Geometriques, la construction ou affection des Equa¬
tions, ibid. 1619, in 12mo; 4. La Gnomonique, ou fart de
tracer des cadrans, ibid. 1682, in 12mo; 5. Sectiones Co-
mcae, in ix. libros distributee, ibid. 1685, in folio; 6. Ta- '
bulae Astronomicae, Ludovici Magni jussu et munificentia
exaratae, ibid. 1702, in 4to; 7. L’Ecole des Arpenteurs,
avec un_ Abrege du Nivellement, Paris, 1689, in 8vo, re¬
printed in 1692 and in 1728; 8. Traite de Mecanique, ou
I on explique tout ce qui est necessaire dans la pratique
des Arts, ibid. 1675, in 12mo; 9. A great number of Me'-
moires, in different journals, and in the Collection of the
Academy. Lahire was besides the editor of the Trade
du Nivellement by Picard; of the Traite du Mouvement
des Faux by Mariotte, and joint editor with Boivin and
rhevenot of the Veteres Mathematici Grcec.et Latin. 1693,
in folio.
HIRSCHBERG, a city, the capital of a circle of the
same name, in the Prussian province of Silesia. It stands
at the influx of the Zachen into the river Baber. It is well
built and fortified, and contains four Catholic churches and
one Lutheran, 944 houses, and 6458 inhabitants. It is
the great^ market-place for the sale of the linen cloth of
Silesia, rim city has declined much in prosperity from
the falling off of that branch of industry, which has been
encroached on by cotton goods. Long. 15. 36. 35. E.
Lat. 50. 54. 39. N.
HIRTIUS, Aulus, a noble Roman who attended on Cae¬
sar in his wars against the Gauls, and, when he returned to
Rome, became the devoted friend of Cicero. He accom¬
panied him to 1 usculum, where he studied the art of de¬
clamation under that accomplished orator (Cic. Fam. vii.
33); and when Caesar returned from his successful expe¬
dition against his enemies in Africa, he was employed by
Cicero to make his peace with the conqueror. Hirtius con¬
tinued a firm friend to Caesar, and on his death became
an equally determined opponent of the ambitious views of
Antony. He w as elected consul b. c. 43, with Pansa, and,
after his recovery from a severe illness, proceeded with his
colleague to relieve Brutus, who was besieged in Mutina
by Antony. Ihey gained the battle, and put Antony to
flight; but Hirtius fell in his attack on the camp (PhiL
' 33
H I S
jlii iia vii. v.; Fam. x. 33 ; Liv. Ep. 119). He is supposed by some
to have been the author of the eighth book of Caesar’s Coin-
Y' mentaries, and also of the Alexandrine, African, and Spa-
nish wars ; though the truth of this statement was doubted
oven in the age of Suetonius.
HISPANIA, called Hesperia Ultima, as being the west¬
ernmost part of Europe, and also Iberia, from the river Ibe-
rus. The name Hispania is of Phoenician origin, the Phoe¬
nicians, who settled several colonies on the coast, calling it
Spanjah, from the great number of rabbits in the country.
It has the sea on every side, except on that next to Gaul,
from which it is separated by the Pyrenees. The Romans
at first divided it into the Farther and Hither Spain, which
were governed by two praetors. In that state it conti¬
nued till the time of Augustus, who divided Farther Spain
into Baetica, which he left to be governed by a proconsul,
and into Lusitania, which he added to his own provinces ;
calling Hither Spain Tarraco7iensis. Hispania was ancient¬
ly celebrated for its fertility. The people were of a war¬
like turn; and their bodies being formed for hardships and
labour, they preferred war to ptace, and were remarkably
prodigal of life.
HISPANIOLA, called also St Domingo. See St
Domingo.
HISSAR Ferozeh, a large district of Hindustan, in the
province of Delhi, situated between the 28th and 30th
degrees of north latitude, on the western side of the river
Jumna. The country is fertile, but labours under a scar¬
city of water, which detracts from its fertility. It is only
watered by one small stream, namely, the Sursutty. In
HIS 469
order to supply the means of irrigation, one of the Afghan Hissar
emperors, who lived in the fourteenth century, caused two Ferozeh
canals to be cut, one from the Sutledge and the other from II
the Jumna, both of which joined at the city of Hissar, History-
whence they are supposed to have been divided into a
number of branches, so that the water was nearly all dis¬
tributed over the lands, and the remainder fell into a lake
called Bhedar. Under the influence of this extensive ir¬
rigation the country became fertile, and yielded two abun¬
dant crops in the year; and, from this circumstance, a
part of it received the name of Hurriana, or the verdant
mead. All these great works are now ruined; but the
country still produces horses, camels, and cattle. The
inhabitants are chiefly Jauts, with the exception of a few
Rajpoots; there are also villages of Rajpoots who have
embraced the Mahommedan religion. This district im¬
ports matchlocks, swords, coarse white cloth, salt, su¬
gar, and a small quantity of rice and spices. The ex¬
ports are horses, camels, bullocks, and ghee. The chief
towns are Hissar, Hansy, and Ferozeh. During the pros¬
perity of the Mogul government, this district was con¬
sidered the personal estate of the heir apparent to the
throne. It is now parcelled out amongst a number of na¬
tive chiefs. The town of Hissar is the capital of the dis¬
trict. It was built by Sultan Feroz, who gave previous
directions for the digging of the two canals above men¬
tioned ; after which he laid the foundations of the town
and fortress, which he built of stone brought from the
neighbouring hills of Nosa, and was completed in less
than three years. Long. 75. 53. E. Lat. 28. 41. N.
HISTORY.
History, in general, signifies an account of the remark¬
able events which have happened in the world, arranged in
the order in which they actually occurred, together with
an explanation of the causes to which they were owing,
and of the different effects they have produced as far as can
be discovered. The word is Greek, 'larogiu, and literally de¬
notes a search of curious things, or a desire of knowing,
or even a rehearsal of things we have seen, being formed
from a word which properly signifies to know a thing by
having seen it. But the idea now attached to the word
is much more extensive, and it is applied to the know¬
ledge of things derived from the report of others. Its
origin is from the verb isrifu, I know ; and hence it is that,
amongst the ancients, several of their great men were
called polyhistores, or persons of various and general know¬
ledge. Sometimes, however, the word History is used to
signify a description of things, as well as an account of
facts. Thus Theophrastus calls the work in which he has
treated of the nature and properties of plants, an History
of Plants ; we have also a treatise of Aristotle, entitled an
History of Animals; and to this day the descriptions of
plants, animals, and minerals, are called by the general
name of Natural History.
But that which chiefly merits the name of history, and
which is here considered as such, is an account of the prin¬
cipal transactions of mankind since the beginning of the
world; and this is naturally divided into two parts, civil and
ecclesiastical. The first contains the history of mankind in
their various relations to one another, and of their actions,
for their own benefit, or that of others, in common life ; the
second considers them as acting, or pretending to act, in
obedience to that which they believe to be the will of the
Supreme Being. Civil history, therefore, includes an ac¬
count of all the different states which have existed in the
world, and likewise of those men who in different ages have
Most eminently distinguished themselves either for good
or evil actions. This last portion of civil history is usually
termed Biography.
i. civil history.
History, though apparently incapable of any natural di¬
vision, will yet be found, on a nearer inspection, to resolve
itself into the following periods : 1. The creation of man ;
2. The deluge; 3. The commencement of profane his¬
tory, when the fabulous relations of heroes and demigods
were expelled from historical narratives, and men began to
relate facts with some regard to truth and credibility; 4.
The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, and the destruction of
the Babylonian empire; 5. The reign of Alexander the
Great, and the overthrow of the Persian empire; 6. The
destruction of Carthage by the Romans, when the latter
had no longer any rival capable of opposing their de¬
signs; 7. The reign of the Emperor Trajan, when the Ro¬
man empire reached its utmost limits ; 8. The division of
the empire under Constantine ; 9. The destruction of the
western empire by the Heruli, and the settlement of the
different European nations; 10. The rise of Mahommed,
and the conquests of the Saracens and Turks; 11. The
Crusades; and, lastly, all the space intervening between
that time and the present.
Historians and chronologers are not agreed as to the First pe-
number of years which have elapsed since the creation ofriod.
the world. The compilers of the Universal History de¬
termine it to have taken place 4305 years before Christ,
so that, according to them, the world is now (1835) in the
6140th year of its age. Others think it was created only
4000 years before Christ, so that it has not yet attained its
6000th year. Be this as it may, however, the account of
the creation rests wholly on the truth of the Mosaic his¬
tory ; and this w e must of necessity admit, because we can
find no other which does not either abound in the grossest.
470
HISTORY.
History, absurdities, or involve us in absolute darkness. The Chi-
S“,,'Y'W’ nese and Egyptian pretensions to antiquity are too absurd
and ridiculous to require serious confutation. Some his¬
torians and philosophers are inclined to discredit the Mo¬
saic account, from the appearances of volcanoes, and other
natural phenomena, exhibited in the internal structure and
constitution of the earth. But their objections are by no
means sufficient to invalidate the authority of the sacred
writings; and their own systems are in fact liable to in¬
superable objections. It is therefore reasonable to adopt
as true the Mosaic account of the creation. But an histo¬
rian is under an absolute necessity of doing so, because,
without it, he is destitute of any standard or scale by
which he can reduce the chronology of different nations to
any agreement; indeed, without receiving this account as
true, it would be in a manner impossible at this day to
write a general history of the world.
The transactions during the first period, that is, from
the creation to the deluge, are very imperfectly known, no¬
thing being recorded of them but what is to be found in
the first six chapters of Genesis. In general, however, we
learn that men were not at that time in a savage state.
They had made some progress in the arts, invented music,
and found out the method of working metals. They seem
also to have lived in one vast community, without any of
those divisions into different nations which have since taken
place, and which is supposed to have proceeded from the
• confusion of languages. The most material part of their
history, however, is, that having once begun to transgress
the divine commands, they proceeded to greater and great¬
er degrees of wickedness, till at last the Deity thought pro¬
per to overwhelm the earth with a deluge, which destroyed
the whole human race except eight persons, namely, Noah
and his family. This terrible catastrophe happened, accord¬
ing to the Hebrew copy of the Bible, 1656 years after the
creation ; according to the Samaritan copy, 1307. For the
different conjectures concerning the natural causes of the
flood, see the article Deluge.
Second pe- For the history of the second period, that of the de-
riod. ]Uge itself, we must also have recourse to the Scriptures.
We now find the human race reduced to eight persons,
possessed of nothing but what they had saved in the ark,
whilst the earth, desolated by the flood, had to be re-stock¬
ed with animals from those which had been preserved along
with the eight persons who had escaped the general destruc¬
tion. In what country this original settlement was effected,
we are not informed. The ark is supposed to have rested
on Mount Ararat, in Armenia; but it is impossible to as¬
certain whether Noah and his sons made any stay in the
neighbourhood of that mountain. It appears, however,
that some time afterwards, the whole or the greater part
of the human race were assembled in Babylonia, where
they engaged in building a high tower, as a place of refuge
in the event of the recurrence of another deluge. This,
however, gave offence to the Deity, who punished them
by confounding their language; and hence originated the
division of mankind into different nations.
According to a common opinion, Noah, when dying, left
the whole world to his sons, giving Asia to Shem, Africa
to Ham, and Europe to Japhet. But this notion or tra¬
dition receives not the least sanction from Scripture. It
is believed, however, that Gomer the son of Japhet was
tne father of the Gomerians or Celts, or, in other words,
o all the barbarous nations who under various names in¬
habited the northern parts of Europe; that from Magog,
Meshech, and Tubal, three of Corner’s brethren, proceed¬
ed the Scythians, Sarmatians, Tartars, and Moguls; and
t laJtirom ^ie ^iree other sons of Japhet, Madai, Javan,
iras».sPrung ^le Modes, the lonians, the Greeks, and
the Ihracians. The children of Shem were Elam, Ashur,
Arphaxad, Lud, and Aram. The first settled in Persia,
where he became the father of that mighty nation; the His
descendants of Ashur peopled Assyria or Kurdistan ; Ar- w-,'
phaxad settled in Chaldaea; Lud is supposed by Josephus
to have taken up his residence in Lydia, though this is dis¬
puted ; and Aram is thought to have settled in Mesopota¬
mia and Syria. The children of Ham were Cush, Miz-
raim, Phut, and Canaan. The first is supposed to have
remained in Babylonia, and to have been king of the
south-eastern parts of it, afterwards called Khuzistan. His
descendants are believed to have removed into the east¬
ern parts of Arabia, from which by degrees they migrated
into the corresponding parts of Africa. The second peopled
Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, Libya, and the other northern
parts of the same continent. The place where Phut set¬
tled is not known; but Canaan is universally allowed to
have settled in Phoenicia, and to have founded those na¬
tions who inhabited Judaea, and were afterwards exter¬
minated by the Jews.
Almost all the countries of the eastern continent being
thus furnished with inhabitants, it is probable that for
many years few or no qu*rrels would arise between dif¬
ferent nations. The paucity of their numbers, their dis¬
tance from one another, and their diversity of language,
would operate as an obstacle to intercommunication.
Hence, according to the different circumstances in which
the various tribes were placed, some would be more civi¬
lized and others more barbarous. In this interval also
the different nations probably acquired different charac¬
ters, which they afterwards retained, and manifested on
all occasions; hence the propensity of some nations to
monarchy, as the Asiatics, and the enthusiastic desire of
the Greeks for liberty and republicanism.
The commencement of monarchical government dates
from a very early period, Nimrod the son of Cush hav¬
ing found means to make himself king of Babylonia. In
a short time A shur, having emigrated from the new king¬
dom, built Nineveh, afterwards capital of the Assyrian
empire, and two other cities, called Rezen and Rohoboth,
as to the situation of which we are in a state of profound
ignorance. Whether Ashur at this time set up as an in¬
dependent king, or whether he held these cities as vassal
to Nimrod, is unknown. It is probable, however, that
about the same time various kingdoms were founded in
different parts of the world; and these were great or small
according to circumstances. The Scripture mentions the
kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom, and Gomorrha, in the time
of Abraham; and we may reasonably suppose that these
kings reigned over nations which had existed for some
time before.
The first considerable revolution we read of is the mi¬
gration of the Israelites out of Egypt, and their establish¬
ment in the land of Canaan. For the history of these
transactions we must refer to the Old Testament, where
the reader will find that it was attended with a terrible
catastrophe to the Egyptians, and with the utter exter¬
mination of some nations, the descendants of Ham, who in¬
habited Judaea. How far the overthrow of Pharaoh in the
Red Sea affected the Egyptian nation cannot easily be de¬
termined ; and in fact it seems exceedingly difficult to ac¬
count for the total silence of their records concerning so
remarkable an event, as well as for the general obscurity
and uncertainty in which the early history of Egypt is
involved. The settlement of the Jews in the promised
land of Canaan is supposed to have happened about 1491
before Christ.
For nearly two centuries after this period, we find no
accounts of any other nation than those mentioned in
Scripture. About 1280 before Christ, the Greeks began
to make other nations feel the effects of that enterprising
and martial spirit for which they were so remarkable, and
which they had undoubtedly exercised upon one another
HISTORY.
long before. Their first enterprise was an invasion of
Colchis, now Mingrelia, for the sake of the golden fleece.
Whatever was the nature of this expedition, they appear
to have succeeded in it; and it is likewise probable, that
it was this specimen of the riches of Asia which ever af¬
terwards inclined them so much to Asiatic expeditions.
All this time we are totally in the dark concerning the
state of Asia and Africa, excepting in as far as can be con¬
jectured from Scripture.
About 1184 years before Christ, the Greeks again dis¬
tinguished themselves by their expedition against Troy,
a city of Phrygia Minor, which they plundered and burn¬
ed, massacring the inhabitants with the most unrelenting
cruelty. iEneas, a Trojan prince, escaped with some fol¬
lowers into Italy, where he is supposed to have become
indirectly founder of the Roman empire. At this time
Greece was divided into a number of small principalities,
most of which seem to have been in subjection to Aga¬
memnon king of Mycenae. In the reign of Atreus, the fa¬
ther of this Agamemnon, the Heraclidae, or descendants
of Hercules, who had been formerly banished by Eurys-
theus, were again obliged to leave this country. Under
their champion Hyllus they claimed the kingdom of My¬
cenae as their right, pretending that it belonged to their
great ancestor Hercules, who was unjustly deprived of it
by Eurystheus. The controversy was decided by single
combat; and Hyllus being killed, they departed, as had
been before agreed upon, under a promise of not making
any attempt to return for fifty years. About the epoch
of the Trojan war, the Lydians, Mysians, and some other
nations of Asia Minor, are first mentioned in history. The
names of the Greek states mentioned during this uncer¬
tain period are, Sicyon, Leleg, Messina, Athens, Crete,
Argos, Sparta, Pelasgia, Thessaly, Attica, Phocis, Locris,
Ozela, Corinth, Eleusina, Elis, Pilus, Arcadia, iEgina,
Ithaca, Cephalonia, Phthia, Phocidia, Ephyra, .ZEolia, Ca-
lista, Thebes, iEtolia, Doloppa, CEchalia, Mycense, Euboea,
Mynia, Doris, Phera, lola, Trachina, Thresprotia, Myr-
midonia, Salamine, Scyros, Hyperia or Melite, the Vul-
canian isles, Megara, Epirus, Achaia, and isles of the
iEgean Sea. Concerning many of these we know nothing
besides their names; and the most remarkable particulars
concerning the others may be found under these respec¬
tive heads.
About 1048 before Christ, the kingdom of Judaea un¬
der David approached its utmost extent of power. In its
most flourishing condition, however, it was never remark¬
able for the largeness of its territory. In this respect it
scarcely exceeded the kingdom of Scotland ; though, ac¬
cording to the accounts given in Scripture, the magnifi¬
cence of Solomon was superior to that of the most potent
monarchs on earth. This extraordinary wealth was ow¬
ing partly to the spoils amassed by David in his conquests
over his various enemies, and partly to the commerce with
the East Indies which Solomon had established. Of this
commerce he owed his share to the friendship of Hiram
king of Tyre, a city of Phoenicia, the inhabitants of which
were then the most famed for commerce and skill in mari¬
time affairs of any in the world.
After the death of Solomon, which happened about
975 before Christ, the Jewish empire began to decline;
and soon afterwards many powerful states arose in differ¬
ent parts of the world. The disposition of mankind in ge¬
neral seems now to have taken a new turn, not easily to
be accounted for. In former times, whatever wars might
occur between neighbouring nations, we have no account
of any extensive empire in the world, or of any prince
undertaking to reduce distant nations under subjection.
The empire of Egypt indeed is said to have been of great
extent, even before the days of Sesostris, who was also a
great conqueror. Of the remote history of this country,
471
however, our knowledge is so imperfect, that scarcely any History,
thing certain, or even probable, can be concluded from it.
But now, as it were all at once, we find almost every na¬
tion aiming at universal monarchy, and refusing to set
any bounds whatever to its ambition. The first shock
given to Jewish greatness was the division of the kingdom,
through the imprudence of Rehoboam. This rendered it
more easily a prey to Shishak, king of Egypt, who* five
years afterwards came and pillaged Jerusalem, and all the
fortified cities of the kingdom of Judah. The commerce
to the East Indies was now discontinued, and consequent¬
ly the sources of wealth were in a great measure cut off;
and this, added to the perpetual wars between the kings
of Israel and Judah, contributed to that remarkable and
speedy decline which now took place in Jewish affairs.
This Shishak, who undertook the expedition against
Jerusalem, recorded in Scripture, is now known to be
identical with the Scheshonk mentioned on the Egyptian
monuments. His infantry is described as an innumerable
host, composed of different African nations ; and his ca¬
valry is stated at sixty thousand, with twelve hundred
chariots. These numbers are most probably exaggerated,
and all that we can infer from them is, that the invading
host was too numerous to be resisted by any force which
could be brought against it. We may also observe, that
the policy of the elder Pharaohs seems to have differed
entirely from that pursued by their successors. In the
earlier ages of the monarchy, the sovereigns of Egypt,
animated by a spirit of conquest, sought to extend their
dominions by the power of the sword, and, with this view,
undertook distant expeditions. But experience at length
convinced them of the extreme hazards incident to a sys¬
tem of aggression on the part of a country which, from
its position and configuration, was peculiarly open to at¬
tack ; reverses taught wisdom even to those who are ge¬
nerally the last to profit by the severe lessons of adver¬
sity ; and a change of system ensued. It was felt that an
advanced state of civilisation, surrounded on all sides by
barbarism and ferocity, could only maintain itself by con¬
centrating its means, and following a system strictly de¬
fensive ; that the policy of nations must be accommodated
partly to their actual position, and partly to the relations in
which they stand to those by whom they are encompass¬
ed ; and that prudence may long preserve what temerity
would speedily overthrow. Hence the aggressive policy
of the elder Pharaohs gradually merged into that Chinese
system of conservation and exclusion which characteris¬
ed the government of Egypt at the time when the early
Greek writers first became acquainted with the country,
and which, from not attending to the change we have al¬
luded to, the latter have described as if it had always
prevailed. Shishak or Scheshonk was amongst the last
of the Egyptian princes who attempted foreign conquests,
or conducted expeditions against the neighbouring nations.
But though the Jews obtained a temporary deliverance
from this invader, they were soon afterwards attacked by
new enemies. In 941 before Christ, Zerah, an Ethiopian,
invaded Judaea with an army, it is said, of a million of in¬
fantry and three hundred chariots; but he was defeated
with great slaughter by Asa king of Judah, who engaged
him with an army of more than half a million of men. About
this time also the Syrians, who had grown a considerable
people, showed themselves bitter enemies to the kings
both of Israel and of Judah, aiming, in fact, at the con¬
quest of both nations. Their kingdom commenced in the
days of David, under Hadadezer, whose capital was Zo-
bah, and who probably was at last obliged to become a
tributary of David, after having been defeated by him in
several engagements. Before the death of David, how¬
ever, Rezon, who had rebelled against Hadadezer, having
found means to make himself master of Damascus, erect-
472
H I S T O R Y.
History, ed a new kingdom, which soon became powerful. The
Syrian princes being thus in the neighbourhood-of the
rival states of Israel and Judah, whose capitals were Sa¬
maria and Jerusalem, found it an easy matter to weaken
both, by pretending to assist the one against the other;
but a detail of the transactions between the Jews and Sy¬
rians is to be found in the Old Testament, to which there¬
fore the reader is referred. In 740 before Christ, how¬
ever, the Syrian empire was totally destroyed by Tiglath-
pileser, king of Assyria; as was also the kingdom of Sa¬
maria by Shalmaneser his successor, about twenty years
thereafter. The people were either massacred or carried
captive into Media, Persia, and the countries around the
Caspian Sea.
Whilst the nations of the East were thus destroying each
other, the foundations of formidable empires were laid in
the West. In Africa, Carthage was founded by a Tyrian
colony, about 869 before Christ, according to those who
ascribe the highest antiquity to that city; and in Europe
also a considerable revolution took place about 900 before
Christ. The Heraclidae, who had been expelled from
Greece by Atreus, the father of Agamemnon, after several
unsuccessful attempts, at length conquered the whole Pe¬
loponnesus. From this time the Grecian states became
more civilized, and their history is less obscure. The in¬
stitution, or rather the revival and continuance, of the
Olympic games, in 776 before Christ, also greatly facili¬
tated the writing, not only of their own history, but of that
of other nations ; for as each Olympiad consisted of four
years, the chronology of every important event became
fixed by referring it to these periods or divisions of time.
In 748 before Christ, or the last year of the seventh
Olympiad, the foundations of the city of Rome were laid
by Romulus ; and, forty-three years afterwards, the Spar¬
tan state was new-modelled, and received from Lycurgus
those laws by means of which it afterwards arrived at such
a pitch of splendour.
With the beginning of the 28th Olympiad, or 568 be¬
fore Christ, commences the third general period above
mentioned, when profane history becomes somewhat more
clear, and the relations of different nations may be de¬
pended upon with some degree of certainty. The general
state of the world was then as follows. At this period,
the northern parts of Europe were either thinly inhabit¬
ed, or filled with unknown and barbarous nations, the an¬
cestors of those who afterwards destroyed the Roman
empire. France and Spain were inhabited by the Gome-
rians or Celts. Italy was divided into a number of petty
states, consisting partly of Gaulish and partly of Gre¬
cian colonies, amongst whom the Romans had already
become formidable. The latter were governed by their
king Servius Tullius; had increased their city by the de¬
molition of Alba Longa, and the removal of its inhabitants
to Rome ; and had enlarged their dominions by several
cities taken from their neighbours. Greece was also di¬
vided into a number of small states, amongst which the
Athenians and Spartans, the most remarkable, were rivals.
The former had, about 599 before Christ, received an ex¬
cellent system of laws from Solon, and were enriching
themselves by navigation and commerce. The latter were
become formidable by the martial institutions of Lycur¬
gus, and, having conquered Messenia, and added its terri¬
tory to their own, were justly esteemed the most power¬
ful people in Greece. The other states of most considera¬
tion were Corinth, Ihebes, Argos, and Arcadia. In Asia
great revolutions had taken place. The ancient kingdom
of Assyria was destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians,
its capital city Nineveh was utterly ruined, and the great¬
er part of its inhabitants were carried to Babylon. Nay,
the very materials of which it was built were carried off,
to adorn and give strength to that stately metropolis,
Third pe¬
riod.
which was then undoubtedly the first city in the world. H
By Nebuchadnezzar, who now sat on the throne of Baby- ^
Ion, the kingdom of Judaea was totally overthrown in 587 *
before Christ. Three years before this he had taken and
razed the city of Tyre, and overrun all the kingdom of
Egypt. He is even said by Josephus to have conquered
Spain, and reigned there nine years, after which he aban¬
doned it to the Carthaginians ; but this seems by no
means probable. The extent of the Babylonian empire is
not certainly known. But, from what is recorded of it
we may conclude that it was not at all inferior in magni¬
tude to any that had ever existed; and the Scripture in¬
forms us that it was superior in wealth to any of the suc¬
ceeding ones. We know that it comprehended Phcenicia
Palestine, Syria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia, and not
improbably India; and, from a consideration of this vast
extent of territory, and the riches with which every one
of these countries abounded, we may form some idea of
the wealth and power of this monarch. When we con¬
sider also, that the whole strength of this mighty empire
was employed in beautifying the metropolis, we cannot
consider the wonders of that city, as related by Herodotus,
as at all incredible. As to what passed about this time
in the republic of Carthage we are left quite in the dark;
there being a chasm in its history of not less than three
hundred years.
The fourth general period of history, namely, from Fomj*.
the end of the fabulous times to the conquest of Babylon™1'
by Cyrus, is very short, including no more than thirty-
one years. This sudden revolution was occasioned by the
misconduct of Evilmerodach, Nebuchadnezzar’s son, even
in his father’s life-time. For having, in a great hunting
match on occasion of his marriage, entered the country of
the Medes, and some of his troops coming up at the same
time to relieve the garrisons in those places, he joined
them to those already with him, and without the least
provocation began to plunder and lay waste the neigh¬
bouring country. This produced an immediate revolt,
which quickly extended over all Media and Persia. The
Medes, headed by Astyages, and his son Cyaxares, drove
back Evilmerodach and his party with great slaughter;
nor does it appear that they were afterwards reduced even
by Nebuchadnezzar himself. The new empire continued
daily to gather strength; and at last Cyrus, grandson to
Astyages, a prince of great prudence and valour, being
appointed generalissimo of the Median and Persian forces,
took Babylon itself in the year 538 before Christ.
During this period the Romans increased in power un¬
der the wise administration of their king Servius Tullius,
who, though a pacific prince, rendered his people more
formidable by a peace of twenty years than his predeces¬
sors had done by all their victories. The Greeks, even
at this early period, began to interfere with the Persians,
on account of the lonians, or Grecian colonies in Asia Mi¬
nor. These had been subdued by Croesus king of Lydia
about the year 562, the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s death.
Whether the Lydians had been subdued by the Babylo¬
nian monarch or not, cannot now be ascertained, though
it is very probable that they were either in subjection to
him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his death
nothing considerable was undertaken by them. It is in¬
deed probable, that during the insanity of Nebuchadnez¬
zar, spoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his kingdom must
have fallen into confusion ; and that many of those princes
whom he had formerly retained in subjection must have
set up for themselves. Certain it is, however, that if the
Babylonians did not regard Croesus as their subject, they
looked upon him as a faithful ally; insomuch that they
celebrated an annual feast in commemoration of a victory
obtained by him over the Scythians. After the death of
Nebuchadnezzar, Croesus subdued many nations in Asia
HISTORY.
473
rj. Minor, and amongst these the lonians, as already related.
They M'ere, however, greatly attached to his government;
for though they paid tribute, and were obliged to furnish
some forces in time of war, they w^ere yet free from all kinds
of oppression. When Cyrus therefore was proceeding in
his conquests of different parts of the Babylonian empire,
before he proceeded to attack the capital, the lonians refus¬
ed to submit to him, though he offered them very advan¬
tageous terms. But soon afterwards Croesus himself be¬
ing defeated and taken prisoner, the lonians sent ambas¬
sadors to Cyrus, offering to submit on the terms which
had formerly been proposed. But these terms were now re¬
fused ; and the lonians, having determined to resist, ap¬
plied to the Spartans for assistance. The Spartans however
could not at that time be prevailed upon to give their coun¬
trymen any aid ; but they sent ambassadors to Cyrus with a
threatening message, to which he returned a contemptu¬
ous answer, and then forced the lonians to yield at discre¬
tion, five years before the taking of Babylon. Thus com¬
menced the hatred between the Greeks and Persians ; and
thus in the first two great monarchies the seeds of destruc¬
tion were sown even before these monarchies were them¬
selves established. For whilst Nebuchadnezzar occupied
himself in raising the Babylonian empire, his son was de¬
stroying what his father built up; and at the very time
when Cyrus was establishing the Persian monarchy, that
prince, by his ill-timed severity to the Greeks, rendered
that warlike people his enemies. The transactions of Afri¬
ca during this period are almost entirely unknown; though
we cannot doubt that the Carthaginians enriched them¬
selves by means of their commerce, which afterwards en¬
abled them to attain a considerable share of power,
e- Cyrus having now become master of all the East, Asia¬
tic affairs continued for some time in a state of tran¬
quillity. The Jews obtained liberty to return to their own
country, to rebuild their temple, and to re-establish their
w'orship, though from that time they must have been in
a state of dependence on the Persians. Cambyses, the
successor of Cyrus, added to his empire Egypt, which had
either not submitted to Cyrus, or had revolted soon after
his death. He intended also to have subdued the Cartha¬
ginians ; but as the Phoenicians refused to supply him with
ships to fight against their own countrymen, he was oblig¬
ed to lay aside this design.
In 517 before Christ, the Babylonians finding themselves
oppressed by their Persian masters, resolved to shake off the
yoke, and establish their independence. For this purpose,
they took care to store their city with all manner of pro¬
visions ; and when Darius Hystaspes, then king of Persia,
advanced against them, they employed a most barbarous
method to prevent an unnecessary consumption of the pro¬
visions which they had so carefully amassed. Having
collected into one place all the women, old men, and chil¬
dren, they strangled them without distinction, whether
wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or sisters; every one
being allowed to save only the wife he liked best, and a
maid servant to do the w ork of the house. But this cruel
policy did not avail them. Their city, which could not be
carried by force, was taken by treachery; after which the
king caused the walls to be reduced from two hundred to
fifty cubits in height, that their strength might no longer
give encouragement to the inhabitants to revolt. Darius
then turned his arms against the Scythians; but find-
mg that his expedition against that people proved both
tedious and unprofitable, he directed his course eastward,
and reduced all the country as far as the Indus. In the
mean time the lonians revolted; and being assisted by
the Greeks, a war commenced between the two nations,
which was not thoroughly extinguished till the destruc¬
tion of the Persian empire, in the year before Christ 330.
I he lonians, however, after a war of six years, were for
VOL. XI.
this time obliged to submit, and wrere treated with great History,
severity by the Persians. The conquest of Greece itself s—■
was then projected. But the expeditions undertaken with
that view ended most unfortunately for the Persians, and
encouraged the Greeks to make reprisals, in which they
succeeded according to their utmost wishes; and if they
had agreed amongst themselves, the overthrow of the Per¬
sian empire would not have been reserved for Alexander.
In 459 the Egyptians made an attempt to recover their
liberty, but, after a war of six years, they were reduced to
submission. In the year 413 they revolted a second time.
On this occasion they were assisted by the Sidonians, a
circumstance which drew upon the latter that terrible de¬
struction foretold by the prophets; whilst the principals
were themselves so thoroughly humbled, that they never
afterwards made any attempt to recover their liberty.
The cruelties exercised by the Persians in Egypt were
without example even in the annals of the barbarous na¬
tion by whom they were perpetrated. The familiar illus¬
tration of a bull in a china shop presents but a faint im¬
age of a fanatical savage with arms in his hands, let loose
amidst the monuments of a high civilization. The Egyp¬
tians, however, made two gallant efforts to recover their
lost independence. Despair gave them courage; and if
they had not been tainted with that degeneracy which al¬
ways follows in the train of refinement, when untempered
and unennobled by the spirit of liberty, success would
probably have crowned their efforts. But insurrections are
always easily put down in countries where the many exist
only for the few, where the people are nothing, and the only
point at issue is a question between one despot and another.
The year 403 before Christ proved remarkable for the
revolt of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes Memnon ;
a revolt in which, through his own rashness, he miscarried,
and lost his life at the battle of Cunaxa, in the province of
Babylon. Ten thousand Greek auxiliaries, who had served
in his army, made their way back to Greece, though in the
heart of a hostile country, and surrounded on all sides by
the enemy. In this retreat they were commanded by Xe¬
nophon, who has received the highest commendation for his
conduct and military skill in bringing it to a happy conclusion.
Nor can any praise exceed the merit of having success¬
fully conducted so difficult and perilous an enterprise. A
rude barbarian, if success happen to crown the first impul¬
sion of brute force, may easily urge on the rolling tide of
conquest; but a retrograde movement, like that executed
by Xenophon, requires a combination of the highest and
noblest powers of the human mind ; anxious prudence, in¬
vincible fortitude, prompt decision, inexhaustible fertility
in resources, and great knowledge of mankind, blended
with superior tactical skill and strategical science, intui¬
tive sagacity in discerning the truth amidst conflicting
probabilities, and an entire command of all those artifices
or stratagems by which the calculations of an enemy may
be deranged, whilst the end contemplated is at the same
time accomplished. Two years afterwards the invasions of
Agesilaus king of Sparta threatened the Persian empire
with total destruction; but from this danger it was re¬
lieved by his being recalled to defend his. country against
the other Grecian states.
During this time the volatile and giddy temper of the
Greeks, with their enthusiastic desire of romantic exploits,
were preparing for themselves fetters which indeed seem¬
ed to be absolutely necessary to prevent them from de¬
stroying one another. A zeal for liberty was what they
all pretended ; but upon most occasions it appeared that
this love of liberty was only a desire of dominion. No
state in Greece could bear to see another equal to itself;
and hence their perpetual contests for pre-eminence, which
served to weaken the whole body, and to render them an
easy prey to an ambitious and politic prince, capable of
3 o
474 HISTORY.
Civil taking advantage of their intestine divisions. Being all ever fails to prove the forerunner of destruction. The Ci
,^stor£-. equally impatient of restraint, they never could endure Persian ministers persuaded their sovereign to reject the His
submission to any regular government; and hence their prudent advice which wa$ given him, to distress Alexan- ^ ^
determinations were little else than the decisions of a mob, der by laying waste the country, and thus forcing him to
of which they had afterwards almost constantly reason to return for want of provisions. Nay, they even prevented
repent. Hence also their unworthy treatment of those him from engaging the enemy to advantage, by dividing
eminent men whom they ought most to have honoured; his forces; and persuaded him to put to death Charide-
of Miltiades, Aristides, Themistocles, Alcibiades, Socra- mus the Athenian, who had promised with one hundred
tes, Phocion, and others. The various transactions between thousand men, of whom one third were auxiliaries, to
the Grecian states, though they cut a considerable figure drive the Greeks out of Asia. In his Persian expedition
in their own history, make none whatever in a general therefore, Alexander met with only two checks. The one
sketch of the history of the world. We shall therefore was before Tyre, which for seven months resisted his ut-
merely observe, that in 404< before Christ, the Athenian most efforts ; and the other was from Memnon the Rhodian
power was in a manner totally broken by the taking of who had undertaken to invade Macedonia. The first of
their city by the Spartans. In 370 that of the Spartans these obstacles Alexander at last surmounted, and treat-
received a severe check from the Thebans at the battle of ed the governor and inhabitants with the utmost crueltv.
Leuctra, and eight years afterwards it was still further re- The other was scarcely felt; for Memnon died after re¬
duced by the battle of Mantinea. Epaminondas, the great ducing some of the Grecian islands, and Darius had no
enemy of the Spartans, was killed; but this proved only a other general capable of conducting the enterprise. The
more speedy means of subjugating all the states to a fo- Persian empire was totally broken by the victory gained
reign, and at that time despicable power. The Macedonians, over Darius at Arbela in 331, and next year an end was
a barbarous nation, situated to the north of the states of put to the monarchy by the murder of the king, who fell
Greece, were, two years after the death of Epaminondas, by the hand of Bessus, one of his own subjects,
reduced to the lowest ebb by the Illyrians. The king of The ambition of Alexander was not to be satisfied with
Macedonia being killed in an engagement, Philip his bro- the possession of the kingdom of Persia, nor indeed of
ther departed from Thebes, where he had studied the art any other on earth. Nothing less than the total subjec-
of war under Epaminondas, to take possession of his king- tion of the world itself seemed sufficient to him ; and hence
dom. Being a man of great prudence and policy, he quick- he was now prompted to invade every country of which
ly settled his own affairs, vanquished the Illyrians, and, he could only learn the name, whether it had belonged to
being no stranger to the weakened situation of Greece, the Persians or to other nations. In consequence of this
began almost immediately to meditate the conquest of it. disposition, he invaded and reduced Hyrcania, Bactria,
As the particulars of this enterprise are related under Sogdia, and all the vast tract of country now called Buk-
another head, it is sufficient to notice here, that by first haria; and having entered India, he reduced all the na-
attacking those whom he was sure to overcome, by cor- tions as far as the Hyphasis, one of the branches of the
rupting those whom he thought it dangerous to attack, Indus. But when he desired to proceed farther, and ex-
by pretending sometimes to assist one state and sometimes tend his conquests to the eastern extremities of Asia, his
another, and by imposing upon all as best served his turn, troops positively refused to follow him, and he was con-
he at last deprived the Greeks of all power of resistance, strained to return. In 323 before Christ this mighty con-
at least such as could prevent him from attaining his end. queror died of a fever, without having time to settle the
In 338 he caused himself to be elected general of the affairs of his vast extended empire, or even to name his
Amphictyons, or council of the Grecian states, under pre- successor.
tence of settling some disturbances which then existed in Whilst a Grecian empire thus suddenly sprung up in the
Greece; but having once obtained liberty to enter that East, the rival states of Rome and Carthage were mak-
country with an army, he soon convinced the states that ing considerable advances in the West. The Romans were
they must all submit to his will. He was opposed by the establishing their empire on the most solid foundations, to
Athenians and Thebans ; but the intestine wars of Greece which their particular situation materially contributed,
had cut off all her great men, and no general was now Being originally little better than lawless banditti, they
to be found capable of opposing him with success. were despised and hated by the neighbouring states ; and
The king of Macedonia having thus made himself mas- this soon produced wars, in which, at first from accidental
ter of the whole of Greece, projected the conquest of Asia, circumstances, and afterwards from their superior valour
To this he was encouraged by the reverses which had at- and conduct, the Romans proved almost constantly victori-
tended the Persians in their expeditions against Greece, ous. The jealousies which prevailed amongst the Italian
the successes of the Greeks in their invasions, and the me- states, and their ignorance of their true interest, prevented
morable retreat of the ten thousand under Xenophon. All themfromcombiningagainstthat aspiring nation, andcrush-
these events showed the weakness of the Persians, their ing it in its infancy ; whilst the Romans, on the other hand,
vast inferiority to the Greeks in military skill, and how being kept in a state of continual warfare, became at last
easily their empire might be overthrown by a proper union such expert soldiers, that no other state on earth was capa-
amongst the states. But whilst Philip was preparing to ble of resisting them. During the time of their kings they
enter upon his grand enterprise, he was murdered by some made a considerable figure amongst the Italian nations;
assassins. His son Alexander, however, was possessed of but after the expulsion of the kings, and the commencement
every quality necessary for the execution of so great a de- of the republic, their conquests became much more rapid
sugn; and his impetuosity of temper enabled him to carry it and extensive. In 501 before Christ they subdued the Sa-
into e ect with a rapidity unheard of either before or since, bines ; eight years afterwards the Latins; and in 399 be-
must be confessed, indeed, that the Persian empire was fore Christ the city of Veii, the strongest in Italy, was taken
now ripe or destruction, and could not in all probability after a siege of ten years. But, in the midst of their suc-
ave wit istood an enemy much less powerful than Alex- cesses, a sudden irruption of the Gauls had almost put an
^ 16 Asiatl<rs ^ave aN ages been much inferior end to their power and existence as a nation. The city
o e uropean nations in valour and military skill. They was burned to the ground in 383 before Christ, and the ca-
were now sun in luxury and effeminacy ; and, what was pital on the point of being surprised, when the Gauls, who
worse, t ey seem at this period to have been seized with were climbing up the walls in the night, were accidentally
a in a uation and distraction of councils which scarcely discovered and repulsed. In a short time Rome was rebuilt
C a
HISTORY.
475
( il with greater splendour than before ; but now there occur-
iry. red a general revolt and combination of the nations formerly
subdued. The Romans however still proved superior to
their enemies; but, even at the time of the death of Camil¬
las, which happened about 352 before Christ, their territo¬
ries scarcely extended six or seven leagues from the capital.
The republic from the beginning was agitated by those
dissensions which at last proved its ruin. The people had
been divided by Romulus into two classes, Patricians and
Plebeians, answering to our nobility and commonalty.
Between these two bodies there existed perpetual jealou¬
sies and contentions, which retarded the progress of the
Roman conquests, and revived the hopes of the nations
whom they had conquered. The tribunes of the people
were perpetually opposing the consuls and military tri¬
bunes. The senate had often recourse to a dictator in¬
trusted with absolute power, and then the valour and ex¬
perience of the Roman troops rendered them victorious;
but the recurrence of domestic seditions gave the subju¬
gated nations an opportunity of shaking off the yoke. Thus
the Romans had continued for nearly four hundred years,
running the same round of wars with the same enemies,
and reaping very little advantage from their conquests,
till at last matters were compounded by choosing one of
the consuls from amongst the plebeians; and from this
time chiefly we may date the prosperity of Rome, so
that by the time when Alexander the Great died, they
were held in considerable estimation amongst foreign na¬
tions.
The Carthaginians in the mean time continued to enrich
themselves by commerce; but being less conversant with
military affairs, they were by no means equal to the Ro¬
mans in power, though they excelled them in wealth.
During this period, however, a new state made its appear¬
ance, which may be said to have taught the Carthagini¬
ans the art of war, and, by bringing them into contact with
the Romans, proved the original source of contention
between these two powerful nations. This was the island
of Sicily. At what precise time this island was first set¬
tled, has not been ascertained. The earliest inhabitants
we read of were called Sicani, Siculi, Lcestrigones ; but of
these we know little or nothing. In the second year of
the seventeenth Olympiad, or 710 before Christ, some
Greek colonies arrived on the island, and in a short time
founded several cities, the chief of which was Syracuse.
The Syracusans at length subdued the original inhabi¬
tants, though it does not appear that the latter were ever
well affected to their government. The first considerable
prince, or, as he is called by the Greeks, tyrant of Sy¬
racuse, was Gelon, who obtained the sovereignty about
the year 483 before Christ. At what time the Cartha¬
ginians first carried their arms into Sicily is not certainly
known; but we are assured that they possessed some
part of the island as early as 505 before Christ. In the
time of the first consuls, the Romans and Carthagini¬
ans entered into a treaty chiefly in regard to matters of
navigation and commerce, by which it was stipulated that
the Romans who might touch at Sardinia, or that part of
Sicily which belonged to Carthage, should be received
there in the same manner as the Carthaginians themselves.
It hence appears that the dominion of Carthage already
extended over Sardinia and part of Sicily; but, twenty-
eight years afterwards, the Carthaginians had been totally
driven out by Gelon. This was probably the first exploit
performed by him; at least such is the conclusion de¬
duced from his speech to the Athenian and Spartan am¬
bassadors, who desired his assistance against the forces
of Xerxes king of Persia. To regain their possessions
in this island the Carthaginians made many attempts,
which occasioned long and bloody wars between them and
the Greeks. The island also proved the scene of much
slaughter and bloodshed in the wars of the Greeks with Civil
one another. Previously to the year 323 before Christ, History,
however, the Carthaginians had made themselves masters
of a considerable part of it, and from this all the power of
the Greeks failed to dislodge them. It is proper also to
observe, that after the destruction of Tyre by Alexander
the Great, almost all the commerce in the western part
of the world fell to the share of the Carthaginians. Whe¬
ther they had at this time effected any settlements in
Spain is not known. It is certain that they traded to
that country for the sake of the silver in which it abound¬
ed, as, according to most accounts, they did also to Bri¬
tain for the tin which it produced.
The beginning of the sixth period presents us with Sixth pe-
a state of the world entirely different from any thing thatriod.
preceded it. We now behold all the eastern part of the
world, from the confines of Italy to the Indus, and even
beyond it, united into one vast empire, and at the same
time ready to fall to pieces for want of a proper head; and
the western world filled with fierce and savage nations,
whom the rival republics of Carthage and Rome were
preparing to enslave as fast as they could. The first re¬
markable events took place in the Macedonian empire.
Alexander, as already observed, had not distinctly named
any successor; but he had left behind him a victorious
and invincible army, commanded by most expert officers,
all of them ambitious of supreme authority. It is not to
be supposed that peace could long be preserved in such a
situation. For a number of years, indeed, nothing was
heard of but horrid slaughters, and wickedness of every
kind, until at last the mother, wives, children, brothers,
and even sisters, of Alexander, were cut off, not one of
the family of that great conqueror being left alive. When
these disturbances had somewhat subsided, four new em¬
pires, each of them of no small extent, arose out of that
of Alexander. Cassander, the son of Antipater, received
Macedonia and Greece; Antigonus got Asia Minor; Se-
leucus had Babylon and the eastern provinces; and Pto¬
lemy Lagus obtained Egypt and the western countries of
Africa. One of these empires, however, quickly fell to
pieces. Antigonus being defeated and killed by Seleu-
cus and Lysimachus at the battle of Ipsus, in 301 be¬
fore Christ, the greater part of his dominions fell to Se-
leucus; but several provinces took the advantage of this
confusion to shake off the Macedonian yoke, and thus
were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithynia, Pergamus,
Armenia, and Cappadocia. The two most powerful and
permanent empires, however, were those of Syria, founded
by Seleucus, and of Egypt, founded by Ptolemy Lagus.
The kings of Macedonia, though they did not preserve the
same authority over the Grecian states which Alexander,
Antipater, and Cassander, had done, yet effectually pre¬
vented them from committing those outrages upon one
another for which they had formerly been so remarkable.
Indeed it is somewhat difficult to determine whether
their condition was better or worse than before they were
conquered by Philip; for, though they were now pre¬
vented from destroying one another, they were grievously
oppressed by the Macedonian tyrants.
Whilst the eastern parts of the world were thus deluged
with blood, and the successors of Alexander were pulling
to pieces the empire which he had established, the Ro¬
mans and Carthaginians proceeded in their attempts to
enslave the nations of the West. The Romans, ever en¬
gaged in war, conquered one city and state after another,
till about the year 253 before Christ, when they had made
themselves masters of almost the whole of Italy. During
this time they had met with only a single check in their
conquests, namely, the invasion of Pyrrhus, king of Epi¬
rus. That ambitious and fickle prince had projected the
conquest of Italy, which he fancied would be an easy
HISTORY.
476
Civil achievement. Accordingly, in the year 271 before Christ,
History, he entered that country, and maintained a war with the
'***~Y^ Romans for six years, till at last, being utterly defeated
by Curius Dentatus, he was obliged to return humbled
to his own country.
The Romans had no sooner made themselves masters
of Italy, than they wanted only a pretence to carry their
arms beyond it, and it was not long before this pretence
was found. Being invited into Sicily to assist the Mamer-
tines against Hiero king of Syracuse and the Carthagini¬
ans, they immediately commenced a war with the latter,
which continued with the utmost fury for twenty-three
years. The war ended greatly to the disadvantage of the
Carthaginians, chiefly owing to the bad conduct of their
generals, none of whom, Hamilcar Barcas alone excepted,
seem to have been possessed of any military skill; and the
state had suffered too many misfortunes before he entered
upon the command, for him or any other to retrieve its
fortunes at that time. The consequences of this war was
the entire loss of Sicily ; and soon afterwards the Romans
seized on the island of Sardinia.
Hamilcar perceiving that in a short time Carthage must
either conquer Rome, or Rome would conquer Carthage,
bethought himself of a method by which his country might
become equal to the haughty republic by which it was
threatened. This was by reducing all Spain, in which the
Carthaginians had already considerable possessions, and
from the mines of which they derived great advantages.
He Lad, therefore, no sooner finished the war with the
mercenaries, which succeeded that with the Romans, than
he set about the conquest of Spain. This, however, he
did not live to effect, though he had made great progress
towards its accomplishment. His son Asdrubal continued
the war with success, till at last the Romans, jealous of
his progress, persuaded him to enter into a treaty with
them, by which he engaged himself to make the river
Iberus the boundary of his conquests. This treaty was
probably never ratified by the senate of Carthage^ nor,
even if it had, would it have been regarded by Hannibal,
who succeeded Asdrubal in the command, and had sworn
eternal enmity with the Romans. The transactions of
the second Punic war are amongst the most remarkable
which the history of the world exhibits. Certain it is,
that nothing can show more clearly the slight foundations
upon which the greatest empires are built. We find the
Romans, the nation most remarkable for their military
skill, and who, for more than five hundred years, had been
constantly victorious, unable to resist the efforts of a sin¬
gle man. At the same time we observe this man, though
evidently the first general in the world, lost solely for
want of timely support. In former times, the republic of
Carthage had supplied her generals in Sicily with hun¬
dreds of thousands, though their enterprises were almost
constantly unsuccessful; but now Hannibal, the conqueror
of Italy, was obliged to abandon his design, merely for
want of twenty or thirty thousand men. That degeneracy
and infatuation which never fail to overwhelm a falling
nation, or which are rather the causes of its fall, had now
infected the counsels of Carthage ; the supplies were de¬
nied ; and the propitious moment was for ever lost. Nei¬
ther was Carthage the only infatuated nation. Hannibal,
whose prudence never forsook him either in prosperity or
adversity, had, in the height of his good fortune, concluded
an alliance with Philip, king of Macedonia. If that prince
lad sent an army to the assistance of the Carthaginians
in Italy immediately after the battle of Cannae, there can
be no doubt that the Romans would have been forced to
accept of the peace which they so haughtily refused; and
indeed this offer of peace, in the midst of so much suc¬
cess, is an instance of moderation which perhaps does
more honour to the Carthaginian general than all the mi¬
litary exploits which he had performed. Philip, however, Ci
could not be roused from his indolence, nor made to per- His,
ceive that his own ruin was connected with that of Car- ^ j
thage. The Romans having now made themselves mas¬
ters of Sicily, recalled Marcellus, with his victorious army,
to be employed against Hannibal; and the Carthaginian
armies being unsupported in Italy, which they were no
longer in a condition to conquer, were recalled into Afri¬
ca, which the Romans had already invaded. The south¬
ern nations seem to have been as blind to their own inte¬
rest as the northern. They ought to have seen that it
was necessary for them to preserve Carthage from being
destroyed; but instead of this, Masinissa, king of Numidia,
formed an alliance with the Romans, and by his means
Hannibal was overcome at the battle of Zama, which ter¬
minated the second Punic war, in the year 188 before
our era.
The event of the second Punic war determined the fate
of almost all the other nations in the world. All this
time, indeed, the empires of Egypt, Syria, and Greece,
had been accelerating their own ruin by mutual wars and
intestine divisions. The Syrian empire was now governed
by Antiochus the Great, who seems to have had little
right to such a title. His empire, though diminished by
the defection of the Parthians, was still very powerful;
and to him Hannibal applied, after he had been obliged
to leave his own country. Antiochus, however, had not
sufficient judgment to discern the necessity of following
that great man’s advice; nor could the Carthaginians be
prevailed on to contribute their assistance against the na¬
tion which was soon, without any provocation, to destroy
them. The pretence for war on the part of the Romans
was, that Antiochus refused to declare his Greek subjects
in Asia free and independent states; a requisition which
neither the Romans nor any other nation had a right to
make. The result was, that Antiochus was everywhere
defeated, and forced to conclude a peace upon very dis¬
advantageous terms.
In Europe, the course of events was nearly the same.
The states of Greece, weary of the tyranny of the Mace¬
donians, entered into a resolution to recover their liber¬
ties. For this purpose was framed the famous Achaean
League ; but as they could not agree amongst themselves,
they at last came to the imprudent determination of call¬
ing in the Romans to defend them against Philip king of
Macedonia. This produced a war, in which the Romans
were victorious. The Macedonians, however, were still
formidable ; and as the intention of the Romans to enslave
the whole world could no longer be doubted, Perseus, the
successor of Philip, renewed the war. But through his
own cowardice he lost a decisive engagement, and with
it his kingdom, which submitted to the Romans in 167
before Christ.
Macedonia being thus conquered, the next step was
utterly to exterminate the Carthaginians, whose republic,
notwithstanding the many disasters which had befallen it,
was still formidable. It is true, the Carthaginians had
given no offence; nay, they even made the most abject
submissions to the republic of Rome. But all this wras not
sufficient. War was declared a third time against that
unfortunate state; and as there was now no Hannibal to
command their armies, the city was utterly destroyed,
146 before Christ. The same year the Romans put an
end to the liberties they had pretended to grant the cities
of Greece, by the entire destruction of Corinth.
After the death of Antiochus the Great, the affairs of
Syria and Egypt proceeded from bad to wmrse. The de¬
generate princes who filled the thrones of those empires,
regarding only their own pleasures, either spent their
time in oppressing their subjects, or in attempting to de¬
prive each other of their dominions, and thus became a
W3
HISTORY.
477
(il more easy prey to the Romans. So far indeed were they
>iy- from taking any means to secure themselves against the
overgrown power of the republic, that the kings both of
Syria and Egypt sometimes applied to the Romans as
protectors. Their downfall, however, did not take place
within the period of which we now treat. The only other
transaction which makes any considerable figure in the
Syrian empire is the oppression of the Jews by Antiochus
Epiphanes. After their return from the Babylonian cap¬
tivity, they continued in subjection to the Persians till
the time of Alexander. From that epoch they were al¬
ternately subject to the kings of Egypt or Syria, as the
fortune of either happened to prevail. Egypt being re¬
duced to a low ebb by Antiochus Epiphanes, the Jews
fell under his dominion; and being severely treated by
him, imprudently showed some signs of joy on a report of
his death. This brought him against them with a power¬
ful army; and, in 170 before Christ, he took Jerusalem
by storm, committing the most horrid cruelties on the in¬
habitants, insomuch that they were obliged to hide them¬
selves in caverns and in holes of the rocks to avoid his
fury. Their religion was totally abolished, their temple
profaned, and an image of Jupiter Olympius set up on the
altar of burnt-offerings ; a profanation w hich is thought to
be the “abomination of desolation” mentioned by the pro¬
phet Daniel. This revolution, however, wras not of long
continuance. In the year 167 before Christ, Mattathias
restored the true worship in most of the cities of Judaea;
and in 168 the temple was purified, and the worship there
restored by Judas Maccabaeus. This was followed by' a
long series of wars between the Syrians and Jews, in which
the latter were almost always victorious.
Se* th The beginning of the seventh period presents us with a
per . view of the ruins of the Greek empire in the declining states
of Syria and Egypt, both of them much circumscribed in li¬
mits. The empire of Syria at first comprehended all Asia as
far as the river Indus, and beyond it; but in 312 most of
the Indian provinces were ceded by Seleucus to Sandrocot-
tus, or Androcottus, a native, who in return gave him five
hundred elephants. Of the empire of Sandrocottus we
know nothing further than that he subdued all the coun¬
tries between the Indus and the Ganges; and that from
this time the greater part of India became independent of
the Syro-Macedonian princes. In 250 before Christ, how¬
ever, the empire sustained a much greater loss by the re¬
volt of the Parthians and Bactrians from Antiochus Theus.
The former could not be subdued; and as they held in sub¬
jection the vast tract which now goes under the name of
Persia, their defection must be looked on as an irrepara¬
ble loss. Whether any part of their country was after¬
wards recovered by the kings of Egypt or Syria is not
very certain ; nor is it of much consequence, since we are
assured that in the beginning of the seventh period, or
about a century and a half before Christ, the Greek em¬
pires of Syria and Egypt were reduced by the loss of In¬
dia, Persia, Armenia, Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Perga-
mus, and other countries. The general state of the world
in 146 before Christ, therefore, was as follows: In Asia were
the empires of India, Parthia, and Syria, with the lesser
states of Armenia, Pontus, and others above mentioned;
to which must be added that of Arabia, which during the
sixth period had grown into some consequence, and had
maintained its independence from the days of Ishmael the
son of Abraham. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt
and Ethiopia; the Carthaginian territories, now subject to
the Romans; and the kingdoms of Numidia, Mauritania,
and Getulia, ready to be swallowed up by the same am¬
bitious and insatiable power, now that Carthage, which
served as a barrier, had been overthrown. To the south
lay some unknown and barbarous nations, secure, by rea¬
son of their situation and insignificance, rather than by
their strength or distance from Rome. In Europe we
find none to oppose the progress of the Roman arms ex¬
cept the Gauls, Germans, and some Spanish nations, all
of whom were brave indeed, but, through want of military
skill, incapable of contending with such masters in the art
of war as the Romans.
The Spaniards had indeed been subdued by Scipio Afri-
canus in the time of the second Punic war; but in 155 before
Christ they revolted, and, under the conduct of one Viria-
thus, who had previously been a robber, held out for a long
time against all the armies Rome could send against them.
The city of Numantia defied the whole Roman power for
six years longer, till at last the inhabitants, reduced to
extremity by famine, set fire to their houses, and perish¬
ed in the flames, or killed one another, so that not one re¬
mained to grace the triumph of the conqueror. This ca¬
lamitous consummation produced a temporary tranquilli¬
ty in Spain. About the same time Attalus, king of Per-
gamus, having left by will the Roman people his heirs, they
immediately seized on his kingdom, and reduced it to a
Roman province, under the name of Asia Proper. Thus
they continued to enlarge their dominions on every side,
without the least regard to justice, to the means they em¬
ployed, or to the miseries they brought upon the con¬
quered nations. In 122 before Christ the Balearic Islands,
now called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a, were subdued, and
the inhabitants exterminated; and soon afterwards seve¬
ral of the nations beyond the Alps were obliged to sub¬
mit.
In Africa the crimes of Jugurtha soon afforded this
ambitious republic an opportunity of conquering the king¬
doms of Numidia and Mauritania; and indeed this is al¬
most the only war in which we find the Romans engaged
where their pretensions had the least colour of justice,
though in no case whatever could a nation show more de¬
generacy than the Romans did upon this occasion. The
particulars of this war are related under other heads.
The event was the total reduction of Numidia, about the
year 105 before Christ; but Mauritania and Getulia pre¬
served their liberty for some time longex-.
In the East, the empire of Syria continued daily to de¬
cline, and thus the Jews not only had an opportunity of
recovering their liberty, but even of becoming as power¬
ful, or at least of extending their dominions as far, as in
the days of David and Solomon. This declining empire
was still further reduced by the civil dissensions between
the two brothers Antiochus Grypus and Antiochus Cyzi-
cenus, during which the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais,
and Gaza, declared themselves independent; and in other
cities tyrants started up who refused allegiance to any
foreign power. This happened about a century before the
Christian era, and seventeen years afterwards the whole
was reduced by Tigranes, king of Armenia. But he was
defeated by the Romans, who reduced Syria to the state of
a province of their empire. The kingdom of Armenia it¬
self, with those of Pontus, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, soon
shared the same fate ; Pontus, the most powerful of them
all, being subdued about 64 before Christ. About this time
the kingdom of Judaea was also reduced under the power
of the same people. This state owed the loss of its liberty
to the same cause which had ruined several others, name¬
ly, calling in the Romans as arbitrators between two con¬
tending parties. The two sons of Alexander Jannaeus,
Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, contended for the kingdom ;
and Aristobulus, being defeated by the party of Hyrcanus,
applied to the Romans. Pompey the Great, who acted
as ultimate judge in this affair, decided it against Aristo¬
bulus, but at the same time deprived Hyrcanus of all
power as a king, and even refused him permission to as¬
sume the regal title, or to extend his territory beyond the
ancient borders of Judaea. He also obliged Hyrcanus to
Civil
History.
HISTORY.
478
Civil give up all those cities in Ccelosyria and Phoenicia which
History. hacl been gained by his predecessors, and added them to
''■‘■"V''-'' the newly-acquired Roman province of Syria.
Thus the Romans became masters of the countries
of the East, from the Mediterranean Sea to the borders
of Parthia. In the West, however, the Gauls still enjoy¬
ed liberty, and the Spanish nations bore the Roman yoke
with the greatest impatience. The Gauls infested the
territories of the republic by frequent incursions; and
though several attempts had been made to subdue them,
these always proved insufficient till the time of Julius Cae¬
sar. By him, however, they were totally reduced, from
the river Rhine to the Pyrenean Mountains, and many
of their tribes or branches were almost exterminated. He
carried his arms also into Germany and the southern parts
of Britain; but in neither of these attempts did he effect
any permanent conquests. The civil wars between him
and Pompey gave him an opportunity of seizing on the
kingdom of Mauritania, and those parts of Numidia which
had been allowed to retain their liberty. The kingdom
of Egypt alone remained; but to this nothing belonged
excepting the country properly so called. Cyrenaica was
bequeathed by will to the Romans in the year 58 before
Christ; and about the same time the island of Cyprus
was seized by them, without any pretence except a desire
of possessing the treasure of the king. The kingdom of
Egypt continued for some time longer at liberty; but
this must in some measure be ascribed to the internal
dissensions of the republic, more especially to the amours
of Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Mark Antony, with the
famous Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. The battle of Ac-
tium, however, determined at one blow the fate of An¬
tony, Cleopatra, and Egypt, which last was reduced to a
Roman province about nine years before our era.
Whilst the Romans thus employed every means to re¬
duce the world to subjection, they were making one an¬
other feel the same miseries at home which they inflicted
upon other nations abroad. The first civil dissensions
took their rise at the siege of Numantia, in Spain, which,
as we have already observed, resisted the whole power of
Rome for six years. On one occasion thirty thousand
Romans fled before four thousand Numantines. Twenty
thousand were killed in the battle, and the remaining ten
thousand were so shut up that they had no means of escape.
In this extremity they were obliged to negotiate with the
enemy, and a peace was concluded upon the conditions,
first, that the Numantines should suffer the Romans to
retire unmolested; and, secondly, that Numantia should
maintain its independence, and be reckoned amongst the
allies of Rome. But the Roman senate, with unexampled
injustice and ingratitude, broke this treaty, and in return
ordered the commander of their army to "be delivered up
to the Numantines; but they refused to accept of him
unless his army was delivered along with him, and the war
was renewed, and ended as already related. The fate of
Numantia, however, was soon revenged. Tiberius Sem-
pronius Gracchus, brother-in-law of Scipio Africanus the
second, had been the chief promoter of the peace with
the Numantines already mentioned, and of consequence
had been in danger of being delivered up to them along
with the commander-in-chief. This disgrace he never
torgot or forgave ; and, in order to revenge himself, un¬
dertook the cause of the plebeians against the patricians,
by whom the former were greatly oppressed. He began
with reviving an old law, which had enacted that no Ro¬
man citizen should possess more than five hundred acres
(jugera) of land ; and he designed to distribute the excess
amongst those who had no lands, and to reimburse the rich
out of the public treasury. This law met with great op¬
position, produced many tumults, and at last ended in
the death of Gracchus and the persecution of his friends,
several hundreds of whom were put to death in the most Civil
cruel manner, without any form of law. Histop
But the disturbances did not cease with the death of
Gracchus. New contests ensued on account of the Sem-
pronian law, and particularly giving to the Italian allies
the privilege of Roman citizens, which not only produced
great commotions in the city, but occasioned a general
revolt of the states of Italy against the republic of Rome.
This rebellion was not quelled without great difficulty;
and in the mean time the city was deluged with blood by
the contending factions of Sylla and Marius, the former
of whom sided with the patricians, and the latter with the
plebeians. These disturbances ended in the perpetual dic¬
tatorship of Sylla, about 80 years before Christ.
From this time we may date the loss of Roman liberty;
for though Sylla resigned his dictatorship two years after¬
wards, the succeeding contests between Caesar and Pom¬
pey proved equally fatal to the republic. These contests
were decided by the battle of Pharsalia, 43 before Christ,
which rendered Caesar in effect master of the empire.
Without loss of time he then passed into Africa, totally
defeated the republican army in that continent, reduced
the country of Mauritania to a Roman province, and com¬
pleted the Roman conquests in those parts. His victory
over the sons of Pompey at Munda, 40 before Christ,
secured him from any further apprehensions of a rival.
Being therefore sole master of the Roman empire, and
having all the power in his hands, he projected great
schemes, tending, according to some, not less to the hap¬
piness than to the glory of his country; but he was as¬
sassinated in the senate-house, in the fifty-sixth year of
his age, and 39 before Christ.
Without investigating the political justice of this action,
or the motives of the perpetrators, it is impossible not to
regret the death of this great man, when we contemplate
the designs which he is said to have formed. Nor is it
possible to justify even the most virtuous of the conspira¬
tors, when we consider the obligations under which they
lay to him they slew; and as to the measure itself, even in
the view of expediency, it seems to be generally condemn¬
ed. But, from the transactions which had long preceded,
as well as those which immediately followed, the murder of
Caesar, it is evident that Rome was incapable of preserving
its libex-ty, and that the people had become unfit for being
free. The efforts of Brutus and Cassius were therefore un¬
successful, and ended in their own destruction, as well as
in that of great numbers of their followers, at the battle of
Philippi. The defeat of the republicans was followed by
numberless disturbances, proscriptions, and murders, till at
last Octavianus, having cut off all who had the courage to
oppose him, and finally obtained the superiority over his
rivals by the victory at Actium, put an end to the republic
in the year 27 before Christ.
The destruction of the Roman commonwealth proved
advantageous to the few nations of the world who still re¬
tained their liberty. That outrageous desire of conquest
which had so long marked the Roman character in a great
measure ceased; there was now another way of satisfying
the desires of ambitious men, namely, by courting the fa¬
vour of the emperor. After the final reduction of the Spa¬
niards, therefore, and the conquests of the countries of
Maesia, Pannonia, and some others adjacent to the Roman
territories, and which in a manner seemed naturally to be¬
long to them, the empire enjoyed for some time a profound
peace.
The only remarkable transactions which took place dur¬
ing the remainder of the period of which we treat, were the
conquest of Britain by Claudius and Agricola, and the de¬
struction of Jerusalem by Vespasian and Titus. The war
with the Jews began a. d. 67, and was occasioned by their
obstinately claiming the city of Caesarea, which the Ro-
w 3
(
%
riod
HISTORY.
il mans had added to the province of Syria. It ended with
"7- the destruction of their city and nation, in 73; and since
that time they have never been able to assemble as a dis¬
tinct people. The southern parts of Britain were totally
subdued by Agricola about ten years afterwards.
In the 98th year of the Christian era, Trajan was creat¬
ed emperor of Rome ; and being a man of great valour and
experience in war, he carried the Roman conquests to their
utmost extent. Having conquered the Dacians, a Ger¬
man nation beyond the Danube, who had proved extreme¬
ly troublesome, he turned his arms eastward ; reduced all
Mesopotamia, Chaldaea, and Assyria; and having taken
Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian empire, appointed a
king, which he thought would be a proper method of keep¬
ing the warlike population in subjection. After this he
proposed to return to Italy, but died by the way ; and with
his reign the seventh general period above mentioned con¬
cluded.
pe- The beginning of the eighth period presents us with a
view of one vast empire, in which almost all the nations of
the world as then known were swallowed up. This empire
comprehended the best part of Britain, all Spain, France,
the Netherlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Barbary,
Bildulgerid, Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, and Per¬
sia. Ihe state of India was at this time nearly unknown.
The Chinese lived in a remote part of the world, unheard
of and unmolested by the western nations who struggled
for the empire of the world. The northern parts of Eu¬
rope and Asia were filled with barbarous nations, already
formidable to the Romans, and who were destined soon to
become more so. The vast empire of Rome, however, had
no sooner attained its utmost degree of power, than, like
those which had preceded it, it began to decline. The
provinces of Babylonia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria almost
instantly revolted, and were abandoned by Hadrian, the
successor of Trajan in the empire. The Parthians hav¬
ing recovered their liberty, proved formidable enemies,
and the barbarians of the northern parts of Europe conti¬
nued to increase in strength ; whilst the Romans, weakened
by intestine divisions, became daily less able to resist them.
At different times, however, some warlike emperors arose,
who put a stop to the incursions of these barbarians ; and,
about the year 215, the Parthian empire was totally over¬
thrown by the Persians, who had long been subject to it.
But this revolution proved of little advantage to the Romans.
The Persians were enemies still more troublesome than the
Parthians had been ; and though often defeated, they still
continued to infest the empire on the east, as the barba¬
rous nations of Europe did on the north. In the year 260,
the defeat and captivity of the Emperor Valerian by the
Persians, with the disturbances which followed, threaten¬
ed the empire with utter destruction. Thirty tyrants seiz¬
ed the government at once, and the barbarians pouring in
on all sides in prodigious numbers, ravaged almost all the
provinces of the empire. By the vigorous conduct of Clau¬
dius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus, the empire was
restored to its former lustre; but as the barbarians were
only repulsed, and never thoroughly subdued, this proved
merely a temporary relief; and, what was worse, the Roman
soldiers, growing impatient of all restraint, commonly mur¬
dered those emperors who attempted to revive the ancient
military discipline, which alone could insure victory. Un¬
der Diocletian the disorders were so great, that, though the
government was held by two persons, they found them¬
selves unable to bear the weight of it, and therefore assum¬
ed two other partners in the empire. Thus was the Ro¬
man empire divided into four parts; a division which is
considered by all historians to have been productive of the
greatest evils. For as each of these four sovereigns had
as many officers, both civil and military, and the same num¬
ber of forces which had been maintained by the state when
479
governed only by one emperor, the people were unable to Civil
pay the sums necessary for supporting them. Hence the History,
taxes and imposts were increased beyond measure, the in-
habitants in several provinces were reduced to beggary,
and the land was left untilled for want of labourers. An
end was put to these evils when the empire was again unit¬
ed under Constantine the Great; but in 330 a mortal blow
was given to it by removing the imperial seat to Byzantium,
now Constantinople, and making it co-ordinate with Rome.
The introduction and establishment of Christianity, already
corrupted with the grossest superstitions, proved also a
grievous detriment to the empire. Instead of that steady
and obstinate valour in which the Romans had so long
been accustomed to put their trust, they now imagined
themselves secured by signs of the Cross, and other exter¬
nal symbols of the Christian religion, which they used as a
kind of magical incantations ; and hence proceeded in some
measure the great revolution which took place in the next
period.
The ninth general period includes the decline and fail Ninth pe-
of the western empire. That empire, which formerly oc- riod.
cupied almost the whole world, was now weakened by di¬
vision and surrounded by enemies. On the east the Per¬
sians, on the north the Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, and
other barbarous nations, watched all occasions to break
into it; and though they miscarried in their attempts, this
was owing more to their own barbarity than to the strength
of their enemies. The devastations committed by these
barbarians, when they made their incursions, are incredi¬
ble in themselves, and the relation is shocking to human na¬
ture. Some authors seem much inclined to favour them,
and even to insinuate that barbarity and ignorant ferocity
w-ere their chief, if not their only defects. But from their
history it appears, that not only barbarity and the most shock¬
ing cruelty, but the highest degree of avarice, nerfidy, and
disregard to the most solemn promises, were to oe number¬
ed amongst their vices. It was ever a sufficient reason for
them to make an attack, that they thought their enemies
could not resist them. Their only reason for making peace,
or for keeping it when made, was because their enemies*
were too strong; and if they gained a victory, this was, in
their estimation, sufficient to justify the most horrid mas¬
sacres, rapes, and all manner of crimes. The Romans, de¬
generate as they had become, were yet esteemed much
better than these savages ; and therefore we find that not
a single province of the empire would submit to the bar¬
barians whilst the Romans could possibly defend it.
Some of the Roman emperors indeed withstood this in¬
undation of savages ; but as the latter grew daily more nu¬
merous, and the Romans continued to weaken themselves
by their intestine divisions, they were at last obliged to
take large bodies of barbarians into their pay, and to teach
them military discipline, in order to drive away their coun¬
trymen, or others wffio had invaded the empire. This po¬
licy at last proved its total destruction. In 476, the barba¬
rians who had served in the Roman armies, and were digni¬
fied with the title of “ allies,” demanded the third part of the
lands of Italy as the reward of their services ; but meeting
with a refusal, they revolted, and made themselves masters
of the whole country, and of Rome itself, which from that
time ceased to be even nominally the head of an empire.
This period exhibits a most unfavourable view of the
western parts of the world. The Romans, from the height
of grandeur, had sunk to the lowest slavery, and in fact
were almost exterminated ; the provinces which they for¬
merly governed were inhabited by human beings scarce¬
ly a degree above the brutes ; every art, every science, was
lost; and the savage conquerors were even in danger of
starving for want of a sufficient knowledge of agriculture,
having now no longer the means of supplying themselves
by plunder and robbery. Britain had long been abandon-
H I $ T O R Y.
480
Civil ed to the mercy of the Scots and the Piets ; and in 450
History, the inhabitants had called to their assistance the Saxons,
whom they soon found worse enemies than those against
whom they had implored their aid. Spain was held by the
Goths and Suevians; Africa, that is, Barbary and Bildul-
gerid, was occupied by the Vandals; the Burgundians,
Goths, Franks, and Alans, had erected several small states
in Gaul; and Italy was subjected to the Heruli under
Odoacer, who had assumed the title of king of Italy. In
the East, indeed, matters wore an aspect somewhat more
favourable. The Roman empire continued to live in that
of Constantinople, which was still extensive. It compre¬
hended all Asia Minor and Syria, as far as Persia ; in Afri¬
ca, the kingdom of Egypt; and in Europe the territory of
Greece. The Persians were powerful, and rivalled the
emperors of Constantinople ; and beyond them lay the In¬
dians, Chinese, and other nations, who, unheard of by the
inhabitants of the more western parts, enjoyed unmolested
peace and liberty.
The Constantinopolitan empire continued to decline by
reason of the continual wars in which it was engaged with
the Persians, Bulgarians, and other barbarous nations;
and to this also superstition and relaxation of military dis¬
cipline largely contributed. The Persian empire likewise
declined from similar causes, together with the intestine
broils, from which it was seldom free. The history of the
eastern part of the world during this period, therefore,
consists only of the wars between the two empires, which
were productive of no other consequence than that of
weakening both, and rendering them a more easy prey
to those enemies who were ere long to erect an empire
almost as extensive as that of the Greeks or Romans.
Amongst the western nations, revolutions succeeded
one another with unprecedented rapidity. The Heruli
under Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under Theo-
doric. TlYe Goths again were expelled by the Romans;
and, whilst the two parties were contending, both were
attacked by the Franks, who carried off an immense booty.
The Romans were in their turn expelled by the Goths. The
Franks again invaded Italy, and made themselves masters
of the province of Venetia; but at last the superior for¬
tune of the emperor of Constantinople prevailed, and the
Goths were finally subdued in 553. Narses, the con¬
queror of the Goths, governed Italy as a province of the
eastern empire till the year 568, when Longinus his suc¬
cessor made considerable alterations. The Italian pro¬
vinces had, ever since the time of Constantine the Great,
been governed by consulares, correctores, and presides, no
alteration having been made either by the Roman empe¬
rors, or even by the Gothic kings. But Longinus, being in¬
vested with absolute power by Justinian, suppressed these
magistrates, and, instead of them, placed in each city of
note a governor, whom he distinguished with the title of
duke. The city of Rome was not more honoured than
any other; for Longinus, having abolished the very name
of senate and consuls, appointed a duke of Rome as well
as of other cities. For himself he reserved the title of
exarch; and as he resided at Ravenna, his government was
styled the exarchate of Ravenna. But whilst he was es¬
tablishing this new empire, the greater part of Italy was
conquered by the Lombards.
In France a considerable revolution also took place. In
487, Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, pos¬
sessed himself of all the countries situated between the
Rhine and the Loire ; and, by force or treachery, he con¬
quered all the petty kingdoms which had been ’erected in
that country. His dominions had been divided, united,
and divided again ; and were on the point of being again
united, when the followers of Mahommed began to make
a %urein the world, and to threaten all the countries
of the West.
In Spain, the Visigoths had erected a kingdom ten years Ciij
before the conquest of Rome by the Heruli. This king- Histl
dom they had extended to the eastward, about the same ^'
time that Clovis was extending his conquests to the west¬
ward ; so that the two kingdoms were separated only by
the Loire. The consequence of this approximation was an
immediate war. But Clovis proved victorious, and, having
subdued the greater part of the country of the Visigoths,
put a final stop to their conquests on that side.
Another kingdom had been founded in the western part
of Spain by the Suevi, a considerable time before the Ro¬
mans were finally expelled from that country. But in 409
this kingdom was entirely subverted by Theodoric king of
the Goths ; and the Suevi were so pent up in a small dis¬
trict of Lusitania and Galicia, that it seemed impossible for
them ever to recover the ground they had lost. During
the above-mentioned period, however, whilst the attention
of the Goths was turned another way, they found means
again to erect themselves into an independent state, and
to become masters of considerably extended territories.
But this success proved of short duration. In 584 the
Goths attacked them, and having totally destroyed their
power, became masters of all Spain, excepting a small
part which still owned subjection to the emperors of Con¬
stantinople. Of this part, however, the Goths also pos¬
sessed themselves in the year 623, which concludes the
ninth general period.
Africa, properly so called, had changed masters three
times during this period. The Vandals had expelled the
Romans, and erected an independent kingdom, which was
at length overturned by the emperors of Constantinople;
and from them the greater part of it was taken by the
Goths in the year 620.
At the commencement of the tenth general period, Tentli]
which begins with the flight of Mahommed in the vearriod.
622, whence his followers date their era called the i/e-
jira, we see every thing prepared for the great revolution
which was now about to take place. The Roman em¬
pire in the west was annihilated ; the Persian empire and
that of Constantinople were weakened by mutual wars
and intestine divisions ; the Indians and other eastern na¬
tions, unaccustomed to war, were ready to fall a prey to
the first invader; and the southern parts of Europe were
in a distracted and barbarous state ; whilst the inhabitants
of Arabia, from their earliest origin accustomed to war and
plunder, and now united by the most fanatical superstition
and enthusiastic desire of conquest, were, like a pent-up
flood, ready to overwhelm the rest of the world. The north¬
ern nations of Europe and Asia, which became so formi¬
dable in after times, were at present unknown to their
southern neighbours; and in no quarter of the globe was
there any power capable of opposing the conquests of the
Arabs. W ith amazing celerity, therefore, they overran
all Syria, Palestine, Persia, Bukharia, and India, extending
their conquests farther to the eastward than Alexander,
and carrying all before them. In the west, their empire
extended over Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, together with
the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, and the
islands of the Archipelago; nor were the coasts of Italy
itself free from their incursions, which are even said to
have reached as far as Iceland. But at last this great em¬
pire began, like others, to decline. Its ruin was sudden,
and mainly owing to its internal divisions. Mahommed
had not taken care to establish the apostleship in his
family, or to give any particular directions about a suc¬
cessor. The consequence of this was, that the caliphate,
or succession to the Prophet, was seized by many usurp¬
ers in different parts of the empire; whilst the true ca¬
liphs, who resided at Bagdad, gradually lost all power, and
were regarded only as a kind of high priests. Of these
divisions the Turks took advantage to establish their au-
H I S T O R Y.
481
il thority in many provinces of the Mahommedan empire ;
H but as they embraced the same religion with the Arabs,
^ ^ and were filled with the same enthusiastic desire of con¬
quest, it is of little consequence to distinguish between
them, for it signified nothing to the world whether the
Turks or Saracens were the conquerors, since both were
equally cruel, barbarous, ignorant, and superstitious.
Whilst the barbarians of the East were thus grasping at
the empire of the world, great disturbances happened
amongst the hardly less barbarous nations of the West.
Superstition seems to have been the ruling principle in
both cases. The Saracens and Turks conquered for the
glory of God, or of his prophet Mahommed and his suc¬
cessors ; the western nations professed an equal regard
for the divine glory, which, however, was only to be per¬
ceived in the respect they paid to the pope and the clergy.
Ever since the establishment of Christianity by Constantine,
the bishops of Rome had been gradually extending their
power, and attempting not only to render themselves in¬
dependent, but even to assume an authority over the em¬
perors themselves. The destruction of the empire was so
far from weakening their power, that it afforded them op¬
portunities of greatly extending it, and becoming judges
of the sovereigns of Italy themselves, whose barbarity and
ignorance prompted them to submit to their decisions.
During all this time, however, they themselves had been
in subjection to the emperors of Constantinople ; but upon
the decline of that empire, they found means to get them¬
selves exempted from this subjection. The principal au¬
thority in the city of Rome was then engrossed by the
bishop, though of right it belonged to the duke appointed
by the exarch of Ravenna. But though they had now
little to fear from the eastern emperors, they were in great
danger from the ambition of the Lombards, who aimed at
the conquest of all Italy. This aspiring people the bishops
of Rome determined to check; and therefore, in 726, when
Luitprand king of the Lombards had taken Ravenna and
. expelled the exarch, the pope undertook to restore the
latter. For this purpose he applied to the Venetians,
who are now first mentioned in history as a state of any
consequence; and by their means the exarch was restored.
Some time before this a quarrel had taken place between
the pope, Gregory II., and Leo, emperor of the East, about
the worship of images. Leo, who in the midst of so much
barbarism had still preserved some share of common sense
and reason, reprobated in the strongest terms the worship
of images, and commanded them to be destroyed through¬
out his dominions. But the pope, whose cause was fa¬
voured by the most absurd superstitions, and by these
alone, refused to obey the emperor’s commands. The ex¬
arch of Ravenna, as a subject of the emperor, was ordered
to force the pope to yield a compliance, and even to seize
or assassinate him in the event of a refusal. This excited
the pious zeal of Luitprand to assist the pope, whom he
had formerly designed to subdue. The exarch was first
excommunicated, and then torn in pieces by the enraged
multitude ; the duke of Naples shared the same fate ; a
vast number of the Iconoclasts, or Image-breakers, as they
were called, were slaughtered without mercy; and, to com¬
plete all, the subjects of the exarchate, at the instigation
of the pope, renounced their allegiance to the emperor.
Leo was no sooner informed of this revolt than he order¬
ed a pow erful army to be raised, in order to reduce the re¬
bels, and to tgke vengeance on the pope. Alarmed at these
warlike preparations, Gregory looked round for some power
upon which he might depend for protection. The Lombards
were possessed of sufficient force, but they were too near
and too dangerous neighbours to be trusted; the Venetians,
though zealous Catholics, w^ere as yet unable to withstand
the force of the empire ; and Spain was overrun by the Sa¬
racens. The French seemed, therefore, the only people to
VOL. xr.
whom it was advisable to apply for aid, as they were able
to oppose the emperor, and were likewise enemies to his
edict. Charles Martel, who at that time governed France
as mayor of the palace, was therefore applied to; but before
a treaty could be concluded, all the parties concerned were
removed by death. Constantine Copronymus, who suc¬
ceeded Leo at Constantinople, not only persisted in the
opposition to image-worship begun by his predecessor, but
also prohibited the invocation of saints. Zachary, who
succeeded Gregory III. in the pontificate, proved as zea¬
lous an adversary as his predecessor. Pepin, who succeeded
Charles Martel in the sovereignty of France, proved as
powerful a friend to the pope as his father had been. The
people of Rome had nothing to fear from Constantinople,
and therefore drove out all the emperor’s officers. The
Lombards, awed by the power of France, for some time
allowed the pope to govern in peace the dominions of the
exarchate ; but in 752, Astolphus king of Lombardy not
only reduced the greater part of the pope’s territories, but
threatened the city of Rome itself. Upon this an applica¬
tion was made to Pepin, who obliged Astolphus to restore
the places he had taken, and gave them to the pope, or, as
he said, to St Peter. The Greek emperor, to whom they
of right belonged, remonstrated to no purpose. The pope
from that time became possessed of considerable territories
in Italy, which, from the manner of their donation, go under
the name of the Patrimony of St Peter. It was not, how¬
ever, before the year 774 that the pope was fully secured
in these new’ dominions. This was accomplished when the
kingdom of the Lombards was totally destroyed by Charle¬
magne, who was then crowned king of Italy. Soon after
this, that monarch made himself master of all the Low
Countries, Germany, and part of Hungary; and in the
year 800 he was solemnly crowned by the pope, Emperor
of the West.
Thus the world was once more divided into three great
empires. That of the Arabs or Saracens extended from
the river Ganges to Spain, comprehending almost all those
parts of Asia and Africa which were known to Europeans,
except the kingdoms of China and Japan. The eastern
Roman empire w as reduced to Greece, Asia Minor, and
the provinces adjoining to Italy. The empire of the West,
under Charlemagne, comprehended France, Germany,
and the greater part of Italy. The Saxons, however, as
yet possessed Britain unmolested by external enemies,
though the seven kingdoms erected by them were en¬
gaged in perpetual contests. The Venetians also enjoy¬
ed a nominal independence, though their situation ren¬
dered them dependent upon the. great powers which sur¬
rounded them. But of all the European potentates, the
popes certainly exercised the greatest authority ; for even
Charlemagne himself condescended to accept the crown
from their hands, and his successors made them the arbi¬
trators of their differences.
Matters, however, did not long continue in this state.
The empire of Charlemagne, upon the death of his son
Louis, was divided amongst his three children. Endless
disputes and wars ensued, till at last the sovereign power
was seized by Hugh Capet in 987. The Saxon heptarchy
was dissolved in 827, and the whole of England reduced
under one head. The Danes and Normans now began to
make depredations, and to infest the neighbouring states.
The former conquered the English Saxons, and seized
the government, but were in their turn expelled by the
Normans in 1066. In Germany and Italy great disturb¬
ances arose out of the disputes between the popes and
the emperors ; and, if to all this we add the internal con¬
tests which sprung from the ambition of the powerful
barons of every kingdom, some idea may be formed of
these calamitous times. All Europe, nay, all the world,
was one great field of battle ; for the empire of the Ma-
3 p
Civil
History.
482
HISTORY.
Eleventh
period.
Civil hommedans was not in a more settled state than that of
Hritory.^, Europeans. Caliphs, sultans, emirs, and others, waged
continual war in every quarter; new sovereignties every
day sprung up, and were as quickly destroyed. In short,
through the ignorance and barbarity with which the world
was then overspread, it seemed in a manner impossible that
the human race could long continue to exist; when hap¬
pily the crusades, by directing the attention of the Euro¬
peans to a foreign object, forced them to suspend their
domestic feuds.
The Crusades originated in the superstition of the two
grand parties into which the world was at that time di¬
vided, namely, the Christians and Mahommedans. Both
looked upon the small territory of Palestine, which they
denominated the Holy Land, as an invaluable acquisition,
for which no sum of money could be any equivalent;
and both took the most unjustifiable methods to accom¬
plish their objects. The superstition of Omar, the second
caliph, had prompted him to invade this country, part of
the territories of the Greek emperor, who had done him no
injury; and now, when it had been so long under the subjec¬
tion of the Mahommedans, a similar superstition prompt¬
ed the pope to send an army for the recovery of Palestine.
The crusaders accordingly poured forth in multitudes,
like those with which the kings of Persia formerly invad¬
ed Greece; and their fate was in some respects similar.
At first, indeed, their impetuous valour carried every thino-
before them, and they recovered all Palestine, Phoenicia^
and part of Syria, from the infidels ; but their want of skill
soon lost what their valour had obtained, and very few of
the vast multitudes which had left Europe ever revisited
their native lands. A second, a third, and other crusades,
were preached, and attended with like success in both re¬
spects. Vast numbers took the cross, and repaired to the
Holy Land, which they polluted with the most abominable
massacres and treacheries, and from which very few of
them ever returned. In the third crusade embarked
Richard I. of England, who seems to have been the best
general that ever went into the East; but even his valour
and skill were not sufficient to repair the faults of his
companions, and he was obliged to return after having
entirely defeated his antagonists, and been within sight
of Jerusalem. See the article Crusades.
But whilst the Christians and Muhommedans were thus
surreptitiously contending for a small territory in the
western parts of Asia, the nations in the more easterly
parts were threatened with total extermination. Genghiz
Khan, the greatest as well as the most bloody conqueror
that ever existed, now made his appearance. The rapi¬
dity of his conquests seemed to emulate those of Alex¬
ander the Great, and the cruelties which he committed
were altogether unparalleled. It is worth observing that
Genghiz Khan and all his followers were neither Chris¬
tians nor Mahommedans, but strict deists. For a lono-
time even the sovereign had not heard of a temple, nor
o any particular place on earth appropriated by the Deity
to himself, and treated the notion with ridicule when it
was first mentioned to him.
The Moguls, over whom Genghiz Khan assumed the
sovereignty, were a people of Eastern Tartary, divided into
a great number of petty governments, as they are at this
day, but who owned subjection to one sovereign, whom
they called Fa?# Khan, or the Great Khan. Temujin,
afterwards Genghiz Khan, was one of these petty princes ;
but being unjustly deprived of the greater part of his in-
hen ance at the age of thirteen, he could not recover
it till he arrived at that of forty. This corresnonds
with the year 1201, when he totally reduced the rebels,
rh?P’fc ^abPTmen °-f hlS lenitJ’ caused seventy of their
chiefs to be thrown into as many caldrons of boiling wa¬
ter. In 1202 he defeated and killed Vang Khan himself,
known to the Europeans by the name of Prester John of civ
Asia ; and possessing himself of his vast dominions, be- Hist0
came thenceforth altogether irresistible. In 1206, hav-
ing still continued to enlarge his dominions, he was de¬
clared khan of the Moguls and Tartars, and took upon
him the title of Genghiz Khan, or The Great Khan of
Khans. This was followed by the reduction of the king¬
dom of Hya in China, Tangut, Kitay, Turkestan, Karazm
(the kingdom of Gazna, founded by Mahmud Gazni),
Great Bukharia, Persia, and part of India; all of which vast
regions were reduced in twenty-six years. The devasta¬
tions and slaughters with which these conquests were ac¬
complished are unparalleled, no fewer than 14,470,000 per¬
sons being computed to have been massacred by Genghiz
Khan during the last twenty-two years of his reign. In
the beginning of 1227 he died, thereby freeing the world
from a most bloody tyrant. His successors completed
the conquest of China and Korea, but were foiled in
their attempts on Cochin-China, Tong-king, and Japan.
On the western side the Tartar dominions were not much
enlarged till the time of Hulaku, who conquered Media,
Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Syria, Georgia, Arme¬
nia, and almost all Asia Minor; putting an end to the
empire of the Saracens by the taking of Bagdad in 1258.
The empire of Genghiz Khan shared the fate of all others.
Being far too extensive to be governed by one head, it
split into a multitude of small kingdoms, such as had exist¬
ed before his time. All the princes of these, however,
owned allegiance to the family of Genghiz Khan till the
time of Timur Beg, or Tamerlane. The Turks, in the
mean time, urged forward by the inundation of Tartars,
who poured in from the East, were forced upon the re¬
mains of the Greek empire; and, at the time of Tamer¬
lane above mentioned, they had almost confined this once
mighty empire within the walls of Constantinople.
In the year 1335 the family of Genghiz Khan having
become extinct in Persia, a long civil war ensued, during
which Timur Beg, one of the petty princes among whom
the Tartar dominions were divided, found means to ag¬
grandise himself in a manner similar to that in which
Genghiz Khan had done about a hundred and fifty
years before. Genghiz Khan, indeed, was the model
whom he proposed to imitate; but it must be allowed that
Timur was more merciful, if indeed the word can be ap¬
plied to such inhuman tyrants. The plan on which Gen¬
ghiz Khan had conducted his expeditions was that of total
extermination. For some time he utterly extirpated the
inhabitants of those places which he conquered, design¬
ing to people them anew with his Moguls; and, in conse¬
quence of this resolution, he employed his army in be¬
heading a hundred thousand prisoners at once. Timur’s
cruelty, on the other hand, seldom went farther than the
pounding of three or four thousand people in large mor¬
tars, or building them amongst bricks and mortar into a
wall. We must observe, however, that Timur was not a
deist, but a Mahommedan, and conquered expressly for
the purpose of spreading the Mahommedan religion; for
the Moguls had now adopted all the superstitions and
absurdities of Islamism. Thus the eastern part of the
world was threatened anew with the most dreadful devas¬
tations, whilst the western nations were exhausting them¬
selves in fruitless attempts to recover the Holy Land.
The Turks were the only people who seem at this period
to have been gathering strength, and who, by their perpe¬
tual encroachments, threatened to swallow up the west¬
ern nations, as the Tartars had done those of the East.
In 1362 Timur invaded Bukharia, which he reduced in
five years, and proceeded in his conquests, though not
with the same celerity as Genghiz Khan, till the year
1387, when he had subdued all Persia, Armenia, Georgia,
Karazm, and the greater part of Tartary. After this he
HISTORY.
vil advanced westward, subduing all the countries as far as
l oU- the Euphrates, made himself master of Bagdad, and even
^ ^ entered Russia, where he pillaged the city of Moscow.
He then turned his arms to the East, and totally subdued
India. In 1393 he invaded and reduced Syria; and hav¬
ing turned bis arms against the Turks, he forced their
sultan Bajazet to raise the siege of Constantinople. This
brought on an engagement, in which Bajazet was entire¬
ly defeated and taken prisoner ; an event which so broke
the power of the Turks, that they were not for some time
able to recover themselves. At last this great conqueror
died in the year 1405, whilst on his way to conquer China,
as Genghiz Khan had done before him.
The death of Timur was followed almost immediately
by the dissolution of his empire, and most of the nations
which he had conquered recovered their liberty. The
Turks had now no further obstacle to their conquest of
Constantinople. The western nations having exhausted
themselves in the Holy Wars, as they were called, had
now lost that insatiable thirst of conquest which so long
possessed the minds of men. They had already made
considerable advances in civilization, and begun to study
the arts of peace. Gunpowder was invented, and its ap¬
plication to the purposes of war already known; and,
although no invention threatened to be more destructive,
perhaps none has ever proved more beneficial to the hu¬
man race. By the use of fire-arms, nations are placed
more on a level than they formerly were ; and war is re¬
duced to a regular system, which must be studied with
as much care as any other science. Conquests are not
now to be made with the same ease as formerly; the de¬
fensive force of states has been increased ; and hence lat¬
terly the world has been much more peaceable and tran¬
quil than in former ages. In 1453 the conquest of Con¬
stantinople by the Turks fixed that wandering people to
one place ; and though they long possessed extensive
dominions in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, an effectual
stop has long been put to their further progress, and their
power is now rapidly declining.
About this time, also, learning began to revive in Eu¬
rope, where it had long been lost; and the invention of
printing, which happened about the same time, rendered
it in a manner impossible for barbarism ever again to re¬
cover its ancient empire. All the nations of the world,
indeed, seem now to have laid aside much of their former
ferocity; and, although wars have been by no means
uncommon, these have not been carried on with such
circumstances of atrocity and cruelty as before. In¬
stead of attempting to enrich themselves by the spoils of
their neighbours, mankind have in general applied them¬
selves to commerce, the only true and durable source of
riches. This soon produced improvements in navigation,
which again led to the discovery of many regions former¬
ly unknown. At the same time, the European powers,
being at last thoroughly sensible that extensive conquests
could never be permanent, applied themselves rather to
provide for the security of the dominions which they al¬
ready possessed, than to attempt the conquest of one an¬
other ; and this produced the policy to which so much at¬
tention was subsequently paid, namely, that of preserving
the balance of power in Europe, or preventing any one
nation from acquiring sufficient strength to overpower
another.
In the end of the fifteenth century the vast continent
of America was discovered ; and, almost at the same time,
Vasco de Gama opened the passage to the East Indies by
the Cape of Good Hope. The discovery of these new
regions gave a new turn to the ambition of the Euro¬
peans. To enrich themselves by the gold and silver pro¬
duced in these countries, or by traffic with the natives,
flow became the object of the more adventurous and en-
483
terprising. The Portuguese had the advantage of being Civil
the first discoverers of the countries in the eastern, and History,
the Spaniards in the western hemisphere. Nor did the
former neglect so favourable an opportunity of enriching
themselves by commerce. Many settlements were form¬
ed by them in the East India islands, and on the conti¬
nent ; but their avarice and perfidious behaviour towards
the natives proved at last the cause of their total expul¬
sion. The Spaniards enriched themselves by the vast
quantities of the precious metals imported from America,
but which were only obtained by the most horrid mas¬
sacres committed on the natives. The possessions of the
Spaniards and Portuguese soon excited other European
nations to make attempts to share with them in their trea¬
sures, by planting colonies in different parts of America,
and effecting settlements in the East Indies ; and thus
the rage of war was in some measure transferred from
Europe to these distant regions, whilst, after various con¬
tests, the British at last obtained a great superiority both
in America and the East Indies.
The revolutions which took place in Europe during
this period were, some of them, productive of important
results. The total expulsion of the Moors and Saracens
from Spain followed the capture of Granada in 1491. The
fall of their capital terminated the long struggle which
they had maintained to preserve a footing in the country
to which they were so much attached ; and the barbarous
act which consummated their overthrow (an act highly
characteristic of the age, though equally at variance with
sound policy and common humanity) recoiled on the vic¬
torious perpetrators, by annihilating art, destroying indus¬
try, and extinguishing the light of science in the Penin¬
sula. Spain felt severely the shock occasioned by the ex¬
pulsion of this people, amongst whom knowledge and re¬
finement had made considerable advances; but, on the
other hand, the union of Aragon and Castille by the mar¬
riage of Ferdinand and Isabella formed the first step to¬
wards the consolidation under one monarchy, of the differ¬
ent petty kingdoms into which the country was divided,
and laid the foundation of that power and ascendency
which, in less than a century, Spain acquired amongst the
nations of Europe. Her advancement was rapid, and, in
the brilliant reign of Charles V., she reached the zenith
of her glory. But at this culminating point of splendour
and power she was not destined to remain, even for a
short period, stationary; for the sun of her glory, having
passed his meridian, began immediately to decline in the
quarter opposite to that in which he had arisen. Philip,
the son and successor of the emperor, unable to wield the
power which had been committed to his hands, misgave
in all his enterprises ; and whilst the spirit of the nation
was humbled by his reverses, its resources were exhaust¬
ed by the obstinate but ill-directed efforts made to repair
them. The blow, however, which fell most heavily on the
power of Spain was the revolt of the states of Holland.
The Dutch, animated by that spirit of liberty which com¬
merce always inspires, and driven to despair by a ruthless
and implacable despotism, which attempted to impose its
fetters on the mind as well as the body, rose in arms against
their oppressors, and, after a sanguinary struggle, most
unequal in its commencement but glorious in its results,
they conquered their independence, and were, in the year
1609, declared a free people. Thus Spain lost the bright¬
est jewel in its crown, freedom gained a new ally, and the
despots of Europe were taught the important lesson that
nothing is impossible for a brave people who have resolv¬
ed, at all hazards, to establish their liberty.
In Asia nothing of importance had occurred since the
capture of Constantinople by the Turks. Comparative
tranquillity reigned throughout that vast continent, which
had so often been the theatre of violent revolutions, sud-
484
Cml den conquests, and mushroom empires. Siberia had fallen sequence be effected, the most obvious views of interest, Ci
under the dominion of Russia. To the southward, from of policy, and even of self-defence, would have recom- Hist
Asia Minor to China and Corea, the Tartars roamed mended the preservation of a kingdom, which, both from ^ J
through their inhospitable deserts, formidable, indeed, by its peculiar situation, and from the high and chivalrous
their numbers, but, from their disunion and barbarism, no character of its people, formed, or at least should have
longer capable of pouring in overwhelming masses on the formed, an important element in the European system,
nations of the East or of the West. The Turks possessed So far from this, however, Poland was first dismembered
the western part of the continent, or Asia Minor, as far and afterwards destroyed. Whilst the cupidity of Aus-
as the river Euphrates, which formed their boundary on tria and Prussia was appeased by a share of the spoil,
the east. The Arabs were again confined within their Russia attained the first object of her ambition by the re¬
own peninsula, which they possessed, as they had ever moval of the grand obstacle which had hitherto prevented
done, without owning subjection to any foreign power, in her from interfering in the affairs of the Continent; the
a state of wild independence. Contiguous to Turkey on equilibrium of power was entirely destroyed ; and the
the east lay Persia, now more restricted in its limits than other nations of Europe tamely acquiesced in a change of
before, but still powerful; whilst India, destined ere long system, all the consequences of which have not yet been
to change masters, and yield to the supremacy of Euro- foreseen. The immediate results of this great public
pean arts and arms, slumbered under the dominion of the crime are matters of universal notoriety. Russia, elevat-
Mogul. Of the countries still farther to the east little ed at once to the rank of a first-rate power, has attain-
was as yet known to the nations of the west; but an era ed an ascendency in continental affairs, and, by means of
of more active enterprise and daring adventure was rapid- systematic encroachments, has at length so completely
ly approaching. The vast empire of China, occupying humbled Turkey, that the period is not very distant when
the most easterly portion of the Asiatic continent, enjoy- she will attempt to transfer, the seat of her empire from
ed, as before, an almost entire immunity from revolution, Petersburg to Constantinople. Her ambitious designs
or, if visited by a Tartar inroad, soon absorbed the inva- were all along of the most grasping and comprehensive
ders into its own vast mass, without the least disturbance character; but as these were slowly and cautiously de-
to its laws, its institutions, or its government, or any other veloped, at times and seasons most favourable for their
change than that of a dynasty or a name. advancement, her artful and insidious policy excited no
In Africa, the Turks possessed Egypt, which they had suspicion or alarm until it was almost too late to check,
conquered in 1517, though by a very insecure tenure, and far less to arrest, her career. It remains to be seen how
exercised a sort of nominal jurisdiction over the Barbary far the other powers of Europe may yet have cause to re¬
states, the principal of which, Algiers, has at length been gret the passive indifference with which they so long re¬
subdued and converted into a troublesome colonial depen- garded the progressive aggrandisement of an empire, which
dency of France. Of the barbarous nations who occupied already seems to aim at universal dominion, and the in-
the interior little or nothing was as yet known. On the fluence of which is now felt from the Indus to the Bos-
western coast the British and Portuguese had establish- phorus.
ed settlements ; and the southern extremity was occupied The wars of the eighteenth century were not produc-
by the Dutch, who were at length dispossessed by the tive of any great or memorable changes, until the success-
British, when the latter found it necessary, for the secu- ful revolt of the British colonies in North America issued
rity of their power in India, to occupy that advanced posi- in the establishment of their independence. This import-
tion in the Southern Ocean. The easterp coasts remained ant event, which gave birth to a kindred nation on the
almost wholly unknown ; whilst the Asiatic and African other side of the Atlantic, and laid the foundation of li-
islands were either possessed by Europeans, or inhabited berty in the New World, was generally regarded by the
by savage tribes. enemies of Britain as a fatal shock to her power and wont-
The European nations, at the beginning of the seven- ed superiority; and. France, in assisting the colonies to
teenth century, were Britain, France, Plolland, Spain, Por- conquer their independence, no doubt imagined that she
tugal, Italy, Turkey in Europe, and in the north and east was contributing in the most effectual manner to humble
Germany, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. Of her ancient and formidable rival. But the result has
these, Russia, though the most barbarous, was neverthe- shown that all such expectations were founded on error,
less, in point of territory and population, by far the most The colonies, it is true, were disjoined from the mother
considerable ; but the situation of that power, at a dis- country, and formed into an independent nation, which is
tance from the centre of European policy and civilization, now advancing with rapid strides in wealth, in power, and
the poverty of its resources, the unsettled nature of its in greatness, and which is certainly destined, at no very
government, the rude and sluggish character of its popu- distant date, to form one of the mightiest communities of
lation, immersed in profound ignorance and grovelling su- freemen on the face of the earth. But Great Britain has
perstition, and, above all, its state of political isolation, had no cause to lament the separation, or to repine at their
rendered it in no respect formidable to other nations, and, prosperity. Divested only of a splendid encumbrance, an
in fact, made it be, in a great measure, overlooked in ad- expensive and invidious appanage, she has been left at
justing the balance of power in Europe. The kingdom of liberty to reap the undivided benefits of her native vi-
Poland, which had existed for upwards of six centuries, gour, to display new energies, to extend her industry and
proved a barrier between Russia and Germany ; it formed, enterprise, and, in the profits of an active commerce
as it were, the frontier defence of the nations of the south with a great and rising nation, to indemnify herself for the
and west of Europe, to which it was naturally allied by a barren distinction of maintaining unproductive establish-
community of civilization, against the inroads of the north- ments beyond the Atlantic. The separation, in fact, has
ern barbarians, its immediate and natural enemies; it seem- proved equally advantageous to both parties. To Ame-
ed established by Providence, in short, as a powerful ad- rica it formed the commencement of a career of prospe-
vanced guard for the protection of Central Europe on the rity unexampled in the history of nations, and of which
side where it was weakest and most easily assailable. As it is yet impossible to foresee the full development;
long, therefore, as the necessity of maintaining a balance whilst Britain, relieved from a burden that exhausted her
of power entered into the calculations of cabinets, it might strength and crippled her vigour, started with fresh vi-
have been supposed, that, whatever wars Europe might be gour in the race of improvement, and rose rapidly in
engaged in, and whatever changes of territory might in con- greatness and power after the event which shortsighted
HISTORY.
HISTORY.
485
■il politicians had considered as the forerunner of her humili-
H )ry. ation and decay. Every addition made to the great com-
^ munity of free nations is in fact a common benefit to all.
On the other hand, the flame which, it was thought,
would scorch Britain, soon blazed out with consuming
violence in the bosom of her principal foe. The course of
time, and, above all, the accumulated evils of ages of ty¬
ranny and misgovernment, had long been silently prepar¬
ing in France those combustible elements which sooner
or later explode in political convulsions. In the old sys¬
tem there was no self-correcting or regenerative princi¬
ple ; despotism can never stop short in its career, far less
retrace its steps; its character is to persevere, its pro¬
gress is from bad to worse. It is only by passing through
a course of revolution, perhaps through anarchy, that
long-lost liberty can be recovered, and the dominion of equal
laws established; and to this transition every thing now
tended in France. All the props of the old system were
either undermined or decayed; the state of opinion and
knowledge had prodigiously outrun a government which
existed only on the recollections of the past; religion,
having degenerated into superstition, had lost its hold on
the public mind ; free discussion had given rise to a new
set of opinions, and bold doctrines were boldly promul¬
gated ; the decay of the finances weakened the power of
the state, and whilst the country groaned under every
sort of abuse, odious privileges inflamed the resentment
of the people. In short, a crisis of the most tremendous
description was evidently preparing; and it is probable
enough that those who had served an apprenticeship to
liberty in America, were not backward, on their return to
their own country, in endeavouring to set up for them¬
selves. Be this as it may, however, the crisis arrived
even more speedily than could have been expected, and
a constitution, extorted from the court, was at first thank¬
fully received by the nation. But it is not of the nature
of such political revulsions to stop short with a partial
success. The re-action was too violent to be arrested
after the first recoil, and soon swept away those who had
vainly attempted to control and regulate it. The monar¬
chy was overthrown, and in its fall dragged down the dege¬
nerate and corrupt church on which it had leaned for sup¬
port. Anarchy for a season reigned in tumultuous and
sanguinary supremacy. The prisons were crowded with
victims, the scaffolds were drenched wuth gore. But vic¬
tory declared in favour of the republic ; and whilst tom
by the violence of faction within, her arms were trium¬
phant on the frontiers, and latterly both Germany and
Italy were humbled at the feet of a government, the off¬
spring of anarchy and revolution. Prussia, after suffering
severe humiliation, withdrew early from the contest with
France, to repair the injuries she had sustained, and brook
in silence her disgrace. Austria, stimulated by British
counsels, and subsidised by British gold, persisted longer,
but was ultimately compelled, by the advance of a victo¬
rious army within a few marches of her capital, to sub¬
mit to the law of the conqueror. Britain, triumphant on
the ocean, still maintained an attitude of defiance; but
seeing her allies struck down and humbled, she eventual¬
ly concluded a peace, or at least a truce, with the new
republic.
The shock produced by this contest was quite unprece¬
dented. The impulse of the Revolution had proved irre¬
sistible, especially on the Continent. Marengo had decid¬
ed the fate of Italy, which was in consequence wrenched
from the grasp of Austria, whilst that power had almost
simultaneously received a severe body blow at Hohenlin-
den. France having obtained the Rhine as her boundary,
threatened Germany, and necessarily acquired an ascen¬
dency over the smaller states along the river, as well as
those interposed between that limit and the hereditary
dominions of Austria. Naples was effectually humbled, Civil
and the power of the pope as a temporal sovereign almost History,
annihilated. In a word, France had become lord of the
ascendant on the Continent. But the Revolution had al¬
ready passed the term of its ascending movement; the
fiery impulse of republicanism had nearly exhausted it¬
self. Napoleon became the heir of all that the Revolution
had created; and the consulate had superseded the direc¬
torial government, to give way in its turn to the empire.
It is unnecessary to retrace here the course of events, which
have been fully detailed in the articles Britain and
France. A military despotism was reared on the ruins of
the republic, and for a time the genius and fortune of Na¬
poleon proved irresistible. Coalition after coalition was
formed under the auspices of Britain ; but each in its turn
was dissolved, and in its overthrow served only to aggra¬
vate the humiliation of the states of the Continent, and in
the same proportion to augment the power of France.
Austria was compelled to receive the law of the conquer¬
or; Prussia, which had acted with equal faithlessness to her
allies and her enemy, was at lena almost blotted from the map
of Europe ; whilst Russia, defeated amidst the snows of Ey-
lau, concluded a peace with the victor of Friedland. Soon
afterwards another effort was made by Austria to check
the career of the conqueror, but without success. But
the doubtful advantage of Essling was effectually obliterat¬
ed by the decisive victory of Wagram ; and Germany was
once more placed at the feet of Napoleon, to whom the
vista of universal dominion now presented itself in all its
illusive magnificence. This indeed was the marsh-fire which
led him on to his destruction. The disastrous result of the
expedition to Russia sealed his doom. I he elements war-
red against him ; and that mighty host which overwhelm¬
ed all armed opposition, being breathed upon by the frosty
North, perished in the Russian deserts. All that genius
and energy could achieve to repair this calamity was done,
but in vain. Napoleon’s hour was come, and he yielded
to his destiny. Another astonishing effort to retrieve his
fortunes, made in circumstances without a parallel in the
history of nations, had no better success, and at Waterloo
this wonderful man saw his last hope extinguished.
Thus the old monarchies o\ Europe, after a long and dis¬
astrous struggle, were once more victorious. 1 hey had con¬
trived to awaken in their favour the patriotism of the people
of the Continent; by promises of free constitutions, they had
led, not armies, but nations, against their common enemy.
In the intoxication of success, however, they forgot all the
stipulations they had made during the agony of the struggle.
The obligations they had come under to their people were
disregarded; the division of the spoil alone occupied their
attention. France saw herself reduced to her ancient limits,
with an army of observation quartered on her soil. Aus¬
tria recovered her ascendency in Italy ; Genoa was hand¬
ed over to the king of Sardinia; Saxony was dismember¬
ed to gratify the rapacity and revenge of Prussia; the third
and fourth-rate states of Germany, which had accepted
the alliance of France, were, humbled ; a new Germanic
Confederation was organized under the auspices of Aus¬
tria and Prussia; a shadow of independence was, with a
cruel mockery, conferred on the duchy of Warsaw, a mi¬
serable remnant of what had once been the kingdom of
Poland, and Russia was constituted the protectress there¬
of, on the same principle that the foolish shepherds in¬
trusted the guardianship of their fold to the hypocritical
but voracious wolf; and, lastly, a Holy Alliance was or¬
ganized, for the purpose of repressing the slightest mani¬
festation of a free spirit in any nation or state of the Con¬
tinent. For the time, the principle of despotism was sur¬
rounded by the glare of recent triumph, enthroned amidst
the shouts of victorious legions, and all-powerful for tlm
repression of any attempt to secure the performance of
486
HISTORY.
Civil those promises on the faith of which the nations had risen
in arms to overthrow Napoleon. In Spain, in Naples,
an(j in Piedmont, the constitution of the Cortes, which the
allies had themselves sanctioned, was scarcely proclaim¬
ed, when the armies of the holy alliance, of France and of
Austria in particular, marched to re-establish the old des¬
potisms, and to extinguish constitutional liberty in both
peninsulas.
But a short period wrought a wonderful change in the
sentiments of men and in the prospects of nations. The
government of Britain, which can never long act in oppo¬
sition to public opinion, first withdrew from all connexion
with, and ultimately declared pretty unequivocally against,
the confederacy of despots formed for the extinction of li¬
berty. A general re-action took place, and this was aided
by a number of circumstances propitious to the popular
cause. In South America the contest for independence
continued steadily progressive, and excited deep sympathy
in Europe. In Greece the sacred flame also burst forth,
and, though at times nearly extinguished by the exter¬
minating fury of the Moslemin hordes, was constantly re¬
kindled, and fanned up afresh, until at length that glo¬
rious country, the parent of the noblest form of civiliza¬
tion that existed in the ancient world, has been added
to the great community of free and independent nations.
A new era now opened upon the world. Throughout all
Europe there thrilled one common feeling in favour of
liberty, accompanied by an ardent desire of political im¬
provement. An impulse had been silently given, which
nothing has yet been able to check, far less withstand, and
which, we have no doubt, will ultimately overcome all oppo¬
sition. Even Turkey felt its force, and, under the auspices
of the successor of the Prophet himself, commenced the
work of reform. In France, in Britain, in Spain, and in Por¬
tugal, the working of this spirit has been signally illustrat
ed, and in different degrees crowned with success. Nearly
contemporaneous with the third expulsion of the elder
branch of the house of Bourbon from the throne of France,
and the re-establishment of constitutional liberty in that
country, was the great but bloodless revolution effected
in Biitain by the passing of the Reform Act, which, with
all its defects, is one of the -greatest securities for good
government which this nation has ever obtained. No soon¬
er had France disencumbered herself of the burden of an
antiquated dynasty, which even the severe lessons of ad¬
versity had failed to enlighten, instruct, or amend, than
Belgium, profiting by the example, cast off the yoke of
Holland, and declared herself independent. In Portugal
the expulsion of a cruel and perfidious usurper has been
followed by the re-establishment of that constitution
which he solemnly swore to maintain, and immediately
thereafter trampled under foot; and Spain, under a new
sovereign and an altered law of succession, though expos¬
ed to all the horrors and miseries of a civil war, continues
firm in her adherence to those principles which can alone
secure the social happiness and improvement of her still
noble and generous people. In a word, the progressive
advancement of knowledge amongst the nations is now
producing its natural fruits ; and though some of them are
still in a state of transition, whilst in others the despotic
principle continues to be an overmatch for its redoubtable
antagonist; though Poland lies bleeding and lacerated in
e c utches of Russia, and Germany bristles with bayo¬
nets, ready to pierce any who should dare to hoist the
f ^ yet there can be little doubt that the
rinrn Of P ^ ™ not distant, that the king-
ffrave Ld° and ^ °ng be reconstituted, and that
grave and learned Germany will soon be free.
the^rnlH?- dl.ffic3l%of modern politics consists in
the state of affairs in the East, or, m other words, in the
peculiar relations of Russia and Turkey. The ambitious
designs of the former power have long ceased to be Eccl,
doubtful, and, though cautiously pursued, they are in tical l
themselves of the most daring and comprehensive cha- to>
racter. But although the weakness of the latter has been ^ ^
painfully exemplified, and although some errors of policy
on the part of Britain and of France gave to Russia an
advantage which she was not slow in profiting by, there
seems to be no good ground for the apprehension and
alarm which some profess to entertain upon this subject.
For, besides the direct interposition of Britain and France,
^§>ypb which has proved under its victorious viceroy so
instrumental in humbling the Porte, would, in the event
of another war with Russia, become the natural and
powerful ally of the Sultan ; the interests of the new
state of Greece would also lead the government of that
country to make common cause against a power which
sought to obtain an ascendency in the Mediterranean;
and, what is more important than all, the boom of the first
cannot-shot fired in a general war in Europe would an¬
nounce to the nations the re-establishment of the king¬
dom of Poland. Nor is even this all. For if, as is well
known, Austria already feels uneasy on account of the
number of the points of contact between her dominions
and those of Russia, to whose encroaching and aggran¬
dising spirit she is no stranger, it is scarcely to be ima¬
gined that she would remain a silent spectator of any ag¬
gression which, if successful, would as it were envelope
her in the coils of the great northern serpent, and enable
that hideous snake to crush her at his leisure. Whilst
the policy of nations is governed by a regard to their in¬
terest and their safety, these causes must continue to ope¬
rate. Besides, there is a point beyond which aggression is
the first step to destruction ; and, in our estimation, Rus¬
sia has already approximated closely, if she has not ac¬
tually reached that ultimate term. Her resources are
not equal to a great and sustained effort; and though
her power, statistically considered, is formidable, it suffers
great abatements before it can be displayed in action.
This all her campaigns have illustrated; and this she has
herself tacitly confessed, by trusting more to her able but
insidious diplomacy than to the force of arms, which some
imaginative alarmists regard as so irresistible.
II. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
The history of religion amongst the different nations
of the world is a subject no less important and interest¬
ing than that of civil history. It is, however, less fertile
of great events, affords an account of fewer revolutions,
and is much more uniform. The reason of this is obvious.
Religion is conversant about things which cannot be seen,
and which consequently cannot suddenly and strongly
affect the senses of mankind. The expectation of world¬
ly riches may easily induce one nation to attack another ;
but it is not easy to find out any thing which will induce
a nation to change its religion. The invisible nature of
spiritual things, and the prejudice of habit and of early
education, all stand in the way of changes of this kind.
Hence revolutions in religion have been but few, and the
duration of almost every religion has been of longer stand¬
ing than the most celebrated empires; the changes which
happened have, in general, required a long time to bring
them about, and history scarcely affords an instance of
the religion of any nation being essentially and suddenly
changed.
M ith regard to the origin of religion, we must have re¬
course to the Scriptures, and adopt the account there
given, because no other has made its appearance which
seems in any degree rational, or consistent with itself.
In what manner the true religion given to Adam was fal¬
sified or corrupted by his descendants before the Flood,
HISTORY.
487
ias. does not clearly appear. Idolatry is not mentioned, yet
lis- we are nevertheless assured that the inhabitants of the
world were then exceedingly wicked; and as their wick¬
edness did not consist in worshipping false gods, it may
be concluded that they worshipped none at all, or that
the crime of the antediluvians was deism or atheism.
After the Flood, idolatry quickly made its appearance ;
but what gave rise to it is not certainly known. This
form of superstition indeed seems to be natural to man,
especially when placed in such a situation as affords
him little opportunity of instruction, or of improving his
rational faculties. Such a conclusion may be deduced
from the caution given to the Jews, lest, when they looked
up to the sun, moon, and stars, and the rest of the host
of heaven, they should be driven to worship them. The
origin of idolatry amongst the Syrians and Arabians, and
also in Greece, is therefore accounted for with reference
to their situation and the general aspect of nature. In those
uncomfortable deserts, where the day presents nothing to
the view but the uniform, tedious, and melancholy pros¬
pect of barren sands, the night discloses a most delight¬
ful and magnificent spectacle, and appears arrayed with
charms of the most attractive kind. For the most part
unclouded and serene, it exhibits to the wondering eye
the host of heaven in all their variety and glory. In the
view of this stupendous scene, the transition from admi¬
ration to idolatry was but too easy to uninstructed minds ;
and a people whose climate offered no beauties to con¬
template but those of the firmament, would naturally look
thither for the objects of their worship. The form of ido¬
latry in Greece was different from that of the Syrians,
which perhaps may be attributed to that smiling and va¬
riegated scene of mountains, valleys, rivers, woods, groves,
and fountains, which the transported imagination, in the
midst of its pleasing astonishment, supposed to be the
seats of invisible deities.
A difficulty, however, arises on this supposition ; for if
idolatry is naturally produced in the mind of uninstruct¬
ed and savage man from a view of the creation, why has
not idolatry of some kind or other existed amongst all the
different nations of the world ? This certainly has not
been the case, for the Persians of old, and the Moguls in
modern times, were not idolators. Both these nations
professed strict deism, so that some other causes must
have concurred in producing idolatry besides those al¬
ready mentioned ; and of these causes an imperfect and
obscure notion of the true religion appears to be by far the
most probable.
Though idolatry, therefore, was formerly prevalent, it
neither extended over the whole earth, nor were the su¬
perstitions of idolators all of one kind. Every nation had
its respective gods, over which one more excellent than
the rest was said to preside; yet in such a manner that
this supreme deity himself was controlled by the rigid
empire of the fates, or by what philosophers denominate
eternal necessity. The gods of the East were different from
those of the Gauls, the Germans, and the other northern
nations. The Grecian divinities differed from those of
the Egyptians, who deified plants, animals, and a great
variety of the productions both of nature and art. Each
people also worshipped and appeased their respective
deities in a manner entirely different from the sacred
rites of other countries. All this variety of religions,
however, produced neither wars nor dissensions amongst
the different nations ; and each nation suffered its neigh¬
bours to follow their own method of worship, without dis¬
covering any hostility on that account. But there is no¬
thing surprising in this mutual toleration, when we con¬
sider that they all looked upon the world as one great
empire, divided into various provinces, over each of
which a certain order of divinities presided ; and hence
they imagined that none could behold with contempt the Ecclesias-
gods of other nations, or force strangers to pay homage tical His-
to theirs. The Romans exercised this toleration in the t0I7-
most ample manner; for though they would not allow
any change to be made in the religions which were pub¬
licly professed in the empire, nor any new form of wor¬
ship to be openly introduced, yet they granted to their
citizens a full liberty of observing in private the sacred
rites of other nations, and of honouring such foreign dei¬
ties as they thought worthy of their homage.
The heathen deities were honoured with rites and sa¬
crifices of various kinds, according to their respective na¬
tures and offices. But their rites were absurd and their
observances ridiculous ; whilst the priests appointed to pre¬
side over this strange worship abused their authority, by
imposing upon the people in the grossest manner.
From the time of the F’lood till the coming of Christ,
idolatry prevailed amongst almost all the nations of the
world, the Jews alone excepted; and even they were on
all occasions ready to fall into it, as is evident from their
history in the Old Testament. At the time of Christ’s
appearance, the religion of the Romans, as well as their
empire, extended over a great part of the then known
world. There were amongst the heathens indeed some
who perceived the absurdities of that system ; but being
destitute of means, as well as of ability, to effect a refor¬
mation, matters went on in their old way. Though there
were at that time various sects of philosophers, yet all of
them proceeded upon false principles, and consequently
could be of no service to the advancement or reformation
of religion. Nay, some, amongst whom were the Epicu¬
reans and Academics, declared openly against every kind
of religion.
At this time two religions flourished in Palestine, the
Jewish and Samaritan, between the respective followers
of which there reigned the most violent hatred and con¬
tempt. The difference between them seems to have been
chiefly about the place of worship, which the Jews con¬
tended should be in Jerusalem, and the Samaritans on
Mount Gerizzim. But though the Jews were certainly
right as to the locality, they had in other respects greatly
corrupted their religion. They expected a Saviour in¬
deed ; but they mistook his character, imagining that he
was to be a powerful and warlike prince, who should set
them free from the Roman yoke, which they bore with
the utmost impatience. They also conceived that the
whole of religion consisted in observing the rites of Moses,
and some others which they had added to these, without
the least regard to what is commonly called morality or
virtue. This seems evident from the many charges which
our Saviour brings against the Pharisees, who had the
greatest reputation for sanctity in the whole nation. To
these corrupt and vicious principles they added several
absurd and superstitious notions concerning the divine
nature, invisible powers, magic, and the like, which they
had partly imbibed during the Babylonian captivity, and
partly derived from their neighbours in Arabia, Syria, and
Egypt. The principal sects amongst them were the Es-
senes or Essenians, Pharisees, and Sadducees. The Sa¬
maritans, according to the most general opinion, had cor¬
rupted their religion still more than the Jews.
Hence, when the true religion was preached by the
Saviour of mankind, it is not to be wondered at if he be¬
came on that account obnoxious to a people so deeply
sunk as the Jews then were in corruption and ignorance.
It is not requisite here to enter into the particulars of the
doctrine advanced by him, or of the opposition which he
met with from the Jews. The rapid progress of the Chris¬
tian religion, under its faithful and inspired ministers, soon
alarmed the Jews, and raised various persecutions against
its followers. The Jews, indeed, appear at first to have
488
HISTORY.
Ecclesias- been everywhere the chief promoters of persecution. We
-H- indeed that they officiously went from place to place,
vwherever they heard of the increase of the gospel, and by
their calumnies and false suggestions endeavoured to ex¬
cite the people against the apostles. The Heathens,
however, though at first they showed no very violent spi¬
rit of persecution against the Christians, soon came to
hate them as much as the Jews themselves. Tacitus ac¬
quaints us with the cause of this hatred, when speaking
of the first general persecution under Nero. That inhu¬
man emperor having, as was supposed, set fire to the city
of Rome, to avoid the imputation of this wickedness, trans¬
ferred the odium of the atrocious act to the Christians.
The historian informs us that they were already abhorred
on account of their many and enormous crimes. “ The au¬
thor of this name (Christians),” says he, “ was Christ, who,
in the reign of Tiberius, was executed under Pontius Pilate,
procurator of Judaea. The pestilent superstition was for
a while suppressed; but it revived again, and spread, not
only over Judaea, where this evil was first broached, but
reached Rome, whither is constantly flowing from every
quarter of the earth whatever is hideous and abominable
amongst men, and where it is readily embraced and prac¬
tised. First, therefore, were apprehended such as openly
avowed themselves to be of that sect; then by them were
discovered an immense multitude ; and all were convicted,
not of the crime of burning Rome, but of hatred and en¬
mity to mankind. rI heir death and tortures were aggra¬
vated by cruel derision and sport; for they were either
covered with the skins of wild beasts, and torn in pieces
by devouring dogs, or fastened to crosses, or wrapped up
in combustible garments, that, when the day-light failed,
they might, like torches, serve to dispel the darkness of
the night. Hence, towards the miserable sufferers, how¬
ever guilty and deserving of the most exemplary punish¬
ment, compassion arose, seeing they were doomed to pe¬
rish not with a view to the public good, but to gratify the
cruelty of one man.”
That the account here given by Tacitus is downright
misrepresentation and calumny, must be evident to every
one who reads it. It is impossible that any person can be
convicted of hatred and enmity to mankind, without spe¬
cifying the facts by which this hatred showed itself. The
burning of Rome would indeed have been a very plain in¬
dication of enmity to mankind; but of this Tacitus him¬
self clears them, and mentions no other crime of which
they were guilty. It is probable, therefore, that the only
reason of this charge against the Christians, was their ab¬
solute refusal to have any share in the Roman idolatrous
worship, or to countenance in any degree the absurd su¬
perstitions of Paganism.
The persecution under Nero was succeeded by another
under Domitian, during which the apostle John was ba¬
nished to Fatmos, where he saw the visions, and wrote
the book called the Apocalypse, which completes the ca¬
non of Scripture. This persecution commenced in the
ninety-fifth year of the Christian era; and John is sup¬
posed to have written his Revelation the year after, or in
the one that followed.
Huiing the first century, the Christian religion spread
over a great number of different countries; but as we
have now no authentic records concerning the travels of
the apostles, or the success which attended their ministry,
it is impossible to determine how far the gospel was car¬
ried during this period. We are, however, assured, that
even during this early period many corruptions were creep-
ing in, the progress of which was with difficulty prevented
even by the apostles themselves. Some corrupted their
profession by an intermixture of Judaism, others by blend¬
ing it with the oriental philosophy; whilst others, again,
were already attempting to deprive their brethren of li¬
berty, setting themselves up as eminent pastors, in oppo- eC(
sition even to the apostles, as we learn from the epistles tical3*'
of St Paul, and the third epistle of St John. Hence arose tM
the sects of the Gnostics, Cerinthians, Nicolaitans, Naza- ^ w
renes, Ebionites, and many others, with which the church
was troubled during this century.
Concerning the ceremonies and method of worship used
by the Christians of the first century it is impossible to
state any thing with certainty. Neither has the church
order, government, and discipline, during this period, been
ascertained with any degree of exactness. Each of those
parties, therefore, which exist at this day, contends with
the greatest earnestness for that particular mode of wor¬
ship which they themselves have adopted; and some of
the most bigoted would willingly monopolize the word
Church in such a manner as to exclude from all hope of
salvation every one who is not attached to their particu¬
lar party. It does not, however, appear that, excepting
baptism, the Lord’s Supper, and anointing the sick with
oil, any external ceremonies or symbols were properly of
divine appointment. According to Dr Mosheim, there
are several circumstances which seem to indicate that
the friends and apostles of our blessed Lord either tole¬
rated through necessity, or appointed for wise reasons,
many other external rites in various places. “ At the
same time we are not to imagine that they ever conferred
upon any person a perpetual, indelible, pontifical autho¬
rity, or that they enjoined the same rites in all churches.
We learn, on the contrarj', from authentic records, that
the Christian worship was from the beginning celebrated
in a different manner in different places; and that, no
doubt, by the orders, or at least with the approbation, of
the apostles and their disciples. In those early times, it
was both wise and necessary to show, in the establish¬
ment of outward forms of worship, some indulgence to
the ancient opinions, manners, and laws, of the respective
nations to whom the gospel was preached.”
The second century commences with the third year of
the Emperor Trajan. The Christians were still persecut¬
ed ; but as the Roman emperors of this century were for
the most part princes of a mild and moderate temper, they
persecuted less violently than formerly. Marcus Aurelius,
notwithstanding the clemency and philosophy for which
he is so much celebrated, treated the Christians worse
than Trajan, Hadrian, or even Severus himself, who was
noted for his cruelty. This respite from rigorous perse¬
cution proved a favourable circumstance for the diffusion
ot the Christian religion; yet it is by no means easy to
point out the particular countries through which it had al¬
ready spread. We are, however, assured, that in the se¬
cond century, Christ was worshipped as God throughout
almost the whole East, as also amongst the Germans, Spa¬
niards, Celts, and many other nations; but which of them
received the gospel in the first century, and which in the
second, is a question which at this distance of time cannot
be satisfactorily determined. The writers of this century
attribute the rapid progress of Christianity chiefly to the
extraordinary gifts which were imparted to the first Chris¬
tians, and the miracles which were wrought at their com¬
mand ; without supposing that any part of the success
ought to be ascribed to the intervention of human means,
or secondary causes. Many of the moderns, however, are
so far from being of this opinion, that they are willing
either to deny the authenticity of all miracles said to
have been wrought since the days of the apostles, or to
ascribe them to the power of the devil. But to enter into
the particulars of this controversy is foreign to our pre¬
sent purpose; and for this reason we must refer to the
writers on polemical divinity, who have largely treated of
this and other points of a similar nature.
The corruptions which had been introduced in the first
HISTORY.
489
ifc sias- century, and which were almost coeval with Christianity
tic His- itself, continued to gain ground in the second. Ceremo-
v- nies, in themselves futile and useless, but which must be
w considered as highly pernicious when joined to a religion
incapable of any other ornament than the upright and vir¬
tuous conduct of its professors, were multiplied for no
other purpose than to please the ignorant multitude. The
immediate consequence of this was, that the attention of
Christians was drawn aside from the important duties of
morality; and they were led to imagine, that a careful
observance of the ceremonies might make amends for the
neglect of moral duties. This was the most pernicious
opinion which could possibly be entertained; and was in¬
deed the very foundation of that enormous system of ec¬
clesiastical power which was afterwards organized, and
which for many ages held the whole world in barbarism
and slavery.
Another mischief was the introduction of mysteries, as
they were called, into the Christian religion; that is, in¬
sinuating that some parts of the worship in common use
had a hidden efficacy and power far superior to the plain
and obvious meaning assigned to them by the vulgar. By
paying peculiar respect to these mysteries, the pretended
teachers of the religion of Jesus accommodated their doc¬
trines to the taste of their heathen neighbours, whose re¬
ligion consisted in a multitude of mysteries, of which no¬
body knew the meaning.
By these, and other means of a similar description,
the Christian pastors greatly abridged the liberty of their
flocks. Being masters of the ceremonies and mysteries of
the Christian religion, they had it in their power to make
their followers believe and worship whatever they might
think proper; and this they did not fail to make use of
for their own advantage. They persuaded the people
that the ministers of the Christian church succeeded to
the character, rights, and privileges, of the Jewish priest¬
hood ; and the bishops considered themselves as invested
with a rank and character similar to those of the high
priest amongst the Jews, whilst the presbyters represent¬
ed the priests, and the deacons the Levites. This notion,
which was first introduced in the reign of Hadrian, proved
a source of considerable honour and profit to the clergy.
The form of ecclesiastical government was in this cen¬
tury rendered uniform and permanent. An inspector or
bishop presided over each Christian assembly, and to this
office he was elected by the voice of the people. To as¬
sist him in his office he formed a council of presbyters,
which was not confined to any stated number. To the
bishops and presbyters the ministers or deacons were sub¬
ject ; and the latter were divided into a variety of classes,
as the different exigencies of the church required. Du¬
ring the greater part of this century, the churches were
independent of each other; nor were they united toge¬
ther by any other bonds than those of charity. Each as¬
sembly was a little state governed by its own laws, which
were either enacted, or at least approved of, by the so¬
ciety. But in process of time all the Christian churches
of a province were formed into one large ecclesiastical
body, which, like confederate states, assembled at certain
times, in order to deliberate concerning the common in-
teiests of the whole. This institution had its origin
amongst the Greeks; but in a short time it became uni¬
versal, and similar assemblies were formed in all places
where the gospel had been planted. These assemblies,
which consisted of the deputies or commissioners from
several churches, were called Synods by the Greeks, and
Councils by the Latins; and the laws enacted in these
general meetings were called Canons, or rules.
These councils, of which we find not the smallest trace
before the middle of this century, changed the whole face
of the church, and gave it a new form; for by them the
VOL. XI.
ancient privileges of the people were considerably dimi¬
nished, and the power and authority of the bishops pro¬
portionally augmented. The humility and prudence of
these pious prelates indeed hindered them from assuming
all at once the power with which they were invested.
At their first appearance in these general councils, they
acknowledged that they were no more than the delegates
of their respective churches, and that they acted in the
name and by the appointment of their people. But af¬
terwards changing this humble tone, they imperceptibly
extended the limits of their authority; turned their in¬
fluence into dominion, their counsels into laws ; and at
length openly asserted that Christ had empowered them
to prescribe to his people authoritative rules of faith and
manners. Another effect of these councils was the gra¬
dual abolition of that perfect equality which had reigned
amongst all bishops in the primitive times. For the or¬
der and decency of these assemblies required, that some
one of the provincial bishops met in council should be
invested with a superior degree of power and authority;
and hence originated the rights of metropolitans. In the
mean time, the bounds of the church were enlarged; the
custom of holding councils was followed wherever the
sound of the gospel had reached ; and the universal church
had now the appearance of one vast republic, formed by a
combination of a great number of small states. This oc¬
casioned the creation of a new order of ecclesiastics, who
were appointed in different parts of the world as heads of
the church, and whose office it was to preserve the con¬
sistence and union of that immense body, the members of
which were so widely dispersed throughout the nations.
Such was the nature and office of the Patriarchs, amongst
whom, at length, ambition, having arrived at its greatest
excess, formed a new dignity, investing the bishop of
Borne with the title and authority of the Prince of the
Patriarchs.
During the second century, there continued all the
sects which had sprung up in the first, with the addition
of several others, the most remarkable of which were the
Ascetics. This sect owed its rise to an error propagated
by some doctors of the church, who asserted that Christ
had established a double rule of sanctity and virtue for
two different orders of Christians. Of these rules, the
one was ordinary and the other extraordinary ; the one of
a lower dignity, the other more sublime ; the first for per¬
sons engaged in the active scenes of life, the second for
those who, in a sacred retreat, aspired after the glory of
a celestial state. They accordingly divided into two parts
all those moral doctrines and instructions which they had
received either by writing or tradition, calling one of these
divisions precepts, and the other counsels. The name of
precepts they gave to those laws which were universally
obligatory upon all orders of men; and that of counsels
to those which related to Christians of a more sublime
rank, who proposed to themselves great and glorious ends,
and breathed after an intimate communion with the Su¬
preme Being. Thus were produced all at once a new set
of men, who made pretensions to uncommon sanctity and
virtue, and declared their resolution of obeying all the
precepts and counsels of Christ, in order to their enjoy¬
ment and communion with God here, and also that, after
the dissolution of their mortal bodies, they might ascend
to him with the greater facility, and find nothing to retard
their approach to the centre of happiness and perfection.
They looked upon themselves as prohibited from the use
of things which it was lawful for other Christians to en¬
joy, such as wine, flesh, matrimony, and commerce. They
thought it their indispensable duty to extenuate their
body by watchings, abstinence, labour, and hunger. They
looked for felicity in solitary retreats, and in desert places,
where, by severe and assiduous efforts of sublime medita-
3 Q
Ecclesias¬
tical His¬
tory.
HISTORY.
490
Ecclesias- tion, they sought to raise the soul above all external ob-
tical His- jects, and all sensual pleasures. They were distinguished
tory. from other Christians, not only by the titles of Ascetics,
' 'Ivovbixm, HLvXixroi, and philosophers, but also by their
garb. In this century, indeed, those who embraced such
an austere mode of life submitted themselves to all these
mortifications in private, without breaking asunder their
social bands, or withdrawing themselves from mankind ;
but in process of time they retired into deserts, and, after
the example of the Essenes and Therapeutae, formed them¬
selves into regular companies.
This austere sect originated in a belief which has been
more or less prevalent in all ages and in all countries,
namely, that religion consists more in prayers, medita¬
tions, and a kind of secret intercourse with God, than in
fulfilling the social duties of life, and in acts of benevo¬
lence and humanity to mankind. Nothing can be more
evident indeed than that the Scripture reckons the fulfil¬
ling of these infinitely superior to the observance of all
the ceremonies which can he imagined. Yet it somehow
or other happens, that almost everybody is more inclined
to observe the ceremonial part of devotion than the mo¬
ral ; and hence, according to the different humours or con¬
stitutions of different persons, there have been number¬
less forms of Christianity, and the most virulent conten¬
tions amongst those who professed themselves followers
of the Prince of Peace. It is obvious, that if the moral
conduct of Christians was to be made the standard of
faith, instead of speculative opinions, all these divisions
must cease in a moment; but whilst Christianity, or any
part of it, is made to consist in speculation, or the obser¬
vance of ceremonies, it is impossible there can be any end
of sects or heresies. No opinion whatever is so absurd,
but some people have pretended to argue in its defence ;
no ceremony is so insignificant, but it has been explained
and sanctified by hot-headed enthusiasts ; and hence sects,
ceremonies, and absurdities, have been multiplied without
number, to the prejudice of society and the detriment of
the Christian religion. This short relation of the rise of
the Ascetic sect will also serve to account for the rise of
any other; so that we apprehend it is needless to enter
into particulars concerning the rest, as they all took their
origin from the same general principle variously modified,
according to the different dispositions of mankind.
The Ascetic sect originated in Egypt, whence k passed
into Syria and the neighbouring countries. At length it
reached the European nations; and hence that train of
austere and superstitious vows and rites which totally ob¬
scured, or rather annihilated, Christianity, together with
the celibacy of the clergy, and many other absurdities of
a similar description. The errors of the Ascetics, however,
did not stop here. In compliance with the doctrines of
some Pagan philosophers, they affirmed that it was not only
lawful, but even praiseworthy, to deceive, and to use the
expedient of a lie, in order to advance the cause of piety
and truth ; and hence the “ pious frauds” with which the
church of Rome has been so often reproached.
In proportion as Christians thus deviated from the true
practice, they became more zealous in the external pro¬
fession of their religion. Anniversary festivals were ce¬
lebrated in commemoration of the death and resurrection
of Christ, and of the effusion of the Holy Ghost on the
apostles. But concerning the days on which these festi¬
vals were to be kept there arose violent contests. The
Asiatic churches in general differed in this point from
those of Europe; and towards the conclusion of the se¬
cond century, Victor, bishop of Rome, took it into his head
to force the eastern churches to follow the rules laid down
by those of the West. But this they absolutely refused
to comply withal, upon which Victor cut them off from
communion with the church of Rome; though, by the in¬
tercession of some prudent persons, the difference was Ecd ,j,
temporarily composed. ticallJ
Dux-ing most of the third century the Christians were t0 ]
allowed to enjoy their religion, such as it was, without v,,,~ J I
molestation. The emperors Maximinus and Decius, in¬
deed, made them feel all the rigours of a severe persecu¬
tion ; but the reigns of these persecutors were short, and
from the death of Decius till the time of Diocletian the
church enjoyed tranquillity. Vast multitudes were accord¬
ingly converted; but at the same time the doctrine of the
church grew daily more corrupt, and the lives of profess¬
ed Christians became more wicked and scandalous. New
ceremonies were invented in great numbers, and an un¬
accountable passion prevailed for the oriental superstitions
concerning daemons, whence sprung the whole train of ex¬
orcisms, spells, and fears for the apparition of evil spirits,
which are not yet entirely eradicated. From the same
source was also derived the custom of avoiding all connec¬
tions with those who were not baptized, or who lay under
the penalty of excommunication, as persons supposed to
be under the dominion of some evil spirit; and hence the
rigorous severity of that discipline and penance imposed
upon those who had incurred, by their immoralities, the
censure of the church. Several alterations were now
made in the manner of celebrating the eucharist. The
prayers used on this occasion were lengthened, the so¬
lemnity and pomp with which it was attended were con¬
siderably increased, and gold and silver vessels were used
in its celebration. It was now thought essential to salva¬
tion, and for that reason administered even to infants. 1
Baptism was celebrated twice a year to such as, after a
long course of trial and preparations, offered themselves
as candidates for admission into the church. The remis¬
sion of sins was believed to be its immediate consequence,
whilst the bishop, by prayer and imposition of hands, was
supposed to confer those sanctifying gifts of the Holy
Spirit which were necessary to a life of righteousness and
virtue. An evil daemon was supposed naturally to reside in
every person, and was accounted the author and source of
all the corrupt dispositions and unrighteous actions of that
person. The expulsion of this daemon therefore formed an
essential requisite for baptism; and hence the baptized
persons returned home clothed in white garments, and
adorned with crowns, as sacred emblems, the former of
their inward purity and innocence, and the latter of their
victory over sin and the world. Fasting began now to be
held in more esteem than formerly. A high degree of
sanctity was attributed to this practice ; it was even looked
upon as indispensably necessary, from a notion that the
daemons directed their force chiefly against those who
pampered themselves with delicious fare, and were less
troublesome to the lean and hungry who lived under the
severities of a rigorous abstinence. The sign of the cross
was also supposed to possess a victorious power over
all sorts of trials and calamities ; it was more especially
considered as the surest defence against the snares and
stratagems of malignant spirits; and for this reason no
Christian undertook any thing of moment, without arm¬
ing himself, as he imagined, with the power of this tri¬
umphant sign. The heresies which troubled the church
during this century were those of the Gnostics, whose
doctrines were new-modelled and improved by Manes,
the founder of the Manicheans, the Hieracites, Noetians,
Sabellians, and Novations ; but for a particular account of
these sects, the reader is referred to the articles under
their respective names.
The fourth century is remarkable for the establishment
of Christianity by law in the Roman empire, which took
place in the year 324. In the beginning of this century
the empire was governed by four chiefs ; Diocletian, Maxi-
mian, Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius, under whom the
HISTORY.
}] •sias- church enjoyed complete toleration. Diocletian, though
tii His- much addicted to superstition, entertained no hatred of
7- the Christians; and Constantius Chlorus, having abandon-
^ ed polytheism, treated them with condescension and be¬
nevolence. This alarmed the Pagan priests, whose inte¬
rests were so closely connected with the continuance of
the ancient superstitions, and who apprehended, not with¬
out reason, that the Christian religion would at length
prevail throughout the empire. To prevent the downfall
of the Pagan superstition, therefore, they applied to Dio¬
cletian and Galerius Caesar, by whom a bloody persecu¬
tion was commenced in the year 303, and continued till
311. An asylum, however, was opened for the Christians
in the year 304. Galerius having dethroned Diocletian
and Maximian, declared himself emperor in the East,
leaving to Constantius Chlorus all the western provinces,
to which great numbers of Christians resorted to avoid
the cruelty of the persecutor. But Galerius being at
length overtaken with a dreadful and incurable disease,
published an edict ordering the persecution to cease, and
restoring freedom to the Christians, whom, for eight years,
he had most inhumanly oppressed. Galerius died the same
year; and in a short time afterwards, when Constantine
the Great ascended the throne, the Christians were freed
from any further uneasiness, by his abrogating all the pe¬
nal laws enacted against them, and afterwards issuing
edicts by which no other religion than the Christian was
tolerated throughout the empire.
But this event, so favourable to the outward peace of
the church, was far from promoting its internal harmony,
or the reformation of its leaders. The clergy, who had
all this time been augmenting their power at the expense
of the liberty of the people, now set no bounds to their
ambition. The bishop of Rome was the first in rank, and
distinguished by a sort of pre-eminence above the rest of
the prelates. He surpassed all his brethren in the mag¬
nificence and splendour of the church over which he pre¬
sided, in the riches of his revenues and possessions, in the
number and variety of his ministers, in his credit with the
people, and in his sumptuous and splendid manner of liv¬
ing. Hence it happened, that when a new pontiff was to
be chosen by the presbyters and people, the city of Rome
was generally agitated with dissensions, tumults, and ca¬
bals, which often produced fatal consequences. The in¬
trigues and disturbances which prevailed in that city in
the year 366, when, upon the death of Liberius, another
pontiff was to be chosen in his room, are a sufficient proof
of what we have advanced. Upon that occasion, one fac¬
tion elected Damasus to that high dignity; whilst the
opposite party chose Ursicinus, a deacon of the vacant
church, to succeed Liberius. This double election gave
rise to a dangerous schism, and to a sort of civil war with¬
in the city of Rome, which was carried on with the ut¬
most fury and barbarity, and produced the most cruel
massacres and desolations. The inhuman contest ended
in the victory of Damasus; but whether his cause was
more or less just than that of Ursicinus, cannot now be
determined with any degree of certainty.
Notwithstanding the pomp and splendour which sur¬
rounded the Roman see, it appears that the bishops of
Rome had not yet acquired that pre-eminence of power
and jurisdiction which they afterwards enjoyed. In the
ecclesiastical commonwealth, indeed, they were the most
eminent order of citizens ; but still they were citizens as
well as their brethren, and subject, like them, to the lawrs
and edicts of the emperors. All religious causes of extra¬
ordinary importance were examined and determined either
by judges appointed by the emperors, or in councils as¬
sembled for that purpose ; whilst those of inferior moment
were decided in each district by its respective bishop.
The ecclesiastical laws were enacted either by the emperor
491
or by the councils. None of the bishops acknowledged that Ecclesias-
they derived their authority from the permission and ap- tfcal His-
pointment of the bishop of Rome, or that they were creat- tor.v-
ed bishops by the favour of the Apostolic See. On the
contrary, they all maintained that they were the ambassa¬
dors and ministers of Jesus Christ, and that their authority
was derived from above. It must, however, be observed,
that even in this century several of those steps were laid
by which the bishops of Rome afterwards ascended to
the summit of ecclesiastical power and authority. This
happened partly by the imprudence of the emperors, part¬
ly by the dexterity of the Roman prelates themselves, and
partly by the inconsiderate zeal and precipitate judgment
of certain bishops. The imprudence of the emperor, and
the precipitation of the bishops, were remarkably discover¬
ed in an event which greatly favoured the ambition of the
Roman pontilf. About the year 372, Valentinian enacted
a law, empowering the bishop of Rome to examine and
judge other bishops, in order that religious disputes might
not be decided by any profane or secular judges. The
bishops assembled in council at Rome in 378, not consider¬
ing the consequences which might ensue from this impru¬
dent law, both to themselves and to the church, declared
their approbation in the strongest terms, and recommend¬
ed the execution of it in their address to the emperor
Gratian. Some think, indeed, that this law empowered
the bishop of Rome to judge only the bishops within the
limits of his jurisdiction ; but others are of opinion that
his power was given only for a certain time, and for a par¬
ticular purpose. This last notion seems the most probable ;
but still the privilege in question must have proved an ex¬
cellent instrument for the advancement of sacerdotal am¬
bition. :l
By the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople,
the emperor raised up, in the bishop of this new metro¬
polis, a formidable opponent to the bishop of Rome, and
erected a bulwark which threatened a vigorous opposition
to his growing authority. For as the emperor, desiring to
render Constantinople a second Rome, enriched it with all
the rights and privileges, honours and ornaments, of the
ancient capital of the world ; so its bishop, measuring his
own dignity and rank by the magnificence of the new city,
and its eminence as the seat of empire, assumed an equal
degree of authority with the bishop of Rome, and claimed a
superiority over the rest of the episcopal order. Nor did
the emperors disapprove of these high pretensions, since
they considered their own dignity as connected in a cer¬
tain measure with that of the bishop of the imperial city.
Accordingly, in a council held at Constantinople in the
year 381, by the authority of Theodosius the Great, the
bishop of that city was, during the absence of the bishop
of Alexandria, and against the consent of the Roman pon¬
tiff, placed, by the third canon of that council, in the first
rank after the bishop of Rome, and consequently above
those of Alexandria and Antioch. Nectarius was the first
bishop who enjoyed the new honours accumulated on the
see of Constantinople. His successor, the celebrated John
Chrysostom, extended still further the privileges of that
see, and submitted to its jurisdiction all Thrace, Asia, and
Pontus ; nor were the succeeding bishops of the imperial
city destitute of a fervent zeal to augment their privileges
and extend their dominion. By this unexpected promo¬
tion, however, the most disagreeable effects were produ¬
ced. The bishops of Alexandria were not only filled with
the most inveterate hatred against those of Constantinople,
but a contention was excited between the bishops of Rome
and Constantinople, which, after being carried on for ages,
terminated at last in the separation of the Greek and Latin
churches.
Constantine the Great, in order to prevent civil commo¬
tions, and to fix his authority on a stable and solid founda-
492
HISTORY.
Ecclesias- tion, made several changes not only in the laws of the em-
1Ctory*1S’ pire’ but .also in the form of the Roman government. And
many important reasons induced him to adapt the ad¬
ministration of the church to these changes in the civil
constitution, this necessarily introduced amongst the bishops
new degrees of rank and eminence. The four bishops, of
Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, were dis¬
tinguished by a certain degree of pre-eminence over the
rest. These four prelates answered to the four prsetorian
prefects created by Constantine ; and it is possible, that
even in this century they were distinguished by the Jewish
title of patriarchs. After them followed the exarchs, who
had the inspection of several provinces, and answered to
the appointment of certain civil officers who bore the same
title. In a lower class were the metropolitans, who had
only the government of one province ; under whom were
the archbishops, whose inspection was confined to certain
districts. In this gradation the bishops brought up the
rear ; but the sphere of their authority was not in all places
equally extensive, being in some considerable, and in others
confined within narrow limits. To these various ecclesias¬
tical orders we might add that of the Chorepiscopi, or su¬
perintendents of the country churches ; but this last order
was in most places suppressed by the bishops, with the de¬
sign of extending their own authority, and enlarging the
sphere of their own power and jurisdiction. The adminis¬
tration of the church itself was divided by Constantine into
an external and internal inspection. The latter, which was
committed to bishops and councils, related to religious
controversies, the forms of divine worship, the offices of
piiests, the vices of the ecclesiastical orders, and other
matters. The external administration of the church the
emperor assumed to himself. This comprehended all those
things which related to its outward state and discipline; it
likewise extended to all contests which might arise be¬
tween the ministers of the church, superior as well as in¬
ferior, concerning their possessions, their reputation, their
rights and privileges, their offences against the laws, and
other matters, but no controversies which related to mat¬
ters purely spiritual were cognizable by this external in¬
spection. In consequence of this artful division of the ec¬
clesiastical government, Constantine and his successors
called councils, presided in them, appointed the judges of
religious controversies, terminated the differences which
arose between the bishops and the people, fixed the limits
ot the ecclesiastical provinces, took cognizance of the civil
causes which originated between the ministers of the church,
and punished the crimes committed against the laws by the
ordinary judges appointed for that purpose, giving over all
causes purely ecclesiastical to the bishops and councils.
Jnit this division of the administration of the church was
never explained with sufficient accuracy ; and hence both
in the fourth and fifth centuries there are frequent instances
of the emperors determining matters purely ecclesiastical,
and likewise of bishops and councils determining matters
of the church merely ^ ^ eXternal form and government
After the time of Constantine many additions were
made by the emperors and others to the wealth and ho¬
nours of the clergy; and these additions were followed
by a proportional increase of their vices and luxury, par-
ticularly amongst those who lived in great and opulent
U ’ ^ lollops, on the one hand, contended with
pv tpn t f f1/1 • 16 most; scandalous manner concerning the
other thl tetr rfspectlvf jurisdictions; whilst, on the
tl o nriv l/ fPed.0" the riShts of the People, violated
c Xt 1 gd • °ii ]e lnfen0r der^’ aud i^ted in their
conduct and in their manner of living the arrogance, vo-
uptuousness, and luxury of magistrates and princes. This
pernicious example was soon followed by the several ec-
clesiastical orders. The presbyters, in "many places, as¬
sumed an equality with the bishops in point of rank and Eccle
nuthonty. Many complaints are also made by the authors ticalf
of this century concerning the vanity and effeminacy of t0r}
the deacons. Those more particularly of the presbyters V'*'v
and deacons who filled the first stations of these orders,
carried their pretensions to an extravagant length, and
were offended at the notion of being placed on an equa¬
lity with their colleagues. For this reason they not only
assumed the titles of Archpresbyters and Archdeacons,
but also claimed a degree of authority and power much
superior to that which was vested in the other members of
their respective orders.
. fifth century, the bishops of Constantinople hav¬
ing already reduced under their jurisdiction all the Asia¬
tic provinces, began to aim at a still further increase of
power. By the twenty-eighth canon of the council held
at Ghalcedon in 4ol, it was resolved that the same rights
and honours which had been conferred upon the bishop of
Rome were due to the bishop of Constantinople, on ac¬
count of the equal dignity and lustre of the two cities in
which these prelates exercised their authority. The same
council by a solemn act confirmed the bishop of Constan¬
tinople in the spiritual government of those provinces over
which he had usurped the jurisdiction. Leo the Great,
bishop of Rome, opposed with vehemence the enactment
of these laws ; and his opposition was seconded by that
of several other prelates. But their efforts were vain, as
the emperors threw in their weight into the balance, and
thus supported the decisions of the Grecian *bishops. In
virtue of the decisions of this famous council, therefore,
the bishop of Constantinople began to contend obstinate¬
ly with the Roman pontiff for the supremacy, and to crush
the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria. About the same
time, Juvenal, bishop of Jerusalem, attempted to withdraw
himself and his church from the jurisdiction of the bishop
of Caesarea, and aspired to a place amongst the first pre¬
lates of the Christian world. The high degree of venera¬
tion and esteem in which the church of Jerusalem was
held amongst all the other Christian societies, on account
of its rank amongst the apostolical churches, and its title
to the appellation of mother church, as having succeeded
the first Christian assembly formed by the apostles, was
extremely favourable to the ambition of Juvenal, and ren¬
dered his project much more practicable than it would
otherwise have been. Encouraged by this, and likewise
by the protection of Theodosius the younger, this aspir¬
ing prelate not only assumed the dignity of patriarch of
all Palestine, a rank which rendered him independent of
all spiritual authority; but also invaded the rights of the
bishop of Antioch, and usurped his jurisdiction over the
provinces of Phoenicia and Arabia. Hence there arose
between Juvenal, and Maximus bishop of Antioch, a warm
contest, which the council of Chalcedon decided, by re¬
storing to the latter the provinces of Phoenicia and Ara¬
bia, and confirming the former in the spiritual possession
of all Palestine, and in the high rank which he had assum¬
ed in the church.
In .588, John, bishop of Constantinople, surnamed the
taster, either by his own authority, or by that of the em¬
peror Mauritius, summoned a council at Constantinople,
to inquire into an accusation brought against Gregory,
bishop of Antioch ; and upon this occasion he assumed
the title of CEcumenical or Universal Bishop. This title
had been formerly enjoyed by the bishop of Constantinople
without any offence; but Gregory the Great, at that time
bishop of Rome, suspecting that John was aiming at esta¬
blishing supremacy over all the churches, opposed his
claim with the greatest vigour. For this purpose he ap¬
plied by letters to the emperor, and others whom he
thought capable of assisting him in his opposition ; but all
his efforts were without effect; and the bishops of Con-
HISTORY.
493
ias- stantinople were allowed to enjoy the disputed title,
tis- though not in the sense which had alarmed the Roman
pon tiff.
^ Gregory, however, adhered tenaciously to his purpose;
raised new tumults and dissensions amongst the clergy;
and aimed at nothing less than an unlimited supremacy
over the Christian church. This ambitious design suc¬
ceeded in the West; but in the eastern provinces his arro¬
gant pretensions were scarcely respected by any except¬
ing those who were at enmity with the bishop of Constan¬
tinople. How much the people were at this time deluded
by the Roman pontiffs, appears from the expression of
Ennodius, one of the flatterers of Symmachus, a prelate
of but ambiguous fame, that the Roman pontiff was con¬
stituted judge in the place of God, and acted as the vice¬
gerent of the Most High. On the other hand, from a
variety of authentic records, it may be concluded that
both the emperors and the nations in general were far
from being disposed to bear with patience the yoke of
servitude which the see of Rome was thus labouring to
impose on the whole church.
In the beginning of the seventh century, according to
the most learned historians, Boniface III. engaged Phocas,
emperor of Constantinople, to deprive the bishop of that
metropolis of the title of oecumenical or universal bishop,
and to confer it upon the Roman pontiff; and thus was
first introduced the supremacy of the pope. Meanwhile
the Roman pontiffs employed every method to maintain
and enlarge their authority and pre-eminence.
In the eighth century, the power of the bishop of Rome,
and of the clergy in general, increased prodigiously. The
principal cause of, this was the method at that time em¬
ployed by the European princes to secure themselves on
their thrones. All these princes being then occupied either
in usurpation or in self-defence, and the whole Continent
being in the most unsettled and barbarous condition, they
endeavoured to attach to their interests those whom they
considered as their friends and clients. With this view
they distributed amongst the latter extensive territories,
cities, and fortresses, with the various rights and privileges
belonging to them; reserving only to themselves the su¬
preme dominion, and the military service of these power¬
ful vassals. Hence the European princes reckoned it a
high instance of political prudence to distribute amongst
the bishops and other Christian doctors the same sort of
donations which had formerly been given to their generals
and clients. By means of the clergy, they hoped to check
the seditious and turbulent spirits of their vassals, and to
maintain them in obedience by the influence and autho¬
rity of their bishops, whose commands were highly re¬
spected, and whose spiritual thunderbolts, rendered for¬
midable by ignorance, struck terror into the boldest and
most resolute hearts.
This prodigious accession to the opulence and authority
of the clergy in the West began at their head, the Roman
pontiff; and from him it descended, spreading gradually
amongst the inferior sacerdotal orders. The barbarous na¬
tions who had received the gospel looked upon the bishop of
Rome as the successor of their chief druid or high priest;
and as this druid had, under the darkness of Paganism,
enjoyed boundless authority, so these barbarous nations
thought proper to confer upon the supreme pontiff the
same authority which had belonged to the chief druid.
I he pope received these august privileges with undisguis¬
ed satisfaction; and lest attempts should be made to de¬
prive him thereof, he strengthened his titles to these extra¬
ordinary honours by a variety of passages drawn from an¬
cient history, and even by arguments of a religious nature.
This increased the power of the pope enormously, and
gave to the see of Rome that high pre-eminence and des¬
potic authority in civil and political matters which were
unknown to former ages. Hence, amongst other unhap- Ecclesias-
py circumstances, arose the pernicious opinion, that such tical H18-
persons as were excluded from the communion of the tor^'
church by the pontiff himself, or by any of the bishops,
forfeited not only their civil rights and advantages as ci¬
tizens, but even the common claims and privileges of hu¬
manity. This monstrous opinion, which proved a fatal
source of wars, massacres, and rebellions, and which con¬
tributed more than any thing else to confirm and aug¬
ment the papal authority, was borrowed by the clergy
from the Pagan superstitions. Though, from the time of
Constantine the Great, excommunication was, in every
part of the Christian world, attended with many disagree¬
able consequences, yet its highest terrors were confined
to Europe, where its aspect was truly formidable and hi¬
deous. But in the eighth century it acquired a new acces¬
sion of terror ; and from that period the excommunication
practised in Europe differed entirely from that which was
in use in other parts of Christendom. Excommunicated
persons were indeed considered in all places as objects of
hatred both to God and man ; but they were not on that
account robbed of the privileges of citizens, nor of the
rights of humanity ; much less were those kings and prin¬
ces, whom an insolent bishop had thought proper to ex¬
clude from the communion of the church, supposed to for¬
feit on that account their crowns or their territories. But
from this century it was quite otherwise in Europe. Ex-
communication received that plenary power which dissolv¬
ed all connections ; those whom the bishops or their head
excluded from church communion were degraded to a level
with the beasts. This unnatural power took its origin in
an ignorant misconception. Upon the conversion of the
barbarous nations to Christianity, these proselytes con¬
founded the excommunication in use amongst Chris¬
tians with that which had been practised in the times of
Paganism, and which was attended with all the dreadful
effects above mentioned. The Roman pontiffs, on the
other hand, were too artful not to encourage this error ;
and hence they employed all sorts of means to gain credit
to an opinion so well calculated to gratify their ambition,
and to aggrandize the episcopal order.
The annals of the French nation furnish us with an in¬
stance of the enormous power which was at this time
vested in the Roman pontiff. Pepin, who was mayor of
the palace to Childeric III. king of France, and who in the
exercise of that high office possessed in reality the royal
power and authority, aspired to the titles and honours of
majesty, and formed a scheme for dethroning his sovereign.
For this purpose he assembled the states in 751; and
although they were devoted to the interests of the ambi¬
tious usurper, they gave it as their opinion that the bishop
of Rome was previously to be consulted whether the exe¬
cution of such a scheme was lawful or the contrary. Am¬
bassadors were accordingly sent by Pepin to Zachary, the
reigning pontiff, with the following question : “ Whether
the divine law did not permit a valiant and warlike people
to dethrone a pusillanimous and indolent prince, who was
incapable of discharging any of the functions of royalty,
and to substitute in his place one more worthy to rule,
and who had already rendered most important services to
the state ?” The situation of Zachary, who stood much
in need of the succours of Pepin against the Greeks and
Lombards, rendered his answer such as the usurper desir¬
ed ; and when this favourable decision of the Roman pon¬
tiff was published in France, the unhappy Childeric was
stripped of his royalty without the least opposition, and
Pepin stepped into the throne of his sovereign and mas¬
ter. This decision was solemnly confirmed by Stephen
II. the successor of Zachary, who undertook a journey
into France in the year 754, in order to solicit assistance
against the Lombards. The pontiff at the same time dis-
494
HISTORY.
Ecclesias- solved the obligation of the oath of fidelity and allegiance
tical His- which Pepin had violated by his usurpation in the year
tory. . ancj tQ rencjer [)js titie t{ie C|-0wn as sacred as pos-
sible, Stephen anointed and crowned him, with his wife
and two sons, for the second time. This complaisance of
the pope was rewarded with the exarchate of Ravenna
and all its dependencies, as has already been related.
In the succeeding centuries, the Roman pontiffs conti¬
nued by every means to increase their power ; and by con¬
tinually taking advantage of the civil dissensions which
prevailed throughout Italy, France, and Germany, their
influence in civil affairs rose to an enormous height. The
increase of their authority in religious matters was not
less rapid. The wisest and the most impartial amongst the
Roman Catholic writers acknowledge, that from the time
of Louis the Meek the ancient rules of ecclesiastical go¬
vernment were gradually changed in Europe by the coun¬
sels and instigation of the church of Rome, and new laws
substituted in their stead. The European princes suffer¬
ed themselves to be divested of the supreme authority in
religious matters, which they had derived from Charle¬
magne ; the power of the bishops was greatly diminished,
and even the authority of both provincial and general
councils began to decline. The popes, elated with their
overgrown power, and rendered arrogant by the daily ac¬
cessions which were made to their authority, sought to
establish the maxim, that the bishop of Rome was consti¬
tuted and appointed by Jesus Christ as supreme legislator
and judge of the universal church, and that consequently
the bishops derived all their authority from him. This
opinion, which they inculcated with the utmost zeal and
ardour, was opposed in vain by such as were acquainted
with the ancient ecclesiastical constitutions, and the go¬
vernment of the church in the primitive ages. But in
order to gain credit to this new ecclesiastical code, and
to support the pretensions of the popes to supremacy, it
was necessary to produce the authority of ancient deeds,
in order to sfyut the mouths of such as were disposed to
set bounds to their usurpations. The bishops of Rome
were aware of this ; and as all means were looked upon as
lawful which tended to the accomplishment of their de¬
signs, they employed some of their most ingenious and
zealous partisans in forging conventions, acts of councils,
epistles, and such like records, by which it might appear
that in the first ages of the church the Roman pontiffs
were clothed with the same spiritual majesty and supreme
authority which they now assumed. There were not
wanting amongst the bishops, however, some men of pru¬
dence and sagacity, who saw through these pious frauds,
and perceived the chains which were forging both for
them and for the church. The French bishops distin¬
guished themselves eminently in this respect; but their
opposition was soon quashed ; and as all Europe had sunk
in the grossest ignorance and darkness, none remained
who were capable of detecting these- impostures, or dis¬
posed to support the expiring liberty of the church. It
is proper to add, however, that these grievous charges
are strenuously denied by Catholic writers.
In the eleventh century the power of the bishops of
Rome seems to have attained its utmost height. They
now received the pompous titles of masters of the world,
and popes, or universal fathers. They presided everv-
whei e in the councils by their legates, assumed the au-
t lonty of supreme arbiters in all controversies which
arose concerning religion or church discipline, and main¬
tained the pretended rights of. the church against the en¬
croachments and usurpations of kings and princes. Their
authority, however, was confined within certain limits.
n the one hand, it was restrained by sovereign princes,
that it might not arrogantly aim at civil dominion; and
on the other, it was opposed by the bishops themselves,
that it might not degenerate into a spiritual despotism, Ecclel
and utterly destroy the privileges and liberty of synods tical: f
and councils. From the time of Leo IX. the popes em- t01!!
ployed every method which ambition could suggest to
remove those limits, and to render their dominion both
despotic and universal. They not only aspired to the
character of supreme legislators in the church, to an un¬
limited jurisdiction over all synods and councils, whether
general or provincial, and to the sole distribution of all
ecclesiastical honours and benefices, as divinely autho¬
rized and appointed for that purpose; but they carried
their pretensions so far as to give themselves out as lords
of the universe, arbiters of the fate of kingdoms and em¬
pires, and supreme rulers over the kings and princes of
the earth. Hence we find instances of their giving away
kingdoms, and loosing subjects from their allegiance to
their sovereigns, as in the case of King John of England.
They even assumed the whole earth as their property, as
well where Christianity was planted as where it was not.
Accordingly, on the discovery of America and the East
Indies, the pope, by virtue of this spiritual property, grant¬
ed to the Portuguese a right to all the countries lying to the
eastward, and to the Spaniards a right to all those lying
to the westward, of Cape Non in Africa, which they were
able to conquer by force of arms.
During all this time superstition reigned triumphant
over the remains of Christianity which had escaped the
corruptions of the first four centuries. In the fifth century
commenced the invocation of the happy souls of departed
saints. I heir assistance was entreated by fervent prayers,
whilst none stood up in opposition to this preposterous kind
of worship. The images of those who during their lives had
acquired the reputation of uncommon sanctity, were now
honoured with a particular homage in several places; and
many ignorant persons imagined that this drew into the
images the propitious presence of the saints or celestial
beings whom they were supposed to represent. A sin¬
gular efficacy was attributed to the bones of martyrs, and
to the figure of the cross, in defeating all the attempts of
Satan, removing all sorts of calamities, and in healing not
only the diseases of the body, but also those of the mind.
The famous Pagan doctrine concerning the purification of
departed souls by means of a certain kind of purgation,
was also confirmed and explained more fully than it had
formerly been ; and it is well known of how' much conse¬
quence this doctrine at one time proved to the wealth and
the power of the church of Rome.
In the sixth century Gregory the Great advanced an
opinion, that all the words of the sacred writings were
images of invisible and spiritual things; and for this rea¬
son he loaded the churches with a multitude of ceremo¬
nies the most insignificant and futile that can well be ima¬
gined. Hence arose a new and most difficult science,
namely, the explication of these ceremonies, and the in¬
vestigation of the causes and circumstances whence they
derived their origin. A new method was contrived of ad¬
ministering the Lord’s Supper, with a magnificent assem¬
blage of pompous ceremonies. This was called the Canon
of the Mass. Baptism, excepting in cases of necessity, was
administered only on the great festivals. An incredible
number of temples were erected in honour of the saints,
f he places set apart for public worship were also very nu¬
merous. But now they were considered as the means of
purchasing the protection and favour of the saints; and
the ignorant and barbarous multitude were persuaded that
these departed spirits defended and guarded against evils
and calamities of every kind, the provinces, lands, cities,
and villages in which they were honoured with temples.
The number of these temples was almost equalled by that of
the festivals, which were increased beyond all bounds, and
formed a grievous deduction from the time of the people.
HISTORY. 495
, sias- In the seventh century religion seemed to be altoge- they arose in the minds of the people. But their attempts Ecclesias-
lls‘ ther buried under a heap of superstitious ceremonies ; the were ineffectual; nor could the dreadful apprehensions of ^is-
worship of the true God and Saviour of the world was ex- the superstitious multitude be removed until the end of the tor-v'
changed for that of bones, relics, and images. The eter- century, when this terror became one of the accidental
nal state of misery threatened in Scripture to- the wicked causes of the Crusades.
was commuted for the temporary punishment of purgatory ; That nothing might now be wanting to complete the
and the expressions of faith in Christ by an upright and system of religion which had overspread all Europe, it was
virtuous conduct, for the augmentation of the riches of the in the eleventh century determined that divine worship
clergy by donations to the church, and the observance of should be celebrated in the Latin tongue, though now al-
a heap of idle ceremonies. New festivals were still added ; most unknown. During the whole of this century, also,
one in particular was instituted in honour of the true cross Christians were employed in rebuilding and ornamenting
on which our Saviour had suffered; and churches were their churches, which they had destroyed through the su-
declared to be sanctuaries to all who fled to them, what- perstitious fears which have already been noticed,
ever their crimes might have been. Matters went on in much the same way till the time of
Superstition, it would seem, had now attained its high- the Reformation. The clergy were immersed in sloth, ig-
est pitch ; nor is it easy to conceive any degree of ignorance norance, and vice ; and the laity, imagining themselves
and degeneracy greater than that which we have already able to purchase the pardon of their sins for money, followed
mentioned. If any thing can possibly be imagined more the examples of their pastors without remorse. The ab-
contrary to true religion, it is an opinion which prevailed surd principle formerly mentioned, that religion consists
in the eighth century, that Christians might appease an of- in acts of austerity, and an unknown mental correspon-
fended deity by voluntary acts of mortification, or by gifts dence with God, produced the most extravagant and ridi-
and oblations lavished on the church; and that people culous effects in the conduct of devotees and reputed
ought to place their confidence in the works and merits of saints. They not only lived amongst the wild beasts, but
the saints. Piety in this and some succeeding ages con- also after the manner of these savage animals; they ran
sisted in building and embellishing chapels; in endowing naked through the lonely deserts with a furious aspect,
monasteries and basilicas; in hunting after the relics of and all the agitations of frenzy; they prolonged their
saints and martyrs, and treating them with an absufd and wretched life by grass and wild herbs, avoided the sight
excessive veneration ; in procuring the intercession of the and conversation of men, remained almost motionless in
saints by rich oblations or superstitious rites ; and in pil- ^certain places for several years, exposed to the rigour and
grimages to those places which were esteemed holy, parti- inclemency of the seasons, and towards the conclusion of
cularly to Palestine. The genuine religion of Jesus was their lives shut themselves up in narrow and miserable
now in a great measure unknown both to clergy and peo- cells. But of all the instances of superstitious fanaticism
pie. In this century also the superstitious custom of soli- which disgraced the times we are now speaking of, none
tary masses had its origin. These were celebrated by the was held in higher veneration, or excited more the won-
priest alone in behalf of the souls detained in purgatory, as der of the multitude, than that of a certain order of men
well as upon other occasions. They were prohibited by who were called Stylites by the Greeks, and Sancti Co-
the laws of the church, but proved a source of immense lumnares, or Pillar Saints, by the Latins. These were
wealth to the clergy. Under Charlemagne they were con- persons of a singular and extravagant turn of mind, who
demned by a synod assembled at Mentz, as the result of stood motionless on the tops of pillars raised expressly for
avarice and sloth. A new superstition, however, sprung this exercise of their patience, and remained there for se-
up in the tenth century. It was imagined that Antichrist veral years amidst the admiration and applause of the po-
was to mak? his appearance upon the earth, and that soon pulace. The inventor of this strange discipline was one
afterwards the world itself would be destroyed. An uni- Simeon, a Syrian, who commenced his career by exchanging
yersal panic ensued. Vast numbers of people, abandon- the agreeable employment of a shepherd for the austerities
ing all their connections in society, and giving over to the of a monkish life. He began his devotion on the top of a
churches and monasteries all their worldly effects, repaired pillar six cubits high; but as he increased in sanctity, he
to Palestine, where they imagined that Christ would de- also augmented the height of his pillar, till, tow ards the con-
scend from heaven to judge the world; whilst others de- elusion of his life, he had established his piety on the top
voted themselves by a solemn and voluntary oath to the of a pillar forty cubits in height. Many of the inhabitants
service of the churches, convents, and priesthood. All this of Syria and Palestine, seduced by a false ambition and an
proceeded from a notion that the supreme Judge would utter ignorance of true religion, followed the example of
diminish the severity of their sentence, and look upon them this fanatic, though not with the same degree of austerity,
with a more favourable eye, on account of their having This superstitious practice began in the fifth century, and
made themselves the servants of his ministers. When an continued in the East for nearly six hundred years. The
eclipse of the sun or moon happened to be visible, the ci- Latins, however, had too much wisdom and prudence to
ties wrere deserted, and their miserable inhabitants, flying imitate the Syrians and orientals in this whimsical super¬
ior refuge to hollow caverns, hid themselves amongst the stition ; and when a certain fanatic or impostor named
craggy rocks, and under the bending summits of steep Wulfilaicus erected one of these pillars in the country of
mountains. Jhe opulent attempted to bribe the saints Treves, and proposed to live upon it after the manner of
and the Deity himself by rich donations conferred upon Simeon, the neighbouring bishops ordered it to be pulled
tne sacerdotal order, who wrere looked upon as the imme- down.
diate vicegerents of heaven. In many places, temples, The practices of austere worship and discipline in other
pa aces, and noble edifices, both public and private, were respects, however, gained ground throughout all parts of
suffered to decay, or were deliberately pulled down, from Christendom. Monks of various kinds were to be found
a notion that they were no longer of any use, as the final in every country in prodigious numbers. But though
issolution of all things was at hand. In a word, no lan- their discipline was at first exceedingly severe, it became
guage is sufficient to express the confusion and despair gradually relaxed, and the monks gave in to all the pre-
w ich tormented the minds of miserable mortals upon vailing vices of the times. Other orders succeeded, who
at occasion. The general delusion was indeed opposed pretended to still greater degrees of sanctity, and to re
an combated by the discerning few, who endeavoured to form the abuses of the preceding ones ; but these in their
ispel these terrors, and to efface the notion from which turn became corrupted, and fell into the very same vices
496 H I S T O R Y.
Ecclesias- whicli they had blamed in others. The most violent animosi-
Ucal His- tjes> disputes, and hatreds, also reigned amongst the differ-
v_tor^' y ent orders of monks, as well as amongst the clergy of all
ranks and degrees, whether we consider them as classed in
different bodies, or as individuals of the same body. To
enter into a detail of their wfanglings and disputations, the
methods which each of them took to aggrandise them¬
selves at the expense of their neighbours, and to keep the
rest of mankind in subjection, would lead us far beyond
the limits prescribed to this rapid sketch. We may only
observe, that even the external profession of the austere
and absurd piety which took place in the fourth and fifth
centuries gradually declined. Some there were, indeed,
who boldly opposed the torrent of superstition and depra¬
vity which threatened to overflow the whole world ; but
their opposition proved fruitless, and towards the era of
the Reformation all of them had either been silenced or
destroyed.
Whilst superstition and degeneracy thus reigned in the
West, the absurd and sanguinary doctrines of Mahommed
overspread all the East. The rise of this impostor is re¬
lated elsewhere. (See Arabia.) His successors conquer¬
ed in order to establish the religion of their apostle ;
and thus the very name of Christianity was extinguished
in many places where it had formerly flourished. The
conquests of the Tartars having brought them in contact
with the Mahommedans, they greedily embraced the su¬
perstitions of that religion, which thus almost entirely over¬
spread the continents of Asia and Africa; and the con-.j
quest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 likewise es¬
tablished the faith of the Prophet throughout a consider¬
able part of Europe.
About the beginning of the sixteenth century the Ro¬
man pontiffs lived in the utmost tranquillity ; nor had they,
according to all appearance, any reason at that time to ft nr
an opposition to their authority in any respect, since the
commotions which had been raised by the Waldenses, Al-
bigenses, and other sects, were now entirely suppressed.
We must not, however, conclude from this apparent tran¬
quillity and security that the measures of the pontiffs were
universally applauded. Not only private persons, but even
the most powerful princes and sovereign states, exclaimed
loudly against the tyranny of the popes, and the unbridled
licentiousness of the clergy of all denominations ; and they
demanded, therefore, a reformation of the church, and the
assembling a general council to accomplish that necessary
purpose. But these demands were not successful in awa¬
kening attention to the full extent of the evil; and though
some of the more flagrant abuses were corrected, nothing
effectual was done to restore the wholesome rigour of eccle¬
siastical discipline. Besides, these complaints proceeded
from persons who never entertained any doubt respecting
the supreme authority of the pope in religious matters, and
who consequently, instead of attempting themselves to
bring about the reformation which they so ardently desir¬
ed, remained inactive, looking for redress to the court of
Rome, or to a general council. But whilst the reform ap¬
peared to be at a great distance, it suddenly arose from a
quarter whence it was not at all expected. A single per¬
son, Martin Luther, a monk of the order of St Augustin,
ventured to oppose himself to the whole weight of papal
power and authority. This bold attempt was first publicly
made on the 30th ot September 1517; and notwithstand¬
ing all the efforts of the pope and his adherents, the doc-
tiines of Luther continued daily to gain ground. Others,
also, encouraged by his success, lent their assistance in
the great and important work of reformation, which at
length produced churches, founded upon principles alto¬
gether different from that of Rome.
But on this subject it is unnecessary here to enter into
particulars. W e shall therefore conclude this section with
a few remarks on the power of the pope, ecclesiastically Eccles
considered. tical j ;
The ecclesiastical power of the pope may be considered to0
under three different aspects : his power and privileges as
bishop of the diocese of Rome ; his power and privileges
as patriarch of the West; and his power, privileges, and
rank, as supreme head of the Catholic church. As,’how¬
ever, it is generally in the last capacity that the pope is
considered in this country, we may observe, in the first
place, that the actual state of the papal power is the same
now as it ever was ; it can never change, although the ex¬
ercise of it may vary, and has varied, according to circum¬
stances. The power of the pope, though, in the belief of
the Catholic church, universally acknow ledged and respect¬
ed from the beginning, was less felt in the primitive ages,
when the lives and circumstances of Christians were such
as seldom to call for any other interference than that of
their immediate ecclesiastical superiors ; but, in proportion
as abuses crept in, and disputes, schisms, and heresies
arose, this power was exercised with a greater degree of
activity, and naturally attracted a greater share of public
attention. Hence it was exerted to its fullest extent dur¬
ing those ages of ignorance and anarchy into which Eu¬
rope was thrown by the invasions of the different hordes
of barbarians which followed the breaking up of the Ro¬
man empire. But, in proportion as order has been re¬
stored, and a greater degree of civilization introduced, the
exercise of the power of the pope as head of the Ca¬
tholic church has become more limited, because its in¬
terposition is less called for. In all ages, however, the
ecclesiastical power inherent in the pope as head of the
Catholic church has been the same, and must ever be so,
in the belief of that church, because, according to its
creed, the pope holds his power from God, through a con¬
tinued succession of predecessors downwards, and can
transmit to his successors in office neither more nor less
than what he has received. Now, the doctrine of the Ca¬
tholic church on the authority of the pope as its head may
be stated, in general terms, to be what it was defined in
the tenth session of the council of Florence, viz. “ That full
power was delegated to the bishop of Rome, in the person
of St Peter, to feed, regulate, and govern the universal
church, as expressed in the general councils and holy ca¬
nons.”
The doctrine of this council respecting the supremacy
of the pope may be stated in the words of Mr Butler, as
contained in his Book of the Roman Catholic Church, upon
the accuracy of which, as far as doctrine is concerned,
the most implicit reliance may, we believe, be placed. “ It
is an article of the Roman Catholic faith,” says he, “ that
the pope has, by divine right, ls£, a supremacy of rank;
2r/, a supremacy of jurisdiction in the spiritual concerns of
the Roman Catholic church ; and, 3(7, the principal autho¬
rity in defining articles of faith. In consequence of these
prerogatives, the pope holds a rank splendidly pre-eminent
over the highest dignitaries of the church ; he has a right
to convene councils, and preside over them by himself or
his legates, and to confirm the election of bishops. Every
ecclesiastical cause may be brought before him, as the last
resort, by appeal; he may promulgate definitions and for¬
mularies of faith to the universal church; and when the
general body, or a great majority of her prelates, have as¬
sented to them, either by formal consent or tacit assent, all
her members are bound to acquiesce in them. ‘ Rome,’
they say, in such a case, ‘ has spoken, and the cause is
determined.’ To the pope, in the opinion of all Roman
Catholics, belongs also a general superintendence of the
concerns of the church ; a right, when the canons provide
no line of action, to direct the proceedings, and, in extra¬
ordinary cases, to act in opposition to the canons. In
those spiritual concerns in which, by strict right, his au-
C w
HISTORY.
Co osi- thority is not definitive, he is entitled to the highest re-
ti of spect and deference.”
W These are the points which, as there is no dispute about
them, are admitted and believed by the Catholic church.
As to the different opinions of different divines, every
Catholic is at liberty to adopt or reject them, according as
his own judgment and reason may dictate. Has the pope
a controlling power over the whole church, should she
chance to oppose his decrees, and, consequently, over a
general council, her representative ? Has he the same
power, even in ordinary cases, over the canons of the uni¬
versal church ? Has he the power of calling all spirit¬
ual causes to his cognisance ; of evoking to himself, or to
judges appointed by him, any cause actually depending in
an ecclesiastical court ? Has he the power of constituting
and deposing bishops; of conferring all ecclesiastical dig¬
nities and benefices, in or out of his dominions, by para¬
mount authority ? Is he personally infallible when he
undertakes to issue a solemn decision upon any point of
faith ? In answer to these interrogatories, some say, yes;
others say, no. Both opinions are tolerated by the Ca¬
tholic church ; but, according to Butler, neither speaks its
faith. As to the question, whether the pope has a divine
right to the exercise, indirectly at least, of temporal
power, for effecting a spiritual good, it is no longer a sub¬
ject of discussion, since all parties have acquiesced in the
opinion of those who maintained that he has not; a proof
of which was given to Mr Pitt in 1788, in the answers
which were returned to his questions upon that head by
the universities of Louvain, Douay, Sorbonne, Alcala, and
Salamanca.
COMPOSITION OF HISTORY.
History has been defined, philosophy teaching by ex¬
amples. But this definition is too artificial. History may
exist apart from philosophy, just as philosophy may exist
apart from history. The alliance of these two is natural,
but not necessary. History, considered as a faithful re¬
cord of past experience, is no doubt fertile in instruction ;
it is a great magazine of facts from which, reasoning in¬
ductively, important conclusions may be deduced. But
the lights which the experience of the past may be made
to supply for the conduct of the future must not in strict¬
ness be confounded with the elements or materials out of
which they are struck; in other words, it is most desir¬
able to distinguish between the facts which it is the pecu¬
liar business of history to record, and the inferences or
general truths which they are calculated to evolve. Nar¬
ration is the primary, philosophising only the secondary
object of history. Every thing depends upon the accurate
arrangement and detail of events ; on preserving unbroken
the sequence which nature has established, and, at the
same time, distinguishing between mere coincidence in
time or in place, and accidental or necessary connection.
Hence radical truth is the foundation of history, the only
basis upon which a solid superstructure can be reared. But
historical truth consists of two parts ; first, not to state
what is in its own nature false ; and, secondly, not to omit
any thing which is true, and necessary to place the sub¬
ject in a clear and proper light. It is possible to tell the
truth, and yet to create a most erroneous impression by
not telling the whole truth. The most dangerous, be¬
cause the most insidious, mode of corrupting history and
misleading the judgments of mankind, is the suppression or
concealment of important circumstances, which, if known,
might give a totally different complexion to the actions or
events recorded; and, next to this in pernicious effect, is
the less glaring but equally dishonest artifice of giving a
disproportionate prominence to one feature of a character,
or one aspect of a subject, whilst others, which truth re-
vol. XI.
497
quires to be brought out in commensurate fulness and Composi-
relief, are either thrown into the shade, or so slightly tion of
touched as almost to escape observation. Of this last History,
vice, which, more than any other, is calculated to taint the
stream of history, Gibbon, in his narrative of the progres¬
sive diffusion of Christianity, presents a notorious and high¬
ly censurable example; exaggerating the faults, follies,
and errors of the early professors of that faith, without
making any account of their heroic fortitude under suffer¬
ing and persecution, and reserving all his sympathies for
material grandeur and barbaric splendour, whilst moral
greatness is treated with cold indifference or sarcastic
disdain.
But whilst strict truth is thus the grand and sole ob¬
ject of history, or that which distinguishes it from ro¬
mance on the one hand, and mere party declamation on
the other, it must be confessed that nothing is of more
difficult attainment, and that the highest faculties of the
human mind, moral as well as intellectual, are essentially
requisite to him who enters upon the search of it with a
view to enlighten and instruct mankind. On all subjects
with which the interests, the passions, and the prejudices
of men naturally connect themselves, and which are con¬
sequently viewed by different observers through different
media, we must of course be prepared to expect not only
the most opposite opinions, but also the most discordant
statements; what is solemnly affirmed by one party or
class will be denied with equal emphasis by another; the
same event will be presented under the most incongruous
aspects, the same character delineated in the most op¬
posite colours; what is found in one authority may be
sought for in vain in another; what this writer represents
as of the last importance, another may treat as of no mo¬
ment whatever; whilst the misconceptions of ignorance,
uniting with the honest prejudices of party, and the stu¬
died misrepresentations of interest or artifice, lend their
aid to augment the difficulties and embarrassments which
obstruct the search for truth in this entangled and be¬
wildering region. Seeing, then, that it is from such ma¬
terials that history must be written, it will not be difficult
to form a general estimate of the qualities which are es¬
sential to constitute an historian in the only just sense of
the term. It is not merely necessary that he should be
without bias himself, but that he should be capable of
making due allowances for all the leanings and prejudices,
whether religious, political, or national, which are calcu¬
lated more or less to affect the judgments and opinions of
other men. He must possess an intimate acquaintance
with the laws of evidence, or those tests by the application
of which the quality or value of evidence, of whatever de¬
scription, may be ascertained and determined. To extract
the truth from a mass of conflicting testimony is one of
the most refined and difficult operations which the human
mind can be called to perform. It implies patient research,
vigilant attention, careful comparison, nice discrimination,
prompt perception, and an aptitude for pursuing to their
consequences all sorts of investigations, whether direct or
collateral; yet this operation the historian, like the judge
before whom issues of fact are sent to be tried, is continually
required to perform, and that too in circumstances often
far more difficult and complicated. The cases which come
before the judge arise, for the most part, out of recent
occurrences, in the investigation of which many facilities
are supplied; those which the historian is called to unra¬
vel are frequently overshadowed by the obscurity, and
perplexed by the accumulated misrepresentations, of ages.
Judicial inquiries commonly relate to a single transaction
or set of transactions connected with the ordinary affairs
of human life, in which all have more or less experience.
Historical researches frequently embrace systems of po¬
lity or religion, by which not merely the opinions, but the
3 R
498
HISTORY.
Composi- destinies of mankind, may have been powerfully affected,
tion of either for good or for evil: they comprehend government,
Histoiy. ]awSj commerce, agriculture, arts, sciences, in different
states of advancement, with those mighty changes in the
fortunes of nations which are effected by war and revolu¬
tions, as well as the more gradual modifications superin¬
duced on society by the slow and silent operation of phy¬
sical, moral, and political causes. The judge plays his
part upon a narrow theatre, where his business is merely to
unravel a little plot, all the circumstances of which are,
in general, brought pretty fully before him. The histo¬
rian has to explore, and, as it were, map out, an entire
country, to unfold a thousand mysteries, to correct a vast
multiplicity of errors, and to puzzle his way through the
gloom of an obscure and entangled region, where the land¬
marks are few, and often calculated to mislead.
From all this, then, it will not be difficult to form a gene¬
ral idea of the duties of an historian, as well as of the quali¬
ties and accomplishments which are indispensable to fit
him for discharging them in a proper manner. The first,
and by far the most important of these, is laborious re¬
search and patient investigation. Many of the most gift¬
ed men who have applied themselves to the composition
of history, have not only failed to attain the truth, but
have adopted and given currency to falsehood, because
they wanted the perseverance necessary for discovering
the one and detecting the other. Of this Hume presents
a conspicuous and instructive example. That he was
deeply prejudiced is known to all; but his indolence has
proved infinitely more detrimental to his historical reputa¬
tion than even his partiality; it has betrayed him into
errors the most gross, and led him to commit injustice the
most scandalous. The very authorities to which he re¬
fers frequently disprove his statements, and others with¬
in his reach would have enabled him to discover the truth
if he had been at the pains to seek for it, as well as to
correct the errors which he had committed. But he was
careless of facts, or at least shrunk from the labour ne¬
cessary to ascertain them; in general he took the state¬
ments of the writers upon his own side as he found them,
and, without examination or comparison, scrupled not to
hold up to derision and contempt some of the purest and
brightest names in English history. He misapplied his
great talents, and threw around the grossest perversions
of English history all the fascination of his delightful style,
and sometimes also the attraction of a profound philoso¬
phy. His authority as an historian, however, has been
rudely shaken by the searching criticism of Mr Brodie,
who, in exposing the errors and misrepresentations of
Hume, has, at the same time, done justice to the illus¬
trious men, maligned and defamed by the apologist of the
house of Stuart. As a further illustration of his care¬
lessness, if not bad faith, we may refer to Mr Tytler’s
Life of Sir Walter Raleigh, in which it is conclusively
shown that Hume might, from the very authorities to
which he has referred, have discovered the falsehood of
the charges which he has brought against that illustrious
but unfortunate victim of royal injustice, whose memory
he has sought to load with unmerited obloquy. In this
case, the truth was at his hand, had he given himself the
smallest trouble to look for it.
The next quality which we shall mention as essential
to an historian is strict probity. We do not mean to
affirm that prejudice is necessarily dishonest, however
much it may tend to blind the understanding and warp
the judgment. Where it is avowed or manifest, the read¬
er is thereby put on his guard, and, being forewarned, is
seldom deceived. But there is a species of dishonesty which
tends more than any other to corrupt the purity of histo-
ry> yet, by reason of its latent and insidious character, fre¬
quently escapes detection, and indeed can seldom be ex¬
posed by definite arguments. We refer particularly to the Comf
artifice by which the whole gist and bearing of a narrative tion
is insensibly inclined, in favour perhaps of the very indivi- ^i8t<
dual whose vices or crimes are occasionally exposed with
ostentatious fairness and candour, though seldom without
the charitable suggestion of some palliating or mitigatino'
circumstance to qualify the sentiments which the state¬
ment itself is calculated to awaken. Take, for instance,
the history of Scotland by Dr Robertson. In that eloquent
and masterly performance, the vices, follies, and crimes of
Queen Mary are neither concealed nor directly extenuat¬
ed ; and subjoined to it there is a dissertation on the mur¬
der of Darnley, in which the question of her guilty partici¬
pation in that atrocious crime is for ever put to rest. But
notwithstanding all this, the general tendency and effect
of the work is decidedly in her favour; and, when the final
balance is struck, the remembrance of her guilt is absorb¬
ed in sympathy for her misfortunes. We are suffered
gradually to lose sight of the one, and are continually re¬
minded of the other. She is, in fact, the heroine of the
story, in whom all the interest ultimately centres. By an
insensible transition, the criminal, who had dishonoured
her station and her sex, is converted into a victim and a
martyr. We see before us only an injured queen, who,after
an imprisonment of unexampled duration, is at length
dragged forth to end her sufferings and her sorrows on the
block. The understanding, in fact, is misled through the
heart, and the moral judgment is perverted by artfully
calling into play some of the best feelings of humani¬
ty. Now, in a romance, all this might be highly fit¬
ting and proper, because there the grand object is to in¬
terest us deeply in favour of the fortunes of the principal
personage displayed on the canvass of the romancer. But
in a work of history, truth should be exhibited in severe
and stern simplicity, not dressed in the fairy attire of fic¬
tion, or concealed under the trappings and pageantry of
worldly greatness. If an erroneous impression be delibe¬
rately and artfully produced, it matters little, in a ques¬
tion of historical probity, how or by what means that is
effected; but it may be truly said that honest and avowed
prejudice is immeasurably less injurious to the cause of
truth than those ingenious but insidious devices which,
like that here mentioned, array the feelings against the
judgment, and call forth the emotions of the heart, only
to counteract the perceptions of the understanding.
Cicero has laid it down that an accomplished orator
should be possessed of almost universal knowledge. The
same thing applies with much greater force to the histo¬
rian, who has to treat of almost every subject which is in¬
teresting or important to mankind ; science, philosophy,
legislation, government, religion, war, commerce, art, and
industry. On this standard Gibbon laboured for years to
form himself, and it must be confessed that, in the acqui¬
sitions necessary for the performance of the mighty task
which he had prescribed to himself, he stands almost alone
amongst modern historians. His learning was equally va¬
ried and profound, and the more it is explored the higher
will be the estimate formed, not only of the extent of his
treasures, but also of the judgment and skill with which
these are almost invariably brought to bear upon the subject
before him, whatever it may be. Nor has his example
proved fruitless or unavailing. The cultivation of the his¬
torical sciences, which had so long been neglected, has
latterly engaged the attention and occupied the labours ot
some of the first minds in Europe ; of men who, to the in¬
vestigations which such pursuits render necessary, have
brought all the resources of deep learning and original
thought, of profound philosophy, and an intimate acquaint¬
ance with the true interests of states. In the hands
of Von Hammer light has been shed on many of the
darkest passages of Ottoman history; Heeren has traced,
H O A
j :rio with great clearness, sagacity, and learning, the intercom¬
munications of ancient nations, and the routes pursued
h ^ by ancient commerce ; and Niebuhr, having dissipated
^ the mist of fable and romance which overshadowed the
early history of Rome, has reduced the exaggerations of
chroniclers and poets to their true dimensions, and laid
a foundation for all ages, though, unfortunately, without
being permitted to raise the superstructure. Michaud’s
Histoire des Croisades is also a work of extensive research
and profound investigation, in which the various resources
afforded by the science of criticism have been employed to
rectify errors, and to shed a new and steady light on what
was formerly obscure; whilst new views or new facts, de¬
rived from sources previously unexplored, are unfolded in
almost every page. It is thus that history ought to be
written, if intended to be instructive. By applying the
powerful instrument of an enlightened and philosophical
criticism, we shall no doubt dispel almost every ingredient
H O A 499
allied to the marvellous, and sadly disenchant the gorge- Hoadly.
ous creations of romance; but truth, in her divine sim- '—-■v-'w'
plicity, will remain to atone for the destruction of these airy
and unsubstantial fabrics, and to command the respect
and homage of enlightened worshippers. We have fallen
upon an utilitarian age, when men, having ceased to pur¬
sue shadows, seek for the substance of knowledge, when
glitter and tinsel are disregarded, when amusement is
sought through the medium of instruction, and when no¬
thing is considered as agreeable which is altogether useless.
Besides, as mankind rise in political importance, and feel
that they have rights to exercise, interests to advance,
and privileges to defend, their desire to seek lessons for
the future in the experience of the past receives a corre¬
sponding increase ; they lose their relish for romance, and
acquire a taste for simple, unadulterated truth, which is
alone calculated to extend their knowledge and promote
their happiness.
History of Nature, or Natural History. See Natural
History.
HISTRIO, in the ancient drama, signified an actor or
comedian ; but more especially a pantomime, who exhi¬
bited his part by gestures and dancing. Livy informs us
that the histriones were brought to Rome from Etruria,
in the year of the city 391.
HIT, a village of Irak Arabia, situated on a river of
the same name, which is a tributary of the Euphrates.
There are abundant pits of bitumen in the neighbourhood,
from which it is supposed that supplies were derived for
the construction of ancient Babylon.
KITCHEN, a town in the county of Hertford, which
gives its name to the hundred, thirty-four miles from
London. It was once of some note for its manufactures,
hut none is left except that of making malt. It is a well-
built town, with a good market held on Tuesday, at which
much corn is sold. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
3161, in 1811 to 3608, in 1821 to 4486, and in 1831 to
5211.
HITTITES, the descendants of Heth. See Heth.
HIVE, a convenient receptacle for bees. See Bee.
HIVITES, a people descended from Canaan, who dwelt
at first in the country afterwards possessed by the Caph-
torims or Philistines.
HOADLY, Benjamin, successively bishop of Bangor,
Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester, was born in the year
1676. His first preferment in the church was to the rec¬
tory of St Peter-le-Poor, and the lectureship of St Mildred’s
in the Poultry. In the year 1706 he published some re¬
marks on Bishop Atterbury’s sermon at the funeral of Mr
Bennet, in which Dr Atterbury had, in the opinion of Mr
Hoadly, laid down some dangerous propositions. Two
years afterwards Mr Hoadly again entered the lists against
this formidable antagonist; and in his exceptions against
a sermon published by Dr Atterbury, entitled The Power
of Charity to cover Sin, he attacked the doctor with his
usual strength of reasoning and dispassionate inquiry. In
1709 another dispute arose between these two learned
combatants concerning the doctrine of non-resistance, oc¬
casioned by a performance of Mr Hoadly’s, entitled the
Measures of Obedience ; some positions in which Dr At¬
terbury endeavoured to confute in an elegant Latin sermon
which he preached that year before the London clergy. In
this debate Mr Hoadly signalised himself in so eminent a
degree, that the House of Commons conferred on him a
particular mark of respect, by representing, in an address
to the queen, the signal services he had done to the cause
of civil and religious liberty. The principles which he
espoused, however, being repugnant to the general tem¬
per of those times, drew on him the virulence of a party;
yet it was at this period, 1710, when, as he himself ex¬
pressed it, fury seemed to be let loose upon him, that Mrs
Howland presented him to the rectory of Streatham in
Surrey, unasked, unapplied to, and without his ever having
seen his benefactress. Soon after the accession of King
George I. Mr Hoadly was consecrated to the see of Ban¬
gor; and, in 1717, having broached some opinions con¬
cerning the nature of Christ’s kingdom, he again became
the object of popular clamour. At this juncture he was
distinguished by a particular mark of the royal regard, in¬
asmuch as the convocation was successively prorogued, nor
was it permitted to sit, or to do any business, until that re¬
sentment had entirely subsided. In 1721 he was trans¬
lated to Hereford ; and from thence, in 1723, to Salisbury.
In 1734 he was, on the demise of Dr Willis, translated to
Winchester, and published his Plain Account of the Sa¬
crament ; a performance which served as a butt for his ad¬
versaries to shoot their arrows at, yet impartiality must own
it to be clear, rational, and manly, written with candour
and judgment, and suited to the capacity of every serious
and considerate inquirer after truth. His latter days were
embittered by an instance of fraud and ingratitude. The
bishop took under his protection a French priest, who pre¬
tended to abjure his religion, and who had no other re¬
commendation than that of his necessities. In return for
this act of humanity, the priest found an opportunity of
getting the bishop’s name written by his own hand, and,
causing a note of some thousand pounds to be placed be¬
fore it, offered it in payment. But the bishop denying it
to be his, it was brought before a court of justice, and was
there found to be a gross imposition. The ungrateful vil¬
lain had now recourse to a pamphlet, in which he charg¬
ed the bishop with being a drunkard ; and alleged that he
had received the note from him when he was in liquor. To
this calumny the bishop made a full and nervous answer,
in which he exposed the man’s falsehood, and solemnly
averred that he was never drunk in his whole life. The
world with becoming ardour embraced his defence, and
he had the happiness to find himself perfectly acquitted
even of any suspicion of such a charge. As a writer, he
possessed uncommon abilities. But his style was defec¬
tive and cumbrous, owing to the extreme length of his
periods. His sermons, published in 1754 and 1755, are
esteemed inferior to few writings in the English language,
for plainness and perspicuity, energy and strength of rea¬
soning, and a free and masterly manner. In private life he
was naturally facetious, easy, and complying; and, though
fond of company, accustomed frequently to retire for the
purposes of study or devotion. He was everywhere happy,
500 HOB HOB
Hoadly and particularly in his own family, where he took all op-
II portunities of instructing by his influence and example.
Hobbes. Bishop Hoadly died in 1761, aged eighty-three. Besides
the works already mentioned, he wrote, 1. Terms of Ac¬
ceptance, 8vo; 2. Reasonableness of Conformity; and 3.
On the Sacrament. His tracts and pamphlets are ex¬
tremely numerous. A complete edition of his works, in
three volumes folio, was published by his son Dr John
Hoadly, in 1773, with a short life of the author prefixed.
The appendix to this edition contains some portion of his
correspondence with Lady Sundon, formerly Mrs Clay¬
ton, bed-chamber woman to Queen Anne, and a person to
whom he appears to have been chiefly indebted for his in¬
fluence at court.
Hoadly, Benjamin, son of the former, was born in
1706, and studied at Bennet College, Cambridge, under
the tuition of Dr Herring, afterwards archbishop of Can¬
terbury. He took his degree in physic; and having, when
young, applied himself to mathematical and philosophical
studies, he was admitted a member of the Royal Society.
He was made registrar of Hereford whilst his father fill¬
ed that see, appointed physician to his majesty’s house¬
hold, and died at his house in Chelsea in 1757. He wrote,
1. Three letters on the Organs of Respiration, 4to; 2.
The Suspicious Husband, a comedy; 3. Observations on
a series of Electrical Experiments; 4. Oratio Anniversa-
ria, in Theatro Col. Med. Londin. ex Harvei institute ha-
bita 1742.
HOAIN-Gan-Foo, a large city of China, in the pro¬
vince of Kiangnan, situated on the bank of the great
canal, which is above the level of the city, and occasions
perpetual danger of inundation. It occupies a large area,
including gardens and cultivated grounds ; and, from the
crowds of spectators seen by the British embassy, it
seemed as if there was a numerous population. Long.
118. 47. E. Lat. 53. 30. N.
HOANGHO, or Yellow River, a great river of Chi¬
na, which has its rise in the unknown and mountainous re¬
gions of Thibet, probably the loftiest portion of the Asia¬
tic continent. The Hoangho, after entering China, turns
to the north, and flows even beyond the limits of the em¬
pire. But after winding for a short time, it re-crosses the
frontier, and spreads fertility over some of the finest pro¬
vinces of China. It falls into the Yellow Sea about the thir¬
ty-fourth degree of north latitude, at no very great distance
from the Yang-tse-Kiang or Blue River, another of the vast
streams by which China is watered. The course of the Ho¬
angho is estimated, though with some uncertainty, to be in
length about 1800 British miles. Though broad and rapid,
it is in many places so shallow as to be unfavourable for
navigation. It is also liable to overflow its banks ; and it
has been found necessary, in consequence, to protect the
surrounding country against its inroads, by means of dikes
and mounds.
HOARSENESS, in Medicine, a diminution of the voice,
commonly attended with a great asperity and roughness
of intonation. The parts usually affected are the arteria
aspera and the larynx.
HOBAL, in Mythology, an idol of the ancient Arabs, the
worship of which at Mecca was destroyed by Mahommed.
HOBBES, Thomas, a metaphysical and political wri¬
ter of the greatest eminence, was born at Malmesbury on
the 5th of April 1588. He was the son of a clergyman ;
and having completed his studies at Oxford, he was ap¬
pointed governor to the eldest son of William Cavendish,
earl of Devonshire. He travelled with that young noble-
man through franco and Italy, and at length applied him-
self entirely to the study of literature. He translated
ihucydides into English, and in 1628 published his trans¬
lation, in order to show his countrymen, from the Athe¬
nian history, the disorders and contusions of a democrati-
cal government. In 1626 his patron the Earl of Devon- Ho g.
shire died, and in 1628 the earl’s son also died; a loss j
which affected Mr Hobbes to such a degree, that he wil¬
lingly accepted an offer made him of going abroad a se¬
cond time with the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, whom he
accordingly accompanied to France. But whilst he re¬
sided there, he was solicited to return to England, and re¬
sume his charge of the hope of that family to which he had
so early attached himself. In 1631 the Countess Dowager
of Devonshire desired to put under his care the young
earl, who was then about the age of thirteen. This prov¬
ed agreeable to the inclinations of Mr Hobbes, who dis¬
charged the trust with great diligence and fidelity. In
1634 he republished his translation of Thucydides, and pre¬
fixed to it a dedication to that young nobleman, in which
he gives a high character of his father, and represents in
the strongest terms the obligations he was under to the
Devonshire family. The same year he accompanied his
pupil to Paris, where he applied his leisure hours to the
study of natural philosophy, and more especially to the
understanding of mechanism, and the causes of animal
motion. Upon these subjects he had frequent conversa¬
tions with Father Mersenne, a man deservedly celebrated,
and who maintained a correspondence with almost all
the learned in Europe. From Paris he accompanied his
pupil to Italy, where, on visiting Pisa, he became known
to Galileo, who freely communicated to him his discoveries;
and after having seen all that was remarkable in that
country, he returned with the Earl of Devonshire to Eng¬
land. Afterwards, foreseeing the civil wars, he went to
seek a retreat at Paris, where, by the good offices of his
friend Father Mersenne, he became known to Descartes,
and afterwards corresponded with him upon several ma¬
thematical subjects, as appears from the letters of Mr
Hobbes published in the works of Descartes. But when
this philosopher afterwards printed his Meditations, in
which he attempted to establish points of the highest con¬
sequence, on the assumption of innate ideas, Mr Hobbes
took the liberty of dissenting from him; and so also
did Gassendi, with whom Mr Hobbes contracted a very
intimate friendship, which was not interrupted till the
death of the former. In 1642 Mr Hobbes printed a few
copies of his book De Give, which, in proportion as it be¬
came known, raised him many adversaries, who charged
him with instilling principles which had a dangerous ten¬
dency. Amongst many illustrious persons who, upon the
shipwreck of the royal cause, retired to France for safety,
was Sir Charles Cavendish, brother of the Duke of New¬
castle ; and this gentleman, being skilled in every branch
of the mathematics, proved a constant friend and patron
of Mr Hobbes, who, having in 1645 embarked in a con¬
troversy about squaring the circle, became so celebrated,
that in 1647 he was recommended to instruct the Prince
of Wales, afterwards Charles II., in mathematical learn¬
ing. His diligence in the discharge of this office gained
him the esteem of that prince ; and though he afterwards
withdrew his public favour from Mr Hobbes on account
of his writings, yet he always retained a sense of the ser¬
vices which the latter had rendered him, showed him va¬
rious marks of favour after the Restoration, and, as some
say, had his picture suspended in his closet. This year
also was printed in Holland, under the care of Sorbiere, a
second and more complete edition of the treatise Be
Give, to which are prefixed two Latin letters to the editor,
the one by M. Gassendi, the other by Father Mersenne,
in commendation of it; and in 1650 was published at Lon¬
don his small but profound and original treatise on Hu¬
man Nature, with another De Corpore Politico, or on the
Elements of the Law.
All this time Mr Hobbes had been occupied in digest¬
ing his religious, political, and moral principles into a
HOB
HOC
501
complete system, which he called Leviathan, and which lawful to make use of ill instruments to do ourselves Hobgoblin
was printed in English at London in 1650 and 1651. Af- good : ‘ If I were cast,’ says he, 4 into a deep pit, and the ?l
ter the publication of his Leviathan he returned to Eng- devil should put down his cloven foot, I would take hold Hochou.
land, and passed the summer commonly at the seat of his of it to be drawn out by it.’ After the Restoration, he
patron the Earl of Devonshire, in Derbyshire, and spent watched all opportunities to ingratiate himself with the
some of his winters in town, where he had as his intimate king and his prime ministers; and looked upon his pen-
friends some of the greatest men of the age. Upon the sion to be more valuable, as an earnest of favour and pro¬
occurrence of the Restoration in 1660, he repaired to tection, than upon any other account. His future course
London, where he obtained from the king assurance of of life was to be free from danger. He could not endure
protection, and had an annual pension of L.100 settled to be left in an empty house. Whenever the earl remov-
upon him out of the privy purse. Yet even this did not ed, he would go along with him, even to his last stage,
render him entirely safej for, in the year 1666, his Levia- from Chatsworth to Hardwick. When he was in a very
weak condition, he dared not to be left behind, but made his
way upon a feather-bed in a coach, though be survived
the journey but a few days. He could not bear any dis¬
course of death, and seemed to cast off all thoughts of it.
than and his treatise De Give were censured by parlia¬
ment ; a circumstance which, taken in connexion with
the bringing in of a bill into the House of Commons to
punish atheism and profaneness, gave him serious alarm.
When the storm had blown over, however, he began to He delighted to reckon upon longer life. The winter be
think of publishing a beautiful edition of his pieces in fore he died, he made a warm coat, which he said must
Latin; but finding this impracticable in England, he caus- last him three years, and then he would have such ano-
ed it to be undertaken abroad, where they were published ther. In his last sickness his frequent questions were,
in three volumes quarto in 1668, from the press of John Whether his disease was curable ? and when intimations
Bleau. In 1669 he was visited by Cosmo de’ Medicis, were given that he might have ease, but no remedy, he
then prince, and afterwards Duke of Tuscany, who gave used this expression, ‘ I shall be glad to find a hole to
him ample proofs of esteem and respect, and having re- creep out of the world at;’ which are reported to have been
ceived his picture, with a complete collection of his writ- his last sensible words; and his lying some days following
ings, caused them to be deposited, the former amongst his in a silent stupefaction, did seem owing to his mind more
curiosities, and the latter in his noble library at Florence, than to his body.”
He received similar visits from foreign ambassadors and Lord Clarendon says of him, that he “ was a man for
other strangers of distinction, who were curious to see a whom he had a great esteem, and who was always re¬
person whose singular opinions and numerous writings had garded as a person of probity, and of a life free from
made so much noise all over Europe. In 1672 he wrote his scandal.” As to his character as a philosopher and politi-
own life in Latin verse, when he had completed his eighty- cal writer, it is only necessary here to refer to the ad-
fourth year; and, in 1674, he published, in English verse, mirable sections regarding him in the Dissertations by
four books of Homer’s Odyssey, which was so well received, Mr Stewart and Sir James Mackintosh, prefixed to this
that it encouraged him to undertake the whole Iliad and work. A collection of his “ moral and political” writ-
Odyssey, both of which he translated and published in ings, comprised in a folio volume, was published at Lon-
1675. About this time he took leave of London, and went don in the year 1750.
to spend the remainder of his days in Derbyshire. He HOBGOBLIN is a name vulgarly applied to spectres or
died on the 4th of December 1679, aged ninety-two. apparitions. Skinner calls the word robgoblins, and de-
As to his deportment and manners, they are thus de- rives it from Robin Goodfellow, Hob being the nick-
scribed by Dr White Kennet, in his Memoirs of the Ca- name of Robin; but Wallis and Junius, with greater
vendish family. “ The Earl of Devonshire,” says he, “ for probability, derive it from hopgoblins, because they are
his whole life entertained Mr Hobbes in his family, as his supposed to hop without moving both their feet,
old tutor rather than as his friend or confidant. He let HOBLERS, or Hobileks, Hobelarii, in our ancient
him live under his roof in ease and plenty, and in his own customs, were men who, by their tenure, were obliged to
way, without making use of him in any public, or so much maintain a light horse or hobby, for announcing any in-
as domestic affairs. He would frequently put off the men- vasion from the seaward. The name was also employed
tion of his name, and say, ‘ He was a humorist, and no- to signify certain Irish knights, who used to serve as light
body could account for him.’ There is a tradition in the
family, of the manners and customs of Mr Hobbes, some¬
what observable. His professed rule of health was to de¬
dicate the morning to his exercise, and the afternoon to
his studies. And therefore, at his first rising, he walked
out, and climbed any hill within his reach ; or, if the wea¬
ther was not dry, he fatigued himself within doors by
horsemen upon hobbies.
HOB-NAIL, a nail with a thick strong head, used in
shoeing a hobby or little horse.
HOB-NOB, or Hab-nab, a cant word formed from
hap ne hap, and denoting an event which happens at ran¬
dom, or by mere chance.
HOBSON’S Choice, a vulgar proverbial expression,
some exercise or other, to be in a sweat; recommending applied to that kind of choice in which there is no alter-
that practice upon this opinion, that an old man had more ' 1 ^
moisture than heat, and therefore by such motion heat
was to be acquired and moisture expelled. After this, he
took a comfortable breakfast; and then went round the
lodgings to wait upon the earl, the countess, and the chil- .
dren, and any considerable strangers, paying some short in Germany, the capital of a bailiwick of the same name
addresses to all of them. He kept these rounds till about It stands on an elevated spot, at the junction of the Nidda
twelve o’clock, when he had a little dinner provided for with the Maine. It contains a church, and 440 houses, with
him, which he ate always by himself without ceremony. 1850 inhabitants. The neighbourhood is celebrated for
Soon after dinner he retired to his study, and had his producing the best wines of the Rhine, which have gene-
candle, with ten or twelve pipes of tobacco laid by him ; rally been known in England by the name of Hock. That
native. It is said to be derived from the name of a car¬
rier at Cambridge, who let out hackney horses, and ob¬
liged each customer to take in his turn that horse which
stood next the stable door.
HOCHHEIM, a market-town of the duchy of Nassau,
then shutting his door, he fell to smoking, thinking, and
writing for several hours. He retained a friend or two at
court, and especially the Lord Arlington, to protect him
h occasion should require. He used to say, that it was
of peculiar excellence is, however, the growth of a particu¬
lar vineyard, which is not more than ten acres in extent,
and sells, even when new, at a very high price.
HOCHOU, a walled city of China, in the province of
502
HOD
Hochstedt Kiangnan, about three miles from the banks of the Yang-
Hody tse-Kiang. It appears to be about three or four miles in
._r_ ) circuit, and to have been at one time more populous than
at present. The country around is highly cultivated. It
is thirty miles south-west of Nanking. Long. 118. 14. E.
Lat. 29. 57. N.
HOCHSTEDT, a town of Bavaria, the capital of the bai¬
liwick of the same name in the circle of the Upper Danube.
It stands on the Danube, and contains two churches, 396
houses, and 2240 inhabitants. It is celebrated as the scene
of one of Marlborough’s most splendid victories gained in
1704, and as the field of defeat of the Austrians by the
French in 1800. Long. 10. 28. 25. E. Lat. 48. 36. 30. N.
HOCUS FOCUS, a cant expression, with which the
exhibitors of legerdemain tricks generally prefaced their
feats. Ihis term is supposed to be a corruption of the
words hoc est corpus.
HOD, a sort of tray for carrying mortar, in use among
bricklayers.
HODDESDON, a town of the county of Hertford, in
the parishes of Amwell and Brockborn, seventeen miles
from London. It stands on the river Lea, and on the
great road to the eastern counties. It consists of one long
street, in the middle of which is a fountain that supplies
the town with water. There is a market which is held on
Wednesday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1221,
in 1811 to 1249, in 1821 to 1354, and in 1831 to 1615.
HODMAN, a cant term formerly used for a young
scholar admitted from Westminster school to be student
in Christ Church in Oxford.
HODNET, a town, or rather a parish, in the hundred
of h*oi th Bradford, in the county of Salop, on the river
ferne, 135 miles from London. It is only remarkable as
the birth-place and residence of the late Bishop of Calcut¬
ta, Heber. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1386,
m 1811 to 1499, in 1821 to 1795, and in 1831 to 1769.
HODY, Humphry, an eminent English divine, was
born at Odcombe, in Somersetshire, on the 1st of January
1659. Whilst yet a boy he discovered a strong propen¬
sity to learning, and in 1676 was admitted into Wad-
ham College, Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow in
1684. At the age of twenty-one he published his Disser¬
tation against the History of the Seventy-two Interpreters
by Aristeas. In this production Hody shows that the story
told by Aristeas as to the occasion of the Septuagint trans¬
lation is the invention of some Hellenist Jew ; that it is
full of blunders and anachronisms; and that it was origi¬
nally circulated on purpose to recommend the Greek ver¬
sion of the Old Testament. This dissertation was received
with much approbation by the learned, excepting Isaac
Vossius, who having espoused the contrary, could not en¬
dure to see a mere youth enter the lists against one of his
age and reputation in letters. He therefore published an
appendix to his Observations on Pomponius Mela, contain¬
ing an answer to Hody’s Dissertation, in which, neglecting
arguments, he contents himself with indulging in the ut¬
most petulance and scurrility towards his opponent. In
1 *04, Hody published his four books De JBibliorum textis
originalibus, versionibus Greeds, etLatinaVulgata; the first
containing his dissertation on Aristeas’s history, the se¬
cond treating of the true authors of the Greek version call¬
ed the Septuagint; the third comprising a history of the
Hebrew text, the Septuagint version, and the Latin Vul¬
gate; and the fourth giving an account of the other Greek
versions, namely, those of Symmachus, Aquila, and Theo-
dotion, with the Hexapla of Origen, and other ancient
editions. In 1689, Hody wrote the Prolegomena to the
Chronicle of John Malela, printed at Oxford; and in 1690
he was made chaplain to Stillingfleet, bishop of Worces-
ter. The deprivation of the nonjuring bishops involved
him in a controversy with Mr Dodwell, and gave occa-
H O F
sion to a number of polemical pieces, which have Iona i
ceased to possess any interest. The part which he took in
this controversy, however, recommended him to Archbi- Pol L
shop lillotson, who appointed him his domestic chaplain, ^ v'
an office which he continued to hold under Dr Tennyson,
lillotson s successor. In 1698 he was appointed regius
professor of Greek in the university of Oxford, and in
1704 he was instituted to the archdeaconry of the same
place. But he did not long survive these preferments,
having died on the 20th of January 1705. Hody left behind
him in manuscript a valuable work, comprising the sub¬
stance of his lectures as professor, and containing an ac¬
count of those learned Greeks who retired to Italy before
and after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and
there revived the study of the language and literature of
Greece, which had long been entirely neglected. This
work was published in 1742 by Dr Jebb, and entitled De
Greeds Illustribus linguee Greecee literarumque humani-
orum instauratoribus, eorum vitis, scriptis, et elogiis libri
duo ; prefixed to which is an account in Latin of the au¬
thor’s life, extracted from a manuscript in English left by
himself. /a \ ^
T T /"v -« i _ ( A. • /
1IOE, or How, a husbandman’s tool, made like a coop¬
er s adze, to cut up weeds in gardens, fields, &c.
HOF, a city of Bavaria, in the circle of Upper Maine.
It is situated on the river Saale, is surrounded with walls,
and is the seat of the revenue officer of the circle. It con¬
tains four churches, an orphan-house, an hospital richly
endowed, and 650 houses, with 5730 inhabitants, who find
occupation in manufactures of woollen, linen, and cotton
goods, and in breweries, distilleries, and paper-making.
HOFFMANN, John James, a celebrated philologist,
was born at Basil in 1635. His father, who was professor of
law in the academy of that city, inspired him betimes with
a taste for application, and directed his early studies. Young
Hoffmann went through his courses of philosophy and theo¬
logy with distinction, and was ordained to the holy minis¬
try. But as the delicacy of his health did not admit of his
pursuing that career, he applied himself to teaching; and
after having, for several years, given private instructions, he
was, in 166/, appointed to the chair of Greek in the aca¬
demy, whence he was, in 1683, translated to that of his¬
tory, the duties of which he discharged with indefatigable
zeal until his death, which occurred in 1706, without his
having ever quitted his native country. The best known of
all his works is the Lexicon Universale, Historico-Geographi-
co-Chronologico-Poetico Philologicum, Basil, 1677, in two
volumes folio, with a Supplement, also in two volumes, 1683.
The work at first met with indifferent success. This dictio¬
nary is constructed upon a very extensive plan; but all the
parts leave much to be desired. The articles on ancient
geography are considered as the best; those on history are
supei ficial and inaccurate. The title of the book announ¬
ces various synonymes of geographical names derived from
twenty different languages; but the execution does not
come up to the announcement. The author omits no oppor¬
tunity to declaim against the Catholic religion and against
France. The other works of Hoffmann are, 1. Numerous
Theses on subjects of little or no interest; 2. A Collection
of Poems, Poemata, Basil, 1684, in 12mo ; 3. Epitome me-
trica Historiae Universalis civilis et sacrae ab orbe condito,
ibid. 1686, in 12mo; 4. Historia Paparum, 1687, in two
vols. 12mo; 5. I wo Memoirs on the Miscellanea Beroli-
nensia. (a.)
Hoffmann, Frederick, a celebrated physician of the uni¬
versity of Halle in Saxony, was born in that city in 1660.
He received his early education in his native town, and
made great progress in the mathematics, which his pa¬
rents had caused him to study, and to which he ascribed
advances in the study of medicine. At the age of fifteen
he lost both his father and his mother during the preva-
HOF
man- lence of an epidemical distemper. In 1680, he established
, its. himself at Erfurt, there to study chemistry under Caspar
Cramer, and the following year he received the degree of
doctor of physic at lena. In 1682, he published an Essay De
Cinnabari Antimonii, which was reprinted at Leyden in
1685, 12mo, and laid the foundation of his reputation as
an able chemist, which he afterwards increased by profess¬
ing chemistry in the schools of lena. It is to him we are
indebted for the preparation known by the name of the
Anodyne Liquor of Hoffmann, which is considered as one of
the best sedatives. Frederick III. elector of Brandenburg,
having founded the university of Halle in 1693, Hoff¬
mann was appointed primarius professor, and alone pre¬
pared the statutes of the faculty of medicine. His fame soon
spread throughout all Germany, and thence into foreign
parts; and several learned bodies, including the academies
of Berlin and Petersburg, and the Royal Society of Lon.
don, enrolled him among their members. During his re¬
sidence at Halle he divided his time between instruction,
practice, and study; but more than once he interrupted
his pursuits by visits to the different courts of Germany,
where his professional successes procured him honours,
titles, and rewards. He was solicited by the king of Prus¬
sia to fix his residence at Berlin ; but he preferred remain¬
ing in his native country, 'where he died on the 12th of No¬
vember 1742. At the age of sixty Hoffmann undertook
his great work entitled Medicina Rationalis Systematica,
Halle, 1730, in nine vols. 4to, of which Bruhier d’Ablain-
court has given a translation under the title of Medicine
Raisonnee d’Hoffmann, 1739, in nine vols. 12mo. The
same physician has also translated from the Latin of Hoff¬
mann, a Treatise on Fevers, Paris, 1746, in three vols.
12mo ; the Politics of Medicine, ibid. 1751, in 12mo ; and
Observations on the Cure of Gout and Rheumatism. A
complete edition of his works has been published, with a
life of the author, under the title of Hoffmanni Opera om¬
nia Medico-physica cum Supplementis, Geneva, 1740, 1755,
eleven parts, in folio. The writings of Hoffmann contain a
gieat mass of practical matter of considerable value, partly
compiled from preceding writers, and partly the result of
his own observation ; but they are also deformed by trifling
remarks, hypothetical conjectures, and frequent prolixity
and repetition in the details. As a theorist, his suggestions
proved of great importance, and contributed to introduce
that revolution in the science of medicine which subsequent
observation has extended and confirmed. His doctrine of
atony and spasm in the living solid, according to which
all internal disorders were referred to some preternatural
affection of the nervous system, rather than to the morbid
derangements of the fluids, first turned the attention of
physicians from the mere mechanical and chemical opera¬
tions of the body, to those of the primary moving powers
of the living system. Hoffmann pursued with considerable
ardour the study of practical chemistry, and improved the
department of pharmacy by the addition of some mineral
preparations. But, upon the whole, his practice was cau¬
tious, especially in his latter years ; and he trusted much to
vegetable simples. “ I affirm solemnly,” said he, “ that
though in my youth I ran much after chemical remedies,
yet, in my age, I became convinced that very few reme¬
dies, well selected, and derived from substances in appear¬
ance the most worthless, afford more prompt and efficacious
relief to the sick than the rarest and most elaborate chemi¬
cal preparations.” /A \
HOIFMANNISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, are those
sectaries who espoused the sentiments of Daniel Hoffmann,
professor in the university of Helmstadt, who maintained
that philosophy was a mortal enemy to religion, and that
what was true in philosophy was false in theology. These
absurd and pernicious tenets occasioned a warm contro¬
versy ; but Hoffmann was at length compelled by Julius
HOG
duke of Brunswick to retract his invectives against phi¬
losophy, and to acknowledge, in the most open manner,
the harmony and union of sound philosophy with true and
genuine theology.
HOFGEISMAR, a city of the principality of Hesse
Cassel, in the province of the Lower Hesse. It is on the
river Esse, is walled, and has two churches, an hospital,
and stadthouse, with 420 dwellings, and 2586 inhabitants.
HOG. See Mammalia.
HOG Isle. There are two small islands of this name
in the Eastern Seas, one about twenty miles in circumfer¬
ence, lying off the north-eastern extremity of Java. Long.
114. 55. E. Lat. 7. 5. S. This is also the name of another
island, sixty miles off the west coast of Sumatra, about
forty miles in length, and three in average breadth.
HOGAR1H, William, an artist, a truly great and ori¬
ginal genius, was born in 1697 or 1698, in the parish of St
Martin, Ludgate. The outset of his life, however, was un¬
promising. “ He was bound,” says Lord Orford, “ to a
mean engraver of arms on plate.” Hogarth probably chose
this occupation as it required some skill in drawing, to which
his genius was particularly turned, and which he contrived
assiduously to cultivate. His master was Mr Ellis Gamble,
a silversmith of eminence, who resided in Cranburn Street,
Leicester Fields. In this profession it is not unusual to bind
apprentices to the single branch of engraving arms and
ciphers on every species of metal; and in that particular
department of the business young Hogarth was placed;
but, before his time had expired, he felt the impulse of ge¬
nius, and it directed him to painting. During his appren¬
ticeship, he set out one Sunday, with two or three compa¬
nions, on an excursion to Highgate. The weather being
hot, they went into a public house, where they had not
been long before a quarrel arose between some persons in
the same room, and one of the disputants having struck the
other on the head with a quart pot, cut him very much.
The blood running down the man’s face, together with the
agony of the wound, which distorted his features into a
most hideous grin, presented Hogarth, who showed himself
thus early sensible of the course which Nature had intended
he should pursue, with too laughable a subject to be over¬
looked. He drew out his pencil, and produced on the spot
one of the most ludicrous figures that ever was seen. What
rendered this piece the more valuable was, that it exhibit¬
ed an exact likeness of the man, with the portrait of his an¬
tagonist, and the figures in caricature of the principal per¬
sons collected around him.
How long he continued in obscurity has not been ascer¬
tained ; but the first piece in which he distinguished him¬
self as a painter is supposed to have been a representation
of W anstead Assembly. The figures contained in it were,
it seems, drawn from the life, and without any circum¬
stances of burlesque. The faces were said to be extremely
like, and the colouring rather better than in some of his
later and more highly finished performances. From the
date of the earliest plate that can be ascertained as his work,
it may be presumed that he began business on his own ac¬
count at least as early as 1720.
His first employment seems to have been the engraving
of arms and shop-bills ; his next, to design and furnish
plates for booksellers. Mr Bowles, at the Black Horse in
Cornhill, was one of his earliest patrons, but the prices
paid by that person were very low. His next friend in
this line was Mr Philip Overton, who paid him somewhat
better for his labour and ingenuity.
There are still existing many family pictures by Ho¬
garth, in the style of serious conversation-pieces. What
the prices of his portraits were, Mr Nichols tried in vain
to discover; but he suspects that they were originally
very low, as the people who are best acquainted with them
choose to be silent on that subject.
503
Hofgeis-
mar
Hogarth.
HOGARTH.
504
Hogarth. Lord Orford has remarked, that if our artist indulged
his spirit of ridicule in personalities, it seldom proceeded
beyond sketches and drawings ; and wonders that he never,
without intention, delivered the very features of any iden¬
tical person. But Mr Nichols assures us, from unques¬
tionable authority, that almost all the personages who at¬
tended the levee of the Rake were undoubted portraits;
and that in Southwark Fair, and the Modern Midnight
Conversation, as many more were discoverable. Whilst
Hogarth was painting the Rake’s Progress, he had a sum¬
mer residence at Isleworth; and he never failed to ques¬
tion the company who came to see these pictures, if they
knew for whom one or another figure was designed. When
they guessed wrong, he set them right.
The Duke of Leeds possessed an original scene in the
Beggar’s Opera, painted by Hogarth. It is that in which
Lucy and Polly are on their knees before their respective
fathers, to intercede for the life of the hero of the piece.
All the figures are either known or supposed to be por¬
traits. Lord Orford had a picture of a scene in the same
piece, where Macheath is going to execution. In this
also the likenesses of Walker, and Miss Fenton, afterwards
Duchess of Bolton, the first and original Macheath and
Polly, were preserved.
In 1730 Mr Hogarth married the only daughter of Sir
James Thornhill, by whom, however, he had no children.
This union, indeed, was a stolen one, and consequently
without the approbation of Sir James, who, considering
the youth of his daughter, then scarcely eighteen, and the
slender finances of her husband, as yet an obscure artist,
was not easily reconciled to the match. Soon after this
period, however, he began his Harlot’s Progress ; and was
advised by Lady Thornhill to have some of the scenes of
it placed in the way of his father-in-law. Accordingly,
one morning early, Mrs Hogarth undertook to convey
several of them into her father’s dining-room. When he
arose, he inquired whence they had come ; and being told
by whom they were introduced, he cried out, “ Very well;
the man who can furnish representations like these can
also maintain a wife without a portion.” He designed this
remark as an excuse for keeping his purse-strings close ;
but soon afterwards he became both reconciled and gene¬
rous to the young people.
In 1732 Hogarth ventured to attack Mr Pope, in a
plate called the Man of Taste, containing a view of the
Gate of Burlington House, with Pope whitewashing it, and
bespattering the Duke of Chandos’s coach. This plate
was intended as a satire on the translator of Homer, Mr
Kent the architect, and the Earl of Burlington. It was
fortunate for Hogarth that he escaped the sting of the
“ wasp of Twickenham.” Either Hogarth’s obscurity at
that time was his protection, or the poet was too prudent
to exasperate a painter who had already given such proof
of his abilities for satire.
In 1733 his genius became conspicuously known. The
third scene of his Harlot’s Progress introduced him to
the notice of the great. At a meeting of the treasury
board, which was held a day or two after the appearance
of that print, a copy of it was shown by one of the lords,
as containing, amongst other excellencies, a striking like¬
ness of Sir John Gonson. It gave universal satisfaction.
From the treasury each lord repaired to the print-shop
for a copy of it, and Hogarth immediately rose into fame.
The Abbe Dubos has complained that no historical
painter of his time went through a series of actions, and
thus, like an historian, painted the successive fortunes of
a hero from the cradle to the grave. What Dubos wished
to see done, Hogarth performed. He launched out his
young adventurer a simple girl upon the town, and con¬
ducted her through all the vicissitudes of wretchedness to
a premature death. This was painting to the understand¬
ing and to the heart; none had ever before made the Hoga
pencil subservient to the purposes of morality and instruc- -y
tion. A book like this is fitted to every soil and to every
observer; he that runs may read it. Nor was the success
of Hogarth confined to his persons. One of his excellen¬
cies consisted in what may be termed the furniture of his
pieces. As, in sublime and historical representations, the
fewer trivial circumstances are permitted to divide the
spectator’s attention from the principal figures, the greater
is their force, so, in scenes copied from familiar life, a
proper variety of little domestic images contributes to
throw an air of verisimilitude over the whole. “ The
Rake’s levee-room,” says Lord Orford, “ the nobleman’s
dining-room, the apartments of the husband and wife in
Marriage-a-la-Mode, the alderman’s parlour, the bed¬
chamber, and many others, are the history of the manners
of the age.”
In 1745 Hogarth sold about twenty of his capital pic¬
tures by auction ; and in the same year he acquired addi¬
tional reputation by the six prints of Marriage-a-la-Mode,
which may be regarded as the groundwork of a novel
called the Marriage Act, by Dr Shebbeare, and also of
the Clandestine Marriage. The prints, however, possess
far more of the true spirit of comedy than either the no¬
vel or the play ; they are amongst the most masterly pro¬
ductions of this great dramatic painter of life and manners.
Soon after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle he went over
to France, and was taken into custody at Calais whilst he
was drawing the gate of that town ; a circumstance which
he has recorded in his picture entitled O the Roast Beef
of Old England, published in 1749.
In 1753 he appeared to the world in the character of
an author, and published a quarto volume, entitled Ana¬
lysis of Beauty, written with a view of fixing the fluctu¬
ating ideas of taste. In this performance he shows, by a
variety of examples, that a curve is the line of beauty,
and that round swelling figures are most pleasing to the
eye ; and the truth of his opinion has been countenanced
by subsequent writers on the subject. In this work he
acknowledges himself indebted for assistance to his friends,
particularly to one gentleman for his corrections and
amendments of at least a third part of the wording. This
friend was Dr Benjamin Hoadly, the physician, who car¬
ried on the work to about the third part, and then, through
indisnosition, declined with regret the friendly office.
The kind office of finishing the work, and superintending
the publication, was assumed by Dr Morell, who super¬
intended the remainder of the book. The preface was in
like manner corrected by the Reverend Mr Townley.
The family of Hogarth rejoiced when the last sheet of the
Analysis was printed off, as the frequent disputes he had
with his coadjutors, in the progress of the work, did not
much harmonize his disposition. This work was translat¬
ed into German by Mr Mylius, under the author’s in¬
spection ; and the translation was printed in London.
A new and correct edition was in 1754 proposed for pub¬
lication at Berlin by Vok, with an explanation of Mr Ho¬
garth’s satirical prints, translated from the French; and
an Italian translation was published at Leghorn in the
year 1761.
This work may be considered as in many respects re¬
markable, emanating as it did from one who was totally
illiterate, and who, in all probability, had never before at¬
tempted to throw together his ideas upon any subject of
importance. But although his general principle is right,
considered merely as expressing ufact, and although the
feeling or sentiment which we call beauty is generally
excited in the mind by objects bounded by curve lines,
yet neither Hogarth himself, nor any of those persons
who assisted him in the composition of his work, ever per¬
ceived that external objects are beautiful or the reverse,
r w
HOGARTH.
rth. not because they possess this or that form, but in propor-
'^tion as they are associated with, or regarded as the natu¬
ral signs and emblems of, ideas or emotions which we de¬
nominate beautiful or otherwise ; that the curve, consider¬
edis not more beautiful than the angular line;
that, in applying this epithet to the former, we do so, not
because it is a curve, but because it suggests to the per¬
cipient mind the idea of easy, gentle, flowing motion, or
some other that is calculated to excite in it the feeling
which we denominate beauty; that the sentiment of
beauty is a reflected image of some pleasing emotion,
softened and subdued by the awakened reminiscence;
that the whole, therefore, resolves into the great law of
association, by means of which one thing becomes the
occasion of resuscitating another in the mind ; and that
external objects or external forms are not of themselves
beautiful or deformed, but are so called only in proportion
as they are the natural signs of, and serve to recall, emo¬
tions of a pleasing character, or the contrary. But this
was a discovery reserved for other and more philosophi¬
cal inquirers.
Hogarth affected to despise every kind of knowledge
which he did not possess. Having established his fame
with little or no obligation to literature, he either conceiv¬
ed it to be useless, or decried it because it lay altogether
out of his reach. Till he commenced author, and was
obliged to employ the friends already mentioned to correct
his Analysis of Beauty, he did not seerii to have discover¬
ed that even spelling was a necessary qualification in a
writer. Previously to the time of which we are now
speaking, one of his common topics of declamation was
the uselessness of books to a man of his profession. In
Beer Street, amongst other volumes consigned by him to
the pastry-cook, we find Turnbull on Ancient Painting;
a treatise which Hogarth should have been able to under¬
stand before he ventured to condemn it.
About 1757, his brother-in-law, Mr Thornhill, resigned
the place of king’s serjeant-painter in his favour.
The last remarkable circumstance of his life was his
contest with Churchill. It is said that both met at West¬
minster Hall; Hogarth to take by his eye a ridiculous
likeness of the poet, and Churchill to furnish a description
of the painter. But Hogarth’s print of the poet was not
much esteemed, and the poet’s letter to him was but little
admired. Wdien genius is forced to minister to the grati¬
fication of the baser passions, its efforts are seldom suc¬
cessful.
It may be truly observed of Hogarth, that all his powers
of delighting were limited to his pencil. Having rarely
been admitted into polite circles, none of his sharp cor¬
ners had been rubbed off, and he continued to the last a
rough, uncultivated man. The slightest contradiction
transported him into rage. To some confidence in him¬
self he was certainly entitled, for, as a comic painter, he
could have claimed no honour that would not most readily
have been allowed him; but he was at once unprincipled
and variable in his political conduct and private attach¬
ments. He is also said to have beheld the rising eminence
and popularity of Sir Joshua Reynolds with envy, and he
frequently spoke with asperity both of the painter and his
performances. Justice, however, obliges us to add, that
he was liberal and hospitable; and that, in spite of the
emoluments which his works had procured to him, he left
but an inconsiderable fortune.
Of Hogarth’s lesser plates many were destroyed. When
he wanted, on a sudden, a piece of copper, he would take
any from which he had already worked off such a number
of impressions as he supposed he would sell. He then
sent it to be effaced, beaten out, or otherwise altered to his
present purpose. The plates which remained in his pos¬
session were secured to his widow by his will, dated the
VOL. XI.
12th of August 1764, chargeable with an annuity of eighty
pounds to his sister. He died in the month of October of
that year.
The character of Hogarth as an artist is delineated by
Mr Gilpin in his Essay on Prints. “ The works of this
master,” says Mr Gilpin, “ abound in true humour, and
satire which is generally well directed; they are admir¬
able moral lessons, and a fund of entertainment suited to
every taste; a circumstance which shows them to be just
copies of nature. We may consider them too as valuable
repositories of the manners, customs, and dresses of his age.
“ In design Hogarth was seldom at a loss. His inven¬
tion was fertile, and his judgment accurate. An improper
accident is rarely introduced, a proper one rarely omitted.
No one could tell a story better, or make it, in all its cir¬
cumstances, more intelligible. His genius, however, it
must be owned, was suited only to low or familiar sub¬
jects; it never soared above common life; to subjects na¬
turally sublime, or which from antiquity or other accidents
borrowed dignity, he could not rise. In composition we
see little in him to admire. In many of his prints the de¬
ficiency is so great as plainly to imply a want of all prin¬
ciple, which makes us ready to believe, that when we do
meet with a beautiful group, it is the effect of chance.
In one of his minor works, the Idle Prentice, we seldom
see a crowd more beautifully managed than in the last
print. If the sheriff-officers had not been placed in a line,
and had been brought a little lower in the picture, so as
to have formed a pyramid with the cart, the composition
had been unexceptionable; and yet the first print of this
work is such a striking instance of disagreeable composi¬
tion, that it is amazing how an artist who had any idea of
beautiful forms could suffer so unmasterly a performance
to leave his hands. Of the distribution of light Hogarth
had as little knowledge as of composition. In some of his
pieces we see a good effect, as in the Execution just men¬
tioned ; in which, if the figures at the right and left cor¬
ners had been kept down a little, the light would have
been beautifully distributed on the fore-ground, and a fine
secondary light spread over part of the crowd. But at
the same time there is so obvious a deficiency in point of
effect in most of his prints, that it is very evident he had
no principles. Neither was Hogarth a master in drawing.
Of the muscles and anatomy of the head and hands he
had perfect knowledge, but his trunks are often badly
moulded, and his limbs ill set on; yet his figures, upon
the whole, are inspired with so much life and meaning,
that the eye is kept in good humour in spite of its incli¬
nation to find fault. The author of the Analysis of Beau¬
ty, it might be supposed, would have given us more in¬
stances of grace than we find in the works of Hogarth;
which shows strongly that theory and practice are not al¬
ways united. Many opportunities his subjects naturally
afford of introducing graceful attitudes, and yet we have
very few examples of them. With instances of picturesque
grace his works abound. Of this expression, in which the
force of his genius lay, we cannot speak in terms too high.
In every mode of it he was truly excellent. The passions
he thoroughly understood, and all the effects which they
produce in every part of the human frame. He had the
happy art also of conveying his ideas with the same preci¬
sion with which he conceived them. He was excellent too
in expressing any humorous oddity which we often see
stamped upon the human face. All his heads are cast in
the very mould of nature. Hence that endless variety
which is displayed throughout his works; and hence it is
that the difference arises between his heads and the af¬
fected caricatures of those masters who have sometimes
amused themselves with patching together an assemblage
of features from their own ideas. Such are Spaniolet’s,
which, though admirably executed, appear plainly to have
505
Hogarth.
506
H O H
Hoggry no archetypes in nature. Hogarth’s, on the other hand,
Hohenzol are co^ect*ons natural curiosities. The Oxford Heads,
lern-Hech- ^le Physicians’ Arms, and some of his other pieces, are ex¬
ingen. pressly of this humorous kind. They are truly comic,
though ill-natured effusions of mirth; more entertaining
than Spaniolet’s, as they are pure nature, but less inno¬
cent, as they contain ill-directed ridicule. But the spe¬
cies of expression in which this master perhaps most ex¬
cels, is that happy art of catching those peculiarities of
art and gesture which the ridiculous part of every profes¬
sion contract, and which for that reason become charac¬
teristic of the whole. His counsellors, his undertakers,
his lawyers, his usurers, are all conspicuous at sight. In
a word, almost every profession may see in his works that
particular species of affectation which they should most
endeavour to avoid. The execution of this master is well
suited to his subjects and manner of treating them. He
etches with great spirit, and never gives one unnecessary
stroke.
In Mr Ireland’s Hogarth Illustrated, there is an account
of all his prints; but the best and fullest description of
them is to be found in Mr Nichols’s Memoirs of his Life
and Works, in which there are copies of all his prints,
accurately reduced.
HOGGRY, a river of Hindustan, which has its rise in
the Mysore territory, near the fortress of Seva, whence
it flows in a northerly direction, and joins the Krishna or
Kistnah.
HOGSHEAD, in Commerce, a measure of capacity
containing sixty-three gallons, equal to sixteen gallons in
Scotland.
HOGYESK, a market-town of the circle of Toln, in the
province of the Farther Danube, in the kingdom of Hun¬
gary. Near to it is the castle, with a fine park of Count
Apony. It contains 3100 inhabitants, employed in the cul¬
tivation of tobacco and wine.
HOHENELBE, a town of the circle of Bidschow, in
the Austrian kingdom of Bohemia. It is situated in a
mountainous district, on the river Elbe, near the frontier of
Saxony. It contains two churches, 357 houses, and 3307
inhabitants, who carry on a flourishing trade in manufac¬
turing muslins, linen goods, and writing paper.
HOHENGEROLDSECK, a small territory denominat¬
ed a grafschaft or county, belonging to the empire of Aus¬
tria. It is the only part of the dominion detached from
the rest, and is surrounded by the territory of the Prince
of Baden. It extends over fifty square miles, and contains
about 5000 inhabitants. It is composed chiefly of hills,
which form part of the Black Forest, the highest of which,
called the Schimburg, has an extensive prospect over the
Rhine. There are in it some mines of lead and silver.
The soil is fruitful in corn, and the valleys afford good pas¬
turage.
HOHENSTEIN, a city of the kingdom of Saxony, in
the circle of Freyburg, formerly the capital of the media¬
tized principality of the same name. It stands on the side
of a remarkable mountain, in which are veins of gold, sil¬
ver, and arsenic. It contains 450 houses, and 3400 inha¬
bitants, some employed in the mines, but more in spinning
and weaving cotton goods.
HOHENZOLLERN-Hechingen, a sovereign princi¬
pality in the ancient division of Suabia, in Germany. It
is surrounded by the kingdom of Wurtemberg, except to-
vrords the south, where it is bounded by the principality of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It extends over 120 square
rn.l\'s’i comprehends one town and fourteen parishes,
with 14,900 inhabitants. It is generally a hilly country,
some ot the most lofty points being 2600 feet above the
sea. It is moderately fertile, but a part is covered with
woods. It is watered by only small brooks, some of which
run to the Danube, and others to the Neckar. The re-
H O K
venue amounts to about L.12,000 annually, and the debtHohe
is heavy, which the prince is lessening by contracting the lem.
expenditure. The chief products of the land are wood. raarii
potatoes, flax, hemp, and more especially gentian. The.. '
people find some employment in making wooden toys and
articles of household furniture. The military contingent M
to the German confederation is 145 men.
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a sovereign principality
in the south of Germany. Except on the north side, where
it is bounded by Hohenzollern-Hechingen, it is surrounded
by the kingdom of Wurtemberg and the duchy of Baden.
It is 400 square miles in extent, and contains four cities,
seven market-towns, and seventy villages and hamlets,
formed into forty parishes. It contains 7100 houses, and
38,000 inhabitants. The land is mountainous and woody,
and the soil mixed with many stones ; but the valleys afford
good pasture and dairy land, especially on the banks of the
rivers. The Danube, here a small stream, receives the
waters of all the brooks and rivulets, excepting two, which
run to the Neckar. The produce of corn, aided by pota¬
toes, is greater than the consumption; but the excess con¬
sists more of winter barley than of wheat. Some portions
of the land yield excellent flax. The chief articles to be
exchanged for foreign articles are wood, corn, flax, yarn,
potashes, and some glass and iron goods. The latter are
fabricated from some mines of that metal within the terri¬
tory. Excepting a few Jews, the inhabitants are all Catho¬
lics ; and in no part of Germany is education in so back¬
ward a state. The revenues of the principality amount to
about L.30,000 annually, one third of which arises from the
patrimonial estates of the sovereign. There are no military
except a small body guard. The contingent to be furnish¬
ed to the German confederation is 370 men. The capital
is Sigmaringen, a fortified town, with 1340 inhabitants.
HOHNSTEIN, a small province of the kingdom of
Hanover, formerly belonging to the Counts of Stolberg; but
being sequestrated, it was, in 1777, transferred to Hano¬
ver, which assumed the debts upon it, amounting to about
L.30,000 sterling. It lies between the Prussian province of
Saxony and the duchy of Brunswick. It extends over 132
square miles, comprehends two towns, twenty-one villages,
and 1220 houses, with 7360 inhabitants. A great part of
the province consists of mountain and wood. Its agricul¬
ture is insignificant, but it contains mines of copper, iron,
cobalt, manganese, and coal, though but slightly worked.
The chief town is Ilefeld.
HOIST, in sea-language, denotes the perpendicular
height of a flag or ensign, as opposed to the fly, whicli sig¬
nifies its breadth from the staff to the outer edge.
HOISTING signifies the operation of drawing up any
body by the assistance of one or more tackles. Hoisting
is never applied to the act of pulling up any body by the
help of a single block, except in extending the sails by
drawing them upwards along the masts or stays, to which
it is invariably applied.
HOKE-Day, HocK-Day, or Hock- Tuesday, in our an¬
cient customs, the second Tuesday after Easter week ; a so¬
lemn festival celebrated for many ages in England, in me¬
mory of the great slaughter of the Danes in the time of
King Ethelred, when they were almost all destroyed in one
day in different parts of the kingdom, and principally by
women. This is still observed in some counties; and the
women bear the principal part in the observance, stopping
all passengers with ropes and chains, and exacting some
small matter from them to make merry withal. This day
was very remarkable in former times, inasmuch as to be,
like Michaelmas, a general term or time of account. We
find leases without date reserving so much rent payable ad
duos anni terminos, silicet, ad le hoke- day, et ad festum
sancti Michaelis. In the account of Magdalen College,
Oxford, there is yearly an allowance pro mulieribus hoc-
H O L
Pol oay kantibus of some manors in Hampshire, where the men
hock the women on Mondays, and the women hock the
H -'n- men on Tuesdays. The meaning of this is, that on that
day the women in merriment stopped the way with ropes,
and pulled passengers to them, desiring something to be
laid out for pious uses.
HoKE-Zta;/ Money, or Hohe- Tuesday Money, a tribute
anciently paid to the landlord for giving his tenants and
bondsmen leave to celebrate hock-day, or hoke-day, in me¬
mory of the explusion of the Danes.
HOLBEACH, a town of the county of Lincoln, in the
hundred of Elloe, in the parish of Holland, 106 miles from
London. It is situated in a marshy district, surrounded
with excellent fen pasture. It is a place of great antiquity,
but not well built. There is a market, which is held on
Thursday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2683,
in 1811 to 2962, in 1821 to 3621, and in 1831 to 3890.
HOLBEIN, Hans, a celebrated painter, born at Basil in
Switzerland in 1498. He learned the rudiments of his art
under his father, who was a painter; but soon showed
superior genius. In the town-house of Basil he painted
Christ’s Passion, and in the fish-market of the same city
Death’s Dance, and a Dance of Peasants, which were ex¬
tremely admired, and with which Erasmus was so pleased
that he desired the artist to draw his picture, and was ever
afterwards his friend. He staid some years longer at Basil,
till his necessities, occasioned by his own extravagance
and an increasing family, induced him to comply with the
persuasions of Erasmus, and repair to England. In his jour¬
ney he staid some days at Strasburg, where it is said he ap¬
plied for work to a great painter, who took him in, and or¬
dered him to give a specimen of his skill. Holbein then
finished a piece with great care, and painted a fly op the
most eminent part of it; after which he privately withdrew
in the absence of his master, and pursued his journey, with¬
out saying any thing to any body. When the painter re¬
turned home, he was astonished at the beauty and elegance
of the drawing; and especially at the fly, which he at first
took for a real one, and endeavoured to remove with his
hand. He now sent all over the city in quest of his jour¬
neyman ; and after many inquiries, discovered that he had
been thus deceived by Holbein. The painter having in a
manner begged his way to England, presented a letter of
recommendation from Erasmus to Sir Thomas More, and
also showed him Erasmus’s picture. Sir Thomas, then lord
chancellor, received him with all imaginable kindness, and
kept him in his house between two and three years, during
which time he painted Sir Thomas’s own picture, and those
of many of his relations and friends. Holbein one day hap¬
pening to mention a nobleman who had some years before
invited him to England, Sir Thomas was very solicitous to
know who it was. Holbein said that he had forgotten his
title, but remembered his face so well that he believed he
could draw his likeness, and this he did so perfectly, that
the nobleman is said to have been immediately recognised
by it. The chancellor having now adorned his apartments
with the productions of this great painter, resolved to intro¬
duce him to Henry VIII. For this purpose he invited the
king to an entertainment; and, before he arrived, placed
all Holbein’s pieces in the great hall, where they were
disposed in the best order, and in the best light. The
king, on his first entrance into this room, was so charmed
with the sight, that he asked whether the artist was still
alive, and to be had for money ? Upon this, Sir Thomas
presented Holbein to his majesty, who immediately took
him into his service, and brought him into notice among
the nobility and gentry, for whom he painted a great num¬
ber of portraits. But whilst he was thus occupied, there hap¬
pened an incident which might have proved fatal to him,
had he not been protected by the king. On the report of
this painter’s character, a lord of the first quality came to see
H O L 507
him when he was drawing a figure after the life. Holbein Hold
sent to desire his lordship to defer the honour of his visit II
till another day ; but the nobleman taking this as an affront, IF“lder-
broke open the door, and pushed rudely up stairs. Hoi-
bein hearing a noise, came out of his chamber, met the
lord at his door, and falling into a violent passion, pushed
him backwards from the top of the stairs to the bottom.
But immediately reflecting on what he had done, he esca¬
ped from the tumult he had raised, and made the best of
his way to the king’s presence. The nobleman, much
hurt, though probably not so severely as he pretended, was
there soon after him ; and upon stating his grievance, the
king ordered Holbein to ask his pardon. But this only in¬
creased the irritation of the nobleman, who declared that
he would not be satisfied with less than the painter’s life.
Upon this the king sternly replied, “ My lord, you have
not now to do with Holbein, but with me: whatever punish¬
ment you may contrive by way of revenge against him,
shall certainly be inflicted on yourself. Remember, pray,
my lord, that I can whenever I please make seven lords of
seven ploughmen, but I cannot make one Holbein of even
seven lords.” Holbein died of the plague at his lodg¬
ings at Whitehall in 1554. “ It is amazing,” says De
Piles, “ that a man born in Switzerland, and who had never
been in Italy, should have so good a gusto, and so fine a
genius for painting.” We, however, see nothing at all
amazing in this. Nature has not, as far as we know,
given to Italy an exclusive monopoly of the genius for
art, though the treasures contained in the galleries and
cabinets of that glorious country are, no doubt, eminent¬
ly calculated to facilitate its cultivation and advancement;
nor is there any reason why a great artist, with a soul
alive to the finest perceptions of grace and beauty, should
not be born in Switzerland, or in Sweden, as well as in
Italy or in Greece. The production of genius is not cir¬
cumscribed by geographical boundaries; and though se¬
veral countries may afford better opportunities than others
for forming the taste and purifying the perceptions of an
artist, none is altogether destitute of the native element,
and in some it may be generated in such inherent vigour
as, in a great measure, to dispense with the ordinary ad¬
vantages of instruction. Holbein painted alike in every
manner; in fresco, in water-colours, in oil, and in minia¬
ture. His, genius was sufficiently shown in the historical
style, by two celebrated compositions which he painted in
the hall of the Steelyard Company. He was also eminent
for a rich vein of invention, which he showed in a mul¬
titude of designs drawn for engravers, statuaries, jewel¬
lers, and other artisans; and he had this singularity, that
he painted with his left hand.
HOLD, the interior cavity of a ship, or all that part of
her inside which is comprehended between the floor and
the lower deck throughout her whole length. This capa¬
cious apartment usually contains the ballast, provisions,
and stores of a ship of war, and the principal part of the
cargo in a merchantman.
HOLDER, William, an English divine, was born in
Nottinghamshire, educated in Pembroke Hall, Cambridge,
and appointed rector of Blechingdon of Oxford in 1642.
In 1660 he received the degree of doctor in divinity, and
afterwards became canon of Ely, fellow of the Royal
Society, canon of St Paul’s, sub-dean of the chapel royal,
and sub-almoner to his majesty. Dr Holder was an accom¬
plished scholar, and distinguished himself by teaching a
young gentleman of rank who was born deaf and dumb, to
speak. This gentleman’s name was Alexander Popham,
son of Colonel Edward Popham, who was for some time an
admiral in the service of the Long Parliament. The cure
was performed by him at Blechingdon in 1659; but Pop¬
ham losing what he had been taught by Holder after he
returned home to his friends, was sent to Dr Wallis, under
.’>08 H O L
Holds- whom he recovered the use of speech. Holder publish-
worth e(j a book entitled the Elements of Speech, being an in-
Hoiiness (lu'rX ^nto t^e natural production of letters, with an ap-
pendix concerning persons who are deaf and dumb, 1669,
8vo. In the appendix he relates how soon, and by what
methods, he brought Popham to speak. In 1678, he pub¬
lished a Supplement to the Philosophical Transactions
of July 1670, with some reflections on Dr Wallis’s letter
there inserted, in 4to. This was written to vindicate the
merit of having taught Popham to speak, which Wallis
in the letter referred to had claimed to himself; but Dr
Wallis soon afterwards published a Defence of the Royal
Society, and the Philosophical Transactions, particularly
those of July 1670, in answer to the Cavils of Dr William
Plolder, 1678, in 4to. Holder was skilled in the theory
and practice of music, and wrote a treatise on the Natural
Grounds and Principles of Harmony, 1694, 8vo. He
also wrote a Discourse concerning Time, with application
of the natural day, lunar month, and solar year, &c. 1694,
in 8vo. He died at Amen Corner in London, on the 24th
of January 1696, and was buried in St Paul’s.
HOLDSWORTH, Edward, a polite and elegant scho¬
lar, was born about the year 1688, and educated at Win¬
chester school. He wras thence elected demy of Mag¬
dalen College, Oxford, in July 1705; took the degree of
master of arts in April 1711; and then became a college-
tutor, and had many pupils. In 1715, when about to be
chosen to a fellowship, he resigned his demyship and left
the college, because he felt unwilling to take the oath of
allegiance to the new government. The remainder of his
life was spent in travelling as tutor with young noblemen
and gentlemen, in which capacity he visited Rome in 1741
and 1744. He died of a fever at Lord Digby’s house at
Coleshill in Warwickshire, on the 30th of December 1747.
He was the author of the Muscipula, a poem, esteemed a
masterpiece of its kind, and of w hich there is a good Eng¬
lish translation by Dr John Hoadly, in Dodsley’s Miscella¬
nies (vol. v.). He was also the author of a dissertation en¬
titled Pharsalia and Philippi, or the two Philippi in Vir¬
gil’s Georgies attempted to be explained and reconciled
to History, 1741, in 4to; and of Remarks and Disserta¬
tions on Virgil; besides some other classical observations,
published with several notes and additional remarks by
Mr Spence, 1768, in 4to. Mr Spence speaks of him in
his Polymetis, as one who more thoroughly understood
Virgil than any person he ever knew.
HOLDSWORTHY, a town of the county of Devon,
in the hundred of Black-Torrington, 214 miles from Lon¬
don. It is in a pleasant situation between two branches
of the river Tamar, which unite and run to Plymouth.
There is a small market, which is held on Saturday.
The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1045, in 1811 to
1206, in 1821 to 1440, and in 1831 to 1628.
HOLESCHAU, a city of the circle of Hradesch, in the
Austrian province of Moravia, on the river Nussawa. It
contains 305 houses and 3733 inhabitants, of whom one
third are Jews. It has considerable manufactures of
woollens, and much internal trade.
HOLINESS, or Sanctity, a quality which constitutes
or denominates a person or thing holy, that is, pure, or
exempt from sin. The word is also used in respect of
persons and things that are sacred, or, in other wrords, set
apart to the service of God, and the uses of religion.
Holiness is also a title of quality attributed to the
pope, as that of majesty is to kings. Even kings, when
writing to the pope, address him under the venerable
appellation of lour Holiness, or Holy Father; in Latin,
Sanctissime or Beatissime Pater. Anciently the same title
was given to all bishops. The Greek emperors also were
addressed under the title of Holiness, on account of their
being anointed with holy oil at their coronation. Du
H O L
Cange adds, that some of the kings of England have hadHolin d
the same attribute; and that the orientals have frequent- |
ly refused it to the pope. Holll
HOLINSHED, Raphael, one of that humble but use- ^ '
ful class of historians called chroniclers, was descended
of a family which lived at Bosely in Cheshire ; but neither
the time nor place of his birth is known, nor indeed any
other circumstance of his life. According to Bishop
Tanner, he was educated at Cambridge, and became mas¬
ter of arts in the year 1544. But the nature and extent of
his education, as well as his profession, are involved in
uncertainty. It seems probable, however, that he was
steward to Thomas Burdett, of Bomcote in Warwickshire,
where he died about the year 1580. He has given his
name to a compilation of Chronicles of English History
from the earliest times, the first edition of which was pub¬
lished at London in 1577, in two volumes folio; and the
second edition, in three volumes, was printed about seven
years after his death, being brought down to 1586. This
work, according to the testimony of Holinshed himself,
was begun by the advice of Reginald Wolfe, printer to
Queen Elizabeth. Part of it was compiled by himself,
but he received considerable assistance from William Har¬
rison, John Hooker, Abraham Fleming, Francis Thynne,
and some others. After the death of Holinshed, it was
continued by John Stowe. Some parts of the first edition
were altered in the second and third, because they gave
offence to Queen Elizabeth and the ministry, who laid
many restrictions on the liberty of the press ; but the cas¬
trated sheets were reprinted apart in 1723. The first vo¬
lume of the Chronicles opens with an Historical Descrip¬
tion of the Island of Britain by William Harrison; and
this is followed by the History of England, from the
time when it was first inhabited until that when it was last
conquered, by Holinshed himself. The second volume
contains the Description, Conquest, Inhabitation, and
troublesome Estate of Ireland, by Richard Stanihurst; the
conquest of Ireland, translated from the Latin of Giraldus
Cambrensis by John Hooker, or Vowell; the Chronicles
of Ireland, beginning where Giraldus ended, by Holin¬
shed ; the Description of Scotland, translated from the
Latin of Hector Boethius, by Holinshed and Harrison; and
the History of Scotland, containing the beginning, in¬
crease, proceedings, continuance, acts and government of’
the Scottish nation, from the original thereof unto the year
1571, compiled by Holinshed, and continued from 1571 to
1586 by Francis Boteville and others. The third vo¬
lume commences with Duke William the Norman, com¬
monly called the Conqueror, “ and descends by degrees
of yeeres to all the kings and queenes of England.” As
already mentioned, the time of Holinshed’s death, like
the date of his birth, is unknown ; but from his will, which
Hearne has prefixed to his edition of Camden’s Annals,
it would appear that it must have happened between 1578
and 1582.
HOLLAND, Dr Philemon, a noted translator, was
descended of an ancient family in Lancashire, and edu¬
cated in the university of Cambridge. He was for many
years a schoolmaster at Coventry, where he also practised
physic. He translated into English, Livy, Pliny’s Natu¬
ral History, Plutarch’s Morals, Suetonius, Ammianus
Marcellinus, Xenophon’s Cyropcedia, and Camden’s Bri¬
tannia ; and into Latin the geographical part of Speed’s
Theatre of Great Britain, and the French Pharmacopceia
of Brice Bauderon. But the Britannia, to which he
made many useful additions, was the most valuable of his
works. It is surprising that a man of two professions
could find time to translate so much ; but it appears, from
the date of the Cyropcedia, that he continued to translate
till he was eighty years of age. He died on the 9th of
February 1636, at the advanced age of eighty-five.
509
HOLLAND.
I and. Holland is an European kingdom, formed in part of
^ ■w' islands, but chiefly of that part of the Continent where the
mouths of the Rhine are divided into several branches before
it enters the German Ocean. This district is said to have
owed the ancient name of Batavia, by which it was known
to the Romans, to one Bato ; but at what period he flou¬
rished is unknown ; and the name is now scarcely used ex¬
cepting amongst the poets of the district. By accounts col¬
lected from the works of Caesar and Tacitus, we learn that
the ancient tribes who inhabited this portion of Europe had
been able to maintain their independence in spite of the at¬
tempts made to subdue them by the Teutones, the Cimbri,
and other nations, who had conquered the rest of what
was then called Gaul. The Batavians, says the last of these
historians, excelled all the other people on the Rhine in
military spirit. When subdued by the Romans they paid
their tribute in soldiers; and from them was formed a ca¬
valry, which composed the most efficient part of the Ro¬
man armies. They astonished the Dacians by the dexte¬
rity and bravery with which, completely armed, they swam
their horses across the Danube to attack those people ; and
for a long period they formed the guard of the Roman em¬
perors. A body of Batavians accompanied Agricola on his
expedition into Britain, and were of great assistance in se¬
curing his conquests in the island.
Although the Romans at length overcame the Batavians,
it was after a strenuous resistance. The last that sub¬
mitted was the tribe of the Frisons, who inhabited the
marshes. Drusus, the Roman commander, constructed a
canal between the Rhine and the Zuyder Zee, and thus
opened a way into the German Ocean to the Ems and the
Weser, by which he was enabled to penetrate into the heart
of Germany, and to subdue that country. During four cen¬
turies the Batavians formed part of the Roman legions ; but
amongst these, after the reign of the Emperor Honorius,
their name is no longer to be found.
After that period the islands were overrun by the Franks ;
and the transactions relating to them have been mixed up
with those of the adjoining Belgians. The Frieslanders,
however, opposed and broke through the armies of the
Franks, and made their appearance as a free, and in some
measure a victorious people, on the left bank of the Rhine ;
and there, adhering to their ancient customs, upon which had
been engrafted many of the principles introduced by the
Romans, they long maintained their independence. These
people had suffered the least from the invasion of foreign¬
ers, and retained through several centuries distinct traces
of their ancient constitution, their national spirit, and their
national manners.
In the fifth and sixth centuries the kingdom of the
Franks, which had arisen out of the ruins of the Roman
power, gradually extended itself, and in the seventh had
subdued the last of the Batavian people, the long resisting
Frisons. Under Charles Martel the last conquest was
achieved, and a way opened by his sword for the introduc¬
tion of the Christian religion.
W hen Charlemagne had obtained his'extensive domi¬
nion, and the feudal system was introduced, and continued
under his successors, the powerful vassals of the crown, to
whom the lands were granted, by degrees acquired a sort
of mitigated sovereignty; but being unable to maintain
themselves without the assistance of their under feudato¬
ries, they were compelled, in order to secure their fidelity,
to grant them advantageous conditions of tenure. The
clergy, too, by pious usurpations or pious donations, be¬
came a powerful and independent corporate body. Thus,
during the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centu- Holland,
ries, the whole of Belgium and of Batavia was split into se- v—
veral small dominions, the princes of which acknowledged
a limited allegiance, some of them to the German empire,
and others to the kings of the Franks. During this period
Brabant, and afterwards Luxembourg, Limburg, and Guel-
dres, obtained the name of dukedoms; Flanders, Holland,
Zealand, Hennegau, Artois, Namur, and Zutphen, were
ranked as Graffschalftr, or countships. Utrecht was a bish¬
opric, the prelate of which exercised civil authority also in
Overyssel and Groningen. Amongst all these chiefs the
Count of Flanders was the most powerful; and as, in 1383,
that countship fell to the then more powerful house of Bur¬
gundy, the prince of that family, partly by intermarriages,
partly by force, and partly by voluntary or purchased sub¬
mission, obtained supreme authority over the whole of what
became the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands.
This appears to have been the most flourishing period
of these provinces. Agriculture was carried on with spirit,
skill, and abundant results. Manufactures of linen, and
especially of woollen goods, gave occupation to an increas¬
ing population; and foreign commerce was extensive and
profitable. The commodities of India brought to the Ita¬
lian cities were transmitted to Antwerp, Bruges, and some
other places, where extensive depots were established for
foreign and domestic goods, and where, at the periodical
fairs, the merchants of the northern kingdoms of Europe
resorted, and transacted their commercial affairs.
The government of the Dukes of Burgundy was tempered
by the privileges enjoyed by the cities, and by the nobility
who possessed the land; and, though contests frequently
arose between the sovereign and the states, they rarely
came to open hostilities. When disturbances occurred,
they were not of such duration, or so extensive, as to inter¬
rupt in any great degree the rapid growth of general wealth
and progressive improvement.
Charles the Bold, the last of the Dukes of Burgundy, lost his
life in a battle with the cantons of Switzerland in 1477. His
eldest daughter Maria married Maximilian, duke of Aus¬
tria, and received the Netherlands as her portion ; and her
grandson, born at Ghent, afterwards Charles V., emperor
of Germany, thus became sovereign of those countries and
of the kingdom of Spain from the moment of his birth. Be¬
fore the marriage of Maria, and also under Maximilian,
when he had become emperor and guardian of his son, at¬
tempts were made to lessen the influence of the states.
But these were powerfully resisted by some of the cities,
and especially by Bruges, in 1487, and by Sluys about the
same time. Bruges was sufficiently strong to resist the
encroachments; but Maximilian, in despite of its privi¬
leges, blocked up the port of Sluys for ten years, which
caused the foreign ships that before crowded to that place
to repair to Antwerp and Amsterdam; and these cities
from that period became the two principal seats of foreign
commerce.
The Netherlands, at the end of the fifteenth century,
became the great school for the fine arts. These had been
introduced from Italy; and the artists of the Low Coun¬
tries were soon successful rivals of their masters of Flo¬
rence, Bologna, and Venice, in painting, in statuary, in ar¬
chitecture, and in engraving. The art of printing, if not
invented, was first made known at Haerlem, and was soon
practised in other cities of the Netherland provinces.
At the accession of Charles V. the situation of the Ne¬
therlands became widely changed. Instead of a paternal
government, the chief of which in a great measure depend-
HOLLAND.
510
Holland, ed on the prosperity of these provinces, they were convert-
ed into a dependent, and, though rich and populous, an in¬
significant part of a large empire, to the promotion of whose
greatness, whether for good or for evil to themselves, they
must in future be almost wholly subservient.
Between the Flemings and the Spaniards an excessive
distaste was mutually felt, which soon attained to the most
inveterate hatred. This originated in the difference of ge¬
nius, of manners, customs, and mode of government, and
was quickly increased by the regret natural to a powerful
people, such as those of the Netherlands deemed them¬
selves, at being incorporated, and thereby almost swallow¬
ed up, by another nation. Steps were early taken by
Charles, under the pretence of introducing unity in his ter¬
ritories, that had a tendency to undermine the privileges
which the Netherland states had zealously defended and
long maintained. Before his accession a legal tribunal had
been established at Mechlin, to which appeals might be
made from all the legal tribunals of the confederate states;
and as none but natives were judges, and their decisions
were guided by the ancient laws, it was looked up to with
confidence, and considered as a security to their constitu¬
tions. This tribunal was, however, nullified by being pla¬
ced under an imperial court, established at Brussels, seve¬
ral of the members of which were foreigners, and all of
whom were dependent on the royal favour alone. This
imperial court was naturally viewed with a jealous eye, and
was ill adapted for the protection of those rights to which
the people were attached.
The growing expenses of the hostile operations of Charles
in other parts of his extended dominions, made his de¬
mands on his Netherland subjects much heavier. In spite
of their ancient right of levying taxes, he imposed some
that were new, and increased others. The history of this
reign contains constant repetitions of subsidies required,
which were at first rejected or deferred, but at length yield¬
ed, though with reluctance and discontent.
Another subject of murmuring was the introduction of
foreign troops, that is, forces belonging to the other domi¬
nions of the emperor, as well as recruiting his armies in
the Netherlands without the consent of the states; cir¬
cumstances which, besides being contrary to the constitu¬
tion, involved them in wars to which they were indifferent
or repugnant, and which were injurious to their interest as
a commercial people.
Charles felt that the commerce of his subjects could
alone enable him to extract from them those pecuniary
supplies which his general government needed; and so far
he protected their manufactures and mercantile affairs, and
in some cases even recalled edicts, at the requisition of his
Flemish subjects, which he would have without hesitation
enforced at Madrid. The most influential of all the causes
which arose in the reign of Charles V. was the religious
reformation which had commenced in Germany, had spread
in France, and from both these countries had been intro¬
duced into the Netherlands, chiefly in the trading cities,
and in them had gained numerous adherents. The full
effect of this, and of the other causes which have been here
noticed, did not appear until the abdication of the emperor
had elevated his son Philip II. to the extensive dominions
of his father.
The religious excitement gave some uneasiness to Charles,
and measures were feebly applied to check the progress of the
new opinions, to wdiich, when not actuated by political views,
he at one time seemed not to be strenuously inimical. Had
the emperor been disposed to severity towards the profes¬
sors of the Protestant tenets, any measure of that nature
would have affected the interests of commerce, and have
tended to diminish the revenues he drew from that source.
I he foreign merchants who had establishments, or fre¬
quented the fairs, in the Netherlands, brought with them
from Germany, England, France, and other countries, the Holla
doctrines and the writings of the Protestants. These were ^“y
diffused amongst the natives, and made a great impression ;
and any attempts to destroy their intercourse, or to punish
them for their opinions, would have driven commerce, as it
did a few years later under Philip II., to the other markets
of Europe, where greater religious freedom was enjoyed.
Towards the close of his reign, Charles issued indeed some
most severe laws against those who professed the new reli¬
gion. These were in some cases applied with unfeeling cru¬
elty, though they tended but little to diminish the progress of
the dissident principles. He had resolved, after the success¬
ful issue of his wars in Germany, to reduce his Netherland
subjects to uniform obedience to the Roman Catholic reli¬
gion, and for that purpose he designed to have introduced
the Inquisition. The fear alone of that dreaded tribunal
in Antwerp suspended immediately all commerce, and the
most eminent foreigners made instant preparations to re¬
move. There were neither buyers nor sellers to be seen,
the value of the buildings was destroyed, and all the ope¬
rative labourers were discharged. Money totally disap¬
peared, and no taxes could be collected. At the earnest
recommendation of the Duchess of Parma, as vice-regent,
this edict was suspended. The common tribunals were
directed to practise no molestation pn the foreign mer¬
chants ; and, instead of the Inquisition, a milder court, at
least in name, was framed, and called the ecclesiastical tri¬
bunal. In the other provinces, however, much severity
was beginning to be practised, not long before the abdica¬
tion of Charles; but, severe as these were, the remem¬
brance of them was speedily obliterated by the more sav¬
age cruelties practised under the reign of his son.
The reign of Charles was, upon the whole, beneficial to
the United Netherland Provinces, and he left that division
of his dominions in a most flourishing condition ; so that for
its extent it was by far the most considerable state in Eu¬
rope. Their taxes were by no means heavy, though their
trade was most extensive; and the mechanical genius and
persevering industry of the inhabitants had rendered the
Low Countries the workshop of Europe. When the em¬
peror, at his solemn abdication, delivered over these pro¬
vinces to the rule of his son, they are reported to have con¬
tained three hundred and fifty cities, and six thousand three
hundred towns and large villages, besides numerous ham¬
lets, farm-houses, and castles. These comprehended the
four dukedoms of Brabant, Limburg, Luxembourg, and
Guelderland; the seven countships of Artois, Hennegau,
Flanders, Namur, Zutphen, Holland, and Zealand; the
margravate of Antwerp; and the baronies of Friesland,
Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, and Groningen. Statistical
researches were not much practised at that period, and no
accurate views can be obtained of the extent of the popula¬
tion ; but there is good reason to conclude, that, though at
present the Netherlands are the most densely peopled of
any part of Europe, the numbers then were more than
equal to what they are now. The seven provinces which af¬
terwards formed the republic were probably less populous;
but the other divisions, where manufactures were more ge¬
nerally carried on, were, from all accounts, proportionally
more crowded. Philip II. ascended the throne on the ab¬
dication of his father in October 1555. He had been edu¬
cated in Spain, and had .imbibed the retired and stately
manners of/hat country. He spoke no other language but
Spanish, and, except the short time he had passed in Eng¬
land after his marriage with Queen Mary, he had scarcely
ever left the peninsula. He was most zealously attached
to the Roman Catholic religion, and not less so to the un¬
restricted exercise of arbitrary power. He was distrustful
of those who administered public affairs, was nearly invisible
to his subjects, and the few who had access to his presence
were commonly disgusted both with his manners and with
HOLLAND.
511
H ind. the punctilious formalities with which their introduction monly absent when other affairs were under consideration- Holland
^ was attended. He was deemed insensible to human suf- Vigilius was a man ~ ~ ' - - mercons,aeratlon’ WoUano-
ferings, and was equivocating, if not insincere, in the re¬
plies he made to the petitions of his subjects.
He remained in the Netherlands from his accession in
1555 till August 1559, when he embarked for Spain, and
never afterwards returned. The measures he introduced
during his stay, his repulsive manners, and the humours
he displayed at his departure, all tended to strengthen that
aversion, mingled with suspicion, which had begun to ma¬
nifest itself during the reign of his imperial predecessor.
„ # man of profound scholastic learning, very
politic, and very yielding; so that, in fact, the whole power
was conceded to Granvelt. He was a native of France, and
had distinguished himself by his learning, but more by his
subservience to the rigour and the caprices of Philip. By
these means, from the low condition of a parish priest, he
was raised to the episcopal rank, and finally to the dig¬
nity of a cardinal. His being a foreigner was the pretext,
but his arbitrary disposition and intolerant rigour the
causes, of general aversion ; and the firmest and most
^ .1 f ~wi gciiciai avci&iun, ana me iirmesi ana most
The most obnoxious measures to the people were, first, a pointed representations of the assemblies of the several
destgn to abolish several of the monastic establishments, in states were solely but unavailingly directed towards him.
order that their estates might be converted into revenues He alone conducted all affairs, and-to him the secret or-
for new bishoprics, the incumbents of which were to be ders of the king were conveyed.
the instruments of introducing the Inquisition into the pro- The three members of the council who had been named
vinces. That institution was held in such abhorrence, that on account of the estimation in which they were held
it encountered every obstruction which could be opposed among the natives of the Netherlands, though they were
to it, both by the Catholics and the Protestants. It had utterly inefficient as members of the board, should not be
met also, at the court of Home, some obstacles which caus¬
ed delay, so that the arrangement was not completed when
the king departed for Spain. The second cause of com¬
plaint was the retention of foreign forces within the states.
W hen the king came to the throne, a war was carried on
with France; but the French having been signally defeat¬
ed at the battle of St Quentin in 1557, a peace was, after
long negotiations, completed at Chateau-Cambresis. The
withdrawing of the troops, consisting both of the Spanish in¬
fantry and of some German auxiliaries, was eagerly looked
for by all the inhabitants. The latter were disbanded and
sent home, but the former were retained, and proved dread¬
fully oppressive to the country. Vander Vynckt, the
faithful historian of Flanders, says, “ the Spaniards were so
passed over without short notices of their rank and cha¬
racter, on account of the vast interest which has been ex¬
cited by the events they directed, and the fates they ex¬
perienced.
William of Nassau, prince of Orange, was one of the
greatest men of his own or any other age. He had in
his youth been brought up in Germany, his native coun¬
try, amongst Protestants, whose creed his father had adopt¬
ed. Being of an illustrious house, he was early introduced
to the Emperor Charles, whose favour and confidence he
obtained, and he was employed by him in some most ho¬
nourable commissions and embassies. He came to the
possession of the family inheritance on the death of an
uncle and a cousin, consisting of extensive estates in Bur-
>   r    ant. a uuuaui, ui exiensive esiaies in rsur
elevated with their late successes against the French, that gundy and the Netherlands, and thus was by far the rich
they thought the ransom or the pillage of the whole of the est of all the nobles of the country. By his wealth he was
J\ ether lands would be an insufficient recompense for the enabled to live magnificently when ambassador in France
actions they had performed. They lived at free quarters and in England, and afterwards at home when governor of
on the country, and trampled upon the people without the provinces of Holland and Zealand. He was as highly
pity. In tact, receiving little or no pay, or that pay being estimated in foreign countries as in the Netherlands, and
i/j ia arrears> they were of necessity instigated to all had formed numerous alliances and friendships in England
kinds ot disorders, and led to practise the most abominable and France, and others still more considerable in Ger-
oppressions. 1 he remonstrances of the states were coldly many. He was a man of penetration, courage, and resolu-
received, and though assurances were given that the griev- tion, with enlarged and accurate political views. His mea-
ance should be removed, and the period for it was fixed, it sures were maturely considered, but when once determined
was delayed from time to time, and ultimately consented upon, nothing could shake them. In the greatest adver-
o in appearance only, as they remained on the frontiers, sity he was firm and tranquil, and he possessed in his
ready to re-enter when the ulterior measures which were in mind inexhaustible resources. He was remarkable for his
prepmation should require their assistance. As one means taciturnity, from which circumstance he was sometimes
o delaying the departure of these troops, two legions were distinguished by the name of William the Silent. An
proposed to be placed under the command of the Prince Italian proverb has appropriately described him, Tacendo
o range and Count Egmont, two of the most patriotic parla, parlando incanta.
and popular of the nobility. But their integrity resisted Lamoral count Egmont was also a nobleman of tlie first
e emptation ; they declined the command, and this ren- rank, of a family originating in Holland, some members of
ered the continuance of the troops the more obnoxious. which had in former times been the sovereign Dukes of
A third cause of complaint was, a violation of the an- Guelderland. His mother, the heiress of the house of
cient constitution of the states, by introducing into the Luxembourg-Fiennes, had brought to the family of Eg-
ig ei executiveand judicial offices persons of foreign birth, mont estates in Flanders of vast extent and riches. He
ien Plnhp left the Netherlands, the government was was adored by the inhabitants of Flanders and Artois, of
con eried on the Duchess of Parma, a natural daughter which provinces he was the governor, and was generally
ie Emperor Charles V. She was to be assisted by a considered as the fittest person to have filled the dignity
ouncil of state, composed of the Prince of Orange, the held by the Duchess of Parma. He was generous, frank,
ounts Egmont and Horn, Granyelt bishop of Arras, Count disinterested, and open hearted. He was besides a good
flPr ,ai,m°n\ ?n,d ViSlllus de Quichem. But by secret or- general, possessing intrepid courage, and had distinguished
s, ut which soon transpired, a committee of this coun- himself in the war with France. He was less adroit than
mnar°nS1Stln° tllG tll^ee last name.d> was empowered in the Prince of Orange, and had lessofforesight,buthewasas
in cases to communicate alone with the duchess, and eminent in the field as the other was in the cabinet. These
to L CaSe4'it° °.n the advice which was to be given men were at one time rivals for power, but a common in-
worn ™ 1 • !116 Pn.nce 0,f 0range and the two counts terest closely united them. Philip de Montmorenci, count
laim fGre clPhers’ and rareV attended the council. Bar- Horn, was an admiral, and in his command of the naval forces
onlv°t mere TatUre of Granv^C who attended had displayed the most intrepid courage, and had rendered
y o tne finances, of which he was chief, and was com- great service to the Spanish government. He had been
HOLLAND.
512
Holland, governor of the provinces of Zutphen and Gueldres, and
by the management of Granvelt had been suspended and
sent into Spain, where he is said to have acquired a thorough
knowledge of the operations intended against the liberties
of his country, and communicated them to the Prince of
Orange. He was reported also to have then had some in¬
tercourse with Don Carlos, the heir to the throne of Spain,
who himself was supposed to feel differently on the affairs
of the Netherlands from his father King Philip.
With these three leaders were connected others of
rank nearly equal, the whole of the inferior nobility, and a
very large majority of the burghers, merchants, and ma¬
nufacturers of the cities and towns; and in particular al¬
most the whole of those people who were connected with
maritime transactions, either as owners or navigators of
vessels.
We return now to the causes of complaint which were
made in the Netherlands. The fourth of them was, the
omitting to call together the general assembly of the states.
Though under the reign of the Emperor Charles the power
of that body had been much curtailed, they were yet the
organ of the opinions and feelings of the more respectable
part of the nation. Their views and complaints were freely
communicated to the government, and exercised influence
on its decisions.* One of the last and most decisive in¬
structions given by Philip to the Duchess of Parma, be¬
fore his departure for Spain, forbade the assembling of
this body.
The chief points upon which the subjects felt aggrieved
are only here noticed, though there were many others,
. some of a minor and some of a local nature, all which, com¬
bined with the general disgust felt towards Spain and the
Spanish monarch, tended to shake the authority of the
king, by indisposing the civil tribunals from following up
with zeal the ordonnances which from time to time were
issued by the sovereign.
These complaints had at a very early period excited
secret associations amongst the nobility and gentry which
were in opposition to the extension of the severe penal
laws. One of these associations was formed as early as
1556, by Martiner baron of St Aldegonde in Breda, a
confidential friend of the Prince of Orange. He, with ten
or twelve others of equal rank, drew up a declaration, then
known by the name of the Compromise. It contained
execrations against the Inquisition, which it painted in the
most horrible colours. It accused foreigners of having se¬
duced the king to refuse the abolition of his rigid ordon¬
nances, that they might be enabled to gratify their ambi¬
tion and their avarice; and it concluded with declaring,
that they were united to assist the oppressed, to resist
violence, and, above all things, never to submit to the es¬
tablishment of the Inquisition. When this compromise
had been signed at Breda, numerous copies of it were
made and circulated throughout all the provinces, from Ar¬
tois to Friesland. It was signed with avidity by all classes,
from the highest nobility to the lowest artisans. This
association at length became so extensive and bold as to
determine on an application to the regent, for which pur¬
pose the leaders requested an audience, that they might
lay their complaints before her. This request, after much
hesitation and with some symptoms of alarm on the part
of the government, was at length granted. The nobles
assembled at Brussels, attended, according to the custom
of the age, by their numerous followers, and, marching to
the palace in a long train in regular order, were admitted
to an audience. The address was read by Brederode count
of Utrecht. It contained strong professions of obedience
and loyalty, and asserted that the associates were innocent
of the charge of which they had been calumniated, of
having entered into engagements with foreign powers.
In conclusion, a convocation of the states-general was re¬
quested, and in the mean time a provisional suspension of Holij
all inquisitorial measures and proclamations, until a reply ^ j
could be received from the king, who was then in Spain.
An equivocal reply was given, the substance of which
was merely that more temperate measures would be pur¬
sued till the orders of the king were received.
This assembling of the nobles gave to the associates a
name which was assumed and long continued as a mark
of distinction. During the audience at the palace, the
duchess appeared somewhat alarmed at the great number
of persons which composed the deputation. Count Bar-
laimont, one of her suite, in order to calm her disquietude,
whispered, but sufficiently loud to be heard by those who
were nearest, that they were nothing more than un ramas
de gueux, a crowd of beggars. On this being reported at
a convivial meeting of the nobles, one of them, as a toast,
gave vivent les gueux, which was received with acclama¬
tion, and the name afterwards adopted; and their clothing
and ornaments were so worn as to exhibit emblems like
those in use amongst conventual mendicants and other beg¬
gars, one of the most distinguishing of which was a sack
thrown over the shoulders, on which was frequently painted
the motto of the association, Fidele au roi jusqud la be-
sace.
The exhibition of strength on the part of the associates
led to a series of negotiations between the vice-regent and
the party, which at length was terminated on the 23d of Au¬
gust 1566, by the duchess provisionally, till orders could
be received from Spain, agreeing to suspend the introduc¬
tion of the Inquisition, and in the mean time to submit
her other measures to the revision of the states-general.
Even this kind of truce was only conceded in conse¬
quence of some tumultuous and outrageous assemblages,
partly excited by the Protestant preachers, but of which
they soon ceased to have any power of direction or con¬
trol. The assemblies first collected by field preachers
were composed of those who had imbibed the Protestant
opinions, and were held on the frontiers of Liege, about
St Trend. They were soon joined, out of curiosity, by num¬
bers anxious to hear the new doctrines, but speedily after¬
wards by all the wandering tribes of outlaws, vagabonds,
and plunderers; and at length they became so numerous
that no resistance could be made to them in the open
country, or even in the cities which were not fortified and
well garrisoned. The Catholic writers of the period re¬
present these assemblages as being composed principally
pf the sectarians of Germany and the Calvinists of France,
joined to the Anabaptists of Leyden and other parts of
Holland. It seems evident, however, that these were very
early outnumbered by others whose chief objects were
plunder and destruction. Their first operations were to
attack and rob the monasteries in the open country; they
then seized on the churches, and destroyed all the images
and other appendages of the Catholic worship, carrying
away with them whatever was portable and valuable. The
peaceable inhabitants appeared everywhere panic-struck,
and the desolating power thus let loose was opposed by
no obstacles; so that at length all the cities except Brus¬
sels were more or less subject to the depredators. Ypres,
Tournay, Valenciennes, and Oudenarde suffered the most.
At Antwerp the Prince of Orange suspended the destruc¬
tion as long as he remained there, but after his removal
the insurgents gained the superiority, and were enabled
to destroy the images and ornaments of the cathedral, as
well as those of the other churches and monasteries, in that
city. This devastation was like a hurricane, and though
the storm passed over in a short space of time, its effects
were frightful, and its destructive operations extensive.
The duchess, though about to leave Brussels, and seek
safety in Mons, was persuaded by her council to remain
in the capital, where intimidations on one side, and pro-
HOLLAND. 513
I land, posals to treat with the insurgents on the other, were oftheinhabitantsthattheirsovereign would speedilyappear Holland.
v.j -Purged with vehemence. To the latter she at length yield- amongst them. The Prince of Orange alone was not de-
ed, and authorized the Prince of Orange, with the Counts ceived. He had emissaries of talent in Madrid, in Rome,
Egmont and Horn, to treat with the chiefs of the insur- and in Vienna, and indeed wherever important intelligence
gents, who still continued in St Trond. This measure could be obtained. In 1565 Catherine de’ Medicis, with
was so far successful for the time, that, after the provisional her son Charles IX., had a meeting at Bayonne, to which
agreement already noticed, a treaty was concluded with King Philip and his queen, a daughter of Medicis, were to
the leaders at St Trond, and signed on the 25th of August, have repaired. The king, however, did not join them, but
It was agreed that the preachers might continue their re- the queen did. It was represented as a mere family party,
ligious practices in the places where they actually did ex- at which the ambassadors of other states were not expect-
ercise them, that the people might attend them, but un- ed to attend. At the meeting the females concocted a
armed, and cause no trouble to the Catholics. The nobles treaty between the two kings, which was to be kept secret
were to renounce the confederation, and all were to lay from all but themselves. It engaged to extirpate all here-
down their arms, and assist in restoring and re-establish- sy and heretics, not only from their own dominions, but
ing the estates, the churches, the monasteries, and the from all the other parts of Europe in which Protestantism
hospitals that had been plundered, and indemnify those had already been embraced. The secret was well kept,
who had suffered. and the meeting was attributed to some projected family
A temporary lull was thus procured, though frequently marriages, which Philip represented to his ministers as a
interrupted by local explosions. All were waiting with matter which would be best arranged by the females. Wal-
impatience for intelligence from Madrid, whither couriers singham, the ambassador at Paris of Queen Elizabeth, with-
were immediately forwarded after the pacification, with in little more than a year gained the particulars of the
despatches from the duchess to King Philip. The letters to treaty, and communicated them to his court, and thence
Spain were expressed in the most melancholy strain. The the knowledge of it was conveyed to the Prince of Orange,
duchess confessed that she had granted to the insurgents who maintained the most profound secrecy till the most
terms that were degrading to herself, and which she could useful moment for its being made known had arrived,
not relate without shame and grief. She affirmed that It was generally believed that the prince had the most
she had long resisted, but, weakened by fever and sleepless complete knowledge of what passed in the cabinet of King
nights, had at length yielded ; that with anguish of mind Philip, though it is now unknown if, as some suspected, he
and bodily pain, and the fear of greater evils, she had grant- had the intelligence from his son Don Carlos, or, as others
ed pardon to the rebels, and had acceded to their demands, imagined, from one of his secretaries. It is said, that from
but that she had done nothing in the name of the king, but his perfect knowledge of the transactions and opinions
only in her own ; and that he might disavow and undo what of the French court, and of what had passed at Bayonne,
she had done, as his majesty was no party to the acts, he had predicted the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and
The despatch concluded with an earnest solicitation that had informed the Admiral de Coligny of the plot, putting
his majesty would not delay his journey to the Low Coun- him on his guard against the caresses and the treachery of
tries till the spring, but come immediately to Brussels. the court, but which, unfortunately for the illustrious vic-
Philip received the despatches at Segovia, where he tim, did not save him from the miserable fate which he
was confined by sickness ; and though he read and remark- at length suffered. The Prince of Orange was possessed
ed upon them, no answer was returned till he was enabled of large estates in Germany, and, by blood as well as by
to remove to Madrid and assemble his council. In that marriage, was closely connected with many of the smaller
council it was seen that the vice-regent had in no way com- sovereigns of that country, who had embraced and intro¬
mitted his majesty, and the answers were dictated under duced into their dominions the doctrine and the worship of
that assumption, 'fwo despatches were drawn, one of them the Protestants. Even the emperor, though a firm adhe-
ostensible and the other secret. They are to be found rent of the Roman Catholic church, was in some measure
at length in Strada, and the substance of them may be thus influenced by him. He was induced to write to King Phi-
abridged. The first or public letter announced the birth lip, expressing his good will, but pointed out to him that
of an infanta, and that the king had removed to Madrid he was engaged in a war with the Turks, that a great part
to make the necessary preparations for his journey to Flan- of Germany interested itself in the fate of the Netherlands,
ders ; that a convocation of the states would be no remedy and that those who had adopted the confession of Augs-
for the existing evils, but an injury to the honour and the burg would never allow the inhabitants of these provinces
conscience of the king; and that the best measure, in case to be oppressed. He therefore recommended a nego-
of necessity, would be to repel force by force, in which cir- tiation with Orange, Egmont, and Horn, and offered his
cumstances she might securely count on the aid of the well mediation to accommodate the differences. The court of
disposed people. The secret despatch was more laconic. Spain rejected this interference between the king and his
It enjoined attention to former orders, and to the public Flemish subjects; but the knowledge of this correspon-
letter, on what related to the convocation of the states- dence served to strengthen the purpose of the Prince of
general; and if any force was exercised towards the go- Orange, who soon became acquainted with it, to adopt the
vernment, to trust to God and his providence, but to do precautionary measures which his situation required,
nothing that should appear, either directly or indirectly, to The Prince of Orange having learned, by his emissaries
have proceeded from the opinion of the king. at the court of Madrid, that the preparations for the king’s
It was the policy of the court of Spain at this period to journey to the Netherlands were merely adopted to quiet
keep every thing in the Netherlands in a state of total sus- and mislead the public, and that, on the contrary, it had
pense. For this purpose rumours were spread of the king’s been determined to pursue the most rigid measures, and
intended journey. The time was fixed, the preparations intrust them to the Duke of Alba, determined on his course
were made, the route was determined, and the attendants of action. He immediately resigned all the offices he held
were named. It was however only a kind of grimace, in the Netherlands, and withdrew himself and his family
though, to give it more the appearance of reality, applica- to his territories in the duchy of Nassau in Germany,
tion was made to the king of France for permission to pass, The Duke of Alba was reputed in that age to be cruel,
and also the Duke of Savoy was consulted respecting the crafty, proud, and avaricious; and his name was held in
fittest passageover the Alps, incase the king should proceed abhorrence throughout the Netherlands. Although it was
to Italy by sea. These measures satisfied almost the whole resolved that he should have the sole power, yet the pur-
VOL. xr. 3 T
514 HOLLAND.
Hal land, pose was concealed even from the regent herself. Philip
continued to assure her that he was resolved to come as
soon as possible, and that the Duke of Alba only preced¬
ed him, to smooth the way, and so arrange affairs that he
might on his arrival the more easily restore tranquillity;
that in the mean time the duke would command the army,
and attend to the fortifications, and the security of the
country, but still, in subordination to the authority of her
highness. The knowledge of this appointment could not
be long kept secret, and its disclosure produced universal
consternation. The great nobles, such as the Prince of
Orange, the Counts Calembourg, de Bergh, Brederode,
and others, had early sold parts of their estates, and raised
money by mortgages on the other portions of them. All
that could, prepared for their removal. The inferior no¬
bility, the rich merchants of Antwerp, the wealthy burghers
of all the cities, resolved to expatriate themselves and their
families. Soon after the mission of Alba was publicly made
known, the duchess wrote to the king to say, that already
more than one hundred thousand persons had abandoned
their domicils and their country. The Low Countries
were at that period at the height of prosperity. The cities
were opulent and contiguous, the towns, villages, and ham¬
lets, resembled the cities of other countries, and almost
touched each other. It was most densely peopled, and so
cultivated that no waste land was to be seen. The commerce
was active, and the inhabitants, from industry, were easy in
their circumstances, well fed and well clothed. They were
the objects of envy to strangers, and viewed with pecu¬
liar jealousy by the Spaniards, who saw their condition,
and compared it with that of their own country.
The emigrations caused by the first intelligence of
the approach of Alba alarmed the duchess, who issued
edicts designed to tranquillise the people, and these had
some effect; but they were disavowed by orders of the
king, and some who had been induced to return were
subsequently the victims of their confidence. Afterwards,
when the severities of Alba began to be exercised, the
emigrations were increased; and though orders were issu¬
ed to prevent it, and intrusted to the Spanish troops to
execute, they came too late. A great number of families
had expatriated themselves, and taken with them what¬
ever of their property they could save. Those who were
left were chiefly artisans, who could find no employment
when their masters had forsaken them, and were thus
compelled to seek the means of subsistence elsewhere.
A great part of such as were capable of bearing arms
joined the Prince of Orange, or enlisted in the armies which
the princes of Germany created. Others of them sought
an asylum in the imperial cities, and there exercised their
trades. Some threw themselves into the Walloon country
and into. Picardy, for the interior of France was then in
greater commotion than even Flanders itself.
Lhe greatest removals however were to England, where,
by the orders of Elizabeth, all the ports were open to them,
where their property was protected, and where they in¬
troduced new fabrics of various kinds, and established
those manufactures which have become in process of
time the foundation of the commerce and the wealth of
our country.
The Duke of Alba, in 1567, embarked with his army at
Barcelona, and landed at Genoa. After some stay at Milan,
ic passed the Alps by Mount Cenis, and proceeded to
tranche Comte by the frontiers of Burgundy and Lor¬
raine, and arrived in the beginning of August at Luxem¬
bourg, whence he proceeded to Brussels, and entered that
city on the 22d of the same month. At his first appear¬
ance his conduct convinced the duchess that he was come
to exercise supreme power, and in a short time she with¬
drew from the government. He conducted himself in a
most caressing manner to Horn and Egmont, consulted
them on military subjects, and especially in constructing Hd i i
fortresses at Valenciennes, Antwerp, and Groningen ; but ^ j
suddenly at the council arrested them, consigned them to
separate prisons, seized all their papers, and obtained pos¬
session of their money, jewels, and other valuable effects.
When the duchess had quitted Flanders, Alba proceed¬
ed with his more violent measures. In January 1568 he
erected a judicial tribunal, well known in the annals of the
country by the Flemish name of Bloet-Raet, or sanguinary
council. Alba was himself president, and Vargas, a Spa¬
niard, vice-president. The other members were neither
of the privy council nor of the council of Brabant, but,
with the exception of two persons who never took their
seats, consisted of individuals on whose concurrence Alba
could securely rely.
This tribunal commenced by citing before it all the
nobles and the citizens, whether absent or present, whether
living or dead, who had signed the compromise, such as
the Prince of Orange, the Counts of Nassau his brothers,
the Counts Hooghstraete, Calembourg, and Brederode,
and even the Marquis of Berghes, who was deceased. The
Prince of Orange, who had decided on his part, replied in
terms of defiance. He asserted that he was a member of
the German empire, and as such answerable before none
other than the emperor himself; and that, as one of the
Spanish order of the golden fleece, he could only be judged
by the king when holding a chapter of that order. The
others made replies rejecting the authority of the new
tribunal, and avowed their junction with the forces which
the Prince of Orange was collecting.
The citations were numerous, but the most detailed ac¬
count is that preserved at Ghent. One hundred and fifty
persons, consisting of nobles, patricians, and burghers, were
summoned on fixed days to appear at Brussels. Of that
number only eighteen presented themselves, the others
having emigrated or being concealed. These, conscious of
their innocence, were allowed to defend themselves before
the tribunal, and were then bound two and two together,
and thus marched to prison. The process was not long
deferred ; they were condemned to death, and perished on
the scaffold, some by the sword, others by the halter, ac¬
cording to their respective ranks. Numerous other prose¬
cutions, which terminated in death and confiscations, were
carried on towards persons in Ghent; and if the number
executed in the whole of the country were in the same pro¬
portion to those in that city, it may be true which Alba
is said to have boasted on his return to Spain, that more
than eight thousand persons had perished on the scaffold
during his government of the Netherlands.
The executions of the Counts Egmont and Horn were
deferred till June, when, by a process not to be justified
by any law, they were condemned to suffer death. They
were brought from their confinement in the prison of Ghent,
surrounded by two thousand Spanish troops, and decapi¬
tated in the Place de Sablons, at Brussels, on the 5th of
June 1568. The illegality of these executions was loudly
complained of, and produced a great effect over the whole
of Europe. Even the emperor and the other Catholic
princes loudly condemned the proceeding, whilst many
of the Protestant princes were induced by it to lend their
aid to the confederation which the Prince of Orange was
forming to avenge his friends, and to rescue the country
from the miseries it endured.
The army which Alba brought with him from Spain, with
some additions on the way, amounted to 20,000 men, one
half of which consisted of Spanish infantry, who were in that
day considered as the best troops in Europe. They were
well disciplined and well commanded, but were much dispos¬
ed to mutiny, especially when, as was often the case, their
pay was in arrear; and this disposition was afterwards of¬
ten displayed in the most critical circumstances, to the
HOLLAND.
515
£1 and. great injury of the service in which they were employed, with the loss of its cannon, baggage, and a large sum of Holland.
»» The desolation of the provinces, and the horrid cruelties money which was destined to pay his troops, as well as
which had been perpetrated, at length gave birth to that others then in Groningen. The Frisian peasantry put to
ruinous and obstinate civil war, which continued so long death the fugitive Spaniards; but the Germans and Flem-
that none of those who commenced it lived to see its ter- ings, who were mixed with them, were either liberated or
mination. joined the victorious troops.
When the Prince of Orange retired into Germany, he The Duke of Alba was at Brussels when this disastrous
had wished to have collected a force which might have event happened; and instantly, after venting his rage by
harassed the army of Alba during the march from Italy numerous judicial assassinations, he repaired, with what
to the Netherlands ; but the princes of Germany were not troops he could collect, to Groningen, where he was joined
so alarmed at the prospect of the danger which threatened by the garrison of that city. The troops of Prince Louis
them, as to assist him to such an extent as he deemed amounted to 12,000 or 14,000 men, and that of Alba was
necessary for his purpose, and Alba with his army enter- nearly of equal number; but the army of the latter was
ed without molestation. The prince had time in his re- well trained and well disciplined, whereas that of the
tirement to form his plans deliberately, to calculate on fu- former was a mass of strangers, difficult to restrain, with
ture probabilities, and to be ready to act when the mo- little experience and less discipline, disposed to mutiny
ment for action should arrive. The first cruelties of Alba for want of their pay, and ready to desert their colours
made a deep impression on all the Protestant princes of after any reverse. Prince Louis found it necessary to re-
Germany, and this impression Orange was skilful enough treat from Winschotten, where he had gained his victory,
to turn to his advantage. By the deaths of Horn and and remove into the German province of East Friesland.
Egmont such indignation and resolution were excited in He took up a position defended on one side by the river
them, that they offered to Orange their wishes, their coun- Ems, and on the other by that bay of the Zuyder Zee
cils, their troops, and, what is almost incredible, their trea- called the Dollart, and having at his back the city of Emb-
sures. Amongst the most prominent of these was the den. He threw up intrenchments mounted with cannon
Prince Palatine, with whom the Prince of Orange held a in his front, and with better disciplined troops might have
secret meeting at Strasburg, at which some of the leaders maintained himself till his brother the prince, who was
of the Huguenots in France were present. Even the Ca- advancing with a numerous force, could arrive to his relief,
tholic princes were so inflamed at the treatment of Horn Alba pressed eagerly forward, and, at his approach, the
and Egmont, that, if they did not assist, they did nothing troops of Nassau broke out into mutiny; and though it
to impede Orange in his negotiations. The assistance was partially quelled, a body of auxiliary troops who had
thus obtained, with the aid of a pecuniary nature from joined it from Oldenburg, instead of waiting the attack
Queen Elizabeth of England, and recruits from the Pro- within the lines, rushed out without orders, and threw
testants of France, enabled Orange to take the field. themselves upon the Spaniards, by whom they were cut
The prince was straitened for money; and his army, to pieces, and the opening thus made was entered by the
though numerous, was badly composed. The Germans enemy. The route became complete, and the Spaniards
and the French were new levies, hastily raised, eager for were amply revenged for the late disaster at Winschotten.
booty, and in general ill disciplined. Though they were Many of Nassau’s troops were killed, more were drowned
not subject to his sole command, he could not safely dis- in the Ems, the cannon, colours, and baggage were cap-
gust them, nor could he allow them to plunder. He knew, tured, and the prince with a few of his followers threw
too, that at the end of the campaign these succours would themselves into the city of Embden, whence, from their
quit him, because he was not in a situation to maintain so knowledge of the country, they succeeded in making good
numerous a body. The greater part of the fugitives from their retreat.
Flanders were destitute, and the prince foresaw that these Whilst these transactions were passing on the eastern
must soon become a charge which he would be unable to side, the Prince of Orange had been collecting his fourth
bear. and principal army on the western side, and mustered,
With forces of such motley composition, Orange deter- about Aix-la-Chapelle and Liege, a body of nearly 28,000
mined on a bold and sudden attempt to enter the country men, which in that age was a large army. Being much
on one side or the other, and to sound the tocsin over the superior in number to the army under Alba, the Prince
whole of the Netherlands. On this plan he formed four of Orange was desirous of a battle, and made all possible
bodies, to enter the country at different points. The first attempts to bring it on. But the Duke of Alba, knowing
of them was to penetrate on the side of Liege, and to enter the nature of his enemy’s forces, and that it was beyond his
Gueldres. It was commanded by Count Hooghstraete, power to keep together so large a body from one season
the only nobleman of distinguished rank who had been to another, acted purely on the defensive. This course
so fortunate as to escape from the fangs of the Duke of he adhered to with firmness, though often urged by his
Alba. The second corps consisted of the French Hugue- officers and troops to lead them to battle. The campaign
nots, commanded by De Cocqueville, and they entered into was thus passed with no other operations than occasional
Artois. Neither of these corps were strong, nor do they skirmishes or advances and retreats. The prince was
appear during the whole campaign to have effected any compelled to dismiss the greater part of his forces, and to
other object than, by skirmishing, to have distracted the retire, with the few left to him, into winter quarters, when
attention of the enemy, and thus kept him from strength- Alba did the same, and both were actively employed du-
ening the more important points. The third corps was ring the winter in the necessary preparations for the fol-
better composed and morejnumerous. It was commanded lowing spring.
byPrinceLouisof Nassau, brother of the Prince of Orange. The events which caused and accompanied the com-
It commenced the war by entering Friesland, where he mencement of the troubles in the Netherlands have been
was opposed by the king’s army under the Count Aren- related in a more circumstantial and detailed manner than
burg, whose force was augmented by Spanish infantry and our limits will allow to the subsequent proceedings. Af-
cavalry. When in presence of the enemy, he was forced ter the first indecisive campaign, there was a kind of sus-
to give battle, by the taunts of the Spaniards, who accused pension of hostilities, from the exhaustion of the oppos-
him, from his being a Fleming, of favouring the party of ing parties. Alba was employed in extorting money from
Orange. He led his troops to the combat, and fell in the the public bodies, and from individuals, to an unheard-of
attack. His army was completely defeated and dispersed, extent, and with intolerable severity. One demand was
516 HOLLAND.
Holland, called the tenth denier, by which one tenth of the amount
of all sales were to be paid ; a tax which served to impove¬
rish the country, to suspend all industry in trade, and
which ultimately tended to exasperate the inhabitants,
and throw them into the arms of the insurgent party.
The Prince of Orange, on the other hand, was occupied in
negotiating treaties with the German princes, who assur¬
ed him of succours both of troops and treasures. He also
visited France, where Admiral Coligny, the chief of the
Protestant party, after promising his aid, suggested to him
the idea of creating a naval force. This was instantly
adopted, and a party of sailors, of those called Gueux-
marins, seized upon Briel, a town on the island of Hoorn,
by which they secured an asylum for the shipping, and
whence they gradually extended their conquests to the
other towns and cities which command the entrance to
the ocean, and secure those places from naval attack.
This was the first step in the formation of that naval
power by which the Hollanders became ultimately en¬
abled to secure their independence. Seamen from all
parts flocked to the maritime towns as rapidly as they
declared for the Prince of Orange ; and in Dort, Flush¬
ing, Rotterdam, and, indeed, all the places where there
were no Spanish garrisons, they joined the prince. Fleets
were equipped, which seized on all the Spanish vessels
they met with, even in the British Channel, and kept
open a communication with the ports of England, whence,
by the proceeds of the captures, they could procure stores,
arms, and ammunition, to carry on their warlike opera¬
tions. The growth of the naval power was so rapid, that
within three months after the capture of Flushing, no less
than one hundred and fifty sail of armed vessels, well man¬
ned and equipped, were despatched from that place alone.
The canals and rivers which intersect the country were
filled with barges and gun-boats, which landed at the Spa¬
nish posts, and carried away arms and other effects from
the very gates of Ghent and Bruges.
Alba, who was busied in extorting the tenth penny, look¬
ed with contempt on the seizure of Briel; but soon awoke
to the consequences, and began to draw together his troops
to punish the Gueux-marins. His attention was, however,
too powerfully drawn to another quarter, and they were
left without molestation. The Prince of Orange, the mo¬
ment he knew himself secure of the naval asylum, began
his land operations. At the head of 20,000 men he enter¬
ed Gueldres, seized Ruremond, Tongres, St Trond, and
Tirlemont, and entered Louvain by treaty, where he rest¬
ed. His brother Louis, aided by 7000 French Protestants,
chiefly cavalry, entered Hainault, and surprised the impor¬
tant city of Mons. Another corps under Count de Bergh
entered the province of Overyssel, and seized Zutphen,
Gorcum, and some smaller places. Alba was alarmed at
these events, but more at the apprehension that it was not
merely the French Protestants, but the French king, who
had become the ally of Orange. He turned his attention,
first of all, to the recapture of Mons, and after a siege of three
months took it on capitulation, a division of the main army
which was proceeding to raise the siege having been defeat¬
ed. After the capture of Mons, Alba collected his forces,
and led them to attack the city of Haerlem, in the province
of Holland, as preparatory to the conquest of the other
maritime positions. That place, defended chiefly by its
citizens, made a noble resistance ; but after a siege of seven
months, in which the exertions and the sufferings of the
inhabitants appear almost incredible, it surrendered, and
was delivered over to the vengeance of the irritated and
unfeeling Spaniards. In this siege, carried on in an aqua¬
tic district, and in the winter months, the besiegers suffer¬
ed severely, especially as they were ill supplied with pro¬
visions. Their sufferings and their want of pay caused a
mutiny after the capture, which paralyzed for a time the
operations of Alba, whilst the Prince of Orange was carry- Holland
ing on the siege of Middleburg in Zealand, which was
ably defended, and only surrendered after a siege of two
years duration. The states of Holland and of Zealand had
been assembled at Dort, where, notwithstanding the re¬
publican jealousy which prevailed, powers almost unlimit¬
ed were conferred on the Prince of Orange, and a kind of
government constructed to manage the affairs of these two
provinces.
We have thus sketched the outline of events from the
end of the year 1568 till the end of 1573, at which time
the court of Spain had recalled Alba, who departed with
enormous wealth, and the curses of all classes of the people,
in January 1574. He was succeeded in the government
by Don Louis de Zuniga of Requesens, but generally call¬
ed by the latter name. When Requesens assumed the
government, he found the affairs of it, in those parts still
under the Spanish power, in a dreadful state of derange¬
ment. The people were universally disgusted, the army
in a state of mutiny, and the finances absolutely exhaust¬
ed. Though intrusted to adopt a milder, system of govern¬
ment, and actually issuing an amnesty, he could not over¬
come the deep hatred to his country which the Flemings
had conceived. He naturally followed the military plan
which had been traced out by his predecessor. The Prince
of Orange had carried on the siege of Middleburg nearly
two years, and Requesens resolved to attempt its relief.
His naval forces were collected, and a battle ensued, in
which the Spanish fleet was defeated, and most of the
ships taken, burned, or sunk. This occurred on the 19th
of January 1574, and was followed by the capitulation of
the city on the 19th of February. The garrison, the ec¬
clesiastics, and such of the burghers as wished it, were
allowed to proceed to Flanders. This treaty was the
commencement of a milder treatment of prisoners on
both sides, and henceforward the contest assumed a more
humane form. The capture of Middleburg was impor¬
tant, as it decided the fate of the province of Zealand,
which was soon rendered unassailable by the Spaniards,
whose naval force was far inferior to that of the Prince of
Orange. Requesens sent a corps of his army to attack a
force under the command of Prince Flenry of Nassau, over
whom a victory was gained, on the 14th of April, near
Nimeguen ; but a mutiny immediately broke out amongst
the Spaniards, and rendered the success of no value. When
the mutinous spirit was somewhat allayed, the Spaniards
besieged Alckmaer, but were received by the inhabitants
with such resolution that they gave up the attack and con¬
centrated their forces to besiege the city of Leyden. It
was carried on with great vigour, and defended with skill
and bravery; and after the besieged had for nearly six
months endured all the horrors of famine and disease, by
cutting some dikes the Spanish camp was covered with
water, more than a thousand of the assailants were drown¬
ed, and on the 3d of October the siege wms abandoned.
This secured to the party of Orange the freedom of the
province of Holland, as the capture of Middleburg had
done that of Zealand. The Spaniards w'ere thus expelled
from every part of those states except the city of Amster¬
dam, of which they did not quit possession till four years
afterwards.
After defeat or after victory the Spanish troops were
equally accustomed to mutiny. The repulse before Leyden
begot this spirit, which displayed itself by deposing their
commander Don Sancho de Avila. They chose one of their
own number as a leader, and carrying with them Don
Sancho, bound hand and foot, proceeded towards Utrecht,
where by plunder they boasted they would pay themselves
the arrears owing to them, and they committed the great¬
est excesses on the small towns which they were able to
seize upon. At length some money was paid to them,
HOLLAND.
jjoil 1. the mutiny was appeased, and Requesens led them to make
««^v ^ attacks on some of those islands which compose the state
of Zealand. These were all repulsed by Prince Louis ;
and Requesens, who had superintended the operations in
person, at length abandoned all attempts. He was called
to Brussels by a mutiny of the Spanish cavalry in that city ;
but on the day of his arrival he was attacked by a fever,
which in a short time terminated in his death.
* This brings the events down to the end of the year 1575,
at which period an attempt at conciliation was made by
the emperor of Germany. A congress was held at Breda,
where an ambassador from his imperial majesty, the two
brothers of the Prince of Orange, the pensioner of Hol¬
land, deputies from Zealand and Gueldres, and two minis¬
ters of the king of Spain, met; but nothing was agreed on,
after three months spent in negotiation, as the preliminary
question of religion could not be settled. The king would
only admit of the Catholic faith, and the opposing parties
as resolutely maintained that of the reformed church.
In 1576 the Prince of Orange succeeded in the plan he
had long formed, of forming such a union between the two
states of Holland and Zealand as should concentrate their
efforts for the common defence, by placing in his hands,
under the name of regent for the king, the whole execu¬
tive power. This arrangement, concluded in April, was
announced to all the cities, and accepted by them; and
the prince having taken the oath of fidelity to the privi¬
leges of the states, assumed the government, and arranged
the administration with judgment, despatch, and economy.
At the same time, within the provinces still belonging
to Spain, the death of the governor created the greatest
confusion and disturbance. The council of state, consist¬
ing chiefly of Flemings, assumed the administration, and,
as soon as an answer to their communications could be
received from Madrid, were confirmed in that power, but
only ad interim, until Don Juan of Austria, who was named
governor, should arrive. Though composed of only nine
or ten members, this council soon became divided into
factions, which thwarted each other ; they were without
pecuniary resources, and could take no measures to re¬
move the difficulty. The consequence of this was, that
the Spanish troops, being unpaid, broke into furious muti¬
nies, and, with the pride of their nation, rejected the autho¬
rity of the council, deposed their officers, chose one of
their own number, who was called Eletto, indulged every¬
where in the most unlimited plunder, and committed the
most atrocious barbarities. The movements made by these
troops alarmed all the inhabitants of the cities, so that even
in Brussels itself the council could scarcely have been in
safety without yielding to the impulse of indignation which
was displayed by all orders of the citizens. The mutinous
troops had taken by storm the fortified city of Alost, be¬
tween Ghent and Brussels, when the council, on the 29th
of July, issued a placard denouncing the Spaniards as rebels
to their king and the country. They were depicted as
mutinous traitors, and the people of the Netherlands were
called upon to exterminate them wherever they were to
be found; they were also forbidden to supply them with
provisions, and commanded to remove out of their way all
money and other valuable effects.
The insurgent army at Alost alarmed the city of Ghent,
where the inhabitants had armed themselves; but the
castle which commanded the town was held by some Spa¬
nish troops, who were in connection with the mutinous
army. It was of importance to take the castle ; and a
party in that place, where the Prince of Orange had nu¬
merous secret friends, made application to him for assis¬
tance. He, who had foreseen the event and was prepar¬
ed to meet it, despatched from Zealand eight bodies of in¬
fantry, amounting to about 3000 men, with seventeen
pieces of artillery, under the command of Colonel Temple,
517
an English officer in the service of the states, who entered Holland-
the city on the 26th of September, and having formed the
siege of the castle, caused it to surrender on the 11th of
November.
The possession of Ghent was the signal for a general
movement amongst the Flemings. In spite of the orders
of the king positively forbidding it, the states assembled
in each province, and the feeble and divided council gave
way before them ; and thus the power was vested in a
body, who confined some, displaced others, of the council,
and changed the government into that republican form
which the seven provinces that ultimately obtained their
independence afterwards adopted. The king’s name was
used, but his power was for the time abolished. The new
government sent its envoys to the several courts to im¬
plore assistance. The emperor and some other princes
answered with cordiality, and offered their mediation to
effect a general pacification. The king of France (Henry
III.) spoke plainly, and showed good will, but said that his
opponents, the Leaguists, supported by the pope and the
king of Spain, had so embarrassed his affairs as to deprive
him of the power of rendering them any assistance. Queen
Elizabeth of England received the envoy, Baron Sweveg-
hau, with much distinction. She granted to the states a
loan of one hundred thousand pounds sterling, of which
forty thousand were immediately paid in uncoined silver,
and the remainder was made payable at Brussels by her
ambassador. The cities of Ghent, Bruges, and Nieuport
were securities for the money ; and the states agreed nei¬
ther to make truce nor peace with Spain without England
being comprehended in it. The other conditions were,
that the English merchants should be restored to the pri¬
vileges which they had enjoyed before the troubles, and
that the subjects of England who had been banished should
not be protected within the territories of the states.
A treaty was soon concluded at Ghent, and ratified at
Brussels, between the states on one part, and the Prince
of Orange in the name of the states of Flolland and Zea¬
land on the other. The chief stipulations were, that the
contracting parties should unite to drive all Spaniards from
their countries, and then assemble as in states-general be¬
fore 1555, to regulate the affairs of religion, of the for¬
tresses, and the ships of war ; that no attempts should be
made against the Catholic religion ; that all the ordon-
nances issued by the Duke of Alba should be suspended
till they were confirmed by the states; and that in the
mean time the Prince of Orange should retain his power
as stadtholder of Holland and Zealand. This treaty was
signed in the name of the king, and in a short time was
acceded to by those other provinces not represented in
the states assembled at Brussels.
Whilst these transactions were in progress, the Spanish
troops, though diminished in number by their own excesses
and the vengeance of the country people, continued in the
same mutinous condition. One division of them took
Maestricht by storm, and there perpetrated the most abo¬
minable injuries to persons and property. Two other di¬
visions, one from Alost and the other from Zealand, unit¬
ed to seize on the rich city of Antwerp ; and with them join¬
ed the portion of the garrison of the citadel of Antwerp
which had cut its way through the besieging army. The
citadel was in possession of the Spaniards; and as soon as
the rest of the mutineers had been received into it, they
stormed the city, which, though bravely defended, was ul¬
timately overcome, a great part of it being burned in the
conflict, and what remained, as well as the persons of the in¬
habitants, became a prey to the infuriated and merciless
mutineers. Destruction was thus inflicted on the most
flourishing commercial city of Europe, from the effects of
which it has never since recovered. The destruction of
that city was, however, one of the causes, and not an in-
518 HOLLAND.
Holland, considerable one, of the rapid progress in foreign com-
merce which was made in Holland during the subsequent
prosecution of the long protracted war, and supplied much
of the pecuniary means by which that war was maintained.
Don Juan of Austria, who had been appointed to the
government of the Netherlands on the death of Requesens,
was a natural son of the Emperor Charles V. who had
ordered him to be educated in secrecy, but suitably, ac¬
cording to a respectable station in life. The history of
his birth had been concealed from him until he had ar¬
rived at maturity, when King Philip himself unexpected¬
ly revealed it, and acknowledged him as his brother. At
an early age he had been employed against the Moors of
Granada, and had by his successful exertions gained great
applause; but the chief ground of his high reputation arose
from the naval victory of Lepanto gained over the Turks,
when he commanded the united fleets of the Christian
world.
When nominated to the command he was residing at
Milan, but instantly departed from thence to Spain, where
he received his instructions from the king. He was direct¬
ed to treat the Netherlands with great mildness at first,
but to commit himself to nothing definitive, and on no ac¬
count to give up any of that unlimited power which the
king was firmly resolved to exercise. It was commonly
believed that the king gave him an assurance, if he suc¬
ceeded in restoring the Netherlands to submission, that
he should be supplied with forces to land in England,
where he should release Mary Stuart from her prison,
place her on the throne of Elizabeth, and by a marriage
with her become monarch of the British islands. Don
Juan rode post through France, at that time in a state of
confusion, in the disguise of a servant to one of the nobles
who accompanied him, and at length reached Luxembourg
on the day on which the mutinous army of the Spaniards had
stormed the city of Antwerp. On his arrival there, the dis¬
astrous state of the affairs of Spain, which has already been
described, seems to have left him no other alternative, after
announcing his arrival to the states, than that of acqui¬
escence in the decisions of that body, conjointly with the
Prince of Orange. He accordingly gave his assent to the
pacification of Ghent, and to that article of it which stipulat¬
ed the removal of all foreign troops from the country of the
Netherlands. Some confidence was thus gained with the
states-general, but none with the Prince of Orange, with
whom Don Juan had opened a correspondence of an ap¬
parently amicable and confidential nature. The troops
were in appearance disbanded, or marched away. The
Spaniards moved slowly towards Italy, from whence they
could be recruited. Some of the auxiliaries were said to
have been lent to the Leaguists in France, so as to be
within call when needed. In a few months, which were
passed in conciliatory measures, Don Juan, rather by fraud
than by force, obtained possession of the strong castle of
Namur, in the month of July, and established his court in
that city, where he soon began to collect troops. This
caused an alarm in the states, and they also began to col¬
lect their forces. The Prince of Orange was invited to
repair to Brussels, in order to concert with the states the
measures requisite for the defence of their freedom. Ne¬
gotiations were begun with insincerity on all sides, for nei¬
ther could trust to the assurances and engagements of the
other. The Prince of Orange, who had entered Brussels
on the 23d of September, was consulted on these negotia¬
tions, and was in some sense a party to them; though he
oiesaw, from the very moment of Don Juan’s arrival, that
no secure tieaty could be formed, and that the sword
must decide the issue. The states, at the suggestion of
t le Prince of Orange, had decreed the demolition of those
ortresses which commanded the cities, especially those of
Antwerp, Ghent, Utrecht, Groningen, and Lisle. This
was the signal for hostilities. Don Juan had recalled the Hollar
troops on the march for Italy, and those lent to the party '--v [J
of the League in France. The Prince of Parma brought
other reinforcements; and thus Don Juan found himself
at the head of an army of nearly 20,000 at the end of the
year. The army of the states consisted of nearly equal
numbers. They were, however, inferior in discipline and
in good officers to the forces opposed to them. The two
armies were in presence of each other in December. The
army of the Spaniards had been so secretly collected, that
the states believed that their own troops much outnum¬
bered them, and from this impression gave orders for the
attack. On the 31st of January a bloody conflict took
place at Gembloux, near to Namur, in which the Spanish
force was victorious. The army of the states suffered very
severely; their general, Goignies, with many of his men,
were made prisoners, and the remnant retreated towards
Brussels. The Prince of Orange and states removed from
thence to Antwerp. Don Juan, instead of pursuing them,
followed up his success by capturing the smaller fortified
towns. In the course of the year 1778, he had taken
Louvain, Tirlemont, Bovines, Diest, Nivelles, and some
smaller places. These conquests were effected by de¬
tachments, whilst his main body was encamped near Na¬
mur. But he was taken ill in September, and died on the
1st of October 1578. The cause was probably a pestilen¬
tial fever, but, according to the custom of that age, was
most commonly attributed to poison. On his death-bed
Don Juan nominated as his successor his nephew the
Duke of Parma, who had recently joined him. He was a
young man of highly-estimated talent, the son of that
duchess who had long been the regent of the Nether¬
lands, and under whom the troubles had commenced.
When the Prince of Orange had retired to Antwerp, he
clearly perceived that, from the nature of the country,
and the confidence placed in him by the people, he could
preserve a secure asylum for liberty in Holland. His means
did not extend to the other provinces of the Netherlands
with the same commanding effect. He therefore turned
his chief attention to that which, with a concentration of
his means and exertions, could with most probability of
success be attained.
As the ten provinces were at length all brought under
subjection to Spain, and finally were transferred to the
house of Austria, the transactions relating to them do not
appropriately belong to the history of Flolland, and will
therefore be only so far noticed here as regards their
connection with that country.
It was the policy of the Prince of Orange to keep alive
the spirit of opposition which still existed in Flanders,
because it gave employment to the troops of the Duke of
Parma, and time to the inhabitants of the United Inde¬
pendent Provinces to prepare for that firm defence which
must be the only means of securing their ultimate inde¬
pendence. Those states also gained much in another
view. Holland was a secure asylum, and the inhabitants
of the other ten provinces found refuge there, when nei¬
ther tranquillity nor security could be enjoyed at home.
At this period, many of the richest of the traders once
more removed their families and their property to the
cities and towns of Holland and Zealand. The ruins of
the commerce of Antwerp were collected in Holland and
Amsterdam, though the last place, from which the Span¬
iards had been driven out in 1578, received the greater
share of it.
Whilst Flanders was torn to pieces by the contest be¬
tween the troops of the Duke of Parma and those raised
by the states, the United Provinces assumed in their
temporary^ tranquillity a more imposing aspect. The im¬
portant province of Utrecht joined the party of Holland,
Zealand, and Friesland. The war had been carried on
HOLLAND.
Holl: I. against the king of Spain without explicitly renouncing
^ allegiance to him. But after the accession of Utrecht,
the declaration of their independence of the authority of
that monarch was promulgated. This gave confidence to
the inhabitants, and admitted them to treat as sovereign
states with any of the other governments of Europe.
To these four provinces the three small ones of Zutphen,
Overyssel, and Groningen were added, and thus formed
a compact and easily defended district. They assumed
for their arms a bundle of seven arrows, with the motto,
Concordia res parvce crescunt, discordia maxima; dilabun-
tur.
We pass over the endeavours made to establish the
Duke of Anjou, brother of the king of France, as the
governor, the wars subsequent upon it, and the attempts
made to assassinate the Prince of Orange, because they
belong rather to the history of Flanders than to that of
Holland. It may, however, be proper to remark, that in
the intercourse between that duke and the prince, the lat¬
ter favoured the pretensions of the former; but he seems
to have done it without any prospect, perhaps without
any hope, that it would do more than operate as a diver¬
sion, in favour of the seven United Provinces, to whom his
chief regards were always directed.
From the death of Don Juan of Austria, at the end of
the year 1578, to July 1584, the state of Flanders arrest¬
ed all the efforts which Spain could make to attack Hol¬
land; and the inhabitants availed themselves of it to ex¬
tend their commerce, to increase their ships, to econo¬
mize their resources, to accumulate warlike stores, and to
organize and discipline the whole of the male population.
Spain was too much engaged with other objects to direct
any strenuous operations against Holland, calculating that
if she could subdue the ten larger and more populous pro¬
vinces, the submission of the other seven would either
necessarily follow, or might be easily enforced. Besides,
she was at that time making preparations for the enor¬
mous naval force called the Armada, with which she cal¬
culated on conquering England, and thought that by that
achievement Holland would fall under her power.
The intense personal hatred which existed between
Philip of Spain and the Prince of Orange gave birth to
the most virulent and threatening manifestoes, which were
printed, diffused, and read throughout Europe; and the
king even made it generally known, that whoever should
succeed in assassinating the prince, should receive a reward
of 80,000 ducats, be made a commander of the order of
St Jago, and obtain patents of nobility. These offers,
stimulated also by religious fanaticism, induced many indi¬
viduals to arm themselves for the horrid deed. One of them,
Geerardt, a Burgundian, gained access to the prince by
means of letters from Count Mansfeldt, and, as he was pass¬
ing from his dinner table to another apartment, shot him
with a pistol concealed under his cloak, which discharged
three balls into the breast of his victim. The prince fell,
exclaiming, “ I am wounded. Lord, have mercy on me,
and on this poor people !” He then immediately expired.
The assassin was taken and executed. The refcompense
for the detestable deed was subsequently made to his fa¬
mily ; for, in the register of the court of Madrid of the 4th
March 1589, patents of nobility are entered as conferred
on his brothers and sisters, who are described as bearing
that relation to Geerardt, a tyrannicide.
This tragical event occurred on the 10th of July 1584, at
Delft, where the states of the seven provinces were then
assembled. It inspired courage rather than despair among
the patriots of Holland. The eldest son of the prince was
a prisoner in Madrid, where he had been detained from
the commencement of the troubles. His son Prince Mau¬
rice was instantly invested with all the power of his pa¬
rent, though only eighteen years of age; and Count Ho-
519
henlohe was appointed with the character of his lieute- Holland,
nant.
The Dutch attempted to enter into negotiations with
those powerful princes who were hostile to Spain. The
application to France was made at a time when the power
of the confederation of the League was so formidable as
to preclude the prospect of any aid. Henry III. received
the deputies with respect, but recommended them to
make application to Elizabeth of England. Offers were
made to her of the sovereignty of the Netherlands, which
she declined ; but she made a treaty stipulating to furnish
six thousand troops to be maintained by her, and was to
have Flushing, the Brill, and the castle of Rammekins, as
pledges. Leicester, her favourite, was appointed to the
command, and was to have concurrent power with two
members chosen by the states in all military affairs, but
was not to intermeddle in the civil transactions.
The imprudence or ambition of Leicester gave much
umbrage to the states, and his presence became rather
injurious than beneficial to them. The threatening dan¬
ger from the Spanish Armada, and some degree of disap¬
proval of the conduct of Leicester, induced the queen to
recall him and the greater part of the force. The con¬
duct of Leicester had produced the loss of Zutphen and
Deventer; but, after the defeat of the Armada, fresh troops
were sent from England, and these having drawn the Span¬
iards towards Ostend, in which was an English garrison,
Prince Maurice was enabled to recapture those places. The
celebrated siege of Antwerp, though scarcely an operation
in which the Dutch were engaged, may be here noticed.
It was a long and heavy labour of seven months, carried
on by the Duke of Parma in person. During its progress
the most extraordinary bravery and skill was displayed
by the assailants and the defenders ; but the place finally
surrendered, and the remains of its commerce were trans¬
ferred to Amsterdam. After the recapture of Zutphen
and Deventer, Prince Maurice, whose forces had been
recruited, threatened Dunkirk and Nieuport, and, after a
short but vigorous bombardment, captured the important
city of Nimeguen, and other towns in that quarter; and
these operations closed the campaign of 1592. The Duke
of Parma had advanced with an army into France, and
left the management of the war in the Netherlands to
Count Mansfeldt.
In the beginning of 1593, Mansfeldt issued edicts for¬
bidding all communication with the revolted and now de
facto independent provinces, and declaring that no quar¬
ter would be given to any who did not join him. Such
threats were however of no avail, for Prince Maurice hav¬
ing collected his forces, attacked the strong city of Ger-
truydenburg; and though Mansfeldt, at the head of 12,000
foot and 3000 horse, attempted to raise the siege, he was
foiled. The place surrendered on the 23d of June, after
suffering the extreme of famine.
The Spaniards were still in possession of the city of Gro¬
ningen, where Verdugo, an Italian, commanded. The chief
operations of the year 1594 were in that quarter. Much
time was passed in able manoeuvres between Prince Mau¬
rice and that general. But the prince having succeeded
in cutting oft' the communication between Groningen and
Germany, that city was compelled to surrender in July.
The many repulses which the Spaniards had received, and
the want of pay, produced a mutiny, and the soldiers threat¬
ened to indemnify themselves by the plunder of Brussels,
and other towns in the ten provinces under the crown of
Spain. The mutineers were in communication with Prince
Maurice, but he declined taking them into his service,
though the mutiny was turned by him to the benefit of
his country.
In the year 1595 a general discontent against their Spa¬
nish masters spread itself in the ancient provinces. It
H O L L A N D.
was fomented by the Flemish nobility, who, in an assem- went into winter-quarters. About the end of 1601, some Hoik
bly convened at Brussels, demanded peace. This affair attempts at negotiations for peace were made, but, like W !-
turned out advantageous to the seven provinces, where those of the former years, they were soon suspended.
Prince Maurice and the states-general were occupied in The chief military event of the three following years
negotiations both with England and with France, with was the siege of Ostend, in which Vere had at first the
both of w'hich countries treaties were concluded, in which command; but in the course of the long operations he was
the Hollanders engaged to supply them with naval forces, relieved, and joined the prince with his troops, who were
some of which assisted Sir Walter Ilaleigh in his success- replaced by the soldiers of the states. The whole atten-
ful attack upon Cadiz. tion of Europe was engrossed by the great display of mi-
Philip of Spain, now advanced in years, having be- litary art in and before Ostend. Spinola the Spanish ge-
come disgusted with the cares of government, his Flemish neral was one of the first of the military geniuses of that
provinces were placed under the management of the Arch- age, and Yandernoot, who defended the place, was his
duke Albert of Austria. He had under his command an equal. With an immense loss of life and expenditure of
army of 30,000 men, with which he took Calais, and then money, after a siege of more than three years’ duration,
rather turned his forces towards France than towards the the place was surrendered by capitulation on the 20th of
new republicans. The Dutch had by this time grown up September 1604.
into a great naval power. They are said to have had on The death of Queen Elizabeth in March 1603, and the
board of their shipping more than 70,000 seamen. The accession of James to the throne of England, gave a new
bloody wars in which they had been engaged seemed to turn to affairs. The temper of that monarch was decided-
have increased their wealth and their spirit of commer- ly pacific, and though at first he in some degree adhered
cial enterprise. Even their enemy Philip connived at to the alliance with the states, his assistance was small, and
their carrying on a very beneficial trade with his subjects in some of the transactions rather adverse. The warwas con-
in Spain and Portugal, whilst their cruisers covered the tinued between the armies commanded on one side by Prince
seas, and made numerous captures of the trading ships of Maurice and on the other by Spinola, but both were so
those very subjects. _ _ _ cramped in their operations by the parsimony or the poverty
Xhe earnest desire to attain naval superiority which of their respective governments, that no decisive event oc-
animated the Dutch, was accompanied with a correspon- curred. The naval war was more effective. The fleets of
dent neglect of their land forces. The arms of France, Spain from the East and West Indies were intercepted by
however, acted as a diversion in their favour, and enabled the Dutch. Tremendous conflicts were carried on, by
Prince Maurice in 1597 to defeat one of Albert s generals, which some of the vessels loaded with treasure from the
and, in consequence thereof, to capture Turnhout, near New World fell into the hands of the republicans; but a
Antwerp; and in the end of the year, several other towns in much larger portion of the vessels which contained it were
that quai tei submitted to the states-general. In the same either burned or sunk. The failure of remittances so impo-
yeai, negotiations foi peace were attempted, under the venshed the king of Spain that he became disposed to
mediation of the emperor of Germany and the king of treat for peace. The negotiation began in the early part
Denmark; but the states refused to treat till the king of of the year 1607. At first the required acknowledgment
Spain should acknowledge their independence. The peace of independence suspended it, but in the month of April
of Vervins was concluded between Spain and Henry IV. of 1607 Spain gave way, and a suspension of arms for eight
Trance, to the great disgust of Elizabeth and of the Unit- months was agreed upon, without any communication of it
ed States, who thereby were brought into more intimate having been made to the kings either of England or of
alliance. France. When the eight months had expired, no treaty
1 he commerce of the states wras now much augmented, had been concluded; and, though no hostile movements
One of. their citizens, Balthasar Monchuen, besides trading were made by land, the captures of the Dutch at sea were
extensively to India, formed settlements upon the coast of continued during the prosecution of the treaty. At length
Africa and upon the island of St ihomas. Other mer- a truce for twelve years was agreed to in April 1609. A
chants sent their ships to the South Seas, through the general amnesty on both sides was stipulated, and a free-
Stiaits of i lagellan, in the hope of discovering a passage to dom of trade by sea and land, including both the Indies,
Japan and Ghina.^ Companies were formed which sent was agreed to.
huge ships to the East and West Indies. The trade in the This treaty, though only concluded for a fixed period,
x lemteiianean w'as extensive and lucrative ; but, above all, was yet a termination of the war as between the king of
their fisheries on the coasts of England became a mine of Spain and the seven United Provinces. The states had
w ea th. _ . no sooner attained peace and independence, than they in-
1 hough with inadequate force, Prince Maurice, in the termeddled with the affairs of the other sovereign states of
winter of 1599, surprised Emmerich on the Rhine, and Europe, and became involved in hostilities with Germany,
projected the transference of the seat of war to Germany; in which Prince Maurice, on a disputed succession to the
w ii st Menc.oza, the Spanish general, was.opposed to him, duchies of Cleves and Juliers, took the latter city, andgar-
am invested Bommel; and, though an indecisive battle risoned it. But the Germans having soon afterwards taken
was ought,. Maurice delivered that fortress from the be- Wesel, a termination was put to the contest by the me-
siegers, and secured his own conquest. After this, party- diation of England and France.
spn it appeared in Holland, with sufficient Fervour to lead to Almost as soon as the states had concluded a general
ie l et notion of the army; but, fortunately for that coun- peace, internal dissensions arose. These wrere maintained
try, the bpanish troops were so mutinously disposed, that by the nature of their constitution, which conferred on
ey were unable to take advantage of this diminution. each individual state an independent sovereign authority.
*■ t °U i ^ GnC* th0 states were roused to make The first occasion arose from a theological difference of
greater land preparations, and their army under Prince opinion on a topic, of all others, the most inscrutable by
aunce, in conjunction with an auxiliary English force the human faculties. The Protestants had imbibed their
un ei ir . rancis Veie, gained the decisive victory of opinions from Calvin, and had generally adopted his doc-
leupor , in w nc t ie Spaniards lost 5000 men, whilst trine of predestination. The professors of the universities
ftnn °SS °t' A3, ie ™.irn^ .not exceed 1500, of whom had advocated that opinion, when Arminius, a native of
v\ ere ng is i. lough Nieuport was invested, Mau- Holland, was appointed to the divinity chair of Leyden,
.ce was compe ei to imse the siege, when the armies and taught the opposite opinion of the freedom of the hu-
H O L
Holl d- man will. He thus became the head of one sect, whilst a
Dr Gomarus, another professor, became the leader of the
Calvinistic sect. Theological discussions soon created po¬
litical parties. Prince Maurice had imbibed the opinions
of Arminius, but finding the clergy and the great body of
the common people attached to those of Gomarus, he,
without regarding the private opinions he held, placed him¬
self at the head of the Gomarists. Barneveldt, the chief
civil man in the union, was in opinion a Calvinist; but seeing
the nobility and the better educated part of the people sup¬
ported the system of the Arminians, he became the chief of
that party. The acrimony and bitterness with which the con¬
test was carried on soon rendered it of a mixed character,
combining religion and politics. Each city possessing with¬
in itself independent powers, punished or protected either
the Arminians or the Gomarists. Those two eminent scho¬
lars Grotius and Vossius defended Arminianism, whilst the
synod of Dort, assisted by King James of England and
the Archbishop of Canterbury, for a short time maintained
the opposite side in the controversy. Prince Maurice, by
his influence with the common people, and from being at
the head of the army, was enabled in many of the cities to
change the magistrates; and when he could not effect that
purpose, as at Utrecht, he called in the troops to their as¬
sistance. Barneveldt and his party proposed a general to¬
leration of all opinions, and presented a remonstrance to
that effect; a proceeding which changed the names, but
not the characters, of the party. The Arminians were
called Remonstrants, and the Calvinists Anti-Remonstrants,
names which have been continued to this day. The party
of Maurice, consisting chiefly of the populace of the cities,
and their clergy, was ready to tolerate Jews, Mahomme-
dans, and infidels, but would not consent to grant similar
toleration to the Remonstrants.
It became evident that the prince was aiming at esta¬
blishing for himself and his family an hereditary sovereign¬
ty over the states; whilst Barneveldt and the higher class¬
es, on the other hand, eager to perpetuate the liberties of
their country, formed connections with the court of France,
and thence obtained the name of the Louvestein faction,
which has been continued amongst the opposers of the abso¬
lute power of the house of Orange to the present time. But
the Orange party acquired such superiority that Maurice
was enabled to seize and imprison the venerable Barne¬
veldt and the learned Grotius, the former of whom, after
an infamous trial, when the judges were threatened with
death if they did not pronounce the popular sentence, was
condemned to death, and beheaded at the Hague on the
13th of May 1619. As the benefactor of his country, he
died with the regret of the wise and good of his own time,
and has been viewed by succeeding ages as one of the chief
authors of the victories, the prosperity, and the liberties of
his country. Grotius was still a prisoner, probably not a
very strict one. He was allowed the use of books, which
passed in a large chest unexamined, and in that chest he
was concealed and carried away. He escaped to France,
and passed the remainder of his days in an honourable, use¬
ful, and upright manner.
The truce was now drawing to a close. The interval
which the Dutch had enjoyed had been employed by them,
in spite of their internal dissensions, in the most profitable
manner. They had prodigiously extended their maritime
operations, having been much benefited by the languor of
James I. of England, and the ruined state of the marine
of Spain. Their ships gave law s from the Baltic to the
Levant. They had forced a trade with the Spanish posses¬
sions in the western world and in the East Indies; and, be¬
sides some smaller acquisitions, they had founded Batavia
in the island of Java, which soon became the emporium of
the trade of the eastern world.
Philip of Spain died in 1621, just at the time when the
VOL. XI.
LAND. 521
truce between him and the Hollanders had expired. The Holland,
greater progress the Dutch had made in prosperity and v«—
power, the more worthy objects of his ambition did he deem
them, whom he still viewed as his rebellious subjects. He
had instructed his ambassador to propose such terms of
peace as were sure to be rejected, which in fact they were,
in the most contemptuous manner. But Prince Maurice
was not well supported by the states on land. The ope¬
rations were not of great moment. The Spaniards under
Spinola took Juliers, but were repulsed in an attack upon
Haerlem. Maurice made an effort to seize upon Antwerp,
which failed; and he returned to the Hague, where an at¬
tempt was made by a grandson of Barneveldt and some
Arminians to assassinate him. This, though it failed, gave
great strength and violence to the Gomarists, and they were
most unrelenting in their cruel punishments. The rack
and the axe were in constant employment, and to be known
as an Arminian was deemed sufficient cause for their inflic¬
tion. The war by land against the Dutch was continued by
Spinola, on the side of Belgium ; and though he could not
prevent them from recapturing Juliers, and taking Cleves,
he collected such a force as enabled him to besiege Breda,
which was commanded by an English colonel, Morgan. It
was an important place, strongly fortified, and of great in¬
terest to Prince Maurice, because it formed the centre of
his patrimonial estates. It was ably defended, and during
the ten months the siege lasted, the loss of the Spaniards
was enormous. They however ultimately succeeded, and
a capitulation was signed on the 6th of June 1625.
During these operations, Prince Maurice died in the
eighty-eighth year of his age. Ambition alone, which had
caused his severity towards the Arminians, prevented him
from being the most amiable, as he was one of the ablest
men of the age in which he lived. About the same period
King James of England died, and was succeeded by the
unfortunate Charles I. Prince Henry of Nassau was the
successor of his brother, as governor of the states of Hol¬
land, Zealand, Guelderland, Utrecht, and Overyssel. He
continued the military operations against Spinola, but, after
the surrender of Breda neither party could boast of having
gained much advnatage.
The naval operations in some degree compensated for
the languor wdiich prevailed on land. The Dutch sent
an expedition to the South Sea, which attacked the Spa¬
nish settlements in Peru with much success; and at length
they also conquered St Salvador and other parts of Bra¬
zil, but were soon afterwards obliged to abandon the ac¬
quisitions they had made. In the interior the religious
dissensions began to revive. Henry prince of Orange
was thought to be less rigid towards the Arminians, in
other words, more favourable to them, than suited the
principles of the Gomarists. This caused such a commo¬
tion as threatened a civil war, which was only prevented
by the necessity of union against the common enemy.
The Dutch fleet had joined that of France, with which
power they were in alliance; and this united force was
attacked by the ships of the French Protestants under
Soubise. They were defeated, and the Dutch admiral’s
ship was blown up, with himself and his crew. This
caused the greatest joy among the common people in Hol¬
land, who detested the conduct of their chiefs; and in the
city of Amsterdam their houses were pillaged, and their
persons grossly insulted.
The threatening appearance of the thirty years’ war in
Germany induced the states to increase their land forces
in 1626 ; but during that and the following year only in¬
decisive operations occurred, as the imperial general, Tilly,
did not make the expected attack on their frontier towns.
The Spaniards made Dunkirk the place for collecting a
great number of privateers, by which the Dutch com¬
merce was much annoyed, and many bankruptcies occa-
3 u
Holland, sioned amongst the merchants of Amsterdam. This in-
duced the Dutch to blockade that port so closely that the
system was checked, and in 1628 their East and West In¬
dia fleets all arrived in safety, loaded with valuable car¬
goes belonging to the two great commercial companies
which had grown up in Holland.
During the same year the fleets of Holland were re¬
markably successful against Spain. Peter Adrien cap¬
tured twelve of the largest West Indiamen in the Bay of
Honduras. Admiral Heine had still greater success, hav¬
ing a larger force, and in the Bay of All Saints captured
so many ships laden with sugar, that the quantity, when
brought to Holland, lowered the price of that commodity
in all parts of Europe. He then with thirty ships inter¬
cepted the Spanish plate fleet, and, after ravaging the
coasts of Spain and Portugal, returned with prizes valued
at more than fifteen millions of livres. But the state of
Holland was far from being tranquil. Fresh umbrage
was taken by the populace at the Prince of Orange, be¬
cause he had appointed some of the Arminians as magis¬
trates, and the people of Amsterdam refused to obey them.
This, with tumults amongst the seamen on account of the
inadequate distribution of the prize money, caused se¬
rious commotions, which were with difficulty and some
sacrifices of life put down.
The successes of the Dutch at sea had a favourable in¬
fluence on the land operations of the following year. Want
of pay had produced mutiny in the Spanish army. The
Dutch vigour was again awakened, and the Prince of
Orange furnished with a powerful army. An active cam¬
paign, in which Turenne, Montecuculli, and some other of
the most celebrated warriors of the age, bore a part, was
closed, by the capture of Bois-le-Duc on one side, and of
Wesel on the other frontier of Holland, in spite of all the
efforts of the Spaniards to raise the sieges of these places.
In the year 1630 the Spaniards renewed their efforts to
defend the places they held on the German frontier, but
were so unfortunate that, after fruitless attempts to orga¬
nise a German Catholic confederacy against Holland, they
were induced to enter into a negotiation for the conclusion
of a truce during thirty-four years. But this negotiation
was rendered ineffectual, principally by the intrigues and
the influence of the French minister Richelieu, who had
by this time formed a strong party in Holland, in opposi¬
tion to that of the Prince of Orange ; a party which con¬
tinued up to the present age, and to the existence of
which may be attributed the enmity displayed by the
successive heads of that family to the French government.
After the rupture of the negotiations, John of Nassau, with
a force, aided by some of the German Catholic princes, of
troops and water craft, made the attempt to separate Zea¬
land from Holland. The expedition was met by the Dutch
gun-boats; a terrible conflict ensued ; the Spanish flo¬
tilla was either sunk or captured; and 5000 men were
made prisoners, who entered immediately into the service
of Holland. This blow was followed up by the Prince of
Orange, with his whole force, augmented by the junction
of 12,000 Swedes of the army of Gustavus Adolphus, with
whom the states had made a treaty, by an attack upon
Maestricht, which at length capitulated, as did also the for¬
tified city of Rheneberg on the Rhine, by which Holland
became secure from all invasion on the side of Germany.
At this time attempts were again made towards negotia¬
tion ; but the interference of the Austrian general Pappen-
heim, who had garrisoned some of the towns belonging to
Spain, prevented, by his claims, any treaty from being
brought to a pacific conclusion.
The Dutch army for the campaign of 1633 was more
powerful than at any former period, and was thought suf¬
ficiently strong to have completed, with a general of such
talents as the prince, the entire conquest of Spanish Bra¬
bant. He took the field for that purpose, but the exces- Holla
sive rains of that season, the great inundations, the sick- -y ;
ness which prevailed in the army, the scarcity of provi¬
sions, and other inconveniences, compelled him to put his
army into winter-quarters at a very early period, without
having effected or scarcely attempted any object of im¬
portance. The year 1634 passed over with no memor¬
able displays of hostile movements. The death of Gus¬
tavus Adolphus in the midst of the vast operations in
Germany, of which he was the animating soul, caused so
many and various negotiations, that the whole of Europe
had its attention directed to diplomatic discussions. The
war between the Spaniards and the Dutch languished in
the Netherlands, though it was carried on at sea much
to the benefit of the latter party. In this year, 1635,
a partition treaty was entered into with France by the
states, contrary to the will of the Prince of Orange, and
their ally the king of England, by which the provinces
of Luxembourg, Namur, Courtray, Hainault, Artois, and
Flanders, were to be transferred to the king of France, and
those of Brabant, Guelderland, and the districts of Waes,
Mechlin, and the rest of Flanders, to the United States.
In pursuance of the objects of this treaty, the fleets of
France and Holland were united together; but prepara¬
tions from England to place her marine in opposition in¬
duced them to return to their respective ports. The at¬
tempts by land were equally ineffectual. France march¬
ed an army of 20,000 foot and 7000 horse into Brabant,
and the states had equipped one of nearly equal force.
These united troops were to be commanded by the Prince
of Orange; but whether that commander, from being averse
to the service, neglected to accomplish its objects, or
whether the arrogance and barbarities of the French
disgusted their allies, such dissensions arose between the
officers, that no movements proved beneficial, and the cam¬
paign was closed at an early period. The Dutch with¬
drew to their own country, and the French went into win¬
ter-quarters at Ruremond, where it is said more than 6000
of them died, from want and disease. Cardinal Riche¬
lieu and the Prince of Orange cherished a mutual ani¬
mosity, which, though it neutralised their land operations,
did not cause a rupture of the alliance that had been form¬
ed. The Dutch were successful by sea, where they de¬
feated a Spanish squadron near Dunkirk; and having block¬
aded that port, secured a safe return to their numerous
trading ships from the East and West Indies. In the
same year they fitted out an expedition, with the design
of extending their power in Brazil. This force, under the
command of Prince Maurice of Nassau, consisted of thirty-
two ships, with 2700 land forces, and arrived safely at its
destination.
The year 1637 was distinguished by the efforts made
to capture Breda, which was occupied by a Spanish force
under Fourben, a brave and skilful officer. It was in¬
vested by the Prince of Orange, and several attempts to
relieve it failed, so that after a long siege it capitulated,
but not till the beginning of the year 1638. In that year
a great project was formed by the Prince of Orange for
the capture of Antwerp. It was well designed, but fail¬
ed from unforeseen circumstances, such as often occur in
operations combined of marine and of land forces.
The campaign of 1639 was planned by the Spaniards on
a gigantic scheme, but was chiefly directed to naval ob¬
jects. The Dutch admiral Van Tromp attacked a squa¬
dron of ten large men of war, near Gravelines, on the 18th
of February. The fight was long and obstinate, but end¬
ed in the total defeat of the Spaniards. Their admiral,
with three of the largest ships, was taken prisoner; the
vice-admiral’s ship was burned by the crew, and four of his
division were captured; and their loss in men exceeded
2000. Notwithstanding this disaster, the Spaniards equip'
HOLLAND.
d and. ped a tremendous force under the command of D’Oquendo,
u consisting of eighty-seven large ships and numerous trans¬
ports, with 20,000 land forces on board. A junction was
formed of the two divisions, one from Cadiz and the other
from Corunna. Van Tromp met and engaged this force,
sunk the ship which bore the admiral’s flag, and took four
of the others, but was prevented by a fog from following up
his success, whilst from the same cause the Spaniards took
refuge in the Downs, where there was an English fleet to
protect them. Van Tromp having received reinforce¬
ments under Evertzen, and, along with these, orders to re¬
new the battle, desired the English fleet to withdraw ; in¬
timating, that if that request was not complied with, his
orders were to fight both. Pennington, the English ad¬
miral, had doubts of the fidelity of his people, and no
confidence in the Spaniards, who were ill disciplined and
badly equipped. He therefore declared for a neutrality,
but stated that he would join the fleet which should be at¬
tacked. D’Oquendo had been advised to withdraw, but
it was no longer in his powder to do so. Pennington, un¬
der pretence that the Spaniards had violated the neutra¬
lity, withdrew his protection. Van Tromp then began the
attack, and the Spaniards were totally defeated. Four¬
teen Spanish ships of war were destroyed, amongst which
was the Teresa of a hundred guns, with eight hundred
men. The vice-admiral of Spain and the admiral of Ga¬
licia shared the same fate ; sixteen large ships were taken,
with 4500 prisoners; fourteen were wrecked between
Boulogne and Calais, and the remainder w ere saved by
the interposition of the English. Of the whole arma¬
ment, only eight ships under D’Oquendo reached Dun¬
kirk in safety. The Spanish loss in killed exceeded 8000
men. Whilst these naval triumphs were achieving in Eu¬
rope, the Dutch were equally successful in the operations
against the Spaniards in Brazil. Their admiral Count de
la Torre had been dispatched from Spain wdth forty-six
large ships and a numerous body of troops, many of whom
died on the passage, and the others arrived in a sickly
state. The Dutch fleet consisted only of forty-one ships,
mostly inferior in size to those of their adversaries, but
well disciplined, and commanded by two admirals of great
bravery and skill, Loof and Huggins. The Spanish fleet
previously in Brazil joined that under De la Torre, and they
thus amounted to ninety-four ships. An action took place
which lasted during several days. Loof was killed at the
commencement, but Huggins at length gained a complete
victory, in which the Spaniards lost twelve of their lar¬
gest ships, and 4000 men, whilst the casualties in the
Dutch fleet did not exceed one hundred. Disease still
further reduced the Spanish force, and thus left Prince
Maurice nearly master of that country. The prince then
accomplished the conquest of Maranham, and despatched
an expedition to the shores of Africa under Admiral Jol,
who captured Congo, the island of St Thomas, and the
other establishments which the Portuguese had formed on
that coast.
At this period Portugal revolted from Spain, and, un¬
der the house of Braganza, declared itself an independent
kingdom. The new king, John IV., concluded with the
Dutch a treaty for a truce of ten years, in all the domi¬
nions ol both countries, which, however, the latter are ac¬
cused of having disregarded as far as related to Japan,
whence they drove away the Portuguese, and secured
for themselves the exclusive trade. The narrative of the
transactions in Brazil is given in another part of this work,
under that article; and, referring to it (vol. v. part i.
page 191), we only add that it was finally abandoned by
the Dutch in 1654.
Ihe war between the states and their ally the king of
. ranee was continued, but with no great vigour. The
jealousy of the Prince of Orange was increased by the dis¬
covery of the disinclination of Cardinal Mazarin, the suc¬
cessor of Richelieu, to his capture of Antwerp. He suc¬
ceeded however in taking Hulst and Lillo, and thus secur¬
ed a powerful barrier on the Flanders frontier. The ne¬
gotiations for a general pacification were begun in 1642,
and did not close till October 1648, when the celebrated
treaty of Westphalia was signed at Munster and Osna-
burg. In the first of these years, the treaty between
France and Holland was renewed, but was scarcely in
activity, as all the military operations of the several pow¬
ers were in some measure, though not wholly, suspended,
except that the Dutch availed themselves of the naval su¬
periority they had acquired, by annoying the Spaniards
in every quarter of the world.
Towards the close of the negotiations in Westphalia,
the Prince of Orange died, in his sixty-seventh year, and
was succeeded in his dignities by his son, William II. The
states, regardless of their engagements with France, and
in spite of the obstacles interposed by the French ambas¬
sador at Munster, entered into a separate treaty with
Spain. This treaty was speedily ratified, and its terms
formed a part of the general pacification of Europe. The
king of Spain acknowledged the independence and so¬
vereignty of the states, and a clause of uti possidetis in
all parts of the world formed one of the articles. From
the peace of Westphalia, the transactions of the United
States, whose independence it had legalized, were so in¬
termingled with those of the other European powers,
that they form part of the general history of Europe. In
continuing this narrative, many of the events which re¬
garded the country here treated of, though important in
themselves, must be slightly passed over, because they
are to be found under the heads of England, Europe,
France, and Germany.
The conclusion of hostilities had found the nation in a
condition of great poverty as related to the governments
of the several states, but of great wealth as regarded nu¬
merous individuals. The states were deeply in debt, but
their creditors were almost exclusively citizens, not to say
subjects of the country. This produced what has been
called the funding system, which has since been followed
by other nations.
Disputes had arisen between the states of Holland on
one hand, and the Prince of Orange and the smaller states
on the other, respecting the diminution of the army and
navy, and the conduct of the officers who had abandoned
Brazil. These controversies were carried to such a height
that the Prince of Orange would have besieged Amster¬
dam, towards which he had actually advanced, if he had not
been prevented by the opening of the sluices, by which
his army would have been drowned. This excited against
the prince great unpopularity, when he was carried off by
the small-pox, in the twenty-fourth year of his age, leav¬
ing no son, but his wife pregnant, who was delivered of a
son, afterwards William III. king of England. The civil
wars of England were favourable to the trade of the Dutch,
though it involved them in war with the government which
succeeded the death of Charles I. The several parties in
Holland had carefully watched to maintain a neutrality be¬
tween the monarchical and republican parties in England;
but the intemperance of the royalist emigrants, displayed
in the murder of Dorislaus, who had been accused of par¬
ticipation in the legal murder of Charles,- and of some
other rash proceedings, gave the republicans a pretext
for commencing hostilities. This led to a naval battle in
1652, when Blake gained some advantage over Van Tromp,
though his fleet was much inferior, at least in number of
ships, if not in weight of metal. The Dutch instantly fit¬
ted out a still larger fleet under the command of De Ruy-
ter, which was met by the English channel fleet under Sir
George Ascough. They fought during three successive
523
Holland.
524
Holland
HOLLAND.
days, bat parted, each claiming a victory. De Witt was
then appointed commander in chief of the Dutch fleet,
with De Ruyter as his second. Blake, who had sailed to
the north after his former battle, collected his ships, and
was reinforced by Admirals Penn and Bourn with their
squadrons. The two fleets engaged on the 30th of October.
The battle was most resolutely contested, but night termi¬
nated it before it was decided, and the next day the Dutch
entered Goree, declining farther conflict. The fleet of
Holland was quickly repaired and reinforced, and placed
once more under the command of Van Tromp. Blake had
not been furnished in as prompt a manner with reinforce¬
ments as his antagonist, and was thus inferior. A tre¬
mendous encounter took place on the 25th of November,
in which the Dutch were victorious. In this action Blake’s
flag-ship was disabled, two others were taken, two burned,
and one sunk, whilst Van Tromp lost but one of his ships,
which was blown up by accident. The engagement last¬
ed from eleven in the morning till six in the evening,
when darkness favoured the escape of the shattered re¬
mains of the English armament.
In the early part of 1653, both the republics addressed
their chief attention to the preparation of their fleets.
Blake was enabled to muster sixty sail, with which he at¬
tempted to intercept a large convoy of merchant ships,
protected by Van Tromp’s more numerous, if not more
weighty force. On the 18th of February the two con¬
tending fleets met, when there ensued an obstinate and
bloody conflict, which lasted three days, at the end of
which Van Tromp retreated with the loss of eleven ships.
The English had lost but one, but the whole fleet was
so shattered that they could not pursue. The loss in
killed and wounded was nearly equal on both sides; and
though the English gained the victory, Van Tromp, by
his excellent seamanship, was enabled to convey in safe¬
ty to the Dutch ports the numerous trading vessels which
he had been sent to protect.
At this period Sweden discovered a disposition to join
her fleets to those of England, but the diplomatic skill of
the Dutch ambassador prevailed on her to agree to a neu¬
trality ; and the king of Denmark made a treaty, stipulat¬
ing to furnish to the Dutch a fleet of twenty sail, to con¬
fiscate the English ships in the port of Copenhagen, and
to exclude all English vessels from trading in the Baltic.
The Danish ships never joined, but the treaty enabled
the Dutch to obtain supplies of timber and other stores.
Though secret negotiations for peace had been entertain¬
ed between Cromwell, now master of England, and De
Witt, recently appointed pensionary of Holland, yet, as
they terminated in nothing, the most extraordinary pre¬
parations were made to continue the conflict. In the be¬
ginning of June, Van Tromp, seconded by De Witt and De
Buy ter, appeared on the ocean with a fleet of ninety-eight
men of war and seven fire-ships. They were speedily
met by an English fleet of ninety-five sail and five fire¬
ships, commanded _by Blake, Monk, and Dean. On the
2d of June an obstinate battle took place, which speedily
terminated in favour of. the English. The victory was
complete. Three of the best Dutch ships were sunk, two
blown up, eleven captured, with many merchantmen ; and
the whole of them would have been destroyed, but for
then- timely retreat to the shoals, where the larger Eng-
bsh ships could not follow them. The English did not
ose a single ship, but Admiral Dean, one captain, and
some few inferior officers and seamen, were killed. Van
Iromp attributed his defeat to the inferiority of his ships
in size and in weight of metal, and to the want of suffi¬
cient ammunition, especially gunpowder.
In consequence of this disaster, the party opposed to
the house of Orange raised a cry in favour of peace, and
some secret negotiations were carried on with Cromwell;
but the public voice was strongly in favour of the Orange Ho
party, and compelled the government to renew the naval ■
war. Another fleet superior in numbers was hastily pre¬
pared, and ready to proceed to sea in the middle of July.
This last fleet amounted to one hundred and twenty sail,
and they proceeded as soon as collected to engage the
fleet of England, commanded by Monk, Lawson, and Penn,
between Scheveling and the mouth of the Meuse. But
Tromp fell early in the action, and his death had a bad
effect. A rout followed, and the Dutch lost twenty-six
ships, with 4000 men killed, and near 2000 prisoners. The
English lost some ships, had 600 men killed and 1000
wounded; but their ships had been so severely shattered
that they were immediately obliged to seek repairs in their
own ports.
The Dutch, though defeated, were not dispirited, and
prepared to renew the contest, unless Cromwell would
abandon his proposition for the annihilation of the power of
the Orange family. He however had determined on a war
with Spain, and on expeditions to Spanish America. He
withdrew his propositions respecting the house of Orange,
but obtained others excluding the royal family of Eng¬
land and their adherents from all refuge within the states,
and thus a peace was concluded. The states of Holland
bound themselves to exclude the house of Orange from
the stadtholderate, but the other states did not agree to
it; some of the members even of that province protested
against the exclusion, and it was highly unpopular with
the great body of the citizens everywhere but in Amster¬
dam.
The war with England, though short in its duration, had
been very expensive as well as sanguinary. It was how¬
ever no sooner at an end than the Dutch were engaged
in hostilities with the Portuguese respecting their settle¬
ments in Brazil, which were terminated without any de¬
cisive naval combat. But many of the ships of Portugal
were captured; and De Ruyter was sent with a fleet to
make demonstrations before Lisbon, but having encoun¬
tered severe storms, his ships were so much damaged that
he was compelled to return to repair them, and soon after¬
wards peace was concluded.
The Dutch next interfered in a contest between the
Danes and the Swedes. I he latter power had besieged
Copenhagen, when the Dutch admiral Opdam was des¬
patched to the Baltic for its relief. He attacked and de¬
feated the Swedish fleet under the walls of Cronenburg,
and, by the supplies given to the Danes, saved their capi¬
tal. A peace was soon afterwards concluded between the
northern powers, through the mediation of Holland and
England.
The death of Cromwell, in September 1658, had a favour¬
able effect on the Orange party in the United Provinces,
whilst the restoration of Charles to the throne of England
strengthened it still more; and, though Holland opposed it,
a settlement of a large sum was voted to support the house¬
hold, and carry on the education of the prince. This be¬
came necessary from the French king having, upon some
very frivolous pretences, seized on the principality of
Orange. Charles and his adherents were full of animosity
towards the Dutch; and they, elated with their indepen¬
dence, and their powerful naval forces, were not disposed
to yield to the indignant superiority which the restored
monarch had assumed. The Louvestein faction had again,
under De Witt, reared its head in Holland, and some efforts
were made to form a union with France, with the view of
making a conquest of the ten Netherland provinces, and
dividing them between France and Holland. By this
proceeding, suspicions and jealousies were created towards
the states, on the part of all the other governments of Eu¬
rope. Towards England the Dutch had shown some ani¬
mosity, and held language the more presumptuous because
HOLLAND.
nd. their party in England, the remains of the Cromwell faction,
w- had assured them that, from the want of money, Charles
would be unable to go to war. To the dismay of the Louve-
stein party in Holland, the king resolved on hostilities ; and
in April 1665, his parliament having voted abundant supplies,
a fleet under the command of the Duke of York issued
forth, and, after the capture of some merchant ships, find¬
ing no enemy, returned to Harwich. The states of Holland
and Zealand with great activity prepared a naval force
of 120 sail of vessels. The commander, Opdam, was met
on the 1st of June by the Duke of York with 100 sail, and,
after some manoeuvring during two days, a battle was fought,
in which the English were victorious, chiefly, as the Louve-
stein party affirmed, from the treachery of some of the
captains of the Dutch ships. Their admiral was blown up
in his flag-ship; the second in command, Cartemaer, was
wounded, and died a prisoner; and eighteen ships, with 6000
men, were captured. The loss of the English was but one
ship, and that of men on board the duke’s ship was 200 : the
rest of the fleet had suffered very slightly ; but Admiral
Lawson, one of the most brave and skilful of the English
commanders, fell in the conflict.
The remains of the Dutch fleet made a skilful retreat,
and great vigour was exerted to reinforce it. The plague
at that time raged in London, and prevented equal exer¬
tions from being made, so that the Dutch were enabled
early in the following year to assemble a force of eighty-
three large ships, furnished with much heavier metal than
they had before employed. This force was greater than
any that the English could oppose to it. A part too of
the English fleet had been despatched to cruise in the
mouth of the Channel, by which the grand fleet under the
Duke of Albemarle was rendered still more inferior to
that of the enemy. The Dutch were commanded by De
Ruyter, and the opposing fleets met, and engaged on the
1st of June. The contest continued with great vigour
throughout the day ; but a reinforcement of sixteen ships
having joined De Ruyter, Albemarle dx*ew off, but being
pursued, he turned on the enemy, and renewed the battle.
During this fight the English Channel fleet made its ap¬
pearance under Prince Rupert. The contest continued,
on the whole, four days. The English then retreated in
good order, with the loss of twenty-two ships. The Dutch
had lost only seven ships, and were enabled to keep the
sea, thus claiming the victory, and even threatening a de¬
scent on England.
The English fleet was so quickly reinforced, that on the
24th of July it again appeared at sea, and once more en¬
countered the enemy with success. Three of the Dutch
admirals and twelve captains were killed, with 2000 men ;
and seven ships were sunk, but none taken. After this last
battle the English had the command of the sea, and inflict¬
ed a severe retaliation for the losses and mortifications they
had endured. This produced great exhibitions of party-
spirit in Holland, and also disposed them to peace. Eng¬
land, by the extravagance of its sovereign, by the sufferings
ot the plague and of the fire of London, and the intrigues
of France, was much in need of peace.
Conferences were accordingly opened at Breda; but
King Charles, with the negligence which characterised his
government, had not stipulated for a cessation of hostili¬
ties during the negotiations. De Witt took advantage of
this, and despatched a fleet to the Thames, which advanced
to the Medway, and thus closed for a short time the port of
London, at the same time threatening the naval arsenal of
Chatham. This in its issue was little more than a bravado,
though, after retreating from the Thames, the Dutch made
some valuable captures. The negotiations at Breda were
however carried on, and peace finally concluded on the
10th of July 1667.
Ihis treaty was followed by one between England, Swe-
525
den, and Holland, designed to oppose the growing power of Holland.
France. The king of England, at that time a pensioner, as v«—
well as some of his ministers, on the court of France, behav¬
ed wuth the greatest duplicity, and, upon the most frivolous
pretences, resolved to aid France in her projects to conquer
the wholeofthe Netherlands. Under pretence of supporting
the triple alliance, Charles obtained money from his parlia¬
ment, and then determined to attack the Dutch commercial
fleets, which were navigating the ocean in full security in
the state of peace which had been established. A rich fleet
from the Mediterranean was expected to arrive in 1672,
when Admiral Holmes was sent with a naval squadron to
intercept it. Holmes assumed a pacific behaviour, but the
Dutch distrusted him. Fie made an attack on the fleet,
and took one of the ships of war and three small merchant
vessels; but the rest, fighting as they retreated, reached the
ports of Holland in safety. This naturally produced a de¬
claration of war; and F'rance, joined with England, was
engaged in a contest, the object of which was to conquer
the whole of the Low Countries, and subject them to the
dominion of France.
The violent party-spirit in Flolland was ground of alarm.
The jealousy of the house of Orange had induced the party
of De Witt to neglect the land forces, and the army was
in a state of indiscipline, and especially in want of skilful
officers, as nearly all the more experienced men of that pro¬
fession were adherents of the house of Orange, and on that
account were not employed. The naval force was in a far
better state under the immediate control of the Louve-
stein faction, though many of its commanders were of the
Orange party. De Ruyter was enabled speedily to fit out a
fleet of ninety-one ships of war and forty-four fire-ships, and
with them sailed to attack the fleet of England and France.
This combined force, under the Duke of York and Mar¬
shal d’Etrees, was at anchor in Solebay on the coast of
Suffolk, where the Dutch hoped by the help of their fire¬
ships to achieve their destruction. But the united fleets
either cut or slipt their cables, and fought the Dutch on
the open sea. The fight was tremendous, and was only
ended by darkness, when the Dutch withdrew to their own
ports. The loss on both sides was nearly equal, but heavi¬
est on the English ships, as their new allies took but little
share in the action. It was supposed they had secret or¬
ders to spare their own ships, whilst the Dutch and Eng¬
lish should weaken each other, a supposition confirmed by
subsequent events.
In the mean time the army of France had begun to act on
the land side, under Louis XIV., who himself took the field.
It was the most numerous and best appointed which Europe
had ever seen. It amounted to 120,000 men, including the
auxiliary troops of the elector of Cologne and of the bishop
of Munster. The Dutch had not more than 25,000 to
take the field, and the elector of Brandenburg had engaged
to furnish an equal number, on the condition that the Dutch
navy should assist him in taking Pomerania from the Swedes.
The internal state of Holland was disturbed by party-spi¬
rit, but neither party were disposed to submit to a foreign
dominion. The partisans of De Witt had projected a“flight
by sea, and made some preparations for the transport of
50,000 families to Batavia. The young Prince of Orange,
though of a sickly frame, resolutely encouraged a spirit of
defence, hopeless as it appeared ; and when asked what he
should do if the French should conquer the country, gal¬
lantly replied, “ die in the last ditch.” This inspirited others,
and by the universal voice he was declared stadtholder with
unlimited power, and the De Witts were prosecuted, strip¬
ped of their wealth, sentenced to perpetual banishment, and
murdered by the populace.
In the mean time the French had made a rapid progress,
and, proceeding by the Rhine, had subdued the provinces
of Utrecht, Guelderland. and Overyssel. Amsterdam,
HOLLAND.
526
Holland. Rotterdam, the Hague, with Middleburg, and the islands,
v-were reduced to great straits, but were held by the Prince
of Orange. As a last resource, the patriotic resolution was
taken to drown the country, with its invaders. By this step,
when the sluices were opened, the French were in part
drowned, and such diseases broke out in their army that
Amsterdam was saved. Louis had made more than 24,000
prisoners. These he could no longer keep, and on their
release they joined their countrymen. Ihe spirit shown
by the Dutch had excited an interest in their favour with
the emperor of Germany and other princes of the empire,
and even the Spanish governor of the Netherlands sent to
their aid a force of 10,000 men. A diversion too was ope¬
rated in behalf of the Dutch by the elector of Branden¬
burg, and, though impeded by the French general Turenne,
it proved of some benefit to the states.
Charles, though somewhat dissatisfied with the French,
sent an English fleet to act in combination with that of
France, and conquered the province of Zealand; but con¬
trary winds rendered the attempt unsuccessful. In the
beginning of 1673, an attempt was made by a French divi¬
sion under the Duke of Luxembourg, to march over the ice
and seize Amsterdam and the Hague ; but this attempt fail¬
ed with great loss to the invaders, owing chiefly to a sud¬
den thaw. In the same year a combined English and
French fleet, the former commanded by Prince Rupert, and
the latter by D’Etrees, engaged the Dutch fleet under
De Ruyter and Van Tromp. After much cannonading,
in which the French were accused of backwardness, the
conflicting navies returned to their ports, each of them
claiming a victory. This occurred on the 14th of June.
By this time Spain had declared war against France, the
Imperialists had advanced, the invading army was compel¬
led to abandon its conquests in Holland as rapidly as it had
gained them, and the dominions of the elector of Cologne,
the ally of France, including the city of that name, and
Bonn, were occupied by the allies and the armies of Hol¬
land.
These events led to negotiations under the mediation
of Sweden, and in 1674 a peace was concluded between
all the belligerent powers. The transactions of the nego¬
tiators were so managed by the address of the Prince of
Orange, as to enable him to lay the foundation of the grand
alliance, by which, in subsequent periods, after his acces¬
sion to the English throne, the power of Louis XIV. was
reduced to the lowest point.
In 1677 the Prince of Orange was married to the Princess
Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, and niece to Charles ;
an event hailed as favourable to their interests by the Dutch,
and by those in England who were unfavourable to the
mean dependence on the French court, to which Charles’
pecuniary wants had subjected him.
The Dutch sent a fleet under De Ruyter to join that of
Spain in the Mediterranean. In a contest with the French
De Ruyter was mortally wounded, though his fleet w as vic¬
torious ; but in a subsequent battle the Dutch and Spaniards
were defeated with great loss, by which the French became
masters of the Mediterranean.
The Prince of Orange had attained to supreme, almost
to absolute power in Holland. His ruling principle was
hostility to France, arising from the manifest ambition of
Louis XIV. With this impression he was induced to direct
all his efforts to counteract the influence of France, espe¬
cially amongst the German states. As his father-in-law
James, who had ascended the English throne, was acting in
an opposite direction, to the great disgust of the leading
Protestants of his dominions, the prince opposed him by
maintaining a correspondence with the discontented. They
were received by him w ith some degree of privacy; but as
James proceeded in his measures against the established
religion, they became too numerous to escape the notice of
France, though they engaged but little share of the’ at- Holki
tention of James, probably from the deceit of one of his Wy-
ministers, who has been accused by history of having act¬
ed a false part towards him. A jealousy existed, though
with no great force on the part of James, towards France,
and this induced him to decline the acceptance of offers of
succour from Louis XIV.
The Prince of Orange, under the pretext of a dispute
with Bavaria and the elector of Cologne, collected an army
of 14,000, w'kh transports sufficient to convey them to Eng¬
land. After being once driven back by storms, the forces
landed in Torbay on the 4th of November 1688; and thus
was eftected that change of succession usually called the
Revolution, the details and consequences of which belong
more to the history of England than to that of Holland.
The change of sovereigns brought England into the grand
alliance against France ; and the united navies, in 1692,
fought the battle of La Hogue, in which, after a contest of
three days’ continuance, the French admiral Tourville was
completely beaten, and suffered the loss of sixteen of his
largest ships. The Dutch commerce suffered considerably
by the privateers of France, especially by the operations of
the celebrated Du Bart; but these and other hostilities
were suspended by the peace of Ryswick, concluded in
1697.
The death of King William occurred in 1701, just at the
commencement of that war respecting the Spanish succes¬
sion, which continued till the peace of Utrecht, in the year
1712. The transactions connected with it belong more
to the history of other countries than to that of Holland,
though the Dutch states under the succession of William,
who was created stadtholder, continued to bear a consider¬
able share in the contests.
About the year 1742 the Louvestein party had gained
the upper hand in Holland; and Cardinal Fleury, the French
minister, engaged the states in some intrigues, and even
hostilities, upon which a stadtholder was again appointed,
and soon afterwards a general peace was concluded, that of
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748.
The prince stadtholder died in 1751. He had seen but
little service in the field, yet he had proved himself an ac¬
tive and skilful chief of the republic. He left a son and
daughter, both minors; and his office was intrusted, as well
as the education of his children, to their mother, a daugh¬
ter of George II.
Whilst the Seven Years’ War raged, from 1758 to 1763,
Holland maintained its neutrality, or at least affected to do
so. Great complaints and many discussions arose with
England, on a question of neuti’al rights, which has con¬
tinued till the present time; but they led to no events of
any .importance. When the war between England and
her American colonies broke out, the question of neutral
rights was again resumed ; but, in the midst of the discus¬
sions on that subject, it was discovered that an attempt at a
treaty with those called by us our rebel subjects had been
favourably received in Amsterdam, and Mr Laurens, an
American ambassador on his passage, was captured with the
correspondence. This led to hostilities, in which St Eustatia
in the West Indies was taken by the English. In the
year 1782 a Dutch fleet was equipped, and met on the
Dogger Bank by an English fleet of nearly equal force un¬
der Admiral Parker. A bloody fight ensued, which termi¬
nated in favour of the English. The peace which fol¬
lowed, in 1783, restored tranquillity to Holland, w hich had
suffered severe losses by captures during the short hostili¬
ties that had been carried on. After the peace, the Anti-
Orange party in Plolland, which, from the hereditary dig¬
nity having been conferred on that family, had appeared
extinct, gained fresh influence, and again raised its head.
The Princess of Orange, the sister of the king of Prussia,
had been grossly insulted, upon which that monarch de-
HOLLAND.
d. manded satisfaction , and this being refused, he marched an
mJ army into Holland, which was feebly defended by the cla¬
morous boasters of their bravery. Amsterdam was occu¬
pied by the Prussians in September 1787 ; the stadtholder
was reinstated in the power of which he had been depriv¬
ed ; and a strict alliance was formed with England and Prus¬
sia. Though tranquillity was thus restored, the party which
had been suppressed were dissatisfied, and watched for the
fittest opportunity to avenge their mortifications.
. Nor was it long before an occasion presented itself. In
1794, when the French republican flag was displayed on the
frontiers, the defeated party were active and clamorous, and
when the country was invaded by the army of Pichegru, they
gave it every assistance in their power. This state of affairs,
with a frost of great intensity, which admitted the passage
on the ice of the artillery and heavy baggage of the French
army, rendered the conquest of Holland of easy accomplish¬
ment. In 1795 the Orange family fled and took refuge in
England, whilst a republican constitution, framed by the
French faction of the day, was established, with a directory
of five persons as the executive power. The new i-epublic,
called the Batavian, was compelled to cede to France some
parts of its territory, with the cities of Maestricht and
Venlo, and the province of Limburg. An immediate de¬
mand was enforced for the payment of ten millions ster¬
ling, and the army of France was to be paid, fed, and
clothed at the expense of the Batavian republic. Under
this state of things, one part of their navy was given up to
the British by the dissatisfied seamen, another part fought
and were defeated ; their colonies surrendered or were ta¬
ken by the same power, their commerce was confined to
mere coasting, and the bank of Amsterdam nearly shatter¬
ed ; but not a fraction of the pecuniary demands was abated
by their new allies.
The constitution was new modelled in 1801. The num¬
ber of the directors was diminished, a kind of upper house
was created in imitation of the council of ancients in France,
and the country was divided into eight departments. The
peace of Amiens gave back to Holland their colonies in
South America and the Cape of Good Hope, but left Cey¬
lon in the hands of England. When the war was renewed,
the restored colonies were again captured, their ports were
strictly blockaded, and every hope of prosperity was extin¬
guished. In April 1805 a new constitution was introduced
by France, and Schimmelpenninck was made sole director ;
but his integrity was unable to serve his country in the diffi¬
cult circumstances in which both he and it were placed.
It was therefore determined by Bonaparte to create Hol¬
land into a separate kingdom, and place his brother Louis
on the throne. This was executed in June 1806. On his
accession Louis availed himself of the talents and integrity
of the late director, and acted, as far as he was able, for the
benefit of the people over whom he had been placed as
sovereign. But none of his efforts proved effectual in re¬
moving the general distress, and even in the few which
were made, he was so controlled by his imperial brother,
that, without communicating his intention, Louis withdrew
himself from Holland, renounced all authority, and. with
but scanty means of subsistence, took up his residence as
a private individual in the dominions of the emperor of
Austria. This step has been represented as having been
hastened by hie incapacity to relieve the distress which
had been produced in his dominions by the landing of the
English in Middleburg in their attempt upon Antwerp in
Louis retired in July 1810, and Holland was by a decree
°i the emperor incorporated as an integral part of his em¬
pire ; Amsterdam was declared to be the third city of the
imperial dominions; the French conscription law was ex¬
tended to the whole of Holland, and those taken under it
Mrere equally divided between the land and the sea service;
527
and the country was then, for military purposes, formed into Holland,
two divisions.
Under this military yoke the Dutch suffered till after
the battle of Leipsic in October 1813, when a part of the
victorious army under General Bulow advanced toward
Holland, and met there an English division under General
Graham. On the 20th of November the two commanders
called on the Dutch to join the cause of the allies. Two
days before this, Count Hogendorp, a moderate Orangist, had
privately collected in his house a number of the most dis¬
tinguished persons, who, like himself, had formed part of
the ministry from 1788 to 1795, and persuaded them to take
upon themselves the provisional government, till the Prince
of Orange, who was expected from England, should arrive.
A correspondence was opened with General Bulow, and
with the allied monarchs, who had advanced to Frankfort;
and invitations were addressed to the prince, who with little
delay arrived at the Hague, and proceeded to Amster¬
dam amidst the rapturous acclamations of the assembled
crowds. Proclamations had been circulated generally,
headed, “ The Netherlands are free, and William I. is the
sovereign prince of this land of liberty.” He however re¬
fused to assume any power till ,an assembly could be con¬
vened, which might properly be considered as a fair repre¬
sentation of the whole people. An assembly of notables,
consisting of the most distinguished men of all parties and
professions, was speedily called together. The number
summoned was 600; of these, 125 declined attending, some
on account of their age, others from ill health or personal
reasons. With the dissent of only twenty-six voices, the
prince was declared king, and a constitution decreed,
which secured to him considerable power, limited, however,
by two legislative assemblies.
When the French forces were compelled to abandon the
ten ancient provinces of the house of Austria, these were
considered as conquests made by the allied powers, who
assumed the disposal of them. The congress of Vienna, of
which Austria, the former sovereign of those provinces, was
a member, resolved that they should be united with the
seven provinces, and form together one independent king¬
dom, under a constitution, of which the princes of the
house of Orange were to be hereditary monarchs. As an
indemnification to the prince, now king, for the loss of his
states in Germany, the duchy of Luxembourg, with the
exception of the fortress, was given up to be added to this
newly-constructed kingdom, and in it was included the an¬
cient bishopric of Liege.
Before the complicated arrangements which the union
of these parts required could be completed, the return of
Bonaparte from Elba, and the revolt of the French army,
created impediments to the settlement of internal aftairs.
But this newly-constructed kingdom, which was the first
object of attack, entered with energy into the contest, and
their troops, mustered as they had hastily been, took an
honourable part, under the eldest son of the king, now
Prince of Orange, in the grand events of that short but
brilliant campaign of 1815, which ended in the decisive
victory of Waterloo.
The consolidation of such heterogeneous bodies as the
inhabitants of Belgium and those of Holland was a difficult
task, owing to their differences of religion, of laws, of lan¬
guage, and of occupations. The Belgians were rigid Catholics,
and their clergy strove to prevent the toleration of all other
professions; their laws had all been founded on the system
of the ancient Dukes of Burgundy, but altered to suit the
Code Napoleon. The language spoken by the major part
of the people, though it nearly resembled the Dutch, had
considerably varied from it in the practice of two hundred
years; and besides, a numerous portion of them spoke
French almost exclusively, whilst another portion spoke
the Walloon, and in Luxembourg the German language pre-
528
HOLLAND.
Holland, dominated. The Dutch were principally conversant in
trade, in the fisheries, and in manufactures, whilst the Bel¬
gians were chiefly employed in agriculture.
The members of the legislative body contained nearly
an equal division of the two countries; and as they acted
rather with the feeling of delegates from the parts by which
they were chosen, than as the representatives of the inte¬
rests of the whole community, their decisions were sub¬
ject to greatfluctuations, according to the number of Dutch
or of Belgian members who might happen, by sickness or
by accident, to be prevented from being present when the
votes on a particular proposition were taken. This incon¬
venience might have been removed by time, if other causes
had not been in operation. The agriculturists wished to
monopolise the whole supply of corn by means of a restric¬
tive law; but the distillers, who used a great quantity of
Baltic corn in making gin, and the speculative merchants
in grain, who were a medium for supplying that commodity
to a great extent from countries in which it was cheap, to
countries in which it was dear, claimed a continuance of
the free trade which they had long enjoyed. Though this
point was finally settled in favour of the Dutch party, it
caused a rankling feeling in the minds of the Belgians. The
assemblies, besides their ordinary occupations, had their at¬
tention constantly directed to the composition of a system
of law, applicable both to civil and to criminal cases, and had
made great progress in the work. After much opposition
to religious toleration, in which the king displayed both
temper and firmness, a concordat was made with the pope,
which, if not quite satisfactory, would, if left to itself, have
probably removed all existing obstacles. The difference
of language, though represented by those who availed
themselves of every pretext to produce mischief, as of
importance, was not in reality of very great moment. The
Belgic and the Dutch are scarcely more dissimilar than
the English and the Scotch, and one or the other was the
language of a vast majority. All the books of any value
were in the Dutch dialect, but they were neglected by the
Belgians, of whom the few that could and did read drew
their ideas from French publications. By directing all law
proceedings to be carried on in the vernacular languages,
a body of impetuous young men, imbued with French
principles, were inflamed against the government, and
gained more influence than they could have obtained if
the exclusion of the French tongue from the courts had
been gradually and not suddenly attempted.
In spite of these obstacles to a more perfect union, no
country ever made so rapid a progress in prosperity as was
exhibited in Belgium. The products of its soil, the iron
and the coals of Liege and of Luxembourg, found most
beneficial markets in Holland. The corn was, in spite of
that imported from the north of Europe, sold at profitable
rates. The trade with the Dutch colonies being opened
to them, and the valuable port of Antwerp being no longer
closed, Belgium made a great progress in foreign trade.
The effect of this was to create new manufacturing esta¬
blishments of cotton, woollen, and linen goods, and to ex¬
tend those which had before existed. The advancement
of the country was manifested to the most casual observer,
and seen in the increase of private and public buildings,
and in the improvement and embellishment of the old ones,
in every city, town, and village.
The state of ease and improvement so striking in Bel¬
gium was, however, no security against the union of op¬
posite factions, who agreed in nothing but in the work of
inflaming the wmrst passions of the most ignorant part of
the community, who, though highly bigoted to their re¬
ligion, were made tools to overturn the government, by
those who avowedly hated it.
Ihe Parisian revolution of July 1830 quickly produced
a similar one in Brussels. Ihe events passed as rapidly as
in the former city. There were few or no troops, a negli- Holl
gent and inefficient police force, and no spirit amongst those j
who possessed property, to protect it against the plunder¬
ers. They prayed the king to send troops to protect them;
but when these arrived, the inflamed Belgians, who were
from policy mixed up in the same ranks with the Dutch,
would not act, and they abandoned the city. The mob,
thus triumphant, compelled the feebler but richer citizens
to submit to their demagogue leaders. This produced a
declaration of independence against the house of Orange.
In the mean time, the Dutch, who were not without
causes of complaint of the greater favour shown to the
Belgians than to themselves, were firm in their allegiance
to the monarch, and wished for a separation of the two
countries. This measure was proposed and discussed in
the legislative assembly at the Hague, and ultimately, by
a majority, but not a large one, determined upon.
Application was made by the king of the Netherlands,
to the several powers who had at Vienna sanctioned the
union, and guaranteed to him the possession of his throne.
This led to discussions and negotiations, during which a
monarch was elected by the Belgians. They wished one
from the family of Napoleon, or that of Orleans, but were
not allowed a free choice, and at length Prince Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg was placed on the throne.
The Dutch soon composed an army, which, though in¬
ferior in number to that of Belgium, invaded the country.
The Belgians displayed neither courage nor discipline, but
fled in all directions; and their new king would, but for
an accident, have been made prisoner. A division of the
French army advanced to the aid of the Belgians, upon
which the Dutch retired.
The citadel which commanded the city of Antwerp was
still garrisoned by a Dutch force. It appeared proper to
England and France that this should be given up to Leo¬
pold ; and as the Dutch refused to surrender it till all
other subjects of contest between the two countries were
arranged, it was resolved to compel its surrender by war¬
like measures. The ports of Holland were blockaded, and
the fortress of Antwerp was attacked by a French army,
and, after a gallant defence, compelled to capitulate. The
embargo was then taken off, and all hostilities ceased in
1833.
The king still retains his former title of king of the
Netherlands, but as that will probably be finally changed
for some other of a more definite nature, we here confine
our statistical description to the country actually under his
authority, the divisions, extent, and population of which
are as follow:
Provinces.
Extent in
Acres.
Population.
Cities.
Market
Towns.
Villages.
North Brabant
Guelderland...
North Holland
South Flolland
Zealand 
Utrecht 
Friesland 
Overyssel 
Groningen 
Drenthe 
1,283,200
1,310,700
573.300
713.300
415,600
341,250
682.500
827,000
579.300
614.500
349,289
312.897
417,458
484,608
137,194
131,835
207,425
180,495
159,321
64,028
16
22
14
18
20
6
11
16
4
1
7,340,600
2,444,550
128
11
3
4
4
2
1
1
3
0
2
31
143
381
212
281
308
107
336
198
280
37
2283
In this account the duchy of Luxembourg is omitted, as
being at present the subject of negotiation between Bel¬
gium and Holland, in which are also intermingled the
views of the powers who were parties to the treaty of
Vienna, as well as those of the Germanic confederation.
HOLLAND.
d That province extenos over 2193 square miles, contains
^ twenty-two cities and towns, and 809 villages, with 302,654
inhabitants. A part of it, however, comprehending the
strong fortress of the same name, with a circle of four
leagues around, will be continued in the hands of the
German confederation, whether the remaining part should
form a part of Holland or of Belgium.
The cities of Holland containing each more than 10,000
inhabitants, with their actual population, w-ere in 1833 as
in the statement subjoined.
Cities. Population. Cities.. Population.
Amsterdam 202,364 Hague 56,105
Kotterdam 72,294 Utrecht 43,407
Cities. Population.
Leyden. 34,564
Groningen 30,260
Haarlem 21,667
Leuwarden 20,938
Bois-le-Duc 20,489
Dort 19,972
Nimeguen 17,734
Zwolle 15,640
Delft 15,023
529
Cities. Population. Holland.
Middleburg 14,700 ’-v-'w'
Arnhem .14,509
Deventer 13,639
Breda 13,114
Gouda 12,878
Amersfort 11,782
Tilbourg 11,726
Scheidam 11,588
Zutphen 10,204
The proportion of the town population to that of the
villages is far greater than is to be found in any other
part of the world, as appears by the following table.
Comparison of the Town with the Rural Inhabitants of Holland.
Provinces.
Town Population.
North Brabant.
Guelderland....
North Holland.
South Holland.
Zealand 
Utrecht 
Friesland 
Overyssel 
Groningen 
Drenthe 
Males.
35,399
39,807
125,282
116,211
20,025
30,690
25,084
18,552
14,119
5,254
Females.
35,550
42,668
150,656
137,101
23,120
34,035
28,229
19,609
16,141
5,278
Total.
70,946
82,475
275,941
253,312
43,145
64,725
53,383
38,161
30.260
10,553
Country Population.
M ales.
430,423
492,387
922,901
137,791
115,502
68,882
112,956
47,034
34,258
75,867
71,921
63,505
27,274
754,990
Females.
140,151
111,816
69,165
113,466
47,083
33,376
75,659
68,813
63,739
26,062
749,330
Total.
277,942.
227,318
138,047
226,425
94,117
67.634
151,526
140,734
127,244
53,336
1,504,323
It is vcorthy of remark, that whilst in the country in¬
habitants the males rather exceed the females, in the
cities and towns the females exceed in number the males
by nearly a fifteenth part.
Provinces.
North Brabant.
Guelderland 
North Holland.
South Holland.
Zealand 
Utrecht 
Friesland 
Overyssel 
Groningen 
Drenthe 
Varieties of Religious Sects.
Protestants.
Catholics.
41,840
188,319
274,211
353,852
100,747
77,490
184,787
117,131
143,198
60,173
1,541,748
305,446
118,003
114.705
117,364
36,060
53,340
18,543
59,362
11,646
2,451
Jews.
1,476
2,748
24,117
7,596
454
1,484
1,555
2,231
2,660
1,172
836,920
45,493
Unknown Sects.
129
723
955
925
1
45
24
171
72
3,045
Total.
348,891
309,793
413,988
479,737
137,262
132,359
204,909
178,895
157,504
63,868
2,427,206
The several sects are maintained by the government,
although some particular churches have endowments. The
greater part of the Protestants are of the Calvinistic profes¬
sion. The Lutherans are the next in number, the Menon-
ites and the Remonstrants exceed 120,000, but the whole
of the other Protestants taken together are not more than
half the number of the Calvinists. By the budget of 1833
the sums voted for the support of the Protestant worship-
amounted to 1,330,000 florins (L.l 15,000), and for the
Catholic worship 400,000 florins (L.33,400), besides the
expense of the universities. There are now three univer¬
sities, viz. Leyden with 684 students, Utrecht with 476,
and Groningen with 284. These are indiscriminately re¬
sorted to by the different religious parties, whose separate
theological studies are provided for by the state under pro¬
fessors of each faith.
The uncertain state of the external relations, and espe-
voi,. xi.
cially of those with their late fellow subjects, has caused
an augmentation of the forces both by land and by sea, far
beyond what can be needed or supported for a long period.
The regular land army, which is well organized and disci¬
plined, consists of forty-eight battalions of infantry, twen¬
ty-three squadrons of cavalry, nine corps of riflemen, and
a proportional force of artillery. Besides these troops, a
numerous body of volunteers, called the Schuttery, are in
a state of preparation to act in the defence of the country.
The navy consists of eight ships of the line, two of eighty-
four guns and six of seventy-four. The frigates are three of
sixty guns, thirteen of forty-four guns, and seven of thirty-
two guns. There are fourteen corvettes mounting from
twenty to twenty-eight guns, and sixteen brigs from eight
to eighteen guns, and several armed steam-vessels have
been recently constructed. For the defence of the internal
water frontier, there are about eighty large gun-boats or
3 x
530
HOLLAND.
Holland, barks armed, each of them having a twenty-four pound
gun at their prow, two six pounders at the stern, and two
carronades on the sides. This force is manned with 7000
good seamen, independently of officers, and is peculiarly
appropriate for defence.
The finances of the kingdom are at present in a provi¬
sional state, owing to the indecisive negotiations which have
been for several years under discussion, respecting the
division of the national debt, which belonged to the two
countries of Belgium and Holland when united as one
kingdom. The plan decided on by the allied powers, and
acquiesced in by both governments, was, that this debt
should be divided into thirteen parts, of which seven should
be assumed by Belgium and six by Holland. But as Bel¬
gium pays no part of the interest, the dividends have
hitherto been regularly discharged by Holland. The cre¬
dit of that government is good, and the wealth of its sub¬
jects abundant, and the king finds no difficulty whatever
in availing himself of both during the uncertain period,
which is still protracted. The expenses were thus esti¬
mated for the year 1833 :
Civil list 1,425,000 florins.
Secretaries of state 572,840
Department of foreign affairs 596,200
 of the interior 3,103,309
Department of justice 1,150,000 florins. Holik
 of worship 1,730,000 W
Naval force 6,500,000
Army 12,100,000
National industry and colonies 587,016
Interest on the debt 21,621,484
49,385,849
As twelve florins are equal to a pound sterling, the whole
ordinary expenditure consequently amounts to L.4,115,480;
but to this must be added 44,000,000 florins for extraordi¬
naries on account of warlike preparations. If tranquillity
be restored, and Belgium should pay her proportion of the
interest on the debt, the finances of this kingdom will be
in a prosperous state. During the union, the Belgic por¬
tion paid taxes at the rate of ten florins per head on the
whole population, whilst Holland paid rather more than
fifteen florins per head. With only its due proportion of
the debt, Holland would have a surplus revenue for its or¬
dinary expenses, and might reduce annually a portion of
its debt, especially as she has the whole of the colonial
possessions, and the far greater proportion of the shipping,
the fisheries, and the foreign trade.
The foreign possessions of Holland are the following:
Asia  <
Africa.
America
ica<{
Batavia 
Amboyna 
Banda 
Ternate 
Macassar  
Sumatra 
Timor 
Forts on the coast of Guinea, with only gar¬
risons.
Surinam 
St Eustatia 
Cura^a 
St Martin’s 
Saba 
Whole
Inhabitants.
Whites.
4,800,700
45,000
44,000
170,000
360,000
1,040,000
85,700
57,040
13,710
12,350
4,100
450
50,000
400
400
300
500
500
600
1
I
^ 6,050
I
J
Free
Coloured.
4,758,300
44,000
43,000
169.500
358.500
1,038,500
84,000
7,100
Slaves.
12,400
600
600
200
1000
1000
400
74,500
Besides these, the Dutch claim the islands of Oruba
and Orubilla, that of Bonaire or Buenos Ayres, with the
Bird Islands; all near the coast of the late Spanish settle¬
ments. They have few or no resident inhabitants, but a
few persons occasionally repair to them to take turtles or
to collect salt.
The government of Holland is a monarchy, hereditary
in the house of Orange, and limited, by the constitution
founded in August 1815, to the power of executing the
laws. It was grounded on the ancient habits and usages,
only making the executive power permanent, instead of
occasional and temporary, as it was when a stadtholder was
formerly appointed. The legislature is composed of two
houses. The lower house has fifty-five members, none of
whom can be less than forty years of age, and of these
twenty-two are chosen by the provinces of North and
South Holland, seven by North Brabant, six by Guelder-
land, five by Friesland, four each by Overyssel and Gro¬
ningen, three each by Zealand and Utrecht, and one by
Drenthe. The upper house consists of the nobles, ap¬
pointed for life by the king.
As the greater part of the establishments of the country
are permanent as well as ancient, and as the greater part
of the revenue is voted every ten years in anticipation,
the transactions of the chambers occupy but a short space
of time, nor do they create so great an interest as in coun¬
tries where more business is brought under the notice of
the popular assemblies. In this kingdom the far greater
part of their internal affairs are settled in the provincial as¬
semblies of the several states, and in corporate bodies of
the larger cities; all of whom have considerable funds under
their control, and exercise extensive power within their re¬
spective limits.
From the economical habits of all classes, of which the
monarch is an eminent example, the expenses of the se¬
veral public functionaries are fixed upon a very moderate
scale. This habit of prudence and foresight has descend¬
ed from the higher to all other classes of society, and has
been the main cause of that great accumulation of wealth,
which, from the foundation of its independence, and in
spite of the severe reverses it has sustained, has made this
kingdom so remarkable.
No observant traveller can pass through Holland with¬
out feeling surprise at the abundant wealth, and the pro¬
fitable application of it to the obtaining of additional
wealth, which is everywhere to be seen. This is mani¬
fested in the public and the private buildings, in the farm¬
ing erections, in the boundaries of the land, in the dykes,
the canals, the roads, the mills for keeping the fields clear
of water, in the wheel carriages, and in the cattle, as well
HOLLAND.
land, in those applicable to labour, as in those kept for the dairy
^ or for food. The same maybe seen in what relates to
their ships, boats, workshops, and the interior of the dwel¬
lings. All are distinguished by their cleanliness and or¬
der, which, the Dutch have by long experience known, are
essential ingredients of economy.
During the twenty years from 1794 to 1814, when the
country was subjected to France, when the foreign trade
was annihilated, and the intercourse with the colonies was
suspended, it has been estimated that more than one hun¬
dred millions sterling, beyond the expenses of government,
were extorted from Holland by their acute masters. This
is said to have been encountered by such rigid parsimony,
practised by all individuals and families, that the actual
capital of the country was little, if at all, impaired by the
extortion it had endured. On the return of tranquillity,
the capital thus reserved was in a great degree employ¬
ed in loans to the several foreign states of Europe; which
loans were made on terms so advantageous to the lenders,
that, between 1814 and 1833, more gain has been made
by the Dutch capitalists than had been taken from them
in the preceding twenty years.
This traffic in money, of which Amsterdam may be con¬
sidered as the central market for the whole of Europe, is
not confined to the great capitalists, as in most other coun¬
tries, but by various modes is so diffused over the com¬
munity, that those who have but small reserve funds are
enabled to partake of the advantages of it, and that whilst
pursuing their regular and customary occupations.
With the return of peace the intercourse had been re¬
newed with the colonies in the East Indies, and upon the
coast of South America, which had been restored in an
improved condition. This gave rise to a profitable com¬
merce with the south-eastern part of Asia, and enabled the
proprietors of estates in Surinam to realize their property.
The transit trade, the fisheries, the commerce with the
Baltic, and with the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, and
the ports of the Mediterranean, were all re-opened, and ex¬
tended beyond their former limits. During the continu¬
ance of the union with Belgium that part of the kingdom
shared these branches of profit, chiefly through the noble
port of Antwerp. But the late revolutionary events have
nearly thrown the whole of that commerce into the hands
of the Dutch. As the most substantial of the merchants
and the larger ship-owners have removed from Antwerp
to Rotterdam or Amsterdam, it is probable that the trade
of Holland, whatever may be the result of the pending ne¬
gotiations, will be benefited by the separation of the two
countries.
During the war, especially after the Berlin and Milan
decrees, much of the inert capital of Holland was direct¬
ed towards the improvement of the soil and cultivation,
and its fruits in a few years vastly increased. Many of
these now form an important portion of its export trade.
Those here enumerated have been doubled in quantity in
the ten years up to the time of the insurrection at Brus¬
sels ; and the exports annually, on an average of three
years ending with 1829, were as follow :—
Butter 7,924,778 pounds.
Cheese 16,383,217 ...
Oilcakes 15,024,579 ...
Oil from rape and linseed 019,260 hogsheads.
Salted meat 355,860 pounds.
Hams 136,312 ...
Hemp, rape, and linseed 196,800 bushels.
Another product of the soil, the export of which is of
vast extent, but not very accurately ascertained, is gin,
distilled from corn in the large establishments in the city
of Scheidam, and some other places. It is not, however,
the sole product of their own soil, as much of the corn
from which it is made is previously imported from the Bal-
531
tic, and other northern ports of Europe. This corn trade Holland,
was once a very extensive branch, but of late years, from
causes too complicated to be explained here, it has been
very much contracted, and the large storehouses of Am¬
sterdam have been but slightly furnished with it.
The favourable situation for commerce in which Holland
is placed, at the mouths of great rivers, besides the facili¬
ties for defence, has induced the construction of works
which, though chiefly intended for protection, are benefi¬
cial as means of intercourse. The artificial canals are nu¬
merous and extensive, and have been constructed at an
expense which only the general economy could have en¬
countered. Without enumerating them, one of recent
construction deserves especial notice. The ship canal
from the Helder to Amsterdam, which was completed and
opened in 1825, is about eighty miles in length, 120 feet
broad, and twenty-five feet deep ; thus capable of convey¬
ing into the capital the largest ship of war. It is an un¬
dertaking, both by its execution and its cost, worthy of the
most flourishing period of the republic. The expense of
the work has exceeded one million sterling.
During the union of Belgium with Holland, the former
country had extended its manufacturing industry, and,
from being more favourably situated, had prevented Hol¬
land from re-establishing those fabrics of woollen and linen
goods which had flourished before the occupation of the
country by the French. At present the manufactures of
Holland are upon a narrow scale. Some linen, with a few
woollen and cotton goods, are made, but chiefly for domes¬
tic consumption. A few articles of tapes and other small
wares are made at Haarlem; and some linens are still
bleached there, which are either made in the country, or
imported in an unbleached state from Silesia. The busi¬
ness of refining sugar is carried on extensively in Amster¬
dam, and that of making snuff and tobacco gives occupa¬
tion to numerous labourers. The making of gin has been
already noticed, to which it may be added, that the brewe¬
ries are large and numerous. The building of ships, barges,
and boats, is now the chief branch of manufacturing in¬
dustry; and in the; beauty of their form, in their durabili¬
ty, and in their adaptation for stowage, the builders of
Holland have of late years been making a rapid progress.
The greatest deficiency in Holland is the want of occu¬
pation for common labourers; for although in the season
of harvest there is not a sufficiency of hands for the work
of the field, and thousands from Westphalia repair to it to
gather in the crops, yet at other seasons the distress is
very great, and in no country is there so much call for
the practice of benevolence as in Holland, and nowhere
such abundant exercise of that virtue.
The fisheries on their own coasts, as well as those on the
shores of Great Britain, employ many seamen, as does the
Greenland whale-fishery; but this is chiefly a summer la¬
bour, and that class of workmen feel much distress in the
winter, especially whenever, as is a common occurrence,
the canals are frozen, and cease to be navigable.
The agriculture of Holland is well conducted, with very
productive results in the lower parts of the country. Wheat
is but little cultivated, rye is more extensively so; but the
most profitable grain is oats, of which alone more is ex¬
ported than is imported. Barley is but little grown, and
what is needed is chiefly supplied from Germany by the
inland rivers. In the recently-cultivated poor lands in
Groningen and Drenthe much buck-wfieat is grown. Po¬
tatoes also are abundantly produced. The more benefi¬
cial products are those from the cattle, such as butter,
cheese, bacon, and hams; and on the farms where they are
maintained are raised the greater part of those seeds from
which their oil is made.
The climate is moist, and the soil generally damp; and
in winter, especially in Amsterdam and some other cities,
Holland.
the fogs are extremely dense. These circumstances, com¬
bined with a scarcity of good water to drink, are consider¬
ed as the causes of the increase of population being slower
in Holland than in any other country of the European
continent. The mode of living may have some effect on
longevity: though the people are warmly clothed, yet the
use of stoves, in which turf is burned, must be injurious in
the manner there practised. The great quantity of cured
fish, bacon, andbutter, used as food, and the abundant drink¬
ing of ardent spirits, stimulated by the smoking and chew¬
ing of tobacco, must contribute in some degree to shorten
the lives of the inhabitants.
The language of Holland is a dialect of the high German,
derived from it when less improved than it has been within
the last century. It first assumed a decided character in
the latter end of the fifteenth century, and has from that
time to the present been receiving additional polish from
the literary labours of the several distinguished men who
have cultivated it, from Agricola and Erasmus, down to the
time of the lately deceased Bilderdyk. It would probably
have been much further improved if some of its most
distinguished authors, such as Erasmus, Lipsius, Grotius,
Wyttenbach, and others, had not, for the sake of greater
circulation, written in the Latin language. Though the
Dutch prose has but little pretension to elegance in its
tones and its expressions, it is well calculated to convey
clear ideas, and to explain useful truths with great simpli¬
city and accuracy.
In no country of Europe has the proportion of highly
learned men to the whole population been so great as in
Holland. The earliest impulse to literature was communi¬
cated by William the first Prince of Orange, who founded
the University of Leyden in 1575, as a reward to that city
for its brave defence against the Spaniards in the preced-
ing year. Men like Scaliger, Lipsius, Heinsius, Gronovius,
and Spanheim, in ancient learning; Erpenius and Gollius
in oriental literature ; Arminius, Drusius, and Coccejus,
in theology; and the two Snelliuses, in mathematics, ex¬
tended their own fame, and that of their university, through¬
out the whole of Europe. Soon afterwards, the high
schools of Franeker, of Groningen, and of Utrecht, pro¬
duced a rivalry highly advantageous to the diffusion of
knowledge.
Powards the end of the seventeenth century, Huygens
Leeuwenhoeck, Zwammerdam, andHartseeker, were high¬
ly distinguished as astronomers and as natural historians.
After the peace of Utrecht in 1713, Albert Schultens,
Hemsterhuis, and the celebrated Boerhaave, with a long
list of others, began to extend the study of the Greek and
of the oriental languages, to improve their own, and more
especially to diffuse a more correct knowledge of the heal¬
ing art. The science of the law of nations, as well as of law
in general, owes much to eminent Dutch writers; and no¬
where has the research into antiquities been more assidu¬
ously pursued, or with greater success. The celebrity of
Dutch literature invited able men from other countries, and
their works published in Holland still further extended the
renown of the Dutch schools. Thus Scaliger and Luzac
were of French origin ; Albinus, Vossius, Gronovius, Ruhn-
ken, and Vorstius, were Germans; and Wyttenbach was a na¬
tive of Switzerland. In history, in criticism, and in poetry,
the Dutch were behind no other people; and, considering
the paucity of readers of their language, their progress and
excellence is astonishing. It would be easy to give a list
of dramatic and other poetical authors of high merit, but
whose talent cannot be appreciated beyond the limits of
their own confined territory.
Amidst their fierce contests, and their eager desire 'of
gain, the fine arts, especially painting, had numerous pa¬
trons in Holland, and produced artists who powerfully, but
in a peculiar manner, rivalled those of Flanders and of Italy.
The Dutch school of painting has been praised for the
truth of its representation of natural objects, for its per¬
fect finishing, its appropriate shading, and the colouring
and delicacy of pencil; but it has been censured for its
selection of unworthy objects, and want of correctness in
drawing. The founder of the school was Lucas of Leyden,
born in the year 1494. His most eminent followers were,
Van Been of Leyden, born in 1586, said to have been an
instructor of Rubens; Bloemart of Gorcum, who painted
historical pieces, landscapes, and cattle, and died in 1647;
Cornelius Poelenburg of Utrecht, born in 1586, and died
in 1663, who was peculiarly happy in his landscapes with
figures, and his two distinguished pupils Bertange and Ha-
ensberge; also Rembrandt, who, by his exquisite skill in
colouring, was enabled to hide all his other faults. Without
enumerating their peculiarities, and without extending the
list, we insert the following names, most of which are well
known to those who have paid any attention to the history
of painting and painters. Zachtleben, Gerhard Terburg,
Swanvelt, Asselyn, Gerhard Dow, Peter Van Leer, Wou-
verman, Waterloo, Berghem, Paul Potter, Backhuysen,
Mieris, Schalken, Jardin, Ruysdael, Van der Werf, and
Van Hulst. To these, others of second-rate merit might be
added. It is singular, that with their great skill in painting,
the Dutch have made an indifferent figure in the sister art
of statuary. In architectural taste also they have been de¬
ficient, but that has made some progress of late years, as
may be observed in the buildings of more modern erection.
In the mechanical arts the Dutch have attained a high
degree of perfection, as far as these are connected with
their peculiar situation. In the conducting of water, and
in the formation of dykes, bridges, sluices, and canals, their
skill and contrivances to facilitate labour are obvious to
all travellers who visit the country; and they excel all
other nations in the construction of their mills, and in
whatever pertains to the making of wheels, either for mills
or for waggons and coaches. In such works, as indeed in
all others, they exhibit the highest degree of neatness,
strength, and economy.
The works chiefly referred to in this article are, His-
toire des Troubles desPays-Bas, par Vander Vynckt, 3 vols.
edition 1822 ; Analecta Belgica de Hoynck de Papendrecht,
1743 ; Histoire de la Guerre des Pays-Bas, par Strada,
1604; Geschichte des Abfalls der Niederlands von der Spa-
nische Regeirung von Schiller, edit. 1829; Geographie His-
torique, Physique, et Statistique, du Royaume des Pays-Bas
(Amsterdam, 1827), par J. J. de Cloet; Jaarbohje over
1831, 1832, 1833, von Z. M. Koning in Gravenhage; Al¬
manack der 1834, Weimar.
H o L H O L 533
|nd, HOLLAND, New, the largest island in the world,
p reaching from 10° to 40° south latitude, and between 114°
and 153° of east longitude from London. See the article
Australasia for a general account of this immense
island; and the article Wales, New South, for an ac¬
count of the British Penal Colony established in it.
Holland, in commerce, a fine and close kind of linen,
so called from its being first manufactured in Holland.
HOLLAR, Wenceslaus, a celebrated engraver, born
at Prague in 1607. His parents were respectable, and he
was at first designed for the study of the law. But the
civil commotions which happened in his youth having ruin¬
ed his family affairs, he was obliged to shift for himself;
and discovering some genius for the arts, he was placed
with Marian, an able designer and engraver of views.
Being himself a man of great ingenuity, he profited largely
from the instruction of his tutor. He principally excelled
in drawing geometrical and perspective views, and plans
of buildings ancient and modern, also landscapes, and
every kind of natural and artificial curiosities, which he
executed with a pen, in a style well adapted to the pur¬
pose. He travelled through part of Germany; but not¬
withstanding his merit, he met with so little encourage¬
ment that he found it difficult to support himself. The
Earl of Arundel being in Germany, took him under his
protection, brought him to England, and recommended
him to the favour of Charles I. He engraved a variety
of plates from the Arundel collection, and the portrait of
the earl himself upon horseback. The civil wars which
broke out soon afterwards in England ruined his fortune.
He was taken prisoner with some of the royal party,
and escaped with difficulty; upon which he returned to
Antwerp, and joined his old patron the Earl of Arundel.
He settled in that city for a time, and published a consi¬
derable number of plates ; but his patron having soon after¬
wards proceeded to Italy for the benefit of his health, Hollar
fell again into distress, and was obliged to work for the
printsellers and booksellers of Antwerp at very low prices.
At the Restoration he returned to England, where, though
he had sufficient employment, the prices he received for
his engravings were so inadequate to the labour necessarily
required, that he could barely procure a subsistence; and
the plague, with the succeeding fire of London, having for
some time put an effectual stop to business, his affairs were
so much embarrassed that he was never afterwards able to
improve his fortune. It is said that he used to work for
the booksellers at the rate of fourpence an hour, and al¬
ways had an hour-glass before him. But all his industry,
to which his numerous works bear ample testimony, fail¬
ed to procure him a sufficient maintenance. On the verge
of his seventieth year he was attached with an execution
at his lodgings in Gardener’s Lane, Westminster, when he
desired only the liberty of dying in his bed, and that he
might not be removed to any other prison than the grave,
a favour which it is uncertain whether or not he obtained.
He died in 1677. According to Vertue’s Catalogue, his
works amount to nearly twenty-four thousand prints, and
the lovers of art are always zealous to collect them. Ge¬
nerally speaking, they are etchings performed almost en¬
tirely with the point. Their merits are thus characteriz¬
ed by Mr Strutt: “ They possess great spirit, with asto¬
nishing freedom and lightness,- especially when we con¬
sider how highly he has finished some of them. His views
of abbeys, churches, ruins, &c. with his shells, muffs, and
every species of still life, are admirable ; his landscapes fre¬
quently have great merit; and his distant views of towns
and cities are not only executed in a very accurate, but a
very pleasing manner.” But a somewhat colder character
is given of them by Mr Gilpin in his essay on prints : “ Hol¬
lar gives us views of particular places, which he copies
with great truth, unornamented, as he found them. If
we are satisfied with exact representations, we have them Holloa
nowhere better than in Hollar’s works; but if we expect II
pictures, we must seek them elsewhere. Hollar was an Holofernes.
antiquarian and a draughtsman, but seems to have been
but little acquainted with the principles of painting. Stiff¬
ness is his characteristic, and a painful exactness void
of taste. His larger views are mere plans. In some of
his smaller, at the expense of infinite pains, something
of an effect is sometimes produced. But in general we
consider him as a repository of curiosities, a record of an¬
tiquated dresses, abolished ceremonies, and edifices now
in ruins.”
HOLLOA, in nautical language, an exclamation of an¬
swer, to any person who calls to another to ask some
question, or to give a particular order. It is also the an¬
swer in hailing a ship at a distance.
HOLM (Saxon, Hulmus, insula amnica), denotes an
isle or fenny ground, according to Bede, or a river island.
And where any place is called by that name, and this syl¬
lable is joined with any other in the names of places, it
signifies a place surrounded with water, as the Flatholmes
and Stepholmes in the Severn near Bristol; but if the situ¬
ation of the place be not near the water, it may then sig¬
nify a hilly place, holm in Saxon signifying also a hill or
cliff.
HOLMS, two islands in the Bristol Channel, distin¬
guished by the appellation of the flat and the steep, which
form part of the Welsh county of Glamorgan. On the
former is a light-house, and a dwelling for those who su¬
perintend the lights, and a few other houses, with about
fifty acres of cultivated land. The latter is a rock about
400 feet in height, with a difficult and dangerous access.
The soil is sandy, and the vegetation confined, and only
fit for rabbits, of whom great numbers are found there.
HOLOCAUST (formed from cAo;, whole, and xa/cti, to
consume with Jive), a kind of sacrifice, in which the whole
offering is burned or consumed by fire, as an acknowledg¬
ment that God, the creator, preserver, and lord of all, was
worthy of all honour and worship, and as a token of men’s
giving themselves entirely up to him. It is also called in
Scripture a burnt-offering. Sacrifices of this sort are often
mentioned by the heathens as well as Jews (Xenophon,
Cyropced. lib. viii. p. 446, 1738), and they appear to have
been in use long before the institution of the other Jew¬
ish sacrifices by the law of Moses (Job, i. 5, xli. 8; and
Gen. viii. 20, xxii. 13). On this account the Jews, who
would not allow the Gentiles to offer on their altar any
sacrifices peculiarly enjoined by the law of Moses, permit¬
ted them by means of the Jewish priests to offer holocausts,
because these were a sort of sacrifices prior to the law,
and common to all nations. During their subjection to
the Romans it was no uncommon thing for the Gentiles
to offer sacrifices to the God of Israel at Jerusalem. Holo¬
causts were deemed by the Jews the most excellent of all
their sacrifices. It is said that this kind of sacrifice was
in common use amongst the heathens, till Prometheus
introduced the custom of burning only a part, and reserv¬
ing the remainder for his own use.
HOLOFERNES, lieutenant-general of the armies of
Nebuchadonosor, king of Assyria, who having in a remark¬
able encounter overcome Arphaxad, king of the Medes,
sent to all the neighbouring nations with an intention of
obliging them to submit to his empire, pretending that
there was no power capable of resisting him. At the same
time Holofernes, at the head of a powerful army, passed
the Euphrates, entered Cilicia and Syria, and subdued al¬
most all the people of these provinces.
Being resolved to make a conquest of Egypt, he ad¬
vanced towards Judsea, little expecting to meet with any
resistance Irom the Jews. In the mean time, he was in¬
formed that they were preparing to oppose him ; and
534
H O L
H O L
Hologra- Achior, the commander of the Ammonites, who had al-
phum ready submitted to Holofernes, and joined his army with
Holst in some auxiliary troops, represented to him that the He-
•_° Sv C!!' brews were a people protected in a particular manner by
Almighty God, as long as they were obedient to him; and
therefore that he should not flatter himself with expec¬
tations of overcoming them, unless they had committed
some offence against God, and thereby become unworthy
of his protection. Holofernes, disregarding this advice,
commanded Achior to be conveyed within sight of the
walls of Bethulia, tied to a tree, and left there; but the
Jews came thither and unbound him.
In the mean time Holofernes formed the siege of Bethu¬
lia ; and having cut off the water which supplied the city,
and set guards at the only fountain which the besieged
had near the walls, the inhabitants were soon reduced to
extremity, and resolved to surrender if God did not send
them succour in five days. Judith, informed of their re¬
solution, conceived the design of killing Holofernes in his
tent. She took her finest clothes, went out of Bethulia
with her maid-servant, and being brought to the general,
pretended that she could no longer endure the sins and
excesses of the Jews, and that God had inspired her with
the design of surrendering herself to him. As soon as
Holofernes saw her, he was taken with her beauty, and
some days afterwards invited her to a great feast which
he had prepared for the principal officers of his army. But
he drank so much wine, that drunkenness, and its imme¬
diate consequence, sleep, prevented him from satisfying
his passion. Judith, who in the night was left alone in
his tent, cut off his head with his own sword, and depart¬
ing with her servant from the camp, returned to Bethulia
with the head of Holofernes. As soon as it was day, the
besieged made a sally upon their enemies, who going into
their general’s tent, found his headless carcass besmeared
with its own blood. They then discerned that Judith had
deceived them, and fled with precipitation, leaving the
camp abounding with rich spoils. The Jews pursued them,
killed a great number, and returned loaded with booty.
There is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the
time when this war between Holofernes and the Jews hap¬
pened. Some date it from the captivity of Babylon, in
the reign of Manasseh, and pontificate of Eliakim the high
priest; others place it some time after the captivity; and
some doubt the truth of the whole transaction.
HOLOGRAPHUM (composed of 6X05, all, and ygatpu,
I write), in the civil law, something written wholly in the
hand-writing of the person who signs it. The word is
chiefly used in speaking of a testament written wholly in
the testator’s own hand.
HOLSTEIN, a province of the kingdom of Denmark,
one of those by which the king becomes a member of the
Germanic confederacy. It was an ancient duchy, and the
termination of the ancient German empire, from the year
811 till its dissolution. It is bounded on the north by
Sleswick, from which it is separated by the river Eider
and the Sleswick Canal; on the north-east and east by the
Baltic Sea; on the south-east by the territory of Lubeck
and the duchy of Lauenburg; on the south by the Elbe
and the state of Hamburg; and on the west by the Ger¬
man Ocean. The province extends over 3260 square
miles, and comprehends fourteen cities, twenty-two mar¬
ket-towns, 141 parishes, with 486 villages, and 374,750
inhabitants. The population are of the Saxon race, and
speak the common platt Deutch, but the educated portion
of the people speak the German language; their speech,
as well as their manners and customs, seem to have bor¬
rowed little from the Danes, though they have for many
centuries been a part of the same kingdom.
The soil is upon the whole fruitful; for though, in the
centre of the province, there is a long strip of poor sand,
scarcely worth cultivation, yet on both sides the land is H
highly productive. The western side, especially near the w
shore, consists of some of the best meadow-land in Europe,
on which are fattened those fine oxen the meat of which is
known by the name Hamburg beef, and much of it is ex¬
ported from that city, as well as from Altona. When, in
the course of husbandry, these lands are broken up, they
produce abundant crops of oats, and some very tolerable
wheat. On the eastern side, upon the Baltic, is much
excellent arable land, and tolerably well managed, yield¬
ing the best of butter, with some wheat and barley ; but the
principal corn grown is rye. It may be said of Holstein,
that it is the best agricultural district in the north of Ger¬
many. The climate is, however, cold, raw, and change¬
able, which is injurious to its rural husbandry.
The trade of the province is considerable. On every
part of the coasts of both seas the fisheries afford much
occupation. The number of ships belonging to the seve¬
ral ports of Altona, Kiel, Flensburg, and Gluckstadt,
creates and employs many most valuable seamen. The
chief trade consists of the export of corn, butter, cheese,
bacon, cured fish, rape-seed, honey, and wax. The Green¬
land fishery is carried on from Altona. The import trade
chiefly arises from the Danish colonies in the West Indies,
the produce of which is brought to Altona or Flensburg.
The manufactures are of small amount, excepting that
of building and equipping ships. There are some small es¬
tablishments for making paper, cutlery, copper articles, and
common ironmongery. The shores of the Baltic present
very picturesque scenes, from the deep indentations of the
sea (called jiorde) into the land, where they spread out and
resemble lakes, and are bordered by woods rising gradual¬
ly to the tops of the hills. From the eastern side of this
country, in the district of Engeland, according to tradi¬
tion, Hengist and Horsa, two of the princes, sailed on
their expedition to our island.
HOLT, Sir John, Lord Chief-Justice of the Court of
King’s Bench in the reign of King William, eldest son of
Sir Thomas Holt, serjeant-at-law, was born at Thame, Ox¬
fordshire, in 1642. He entered himself at Gray’s Inn in
1658, and applied to the common law with so much in¬
dustry that he soon became an eminent barrister. In the
reign of James II. he was made recorder of London, an
office which he discharged with much approbation for
about a year and a half; but he lost his place by refusing
to expound the law suitably to the king’s designs. On
the arrival of the Prince of Orange he was chosen a mem¬
ber of the Convention Parliament, which afforded an op¬
portunity of displaying his abilities; and as soon as the
government was settled, he was made Lord Chief Justice
of the Court of King’s Bench and a privy counsellor. In
1700, when Lord Somers resigned the great seal, King
William pressed Chief-Justice Holt to accept of it; but
he replied that he never had in his life but one chancery
cause, which he lost, and that consequently he could not
think himself qualified for so great a trust. He continued
as chief justice for twenty-two years, during which time
he obtained great reputation for steadiness, integrity, and
thorough knowledge in his profession. Upon great occa¬
sions he asserted the law with intrepidity, though he
thereby ventured to incur by turns the indignation of both
houses of parliament. Holt was a perfect master of the
common law, and as his judgment was sound, his capa¬
city great, and his understanding clear, so he possessed
a firmness of mind, and a vigour of resolution, which no¬
thing could overcome when he found himself called upon
to assert the authority of the law, and to vindicate the pu¬
rity of justice. Several causes of the utmost importance,
as affecting the lives, rights, liberties, and property of the
people, came in judgment before him, and his decisions
were all marked by the same high qualities. His defini-
H O L
H O M 535
E
tions were remarkable for clearness and perspicuity; his ebb there is a passage almost dry both for horses and car- Holy-Rood
arguments displayed equal powers of analysis and arrange- riages to and from the mainland, from which, if measured Hay
j ment; and he possessed the invaluable faculty of render- on a straight line, it is distant about two miles eastward, „ H
^ ing perceptible and obvious the natural differences of though, on account of some quicksands, passengers are H^mt)erg-
things, at the same time that he discriminated, with the obliged to make so many detours, that the length of the
nicest tact, between real and fanciful resemblances. His way is nearly doubled. The water over these flats is at
great secret consisted in the rigid and scrupulous adjust- spring-tides only seven feet deep. This island was called
ment of his premises ; and hence he seldom erred in his by the Britons Inis Medicante, and also Landisfarne, from
conclusions. His arguments were instructive and con- the small rivulet of Lindi or Landia, which here runs into
vincing, whilst his integrity shrunk from any accommoda- the sea, and the Celtic word fahren, or recess ; but, on ac¬
tion of judicial opinion to existing interests or prejudices, count of its being the habitation of some of the first monks
His decisions are, most of them, faithfully and judicious- in this country, it afterwards obtained its present name of
]y reported by Chief-Justice Raymond, himself an emi- Holy Island. It measures from east to west about two
nent lawyer; and his integrity and uprightness as a judge miles and a quarter, but its breadth from north to south is
are celebrated by the author of the (No. 14), under scarcely a mile and a half. Holy Island, though really
the character ofVerus the magistrate. The following part of Northumberland, belongs to Durham ; and all civil
reports were published by him, in 1708, folio, wuth notes : disputes must be determined by the justices of that county.
“ A Report of divers Cases in Pleas of the Crown, adjudg- HoLY-Rood Day, a festival observed by the Roman Ca-
ed and determined in the reign of King Charles II. with tholics in memory of the exaltation of our Saviour’s cross,
directions for justices of the peace and others, collected See Cross and Exaltation.
by Sir John Keyling, knight, Lord Chief Justice of the HOLYWELL, a considerable town in the hundred of
Court of King’s Bench, from the original manuscript under Mold, of the county of Flint, in North Wales, 207 miles
his hand ; to which is added, the Report of three modern from London. It derives its name from a spring to which
cases, viz. Armstrong and Lisle, the King and Plumer, numerous pilgrimages were formerly made, and which is
the Queen and Mawgridge.” A pretended second edi- still visited by some devout Catholics, who pay their devo¬
tion appeared in 1739, but the title only was new. tions at the place once filled by the image of the patroness,
Holt (Saxon), a wood, by which the names of towns St Winifred. The spring yields a regular and prodigious
beginning or ending with holt, as Buck-/<o&, denote that supply of water; according to one experiment, a hundred
formerly there was plenty of wood in those places. tons in a minute. Doubts are entertained of the accuracy
Holt, lately a village, now a town, in Wiltshire, in the of this experiment; but it certainly turns a mill close to the
hundred of Bradford. It has grown up rapidly from open- well. In the vicinity of this town are valuable mines of
ing a mineral spring of slightly sulphureous water, which, lead, calamine, and copper ; and within it are appropriate
with the establishment of suitable accommodations, has establishments for rendering these minerals available to the
attracted many scrofulous patients. It is a chapelry with- purposes of subsequent manufactures. There are also cot¬
in the parish of Bradford. The inhabitants amounted in ton spinning-mills established upon the stream which issues
1811 to 1812, in 1821 to 2415, and in 1831 to 2519. from the well, between its source and its falling into the
Holt, a pleasant market-town in the county of Nor- Dee. The cotton twist spun at Holywell has a great re¬
folk, giving its name to the hundred in wdiich it is situat- putation from its singular evenness. The town is finely
ed. It is 121 miles from London, has a good market on situated, the air pure, and the market on Friday well sup-
Saturday, and an endowed grammar-school for thirty boys plied. There is a modern-built parish-church, and four
under the patronage of the fishmongers’ company of Lon- places of worship for Catholic and Protestant dissenters,
don, who present from it to a fellowship and scholarship at The population amounted in 1801 to 5567, in 1811 to
Sydney College, Cambridge. The inhabitants amounted 6394, in 1821 to 8309, and in 1831 to 8969. Long. 3. 13.
in 1801 to 1004, in 1811 to 1037, in 1821 to 1348, and W. Lat. 53. 16. N.
in 1831 to 1622. HOLZMINDEN, a city of the duchy of Brunswick, in
HOLY GHOST, one of the persons of the Holy Trini- Germany, the capital of the circle of the same name. It
ty. See Trinity. stands on the river Weser, and has on its banks excellent
HOLYHEAD, a sea-port town in the island of Angle- quays for landing and shipping goods. It is a well-built
sey, in North Wales. It is situated on a peninsula at the town, with a spacious market-place, two churches, a pub-
western side of the island, and of late some great improve- lie school moderately endowed, and a good library. It
ments have been made on the harbour, on one side of contains 420 houses, and 3600 inhabitants, who are em-
which is a light-house, on Salt Island, and another to the ployed in trading on the river, and in various manufac-
north-east, giving additional guidance to vessels in the tures, especially in iron and steel works, in distilleries,
night time. Ihere is a good market on Saturday, and an breweries, and tanneries. Long. 9. 9. 55. E. Lat. 51. 50.
ample supply of fish when the weather is favourable for 6. N.
taking them. The trade of the place depends chiefly on HOMBERG, William, a celebrated chemist, born at
uus being the greatest point of intercourse between Eng- Batavia on the 8th of January 1652, was the son of a Saxon
land and Ireland, and it has been greatly advanced by the gentleman employed in the service of the Dutch East In-
magnificent roads through North Wales, and the finishing of dia Company. His father intended him for the army, but
me suspension bridge over the Menai passage. The mails having afterwards settled at Amsterdam, William prose-
rom the capital and from the northern counties arrive cuted his studies at that place, whence he removed to
every morning at an early hour, and the letters and pas- lena, and afterwards to Leipsig, where he studied the
sengers are embarked immediately in steam-boats, which law. In 1674 he was received as advocate at Magdeburg,
reach Dublin, in favourable weather, in eight hours. The which had been indebted for a new species of celebrity'
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2132, in 1811 to 3005, to the physical experiments of Otto Guericke, and there
m LTm t0 anc^ *n to 4282. applied himself to the study of experimental philosophy.
HOLY Island, a small island situated on the coast of Some time afterwards he travelled into Italy, and at Pa-
ngland, ten miles south-east of Berwick, in Northumber- dua applied himself to the study of medicine, anatomy,
aim. Bede calls it a semi-island, being, as he observes, and botany. He afterwards studied at Bologna; and at
wice island and twice continent in one day; for at the Rome he learned optics, painting, sculpture, and music,
nowing of the tide it is encompassed by water, and at the He then travelled into France, England, and Holland ;
536 H O M
Homberg took the degree of doctor of physic at Wirtemberg ; visit-
11 ed Germany and the North; explored the mines of Saxony,
Home. Bohemia, Hungary, and Sweden ; and returned to France,
where he acquired the esteem of the learned. He was on
the point of returning into Germany, when Colbert being
informed of his merit, made him advantageous offers, which
induced him to fix his residence at Paris. But soon after¬
wards he lost his protector, and also incurred the odium of
returning into the bosom of the Roman Catholic church ;
and this double misfortune was the more sensibly felt
that he had never dreamed of securing for himself any in¬
dependent means of subsistence. Homberg, already well
known for his phosphorus, for a pneumatic machine of his
own invention more perfect than that of Guericke, for
his microscopes, for his discoveries in chemistry, and for
the number and variety of his curious observations, was
received into the Academy of Sciences in 1691, and had
committed to him the laboratory of that body, of which
he was one of the principal ornaments. The Duke of Or¬
leans, afterwards regent of the kingdom, at length made
him his chemist, settled upon him a pension, gave him a
superb laboratory, and in 1704 made him his first physi¬
cian. Homberg, having lived for thirty-three years in
the Catholic faith, died in 1715. His principal works are,
1. Maniere de faire le Phosphore brulant de Kunckel,
1692; 2. Diverses Experiences du Phosphore ; 3. Reflex¬
ions sur 1’experience des Larmes de Verre qui se brisent dans
le Vide; 4. Experiences sur la Germination des Plantes,
1693; 5. Essais de Chimie, 1702, 1705, 1709; 6. Obser¬
vations faites par le Miroir ardent, 1702; 7. Analyse du
Seufre commun, 1703; 8. Decouverte d’une liqueur qui
dissout le Verre, 1703 ; 9. Observations sur les Araignees,
1707 ; 10. Memoires touchant les Vegetations artificielles,
1710; 11. Maniere de copier sur le Verre colore les
Pierres gravees, 1712; 12. Observations sur une separa¬
tion del’Or d’avec 1'Argent, par la fonte, 1713 ; 13. Tracts
on different metallic vegetations, on the generation of
iron, and on the vitrification of gold. Homberg had oc¬
cupied himself much with metals, and was not far from
believing in the philosopher’s stone.
Homberg, a city of Hesse-Cassel, in the province of
Lower Hesse, the capital of a bailiwick of the same name.
It is walled, and stands on the river Efze, containing 354
houses, and 3050 inhabitants, who have considerable trade
in linen weaving, in tanning, and iron, both wrought and
cast.
HOMBURG, a market-town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Moselle, and arrondissement of Sarguemi-
nes. It contains 380 houses, and 1620 inhabitants.
HOME, Henry, Lord Kames, an eminent Scottish
lawyer, and author of many celebrated works on various
subjects, was descended of an ancient family, and born in
Berwickshire in the year 1696. In his early youth he was
lively, and eager in the acquisition of knowledge. He
never attended a public school, but was instructed in the
ancient and modern languages, as well as in several branches
of mathematics, and the arts necessarily connected with
that science, by Mr Wingate, a man of considerable parts
and learning, who spent many years as preceptor or pri¬
vate tutor to young Home.
After studying at the university of Edinburgh, the civil
law, and the municipal jurisprudence of his own country,
Mr Home early perceived that a knowledge of these alone
w as not sufficient to form an accomplished lawyer. An ac¬
quaintance with the forms and practical business of courts,
and especially of the supreme court, as a member of which
he was to seek for fame and emolument, he considered as es¬
sentially necessary to qualify him to become a finished bar-
i ister. He accordingly attended for some time the chamber
of a writer to the signet, where he had an opportunity of
.earning the styles of legal deeds, and the modes of con-
H O M
ducting different species of business. This wise step, in- jj01
dependently of his great genius and unwearied application, 'w-,,
procured him, after his admission to the bar, peculiar re¬
spect from the court, and proportional employment in his
profession of advocate. These qualifications, together with
the strength and vivacity of his natural abilities, soon ren¬
dered him an ornament of the Scottish bar; and, on the
2d day of February 1752, he was advanced to the bench
as one of the judges of the Court of Session, under the as¬
sumed title of Lord Kames.
Before this period, however, notwithstanding the un¬
avoidable labours of his profession, Mr Home had favoured
the world with several useful and ingenious works. In
the year 1728 he published Remarkable Decisions of the
Court of Session from 1716 to 1728, in one volume folio.
In 1732 appeared Essays upon several subjects in law, viz.
Jus tertii, JBeneficiwn cedendarum Actionum, Vinco Vin-
centem, and Prescription, in one volume 8vo. The first
produce of his genius excited not only the attention, but
the admiration of the judges, and of all the other members
of the College of Justice. This work was succeeded, in
the year 1741, by Decisions of the Court of Session from
its first institution to the year 1740, abridged and digested
under proper heads, in the form of a Dictionary, in two
volumes folio; a very laborious work, and of the greatest
utility to every practical lawyer. In 1747 appeared Es¬
says upon several subjects concerning British antiquities,
viz. 1. Introduction of the Feudal Law into Scotland; 2.
Constitution of Parliament; 3. Honour, Dignity; and, 4.
Succession or Descent, with an appendix upon hereditary
and indefeasible right, composed in 1745, and published
1747, one vol. 8vo. Though not in the order of time, we
shall continue the list of all our author’s writings on law,
before we proceed to his productions on other subjects. In
1757, he published the Statute Law of Scotland Abridged,
with historical notes, in one volume 8vo; a most useful
and laborious work. In the year 1759, he presented to
the public a new and very interesting work under the title
of Historical Law Tracts, in two volumes 8vo. In 1760,
he published, in one volume folio, the Principles of Equity;
a work which shows both the fertility of the author’s ge¬
nius and his indefatigable application. In 1766, he gave
to the public another volume in folio of Remarkable Deci¬
sions of the Court of Session from 1730 to 1752. In 1777,
appeared his Elucidations respecting the Common and
Statute Law of Scotland, in one volume 8vo. This book
contains many curious and interesting remarks upon some
intricate and dubious points which occur in the law of Scot¬
land. In 1780, he published a volume in folio of Select
Decisions of the Court of Session from 1752 to 1768.
But Lord Karnes’s mind was much inclined to metaphy¬
sical disquisitions. When a young man, he had corresponded
with Berkeley bishop of Cloyne, Dr Butler bishop of Dur¬
ham, Dr Samuel Clarke, and many other ingenious and
learned men both in Britain and Ireland. The year 1751
gave birth to the first fruits of his lordship’s metaphysical
studies, in an octavo volume, published under the title of
Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion.
It contained, in more explicit terms than perhaps any other
work of a religious theist then known in Scotland, a state¬
ment of the doctrine of philosophical necessity, than which
it is scarcely possible to conceive any more irrational and
unphilosophical, or more essentially adverse to the best in¬
terests of morality and religion. Lord Kames continued
an advocate of this doctrine until the day of his death; but
in a subsequent edition of the Essays, he exhibited a re¬
markable proof of his candour and liberality of sentiment, by
altering some expressions, which, contrary to his intention,
had given olfence. In 1761, he published an Introduction
to the Art of Thinking, in one volume 12mo. This small
book was originally intended for the instruction of his
H O M
H e. own family. His Elements of Criticism appeared in 1762,
✓ in three volumes 8vo. This valuable work was intended
to show that the art of criticism is founded on the prin¬
ciples of human nature. Before it was published, Rollin’s
book on the belles-lettres, a dull performance, from which
a student could derive little advantage, was generally re¬
commended ; but after the Elements of Criticism appeared,
the work of Rollin lost its hold of the public.
A further proof of the various pursuits of this active
mind was given in the year 1772, when his lordship pub¬
lished a work in one volume 8vo, under the title of The
Gentleman Farmer, being an attempt to improve Agricul¬
ture by subjecting it to the Test of Rational Principles.
In the year 1773, he favoured the world with Sketches of
the History of Man, in two vols. 4to. These sketches con¬
tain much useful information, and, like all his lordship’s
performances, are lively and entertaining. They were re¬
published in four vols. 8vo.
We now come to Lord Karnes’s last work, to which he
modestly gives the title of Loose Hints upon Education,
chiefly concerning the cultivation of the heart. It was pub¬
lished in the year 1781, in one volume 8vo, when the vene¬
rable author was in the eighty-fifth year of his age. Though
his lordship chose to call it Loose Hints, the intelligent
reader will perceive in this composition an uncommon ac¬
tivity of mind, at an age so far advanced beyond the usual
period of human life, and an earnest desire to form the
minds of youth to honour, virtue, industry, and a venera¬
tion of the Deity.
Besides the books which we have enumerated, Lord Karnes
published many temporary and fugitive pieces in different
periodical works. In the Essays Physical and Literary,
published by a society of gentlemen in Edinburgh, we find
compositions of his lordship on the Laws of Motion, on the
Advantages of Shallow Ploughing, and on Evaporation, all
exhibiting evident marks of original thinking.
Lord Karnes was as remarkable for public spirit as for
mental activity and great exertion. For a long tract of time
he had the principal management of all the societies and
boards for promoting the trade, fisheries, and manufactures
in Scotland ; and, as conducive to those ends, he was a stre¬
nuous advocate for making and repairing turnpike roads
throughout every part of the country. He was in some
measure the parent of what was called the Physical and
Literary Society, which was afterwards incorporated into
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. From what has been
said concerning the various productions of his genius, it is
obvious that there could be few idle moments in his pro¬
tracted life. His mind, either teeming with new ideas, or
pursuing active and laborious occupations, found incessant
employment. In his temper he was naturally warm, though
kind and affectionate. In the friendships he formed he
was ardent, zealous, and sincere. So far from being in¬
clined to irreligion, as some ignorant bigots insinuated, few
men possessed a more devout habit of thought. A constant
sense of the presence of the Deity, and a veneration for Pro¬
vidence, dwelt upon his mind. From this source arose that
propensity which appears in all his writings, of investigating
final causes, and tracing the wisdom of the Supreme Author
of nature. Lord Karnes died on the 27th of December 1782.
As he had no marked disease, but the debility necessarily
resulting from extreme old age, a few days before his death
he went to the Court of Session, addressed all the judges
separately, told them he was speedily to depart, and took
a solemn and an affectionate farewell. A full account of his
Life and Writings, including much of the Literary His¬
tory of Scotland, was published by the late Lord Wood-
houselee, in two vols. 4to, 1807.
HOME, John, a Scottish dramatic writer of great cele¬
brity, was born at Leith, on the 13th of September 1722.
His father, Mr Alexander Home, was town-clerk of that
VOL. XI.
H O M 537
place, and his mother was a daughter of Mr John Hay, a Home,
writer, or solicitor, in Edinburgh. He acquired the ele- N—-y'—'
mentary branches of his classical education under Mr Hugh
Millar, master of the grammar-school of Leith, and enter¬
ed the University of Edinburgh in 1735, where he soon
contracted an intimacy with William Robertson, William
Wilkie, Alexander Carlyle, Hugh Blair, John Blair, Sir
Gilbert Elliot, Sir John Dalrymple, and several others, af¬
terwards well known in the literary world. After having
attended the humanity class taught by Mr Kerr, one of
the best Latin scholars of the age; mathematics, taught
by the celebrated Maclaurin; logic, taught by Dr Steven¬
son, who contributed more than any other man in Scot¬
land to inspire the young men of that period with a taste
for good writing and rational investigation ; he proceeded
to the study of moral and natural philosophy, under Sir
John Pringle and Sir Robert Stewart, and then passed
through the usual routine of theological instruction. He
was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh as a preacher
of the gospel, on the 4th of April 1745.
Before he had enjoyed many opportunities of exercising
this peaceful function, Scotland became the scene of a ci¬
vil war ; and the ardour of his mind, imbued as it was with
a love of enterprise, and a boundless admiration of military
glory, prompted him, on the first news of the approach of
the rebel army, to join an armed association, formed by the
inhabitants of Edinburgh, for the defence of the city. On
the 9th of September 1745, he was enrolled in the College
Company of Volunteers, a corps which was dissolved with¬
in a week, when the city was taken possession of by the
Pretender’s troops. But Mr Home and a few other spirit¬
ed young men again formed themselves into a more select
and efficient company, in the month of November, and sub¬
sequently obtained permission from General Hawley to
serve in the field. Of this company Dr William M'Ghie
was chosen captain, and Mr Home lieutenant. He had the
command of the company on the 17th of January 1746,
at the battle of Falkirk, where, having received no orders
to act, he was an indignant witness of the disgraceful rout
of the royal forces, which had fought so well at Dettingen
and Fontenoy; and having been one of the last to retreat,
he was taken prisoner, with five of his company. They
were sent to the Castle of Doun, in Perthshire, on the
25th of January ; but Mr Home, with some of his fellow
prisoners, escaped on the 31st, by twisting their blankets
into ropes, and dropping from the battlements, a height of
seventy feet. At this time Mr Home was not less remark¬
able for the elegance and symmetry of his person, than for
his engaging and prepossessing address. His appearance
bespoke great vivacity, activity, and energy ; his conver¬
sation was not merely cheerful, but uncommonly sprightly
and animated ; and the unceasing kindness which beamed
from his countenance, and marked every action of his life,
was such as to render him an universal favourite.
In the course of the year 1746, after the death of Mr
Robert Blair, minister of Athelstaneford, and author of the
well-known poem entitled The Grave, Mr Home obtained
the presentation to the living, by the interest of Alexander
Home of Eccles, afterwards solicitor-general. He was or¬
dained to the charge of the parish in February 1747, and
proved very acceptable to the parishioners^ During a con¬
siderable part of his incumbency, he gave the use of his
manse to Mr Hepburn of Keith, a gentleman who had been
engaged in both the rebellions in 1715 and 1745, and whose
insinuating manners and enticing conversation in some mea¬
sure reconciled Mr Home to the character of the Jacobites.
He boarded himself in the house of a grazier or butcher
in the village, at the moderate rate of L. 12 a year; but as
he passed a great part of his time amongst his numerous
friends in the neighbourhood, it is believed that his host
was not inadequately remunerated. Mr Home was fre-
3 Y
538
H O M E.
Home, quently absent from his lodgings from Monday morning
-’’'"V''*'' till Saturday night, and though he wrote a considerable
number of discourses for the pulpit, he seldom left himself
time to finish any one of them. After writing about two
thirds of a sermon and committing it to memory, he gene¬
rally trusted for the remainder to the moment of delivery.
These unpremeditated perorations, occasionally eloquent,
were delivered with more than his usual vehemence of ac¬
tion, and are said to have been not a little admired by his
rustic audience.
Amongst the most intimate friends of Mr Home at this
time were Lord Elibank, then residing at BallancriefF, Dr
Robertson, then minister of Gladsmuir, Dr Carlyle of In-
veresk, and Mr George Logan of Ormiston, a young clergy¬
man of great promise, who died soon after having been in¬
duced, by the solicitation of his ablest contemporaries,
to undertake the refutation of David Hume’s sceptical
writings.
From his earliest years Mr Home had been a passionate
admirer of the tragic muse, and about the time of his es¬
tablishment in the church it was known to his familiar
friends that he was engaged in the composition of a tra¬
gedy founded on the account of the death of Agis, as
given in Plutarch’s Lives. The play, when completed,
was highly approved by his friends Blair, Carlyle, and
George Logan.
In 1749, he went with this play to London, having ob¬
tained strong recommendations to the attention of several
leaders of the republic of letters; but his reception was
very discouraging, except amongst his own countrymen.
Some objected to the bloodiness of the catastrophe, and to
the irregular sequence of the scenes; others to the Scoti-
cisms or vulgarisms of the style. Lord Lyttleton was then
reputed the chief arbiter of taste ; but no importunity could
prevail upon him to read the play, because he did not like
to express disapprobation, and if he happened to be pleased,
he did not wish to have the trouble of supporting it, as he
had lately found almost insuperable difficulty in carrying
through one of Thomson’s tragedies which he had warmly
patronised. One Englishman of some note remarked, that
the author had formed himself too much on Thomson’s Sea¬
sons and Lee’s Plays. “ I could not have been more sur¬
prised,” said Mr Home to a correspondent, “ if he had told
me that I had formed myself upon Euclid’s Elements and
Maclaurin’s Fluxions'' He had not a very exalted opi¬
nion of the English intellect. “ I sometimes hearken to
the coffee-house conversations upon poetry and politics,
where there are such fellows authors, whose wigs are worth
L.3 sterling, that it is ready to make a man of moderate pa¬
tience curse his better angel from his side, and fall to repro¬
bation'' When Garrick refused to bring the play upon
the stage, the author, after giving vent to his mortified feel¬
ings in an address to the shade of Shakspeare, composed
in Westminster Abbey, returned to Scotland, and resumed
the labours of his pastoral office, not without devoting a
large share of his time to the society of his literary ac¬
quaintance, and to the pursuit of his favourite study.
He continued assiduously to cultivate the friendship of
Mr Hepburn, from whose sister-in-law, Mrs Janet Denoon,
he first heard the old song of Gil Morrice. This ballad
furnished the hint on which he constructed the tragedy
of Douglas, in the composition of which he amused him¬
self occasionally the next five years, submitting the suc¬
cessive scenes to the revision of a few friends. His own
handwriting was scarcely legible, and the play was repeat¬
edly transcribed by Dr Carlyle. From this circumstance,
and from the warm interest which that gentleman took in
the success of the piece, he was commonly supposed to
have had a principal share in the composition. Sir Gil¬
bert Elliot s criticisms were acknowledged to be particu¬
larly valuable, and he also was not unfrequently reputed
the author. In February 1755, Mr Home set out for Lon- pi
don on horseback, with his tragedy in one pocket, and v—
some clean linen in the other; and was accompanied into
Northumberland by a cavalcade of clerical friends, two of
whom, Carlyle and Cupples, proceeded with him a stage or
two beyond Durham. This play, as well as Agis, was re¬
jected by Garrick, not so much, perhaps, owing to any de¬
fect in his own taste, as because it did not contain much
of that pomp and circumstance which seemed to be the
chief attractions of the tragedies which were at this time
favourites with the public.
Whilst Mr Home was engaged in the composition of this
play, he had not been inattentive to other affairs more
nearly connected with the clerical profession. In 1752 he
took an active part in the deliberations of the General As¬
sembly, when Mr Gillespie was deposed. The year be¬
fore, he had made the motion to suspend Mr Adams of
Falkirk, for disobeying an order of the General Assembly,
and was seconded by Dr Robertson, the first time either
had spoken in that house. They were not members next
year, but both spoke at the bar with great effect. About
this time Mr Home’s support was strongly solicited by Dr
Cuming, the leader of what was then called the moderate
party; but he resolved to act an independent part. He
had become a great favourite of Lord Milton, nephew of
the famous Andrew Fletcher of Salton ; and, as his lord-
ship managed the political affairs of Scotland, under the
direction of Archibald duke of Argyll, he took an oppor¬
tunity of introducing Mr Home to his grace, who was
much delighted with his cheerful and fascinating manners,
and continued to befriend him ever afterwards. Mr Home
paid a visit to the duke at Inverary, in October 1756, and
was most kindly received. At this time he was closely
connected in friendship with the members of the Select
Society, established at Edinburgh in 1754.
It was resolved at last, by the friends of the author, in
December 1756, to have Douglas represented on the Edin¬
burgh stage; and the result far exceeded their most san¬
guine expectations. Digges performed Young Norval,
and Lady Randolph was personated by Mrs Ward. The
theatre was crowded night after night, and the applause of
the audience was tumultuous. Not only all the literati at¬
tended, but most of the judges and other grave characters,
whose presence in the theatre excited great surprise and
not a little scandal. Before this time the inhabitants of
Edinburgh had not been much accustomed to dramatic en¬
tertainments, as the leaders of the church had generally
had sufficient influence to induce the civil power to sup¬
press them. In the year 1727, the Presbytery of Edin¬
burgh issued an Admonition against the Stqge; and, in
1733, in consequence of a sermon on the Use and Abuse
of Diversions, by Mr George Anderson, a minister of Edin¬
burgh, various pamphlets were published, particularly one
by Mr Anderson himself, in which he denounced the
stage as an unchristian diversion, and repeated all the ar¬
guments against it produced by Prynne, Filmer, Baxter,
and Collier. Following the example of their predecessors,
this body issued a similar admonition and exhortation to all
within their bounds, on the 5th of January 1757, and not
only suspended Mr White, minister of Libberton, for hav¬
ing been present at the performance of Douglas, but wrote
letters to the presbyteries of Haddington, Dalkeith, Ayr,
Chirnside, and Dunse, informing against those of their
members who had been guilty of the same indecorum.
Some of the clergymen accused were allowed to escape
with a gentle rebuke ; but Dr Carlyle was libelled, as it is
called, by his presbytery, at the instigation, as he believed,
of an eminent lawyer, then lord advocate, whose conduct
on that occasion was afterwards sufficiently avenged by
the ridicule heaped upon him in an humorous political sa¬
tire, by Dr Adam Ferguson, entitled The History of Sister
HOME.
539
ie. Peg. Several abusive pamphlets against the play and its
—^ supporters were known to proceed from the minions of
this gentleman, who was then rising to a degree of conse¬
quence which soon supplanted the declining influence of
Lord Milton.1
After the play had been so amazingly successful in Edin¬
burgh, it was eagerly admitted on the stage of Coven t-
Garden early in 1757 ; but Garrick still excluded it from
Drury-Lane. The triumph of the author was, however, in
no small degree abated by the prosecution of his friends in
the church courts, and by his own threatened deposition.
The subject was brought before the General Assembly by
Dr Carlyle in the form of an appeal from a sentence of the
Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale ; and a decision favour¬
able to the appellant was carried by a great majority of
117 to 37. Ihe result of this vote checked the introduc¬
tion of a very severe Overture, which was intended to have
been enacted into a law ; and next day another motion was
substituted, so lenient as to be seconded by Mr Dempster
of Dunnichen, the friend of Home and Carlyle, in conse¬
quence of which the assembly passed a declaratory law,
prohibiting the clergy from attending the theatre, but not
discharging them from writing plays. Immediately after¬
wards, Mr Home thought it expedient to resign his charge ;
and having preached a most pathetic sermon, which deep¬
ly affected his congregation, he took leave of them in the
beginning of June 1757, without having incurred any ec¬
clesiastical censure. He then retired for three months to
private lodgings at Braid, near Edinburgh, where he gave
the finishing hand to the play of Agis.
From the moment when Mr Home resigned his living,
the prospects of his worldly prosperity began to brighten.
The people of England, ever alive to sentiments of com¬
passion, regarded him as a victim to the rigour of Presby¬
terian bigotry; and though their critics decried the merits
of Douglas, as being a faulty and languid composition, not
sufficiently relieved by either pathos or elegance of expres¬
sion, they admitted that it exhibited unquestionable indi¬
cations of true poetical genius, and a power of awakening
the most elevated as well as the most tender emotions.
Men of the highest rank and influence expected to gain
popularity by patronising the author, who, after being
known to possess the good graces of the Dukes of Cum¬
berland and Argyll, was warmly recommended by his
friend, Sir Gilbert Elliot, to the Earl of Bute, who then
superintended the education of the Prince of Wales, after¬
wards George III. The Princess Dowager of Wales grant¬
ed him a pension of L.100 a year, an allowance equal to
the value of the living which he had resigned ; and assu¬
rances were given him of a more ample provision at no dis¬
tant period.
In one respect, the partiality of his literary friends, and
the favour of the great, had an injurious effect on his fu¬
ture fame, not only by producing an impression that he
had gained by flattering assiduities what merit alone was
seldom known to procure, but by exciting expectations in
the minds of numbers that his more mature exertions would
far surpass the earliest specimen of his powers as a drama¬
tic writer. The warm encomiums of David Hume were
naturally ascribed to the partiality of friendship; but the
opinion expressed by Gray the poet, that the tragedy of
Douglas had “ retrieved the true language of the stage,
lost for three hundred years,” seemed to imply a preference
of the muse of Home even to that of Shakspeare himself.
The objections of Garrick to the tragedy of Agis were no
longer urged; and though this was in fact the earliest ef¬
fort of an unpractised writer, it appeared under the disad¬
vantage of* being considered as a work of higher preten¬
sions than that which had already been so well received by
the public. It is also to be presumed, that though in its
finished state it retained many lofty sentiments of freedom
and patriotism, yet, as the author began to breathe the at¬
mosphere of a court, he was tempted to soften some of his
boldest images, so that the piece may have lost in spirit
more than it gained in polish. It was brought out at
Drury-Lane in 1758, and, partly owing to the admirable
acting of Garrick in the character of Lysander, had a suc¬
cessful run of nine nights. The author cleared several
hundred pounds, but the anticipations of the public were
not fulfilled. “ I cry,” said Gray, “ to think it should
have been by the author of Douglas. Why, it is all mo¬
dern Greek. The story is an antique statue, painted white
and red, frizzed and dressed in a negligee made by a York¬
shire mantua-maker.”
In 1759, the Siege of Aquileia was first performed at
Drury-Lane, but was by no means so successful as Gar¬
rick had expected. Garrick and Home were now on the
most intimate footing; and as Home listened wdth much
deference to the criticisms of this great actor, and generally
followed his advice, the latter, on the other hand, courted
the good graces of Home, by consulting him in his diffi¬
culties, and soliciting him to act as his friend, or second,
in certain quarrels, which threatened to terminate in duels.
Early in 1760, Mr Home’s first three plays were publish¬
ed in one volume, which was dedicated to the Prince of
Wales.
After the accession of the prince to the throne, the Earl
of Bute became prime minister; and from this period Mr
Home for many years lived constantly with his lordship,
at least from October to May, and was well known to
possess the first place in his confidence and favour. Mr
Home was always most active in promoting the interest
of those who called themselves his friends, and conferred
the most valuable obligations upon many individuals, who
Home.
The following are some of the most remarkable pamphlets published on this occasion :_1. Admonition and Exhortation of the
t resbytery of Edinburgh, g. Witherspoon’s Serious Enquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Stage. 3. The Immorality of
cage 1 lays in general, and of the Tragedy called Douglas in particular, briefly illustrated. 4. The Usefulness of the Edinburgh
Stage seriously considered. 5. The Tragedy of Douglas analysed. 6. A Letter to Mr David Hume on the Tragedy of Douglas.
7; An -Apology for the Writers against the Tragedy of Douglas, with Itemarks on that play. 8. The Deposition, or Fatal Miscar-
nage, a tragedy. 9. Douglas, a Tragedy, weighed in the balances and found wanting. 10. The First Night’s Audience, an excel-
cnt new ballad. 11. The Stage or the Pulpit, two parts. 12. The Apostle to the Theatre his Garland. 13. The Finishing Stroke,
or JNothing, a ballad. 14. The Infernal Council, an excellent new ballad. 15. A Song or a Sermon, a new ballad, Saturday, 29th
• anuary 1757. 16. The Admonition, an execrable new ballad. 17. Advice to the Writers in Defence of Douglas. 18. An Epi-
°gue to the Tragedy of Douglas, spoke by the Author. 19. An Argument to prove that the Tragedy of Douglas ought to be Burnt
7 the Hands of the Hangman [ironical, by Dr Carlyle] 20. The Moderator, Nos. 1 and 2. 21. Votes of the Presbytery of Edin-
fth ^ecfm^)er 1756. 22. A Letter to the Reverend the Moderator, &c. of the Presbytery of Haddington. 23. A Letter
0 the Author of the Ecclesiastical Characteristics. 24. The Morality of Stage Plays seriously considered [by Dr Ferguson]. 25.
ome serious Remarks on a Pamphlet, entitled the Morality of Stage Plays seriously Considered [by the Reverend Mr Harper,, an
piscopalian clergyman]. 26. The Players’ Scourge. 27. A Letter to the Author of the Ecclesiastical Characteristics. 28. A Se¬
cond Letter to the same. 29. Unto the Right Ethereal the Siplers, the Petition of Poor Alexander Bonum Magnum. Most of
ese are unfavourable to the play (some of them written by Mr Maclaurin, afterwards Lord Dreghorn); others contain very inde¬
corous strictures on the conduct of Drs Cuming, Walker, and Webster, who were active in discouraging the attendance on the theatre,
and in prosecuting offending brethren.
540 HO
Home, were more forward to solicit his services than to testify
their gratitude. But it is well known that he never teased
his patron with applications in his own behalf; and it is
believed that he might have been overlooked altogether,
if Lord Bute had not been prompted by another friend
to bestow upon him some honourable and lucrative ap¬
pointment. A pension of L.300 a year was granted to
him in July 1762, and another of equal amount was at
the same time conferred on Dr Johnson. In the course
of the following year, the place of Conservator of Scots
Privileges at Campvere was bestowed upon him, the value
of which appointment was also L.300 a year; and from
this period his name appears annually in the list of mem¬
bers of the General Assembly, as elder for the church of
Campvere, under the title of Lord Conservator. He re¬
gularly attended the meetings of the assembly, and took
a lively interest in the proceedings. He had little turn
for business, but he occasionally spoke with much energy
and effect. He was ambitious to have a seat in the House
of Commons, and repeatedly signified his wishes, which
at one period might have been easily fulfilled, if he had
not been dissuaded by Sir Gilbert Elliot and Sir William
Pulteney, not only because they knew that he would be
considered as disqualified, by having been in orders, but
because they were convinced that, even if that objection
were not started, he would make no great figure as a de¬
bater. When in London he lived on terms of great cor¬
diality with Armstrong, Smollett, Dr Pitcairn, Dr William
Hunter, Mr Wedderburn, afterwards chancellor, and the
Honourable Charles Townshend. He had a particular
pleasure in fostering rising merit. In the year 1759, he
stimulated James Macpherson to collect what were called
the Poems of Ossian; and he afterwards accompanied
him on one of his tours, partly with the hope of sharing
in the pleasure of discovering the poetical remains of dis¬
tant ages, but chiefly with the view of searching for ma¬
terials which might throw light on the history of the
rebellion in 1745.
In 1769, his tragedy of the Fatal Discovery, the fable
of which is borrowed from one of the fragments ascribed
to Ossian, was performed at Drury-Lane, with indifferent
success. At this time the prejudice against Scotchmen
was so strong in London that Garrick apprehended a to¬
tal failure of the play if the author were known. At his
suggestion, therefore, the title was altered from Rivine to
the Fatal Discovery ; and for some nights the represen¬
tation was greeted with loud applause, the play being as¬
cribed either to Gray or to Smith. Mr Home’s love of
praise, however, betrayed the secret, and from that mo¬
ment the audience sensibly diminished every night. In
February 1773, Alonzo was brought out, and was well re¬
ceived. This play is recommended by the simplicity of
the plot, the harmony of the versification, and the dignity
of the sentiments; but some of the incidents are impro¬
bable, the language occasionally too mean, the apostro¬
phes too frequent, and it has more eloquent declamation
than natural feeling, more graceful description than pa¬
thetic effect. The acting of Mrs Barry affected the feel¬
ings of the audience so powerfully as to disarm the seve¬
rity of criticism. To this tragedy, as well as the Fatal
Discovery, Garrick furnished an epilogue. The theatri¬
cal career of Mr Home was closed with the play of Al¬
fred, which was represented at Drury-Lane in January
17/8. It was listened to the first evening; but a less
crowded house was never known than on the second, and
after the third performance the author withdrew it.
For many years Mr Home lived chiefly in London. In
!ie 0^ta‘n6d from Sir David Kinloch a long lease of
, pi1,?’^ *arm In East Lothian, on which he built a house.
In 1770 he married Miss Home (daughter of Mr Home,
minister of Fogo, formerly of Polwarth), a lady of very
M E.
delicate constitution, who, however, survived him several Ho
years.
In 1778, when the Duke of Buccleuch raised the regi¬
ment of South Fencibles, Mr Home’s military ardour in¬
duced him to accept a commission as lieutenant, the same
rank which he had held more than thirty years before •
and he gave occasion to some sneers from his graver
brethren, by sitting in the General Assembly in his scar¬
let regimentals. After being nearly two years an officer
he was disabled for military service by a fall from his
horse, which, though it did not permanently affect his
health, continued through life to impair the vigour of his
faculties, and to diminish the flow of his spirits. About
this time he left Kilduff, and took up his residence in
Edinburgh for the remainder of his life. Till within five
years of his death, he was accustomed to pay an annual
visit to London ; and such was the force of habit, that his
friends experienced great difficulty in prevailing with him
to desist from these expensive and unnecessary journeys.
In 1798 an edition of his plays was published, in two
volumes, now rarely to be procured.
His last work, the History of the Rebellion in 1745, was
published at London in 1802, in a quarto volume. It had
long been understood to be in a state of perfect prepara¬
tion, but it was not expected to appear in the author’s
lifetime, as there was reason to apprehend that much of
the matter which it contained would prove offensive to
some distinguished individuals, whose hostility it was not
desirable to encounter. In the first sketches of it, the
author is said to have ardently applauded the disinterest¬
ed motives and gallant conduct of the adherents of the
house of Stuart, to whom he had been opposed in the
field; and whilst he did ample justice to their devoted at¬
tachment and heroic efforts, he was not sparing of the
indignation due to the barbarities perpetrated by the per-
vailing party after the victory of Culloden. Some in¬
fluence, however, was exerted to hasten the publication,
and the author had not the courage to resist the tempta¬
tion to suppress and qualify many of his first statements.
As a composition, it was certainly not improved by what
were intended as the finishing emendations ; but, if its in¬
terest has been weakened, its impartiality has probably
been more effectually secured than if it had retained its
original form; and, though the book gave much less satis¬
faction than if it had not been so anxiously expected, its
merit has certainly been unduly depreciated. The style,
indeed, is negligent, and the reflections not profound; but
if the comments of the author are few and obvious, the de¬
tail is generally so full as to enable the reader to draw just
conclusions ; the battles are graphically described, and, as
far as the narrative extends, it is entitled to unreserved
credit. Perhaps the chief cause why the work was never
highly applauded has been, that it is not written so as to
gratify the prejudices either of one party or another.
Mr Home died at Merchiston, in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, on the 5th of September 1808, when he had
nearly completed his eighty-sixth year. In private life no
man was ever more entirely beloved. His affections were
equally warm and stedfast; and much as he had moved in
the highest circles, not without pluming himself sufficient¬
ly on his intimacy with the great, he never forsook the in¬
terest of his friends in humbler stations, or betrayed any
expectation of deference from those who were dependent
on his good offices. His temper was placid, and though
there were occasions on which he manifested some warmth
of feeling, he was neither apt to resent injuries nor to in¬
flict pain. He was never known to grudge any exertion
which tended to benefit or gratify his friends; and long
after the activity of his mind had begun to languish, he
continued as eager as ever to confer unsolicited favours,
and to use all the influence which he possessed to reward
H O M
Hch neglected merit. He was alleged to be rather apt to flat-
’ | ter ; but the fact was, that he appeared never to discover
Ho1 '• any defects in the character of those whom he esteemed ;
^ and, with all the blindness of a lover to the objects of a first
attachment, the overflowing benevolence of his heart dis¬
posed him to invest his early friends with every perfection
of which human nature is susceptible, and to spread the
veil of charity over blemishes and offences. If he had not
been early enticed into the vortex of fashion and politics,
he might have attained higher eminence as an author ; but,
in spite of all the temptations of vanity, and the petu¬
lant and persevering attacks of envy, he could scarcely,
under any circumstances, have proved more amiable as a
man. (p. p. p.)
Home, Sir Everard, an eminent surgeon, was born about
the year 1755. He was of Scottish extraction, and his con¬
nection with the Hunters brought him into notice at an early
period of life. At one time he was held in high estimation
as a surgical practitioner, and obtained the more substan¬
tial advantage of an extensive practice. He had the good
fortune to be appointed one of the surgeons to St George's
Hospital; and this circumstance, added to the publication
of various works which attained a considerable share of ce¬
lebrity, contributed to extend his reputation, the advan¬
tages of which he lived nearly half a century to enjoy. In
1813 he was created a baronet, and was also appointed ser-
jeant-surgeon to the king. For several years before his
death, which took place on the 31st of August 1832, in the
seventy-seventh year of his age, Sir Everard Home had re¬
tired from practice, and sought in private life the repose
which his increasing age and infirmities required. Sir Eve¬
rard wTas the author of Practical Observations on Stricture,
of Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, and of various papers
in the Philosophical Transactions ; but none of his produc¬
tions discovers much depth of research, or any great origi¬
nality of speculation. (a.)
HOMER, the greatest, and perhaps also the least known,
of all poets. After so many ages, all the details of his life
are still an object of doubt, and even his existence is a pro¬
blem. Some represent him as a native of Egypt, the son
of Damasgoras and Echras, whilst his nurse, a daughter of
Horus, priest of Isis, was a prophetess ; according to these
persons, he played in his cradle with nine turtle doves, and
the first accents of his voice resembled the warbling of nine
different kinds of birds. Others give him an origin still
more illustrious, and seek to ennoble the birth of the poet
on whom the far higher distinction of genius had conferred
immortality. But whilst his admirers compose for him
these splendid genealogies, and even make him descended
in the right line from Apollo himself, his detractors see in
him only a wretched mendicant, who begged from town to
town; a plagiary, who strolled about through the world in
quest of the authors who had, before his time, written on
the war of Troy; a man of slender parts, easily vanquished
in the poetical contest with Hesiod, and other poets. The
most celebrated and the least ridiculous of these pretended
histories is that which, notwithstanding the doubts and con¬
jectures of several learned men, continues to be attributed
to Herodotus ; probably because there is something piquant
in the notion that the father of history had written the life
of the father of poetry. But, however this may be, since
Strabo has not disdained to cite as an authority this histo¬
rical romance, nor the learned Larcher to translate it, we
conceive it necessary to exhibit a rapid analysis of its con¬
tents.
H O M 541
A certain Menalippus, by birth an Athenian, but settled Homer,
at Cumae in Ionia, having married the daughter of a citi-
zen called Homyres, had by her a daughter named Cri-
theis, who after the death of her parents passed under the
guardianship of Cleonax, the friend of her father. This
Cleonax abused the trust which had been reposed in him,
and Critheis became pregnant by her guardian. But the
latter, being anxious to conceal the condition of his ward,
sent her to Smyrna, where she gave birth to Homer, whom
she called Melesigenes (from the river Meles, on the banks
of which he was born), and where also she was reduced to the
necessity of spinning wool for subsistence. After this mis¬
fortune, Phemius, who taught literature and music with
credit at Smyrna, having frequent occasion to see Critheis,
who resided near him, conceived a passion for the lady,
married her, and adopted her child. Homer, having be¬
come an orphan by the death of Phemius, succeeded to
the fortune and the school of his adoptive father, and in the
capacity of teacher soon acquired great reputation. But
a shipmaster called Mentes, a lover of learning and poetry,
having become acquainted with Homer, persuaded the poet
to abandon the school at Smyrna, and to accompany him
in his voyages. Homer, who already meditated the Iliad,
and wished to acquire personally the knowledge of different
countries, particularly those which he might have occasion
to describe, eagerly embraced the opportunity thus offered ;
and, during several voyages, he failed not to treasure up
in his mind whatever he deemed worthy of being remem¬
bered. After having visited Italy and Spain, he landed on
the island of Ithaca, where he learned many particulars re¬
specting Ulysses ; he also visited Egypt, whence he brought
into Greece the names of the gods of that country, with the
chief ceremonies of their worship; and having finished his
travels, he returned to Smyrna, and there completed his
Iliad. It was his intention to remain in that place; but
public favour having abandoned him, he left the ungrate¬
ful country, and wandered through several cities in Asia
Minor, reciting his verses, and experiencing in turn good
and evil fortune. At length he established himself at Chios,
where he opened a school, acquired some property, married,
became the father of two daughters, and was at last struck
with blindness. It was in this retreat that he composed the
Odyssey ; but being desirous to pass into Greece, that he
might display his genius upon a larger theatre, he died on
his passage, at los, one of the Sporades, the inhabitants of
which raised on the sea-shore a tomb to his memory.
If in all this narrative there be little that is true, it con¬
tains nothing which shocks in the recital; and if, in fact, it
be merely a romance, it has at least a certain degree of veri¬
similitude. Of all the cities which disputed the honour of
having given birth to Homer,1 Smyrna and Chios are those
which supported their pretensions by proofs apparently the
most plausible. The citizens of Chios boasted of possess¬
ing, in the family of the Homeridoe? the descendants of
this illustrious poet, in honour of whom they had struck
a medal, representing Homer, and the river Meles, on the
banks of which he is said to have been born. But, amidst
so many different opinions, the most probable seems to be
that Homer first saw the light near Smyrna; that his life
was wandering, like that of the poets of his time; that, in
the course of his travels, he visited the Greek cities, com¬
posing hymns for the festivals of the gods, and reciting his
poems in the religious and public assemblies ; that he lost
his sight, a deprivation which he felt acutely, and deplored
with mournful pathos; and that he lived for some time at
1 Varro reckons seven of them, in a distich which Aulus Gellius (lib. iii. c. 2) has preserved.
Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos, Argos, Athenae,
Orbis de patria certat, Homere, tua.
* Leo Allatius distinguishes the Homeridce from the Homeristce, a kind of itinerant singers, or minstrels, who recited in public the
verses of'Homer ; but this is a vain dispute of words, and Allatius is here evidently influenced by a desire to ensure to Chios, where he
himself was born, the preference over the other cities of Greece which disputed the honour of having given birth to the great poet.
542
HOMER.
Hdmer. Chios, and died, at an advanced age, in the smalldsland of
''-'-v-w' los. But if he was reduced to indigence, and sometimes
compelled to beg an asylum during his life, the Smyrneans,
Ptolemy Philopator, and others, consecrated temples to him
after his death, and the Argives paid him divine honours.
I he epoch in which this great poet was born is not less
obscure than the history of his life. If we may believe
some Greek writers, he was contemporary with the siege
of Troy, and had actually witnessed the events which he
celebrated in song. But others place his birth at an epoch
nearer to ours by eighty, a hundred, and even upwards of
three hundred years. Velleius Paterculus, who wrote to¬
wards the close of the reign of Tiberius, or about the year
37 of our era, affirms that nine hundred and fifty years had
elapsed between the age of Homer and his own time. Pliny
and Juvenal, who flourished under Vespasian and Domi-
tian, reckon nearly a thousand years; and Solinus, with
some degree of confidence, assigns the epoch of the death
of Homer by fixing it in the seventy-second year after the
capture and destruction of Troy. According to the Arun-
delian marbles, he flourished in the tenth century before
Christ, whilst other authorities assign the eighth as the pe¬
riod to which he belonged. In this conflict, or rather chaos,
of different opinions, the learned Larcher, whose judgment
is an authority in matters of chronology, gives a calcula¬
tion from which it follows that Homer must have been born
884 years before our era ; and this epoch appears more re-
concileable with the details of the brilliant and sumptuous
arts of a refined luxury, which he sometimes retraces, and
which appear but little compatible with the rudeness of an
age approximating more closely to the time of the Trojan
war. The age of Homer indeed is pretty clearly indicat¬
ed by the following considerations: 1. At the funeral of
Patroclus, Achilles celebrates almost all the games which
were subsequently in use at Olympia in the most refined
period of Greece. 2. The arts of casting in bas-relief, and
of engraving on metals, had already been invented, as is
proved, amongst other things, by the shield of Achilles;
but neither Homer nor Moses makes any mention of paint-
ing. 3. The delicious gardens of Alcinous, the magnifi¬
cence of his palace, and the sumptuousness of his table,
prove that the Greeks had already learned to admire lux¬
ury and splendour. 4. The Phoenicians had already in¬
troduced ivory, purple, and incense from Arabia (as in the
description of the grotto of Venus in the Odyssey), byssus
or fine linen (perhaps cotton), and rich robes. 5. The
carriage in which Priam goes to seek Achilles is made of
cedar ; and the grotto of Calypso is fragrant with that odo¬
riferous wood. 6. The voluptuous baths of Circe indicate
a great adv ancement in luxury. 7. The young slaves of
the suitors are described as beautiful, graceful^ and fair¬
haired, such precisely as the fastidiousness of modern times
requires as servants. 8. Men dress their hair as carefully as
women ; a habit with which Hector and Diomede reproach
Paris. 9. The Homeric heroes eat nothing but roast meat,
the most simple mode of cookery, demanding only a bra-
sier ; and this custom continued in sacrifices. Boiled meat
came into use afterwards. 10. Lastly, Homer seems to
have lived in an age when the strict heroic or feudal right
had fallen into disuse in Greece, and popular liberty had
begun to appear; for his heroes contract marriages with
oi eign women, bastards succeed to their fathers’ thrones,
and many other circumstances unite to show that the heroic
or feudal right had expired. From all these authorities,
t we mchne to the opinion of those who place the age
of Homer long subsequent to that of the Trojan war,
though probably not so late as the reign of Numa, with
whom he is thought by some to have been contemporary.
But the admitted difficulty, or rather impossibility, of ar¬
riving at any thing positive in this respect, induced several
writers to fly to the opposite extreme; and whilst some
assigned bases to the Homeric chronology which they con- w
sidered as certain, others called in question the very exist-
ence of Homer himself, and supported their opinion with ^
what they deemed incontestable authorities and unanswer¬
able reasonings. The boldest and most singular of these
paradoxes is that of Jacob Bryant, who does not, it is true
deny the existence of Homer, but who makes him a native
of Thebes in Egypt. In the view of this learned person,
Homer was a superstitious poet, who, after having grown
old on the banks of the Nile, purloined the poems of the
ingenious Phantasm deposited amongst the archives of
the temple of Isis. According to him, the events of the
Iliad and Odyssey were, in the original, mere reminiscen¬
ces of Egyptian annals ; but the adroit plagiary, it seems
transported the scene into the Troad, and disguised under
Greek names the gods and heroes of the monarchy of the
Pharaohs. Nor was this a solitary extravagance. A learn¬
ed Dutchman, Crcesius, discovered, in the Odyssey, the
history of the Israelites under the patriarchs, and detected
the capture of Jericho in the Iliad ; whilst another went
still further, and gravely maintained that Homer and He¬
siod were natives of Belgium. But the hypothesis of
Wolf is one of a far higher order; and the weight of such
a name must always command a serious consideration of
those opinions to which its sanction is deliberately attached.
This distinguished critic and scholar, to whom we are in¬
debted for the best edition of Homer which has yet appear¬
ed, attempts, in his Prolegomena ad HomeTum, to prove
that the author of the Iliad and Odyssey is an imaginary
being; in Homer he sees a rhapsodist, and nothing more,
a minstrel who laid the foundations of that fabric which his
successors from age to age slowly raised until it obtained
the elevation, symmetry, and unity which we now admire
in its general structure. This sceptical hypothesis had
not the merit of novelty; but it made little or no impres¬
sion upon the learned until it borrowed from the talent and
erudition of Wolf all the authority necessary to excite
general attention, and to call for rigorous examination.
Two Frenchmen, of no great distinction, Hedelin and
Perrault, are supposed to have led the way in question¬
ing the personal existence of Homer as the author of the
Iliad, and to have first suggested some hints of a theory
respecting the composition of that poem, which have since
been developed with profound learning and wonderful ta¬
lent by Wolf and Fleyne. Hedelin’s book, entitled Con¬
jectures Academiques, ou Dissertations sur I'lliade, was pub¬
lished in 1715; and that ol Perrault appeared not long
afterwards, under the title of Parallele des Anciens et des
JModernes. Hedelin had the exquisite judgment to com¬
pare the rhapsodies to the chansons du Pont-Neuf, and to
maintain that the Iliad was made up “ ex tragediis et va-
riis canticis de trivio, mendicorum et circulatorum,” in the
manner of these Parisian ballads. Not long afterwards
Bentley expressed a similar opinion respecting the his¬
tory and compilation of the Iliad. “ Homer,” says he,
“ wrote a sequel of songs and rhapsodies to be sung by
himself, for small earnings and good cheer, at festivals
and other days of merriment; the Iliad he made for the
men, and the Odysseis for the other sex. These loose
songs were not collected together in the form of an epic
poem till about five hundred years after.” But a still
bolder theory was promulgated in the Scienza Nuova of
Giambattista Vico, the second and complete edition of
which appeared at Naples in 1730; a work which, from
its enigmatical style and form, is one of the most obscure
books of modern times, but which was intended by its
author to form a Novum Organon of;politico-historical
knowledge. Vico’s uncompromising reasoning a priori^—
which, borrowing no assistance from history, will let no
history stand in its way,—is not likely to make any one
convert to his whole system. But parts of it have of late
HOMER.
u-
?r. years been adopted or approved by very distinguished
writers;1 and, in regard to the Homeric poems, he has
sketched, with sufficient clearness, the outline of the very
theory which is developed with so much ability and force
in Wolf’s Prolegomena ad Homerum. Vico, in fact, dis¬
tinctly asserts that the Iliad and the Odyssey were first
constructed by the Pisistratidae:—“ Ch’ i Pisistratidi . .
disposero e divisero, o fecero disporre e dividere i poemi
d'Omero nelf Iliade e nell’ Odissea; onde s’ intenda,
quanto innanzi dovevan’ essere stata confusa congerie di
cose, quando e infinita la differenza degli stili dell’ uno e
dell’ altro poema.”2 He expresses a suspicion that the
Homer of the Odyssey belonged to the west, and the
Homer of the Iliad to the north-east of Greece; and, in
his Discoverta del vero Omero, he seems to intimate an
opinion that Homer himself is an ideal personage, but
that his poems are, if we may so express it, the collective
voice of the heroic age, in which all history was poetry,
and all poetry founded on history. “ E certamente,”
says this modern Heraclitus, “ se, come della guerra
Irojana, cosi di Omero, non fossero certi gran vestigi ri-
masti, a tante difficulta si direbbe ch’ Omero fosse stato
finto un poeta d’ idea, il quale non fu particular huomo in
naiura. Ma tali difficulta, est insiememente i poemi di
lui pervenutici sembrano farci cotal forza di affermarlo
per la metta, che quest’ Omero sia egli stato un’ idea ; ov-
vero caratterre eroico di huomini Greci, in quanto essi nar-
ravano cantando la loro storia.”3
The substance of this theory, as stated by Wolf and
Heyne, is, that whether any such person as Homer ever
existed or not, the Iliad and the Odyssey were not com¬
posed entirely by him or by any other person, but are
compilations, methodised by successive editors, of min¬
strelsies, the effusions of various poets of the heroic age,
and all having one common subject or theme; namely,
the war of Troy, and the exploits and adventures of the
Grecian chiefs engaged in it. The question as to whether
The blind old man of Scio’s rocky isle
ever lived or not, does not enter as an essential ingre¬
dient into the theory so ably elucidated by Wolf and
Heyne. That Homer lived and Homer sung, is indeed
denied by both, as it had previously been by Giambat¬
tista Vico; but, even if the fact of his personal existence
were admitted to the fullest extent desired by his Uni¬
tarian admirers, the material question as to the disper¬
sion of the separate books or rhapsodies, and their rein¬
corporation, or rather their primary construction, into one
uniform whole, would still remain to be settled. The
theory of which we have traced the origin and develop¬
ment may no doubt appear at first view startling and pa¬
radoxical ; but, however unlike to any thing of which we
may have heard, and however impossible it may be thought
in the age in which we now live, there are arguments in
its favour, which, with all unprejudiced inquirers, will
ever save it from neglect or contempt, and which, in any
view, merit the most serious consideration. Of these we
shall now proceed to lay a condensed abstract before our
readers.
Wolf, Heyne, and their numberless followers in Ger¬
many, contend that the argument derived from the ap¬
parently undoubting belief of the earliest as well as the
greatest writers of Greece, after the Homeric age, and
from the general consent of all mankind in the same faith
ever since, proves a great deal too much : That, besides
the Iliad, Odyssey, Batrachomyomachia, Hymns, and Epi¬
grams, at least twenty other poems4 were, in former times,
ascribed to Homer: That many passages of these poems
which are still preserved, contain variations from, and
even direct contradictions of, the tenor of the Iliad: That,
in the age of Herodotus, the Cyprian verses, and the Epi-
goni, were commonly considered as Homeric poems:
That Thucydides quotes the Hymn to Apollo exactly in
the same tone in which he quotes or speaks of the Iliad:
That nevertheless the general opinion now is that these
hymns are not by the author of the Iliad : That Plato ex¬
pels Homer from his republic, on account, amongst many
others, of a well-known passage in the Odyssey:6 That
nevertheless many of the ancients, as well as moderns,
who admitted the genuineness of the Iliad, doubted or
denied that of the Odyssey: That there is nothing in
this weakness of critical discernment, even when imputed
to Herodotus, Thucydides, and Plato, which should sur¬
prise a Hellenist, seeing that, in the times of republican
independence, the investigation of the genuineness of the
national compositions formed no part of scientific criti¬
cism, much less of the general duties of the philosopher
and historian : That as Herodotus and Thucydides quote
Homer merely as an historical authority, so Plato censures
him for moral or political reasons; and hence a reference to
his poems was equally necessary for both purposes, whether
the common belief as to their origin were well founded or
the contrary: That, in modern Europe, at the period of
the revival of letters, this branch of criticism became of
paramount importance, and conferred the greatest benefits
on awakening learning, by rescuing the genuine relics of
ancient Greece and Rome from the mass of fiction and in¬
terpolation which had been accumulated on them during
seven centuries of barbarism : That, in fact, the early
Greeks knew no literature but their own; and, consider¬
ing how little attention even we, with our different habits
and capabilities, ever paid to the mere external history
of our earliest works, until a very recent period, we have
no reason to think it unaccountable that a chronicler, his¬
torian, or philosopher of ancient Greece, should either
never have doubted, or but hinted doubts, as to the ge¬
nuineness of a body of popular poetry, supposed to be of
Asiatic growth, and of an antiquity open to nothing but
conjecture.
The Wolfian hypothesis rests also upon grounds of ex¬
ternal probability. “ It is further said,” observes Mr Cole¬
ridge, “ that the art of writing, and the use of manageable
materials, were entirely, or all but entirely, unknown in
Greece and its islands at the supposed date of the compo¬
sition of the Iliad and Odyssey ;6 that, if so, these poems
could not have been committed to writing during the time
of their composition; that, in a question of comparative
probabilities, like this, it is a much grosser improbability
Juebuhr is largely indebted to the Scienza Nova for its views of the early history and real character of the Roman state ; whilst
e praiseworthy labours of Michelet promise to extend the fame and influence of this singular work farther than the enigmatical ob-
un y of the original Italian would ever admit of. (See Principes de lu Philosophic de VHistone, traduits de la ‘ Scienza Nuova' de J. B.
rtco, par Jules Michelet, Paris, 1827.)
* Scienza Nuova, lib. ii. p. 373.
bcienza Nuova, lib. iii. c. 7- Mr Coleridge has placed at the end of his account of the origin and preservation of the Homeric
poems a translation of Vico’s treatise on the discovery of the true Homer.
* these were, Amazonia, Thebaid, Arachnomachia, Geranomachia, Iresione, Epigoni, Epithalamia, Epicichlides, Capra, Ilias Minor, &c. &c.
A • xi# 487*
2 . ^am yero non raodo nullum tale in Homero extat testimonium rei vel vestigium, nullum ne tenuissimorum quidem initiorum
him scripturaeyel Cadmei muneris indicium, sed, quod longe maximi momenti est, contraria etiam omnia. Nusquam vocabu-
Mn, neque scrtbendi, nusquam lectionis, nusquam litterarum: nil in tot millibus versuum ad lectionem, omnia ad auditionem com-
544 HOMER.
Homer, that even the single Iliad, amounting, after all curtailments
ancj expungings, to upwards of 15,000 hexameter lines,
should have been actually conceived and perfected in the
brain of one man, with no other help but his own and
others’ memory, than that it should in fact be the result of
the labours of several distinct authors ; that if the Odyssey
be counted, the probability is doubled ; that if we add, upon
the authority of Thucydides and Aristotle, the Hymns and
Margites, not to say the Batrachomyomachia, that which
was improbable becomes morally impossible ; that all that
has been so often said as to the fact of as many verses or
more having been committed to memory, is beside the
point in question, which is not whether 15,000 or 30,000
lines may not be learnt by heart from print or manuscript,
but whether one man can originally compose a poem of that
length, which, rightly or not, shall be thought to be a mo¬
del of symmetry and consistency of parts, without the aid
of writing materials ; that, admitting the superior probabi¬
lity of such an achievement in a primitive age, we actually
know nothing similar or analogous; and that it so trans¬
cends the common limits of intellectual power, as at least
to merit, with as much justice as the opposite opinion, the
character of improbability.”1
This is undoubtedly a strong case; nor is it easy to see
how the force of the argument urged by Wolf and his fol¬
lowers can be resisted, unless the facts upon which it main¬
ly depends be disproved. We may be powerfully impress¬
ed with the grandeur and unity displayed in the Iliad ;
this impression may be strengthened by more frequent
study of the general effect of the poem ; and we may feel
reluctant to abandon the ancient faith, with which so many
interesting recollections and associations are entwined:
But, as long as the external facts remain unrefuted, “ the
internal evidence of the unity of design” will never pre¬
vail over the conclusion deduced from them. Mr Mil-
man, indeed, seems to think, that, on the general question
of the origin of letters, the mass of authorities collected
with great industry, and the arguments urged with equal
ingenuity by Kreuser,2 in some degree endanger Wolf’s
hypothesis as to the recent introduction of writing into
Greece, that is, scarcely prior to the time of Solon. But
he admits it to be “■ undoubtedly embarrassing that, if
writing was common in the days of Homer, no allusion,
except in one doubtful passage,3 should be found, in either
of the great poems, to an art, which might at first sight
appear to be necessarily mingled up with all the ti'ansac-
tions of war or pacification, of public and private life.”
Besides, the precise fact, whether alphabetical characters
were absolutely unknown in Greece in the age of Homer,
is declared by Heyne to be immaterial to the argument;
because, whether known or not, it is certain that down to
a period later by two centuries than the latest date as¬
signed as the era of Homer, there were no materials which
a Greek author could have employed for the ordinary pur¬
poses of composition. It is of no avail to prove that some
Greeks had the art of carving on marble or on wood ; nor
is the difficulty removed by presenting a blind poet with
a pen of iron and some plates of lead. If there be any
weight in the objection, that no one person could have
composed the Iliad and the Odyssey by the force of mere Honu
mental retention alone, nothing will ever dispose of it ex-
cept a demonstration that the poet had some manageable
substance upon which to write. The main point, as Mr
Coleridge has most justly observed, is not whether poems
of such length might not be preserved by memory, when
once composed, but whether they could have been constructed
in the mind of the bard, without the assistance of letters and
writing materials, to record the fleeting thoughts which
passed in quick succession, and were succeeded by others
hurrying forward in unceasing and inexhaustible rapidity.
The preservation of poems by memory, when once com¬
posed, and their oral transmission from age to age, may
at once be conceded, because it leaves unimpaired the
force of the argument founded upon the moral impossibility
of any one person having both composed and retained in
his mind, as well as communicated to others, as many as
thirty thousand verses.
The more sagacious and candid of those who maintain
the unity and authorship of Homer have accordingly felt
and acknowledged the force of Wolf’s argument. It is in¬
deed admitted by Milman, one of the ablest of his oppo¬
nents, that even Kreuser’s argument in favour of the early
introduction of letters and writing into Greece leaves the
main question undecided; and, besides, Kreuser himself is
a follower of Wolf upon the fundamental point in dispute.
In an essay read to the academy of Berlin, the author, M.
de Merian, adopts the same position as Wolf; he denies to
Homer the use of writing materials, but says the poet
might have done very well without them. This, however,
is cutting the knot, not resolving it. The material issue
is, Could the poet do at all without them ? Of the cases
cited by M. Merian, one is not in point, and the other is
unsupported by authority. After many irrelevant instances
of learning by heart from book or recitation, he alleges the
example of the Italian improvvisatori, and that of Tasso,
who, he says, composed four hundred stanzas of his Gierusa-
lemme Liberata, equal to 3200 verses, without ever writing
them down. The story, however, is not authenticated by
any kind of evidence ; and unless there be Tasso’s own word
for it, who will believe that he never tried one of those
stanzas in a written form ? Besides, it is well known
that, during many years of learned leisure, Tasso medi¬
tated and arranged the plan of his poem, of which he
drew up numerous sketches; so that these four hundred
stanzas were, at most, but the filling up of a picture, the
outline of which had already been prepared. As for the im¬
provvisatori, it is sufficient to observe that, with a tolerable
stock of common-places in their heads, and with a language
on their tongues, one half of which rhymes to the other,
these people may, with a little practice and a very small
exertion of skill, pour forth verses, as they are called, to al¬
most any extent. But what, we would ask, has such a trick
as this to do with the mental composition and correction
of thirty thousand hexameters of the Iliad and Odyssey?
Cesarotti, it is true, talks gravely of Macpherson’s Ossian,
which he translated, as an instance of poetry of consider¬
able extent, composed by a poet to whom writing was un¬
known. This, however, is producing one hypothesis which,
paiata; nulla pacta aut fcedera nisi coram; nullus veterum famse tons praeter memoriam et famam et illitterata monumenta; ex
eo Musarum, memorum dearum, diligens et in Iliade enixe repetita invocatio ; nullus in cippis et sepulcris, quae interdum memo-
rantur, titulus ; non alia ulla inscriptio ; non ses signatum aut facta pecunia ; nullus usus script! in rebus domesticis et mercatura;
nullae geographicse tabulae; denique nulli tabellarii, nullae epistolae, quarum si consuetudo fuisset in patria Uiyssis, vel si
percontationibus procorum et Telemachi sufficissent, procul dubio Odysseam aliquot libris breviorem, aut, ut Itoussavius con-
jiciebat, omnino nullam haberemus.” (Wolfii Prolegom. ad Homerum, pp. 88, 89, 90.)
1 Coleridge, General Introduction to Homer, pp. 38, 39. London, 1834, second edition.
* In his Vorfrage iiher Homeros.
3 “ The silence of Homer,” says Mr Milman, “ after all the only extant authority for the Homeric age, is the great difficulty,
if indeed he is silent, and if the fatal characters, the a-n^ara. Xvy^a. of the letter of Bellerophon, were but svmbolic or hieroglyphic
signs.” (Quarterly Review, vol. xliv. p. 141.)
HOME ll.
Ho r. to say the least of it, is doubtful, to prove another the others are depressed; they have no single primary action,
^ ^ truth of which is denied. In fact, all unprejudiced critics relieved by episodes ; they are ignorant of concealments,
are pretty well agreed as to the history and character of recognitions, windings-up, and all other cognate artifices,
the English Ossian; and it is now generally understood One story follows another, in the order of mere history
and believed, that Macpherson treated the legendary just as in the Indian and Persian epics, in the north-
poems ascubed to the Celtic bard, much in the same ern Eddas, in the Spanish poem of the Cid, and in the
fashion as the I isistratidae are supposed to have done in early chronicles of every nation with which we are acquaint-
the case of those attributed to Homer, fusing a number ed; the skill and fire of the poet are shown, not in the ar-
of detached fragments intoone mass, filling up interstices tifice of grouping a multitude of figures into one picture
and vacuities with a sort of cement prepared by himself, but in raising admiration by the separate beauty of each
and thus imparting to the whole (as in Temord) an unity, successive image or delineation. They tell the tale as the
which certainly could not have been predicated of the ma- tale had been told to them, leaving out nothing. Now if
tenals with which he worked. The Ossian of Macpherson the Iliad and the Odyssey, such as we actually have them,
is, in truth, an instance m point against the principle stated were previously in existence, or if any poems so construct-
by Cesarotti, or rather in favour of its opposite. In the ed were publicly known, soon after the latest date assigned
affecting narrative of the imprisonment of Silvio Pellico,1 to Homer, how are we to account for the undeniable fact
we are indeed informed that he and his friend Maron- that this splendid example did not find a single imitator
cela, during their confinement, composed many thousand amongst the contemporaries or the followers of Homer
verses, without the use of writing materials, and with no- for centuries afterwards ? It can scarcely be said that no
thing but the power of memory upon which to rely for the poet arose of sufficient genius to effect this. The names
preservation of their compositions. This is no doubt one of many of the old heroic poets were celebrated in the
of the best authenticated instances of the power of memo- best ages ; and to rival the plots must certainly have
ry in composition which is anywhere to be found. But been found an easier task than to equal, far less excel
still, before even this can be admitted as a pertinent ex- the poetry of the Homeric epics. Some attempt of this
ample, it will be necessary to see the verses so composed, sort might at least have been expected; and what the
and to determine the relation which they bear to the poe- lowest poetaster now does first, and sometimes does best,
try of the Iliad and the Odyssey; for it is evident that the could not certainly exceed the powers of Hesiod and the
point in dispute cannot be affected by the mere fact of any authors of the Theogonia. Yet we meet with nothing
number of loose lines having been composed under circum- of the kind. “ Quintus Smyrnaeus, or Calaber,” says Mr
stances so extraordinary, by men entirely separated from Coleridge, “ composed his books as a supplement to the
the living and active world. Improvisation by itself is unfinished Iliad. We may not rate Quintus very highly
nothing. I he question is,, could a couple of epics, possess- as a poet; but have we any right to set him down for such
ing all the qualities requisite in the very highest species a heavy fool as to have ventured upon the completion of a
of poetry, have been composed and preserved without the divine poem, which Aristotle had declared absolutely per-
ai o writing mateiials? This is the real issue. JMilton feet in its plot, if the numerous examples of former wri-
was struck with blindness as well as Homer ; but the verses ters of supplements had not been lying before his eyes ?
winch he dictated, after he had been deprived of his sight, Suppose, for a moment, that the Iliad handed down to us
were immediately committed to writing by faithful and de- had ended, as surely it might have ended, in the death of
voted amanuenses. Would they ever have been heard of, Hector, and the return of Achilles in triumph to the Gre-
it Milton had been as destitute and helpless as Homer is cian camp; and that the substance of the last two books
repesented to have been ? had been added by Quintus in the beginning of his sup-
further, it is urged that the artificial construction of plement; should we have commended him the more for sa-
the plots of the Iliad and Odyssey, so commonly relied on gaciously detecting the want of finish, and the premature
as an argument for the unity of these poems, is in fact a termination of the narrative ? And is it not possible that
complete demonstration that their present form cannot be Aristotle might have lauded the plot of the Iliad nothing
genuine, lhat the cyclic poets who were contemporary the less, if the catalogue of the ships and troops had never
with Homer, or followed in the order of time his age, all been inserted ?”
composed their works on a plan the very reverse of that Upon the whole, then, Homer, according to this hypo-
w uch the critics praise so highly in the Iliad and Odyssey, thesis, was the ideal or heroic character of the Greek people,
is established by the censure of Horace, and the testimony relating its own history. This is the general deduction
or ail antiquity. This may be seen, as well from the from all the reasonings of Wolf and his followers, who
Pi?7n °f ^umtus Smyrnaeus, which is founded on the contend that every thing which is absurd and improbable
t uopis, Ilias Parva, and the lid Excidium of Arctinus in Homer, as hitherto conceived, becomes appropriate and
and Lesches, as from the epitomes of many other old cyclic even necessary in the Homer thus supposed. 1. In refer-
poems std! preserved in the fragments of the Chrestoma- ence to the uncertainty respecting the country of Homer,
ttua of Frocks, if such evidence be not superfluous. The they observe, that if the"people of Greece contended amongst
aut 101 s of the Dionysiacs, Thebaids, Epigoniads, Naupac- themselves for the honour of having given birth to him,
ica, Genealogies, and other wmrks of that sort, never and if all claimed him as a citizen, it w7as because they
ureamed of rushing in medias res, as it is said that Homer were themselves Homer. 2. The poverty and blindness
does; never laid distant trains for future catastrophes; never of Homer were those of the rhapsodists, who, being blind
carried on parallel lines of narrative; never concerned them- (whence their Ionian name of o/Mjgoi), had the more power-
selves about the critical canon of a beginning, a middle, ful memories. 3. Homer composed the Iliad in his youth
and an end. They uniformly commence ab ovo, and con- that is to say, in the infancy of Greece, when she was all
elude when the war or the pedigree is at an end. They burning with sublime passions, with pride, resentment, and
nave no hero in favour of whose dramatic superiority all revenge. Greece, therefore, in her infancy, would admire
545
Homer.
n„rOMar0nCel 1 nel su° sotteraneo a;:e,a composti molti vend d’una gran bellezza. Me li andava recitando, e ne componeva altrf. I„
5. nn J “TPoneva, 6 1 recitava- ^ la nastra memoria esercitavasi a ritenere tutto cid. Mirabile fu la capacita, cbe acquistammo
3 rr Uns e Prf0<iufoni a meniona, liniarle e tornarle a limare infinite volte, e ridurle a quel segno medesimo di possibile fini-
ed oni,? a vr®m,° at term to senven dole. Maroncelh compose cosi a poco a poco, e ritenne in mente parecchie migliaja di vend find
u ePlu- 10 feci la tragedia de Leomero da Dertona e varie altre cose.” (Lc mie Pri&ionL c. 75.1
VOL. XI. 3z
546
HOMER.
Homer. Achilles, the type or hero of force. 4. But Homer com-
posed the Odyssey in his old age, when the passions of the
Greeks began to be cooled by reflection, the mother of pru¬
dence. Greece would, therefore, naturally admire Ulysses,
the type or hero of wisdom. In the youth of Homer, the
pride of Agamemnon, the insolence and violence of Achilles,
pleased the Greeks ; in his old age they had begun to take
pleasure in the delights of Calypso, the voluptuousness of
Circe, the songs of the Sirens, and the sports of the suitors
of Penelope. 5. The individual character of Homer hav¬
ing thus disappeared, the poet, or rather the poetry, be¬
comes at once justified from all critical censures respect¬
ing the lowness of the thoughts, the grossness of the man¬
ners, the barbarism of the comparisons, the idioms, the
licenses of versification, the discrepancy of dialects, and
finally, for having elevated men to the rank of gods, and
degraded gods below the level of men. 6. To Homer is
assigned the privilege of having alone possessed the faculty
of inventing the poetical fictions of Aristotle and the he¬
roic characters of Horace ; the privilege of an incompar¬
able eloquence in his savage similes, his terrible pictures
of the dying and the dead, and his sublime delineation of
the passions, with the merit of a style at once simple, grand,
and picturesque. All these qualities belonged to the he¬
roic age of Greece. 7. Homer is henceforth assured of
three immortalities ; of having been the founder of civilisa¬
tion in Greece, the father of all the other poets, and the
source of the different systems of philosophy afterwards pro¬
mulgated in his country; titles which could not possibly
belong to Homer such as the world has hitherto imagined
him. The Homer of the schools could not be regarded as
the founder of Greek civilisation, because, from the epoch
of Deucalion and Pyrrha, that civilisation had been com¬
menced by the institution of marriage. He could not be
regarded as the father of poets, because Orpheus, Amphion,
Linus, and Musaeus, to whom some chronologers add He¬
siod, had flourished before his time. According to Cicero,
there were many heroic poets prior to Homer; and Euse¬
bius names Philammon, Thamyris, Demodocus, Epime-
nides, Aristeas, and others. Nor, finally, could he be the
source of the Greek philosophy; for the philosophers did
not deiive their doctrine from, but engrafted them upon,
the Homeric fables. Homer only afforded to the philoso¬
phers an occasion of meditating on the highest truths of
metaphysics and morals, giving them, in addition, great
facility in illustrating their speculations.1
The more we read the more we admire the two immortal
poems of Homer, and the less are the generality of persons
inclined to doubt that they were conceived by one and the
same mind; whilst the infinite art by which the innumer¬
able parts are connected and arranged forms perhaps the
most remarkable feature in the Iliad and Odyssey, as well
as the best argument for the unity of their authorship, and
at 1jn. V1<^ua^ty °f Homer. In these poems, according to
Mr Milman, “ there is nothing of the elaborate art of a later
age ; it is not a skilful compiler arranging his materials so
as to produce the most striking effect; the design and the
fiihng up appear to be evidently of the same hand ; there is
t le most perfect harmony in the plan, the expression, the
versification ; and we cannot, by any effort, bring ourselves
to suppose that the separate passages, which form the main
interest of the poem, the splendid bursts, or more pathetic
episodes, were originally composed without any view to
their general effect; in short, that a whole race of Homers Ho
struck, as it were by accident, all these glorious, living
fragments, which lay in a kind of unformed chaos, till a
later and almost mightier Homer commanded them to take
form, and combine themselves into a connected and har-
monious whole.”2 Another circumstance to which the ad¬
vocates of the unity and authorship of Homer attach very
great importance, is the perfect consistency of the charac¬
ters in the different parts of the poem. It is quite incon¬
ceivable, they think, that there should have been a sort of
conventional character assigned to different heroes by the
minstrels of Greece. “ To take Mr Coleridge’s illustration
of the ballads on Robin Hood,” says Mr Milman ; “ in all
these, bold Robin is still the same frank, careless, daring,
generous, half-comic adventurer: So Achilles may have
been by prescription,
Impiger, iracundus, inexorabilis, acer;
Ajax heavy and obstinate, Ulysses light and subtle; but
can we thus account for the finer and more delicate touches
of character, the sort of natural consistencies, which perpe¬
tually identify the hero, or even the female, of one book,
with the same person in another ?”
Some of those persons who have written upon the same
side of the question as Mr Milman, and indeed Mr Milman
himself, are inclined to doubt whether the poems of Ho¬
mer, consistent and harmonious as they now appear, could
have been preserved by tradition alone ; and an able
French critic has condemned the opinion “ qui, en admet-
tant qu’Homere soit 1’auteur de ITliade et de 1’Odyssee,
vent qu’il en avait jamais ecrit un seul vers, et que restes,
en depot, dans sa memoire, il les allait reciter de ville en
ville, afin d’obtenir de la pitie et de fadmiration publique,
les secours que sollicitait sa profonde indigence. Supposer,”
adds the same writer, “ ^ue la tradition orale a seule con¬
serve deux poemes aussi etendus, pendant le long espace de
temps ecoul6 entre Homere et les premieres editions con-
nues ; attribuer aux rhapsodes une portion considerable de
ses ouvrages, c’est franchir toutes les homes d’une critique
raisonable. Comment se flatter, d’ailleurs, d’avoir fait
une decouverte echappee aux critiques de fantiquite les
plus celebres, et qui ont apporte un soin si religieux a la
revision des poemes d’Homere, depuis Aristote jusqu’a cet
Aristarque, (font le nom est devenu synonyme de critique
par excellence ?” All this, however, seems to be more
plausible than sound. For, in the first place, if the art of
writing was unknown in Greece in the age of Homer, or
at least confined to carving on wood, or engraving on stone
or metal, it follows that, for a certain period, the poems of
Homer must have been preserved by oral tradition, be¬
cause there practically existed no other method by which
they could be handed down from one age to another. If it
be impossible that two poems so extensive could have been
preserved by oral tradition, then it is at least equally so that
they could have been composed at the period to which they
are commonly referred. Secondly, it is no argument what¬
ever against a discovery in criticism to tell us that, if it were
well founded, it could not have escaped the most celebrated
critics of antiquity, from Aristotle to Aristarchus, who had
applied themselves, with religious care, to the revision of
Homer. This kind of argument, if sound, would cut down
almost every discovery. Bacon discovered and explained
the method of reasoning by induction, which had escaped
come down to our times^'^His nopms™61"’ b^subJoine(^ tIlat of having been the most ancient historian of paganism who has
of Greece are Reserved. But the loT of tU W ColeridSe’ ! ai? tvvo Sreat treasure-houses, in which the manners of the first ages
hand, the world has ascribed those laws to the AtSnrfT1”8!^8 sim}lar tothat of the laws of the Twelve Tables. On the one
seen in them the history of the pnmm™ i % ,f le, an. k'gisiiitoi, from whom, it is said, they passed to Home, whilst no one has
mer to have been the work of the riro o- a'V ° beroic tribes of Latium ; on the other, the world has believed the poems of Ho-
heroic people of Greece.” {General Intfodnctiini an indmdua1’ instead of discovering in them the history of the common law of the
* Quarterly Review, xliv. p. 154. ’ "* '
HOMER.
547
goijr. Aristotle and all his successors ; Newton discovered the
^ law of gravitation, which, in its application to explain the
motions of the heavenly bodies, and connect the whole so¬
lar system, had never been so much as suspected even by
the most illustrious of his predecessors ; Young, with rare
sagacity, found out the method of interpreting the Egyp¬
tian writings, monumental and civil, which so many per¬
sons had, through a long tract of ages, sought for in vain.
But were it now to be said, in objection to these discove¬
ries, as M. Durivier has said in opposition to the hypothe¬
sis of Wolf and his followers, how could their authors flat¬
ter themselves with having found out what so many il¬
lustrious men had failed to discover ? the answer would be,
that each of these discoveries must be judged of by the di¬
rect evidence produced in support of it; that the increase
of knowledge is progressive ; and that, with regard to the
particular case in question, the science of criticism is, in a
great measure, one of modern growth.
To this succinct analysis of the different opinions enter¬
tained respecting Homer, succeeds naturally the critical
history of his works. He had composed, or at least the
ancients attributed to him, a large number, of which a ca¬
talogue may be found in the Bibliotheca Grccca of Fabricius,
and in the Chrestomathia of Proclus. Of the greater part
there remain only the titles, about which even the learned are
not always agreed. We should doubtless have little to re¬
gret in the loss of the Batrachomyomachia, a burlesque
production, in which, with the exception of some details and
verses, we find no traces of the genius and style of Homer;
or in that of the Hymns, which are twenty-four in number,
amongst which two or three have been supposed to belong to
Homer. On this subject the reader may consult two cri¬
tical letters of Rhunken, in his second edition of the Hymn
to Ceres, Leyden, 1782; Mitscherlich, Ilgen, Matthiae, and
Hermann, have also published editions of these Hymns,
which are valuable for the critical accuracy of the text,
and the conjectures as to their supposed dates and authors.
The epigrams and smaller poems bear no stamp of authen¬
ticity, and hence we may dispense with entering into any
particular statement concerning them. It is in the Iliad and
the Odyssey alone where we must seek for, and where we
will find, the genius of Homer in all its force, and in all its
splendour and originality.
If we can credit the statements of iElian and Plutarch,
it was Lycurgus, the celebrated Lacedaemonian lawgiver,
who first collected, in Ionia, the scattered fragments of
the poems of Homer, united them together, and intro¬
duced them into the Peloponnesus. But the glory of ar¬
ranging them in the order in which they have reached us
was, it seems, reserved for Pisistratus, who brought them
to Athens, and for his son Hipparchus, who ordained that
they should be recited annually during the Panathenaic
festival. This fact, related in the Hipparchus, a dialogue
attributed to Plato, is confirmed by the authority of Cicero,
who concedes to Pisistratus, seconded by the poet-philo¬
sopher Solon, the merit of having put into order the verses
of Homer, which he found in a state of confusion. After
the edition of Hipparchus may be mentioned that which
Aristotle revised by the advice of Alexander, and which
the conqueror, an enlightened friend of letters, deposited
in the precious casket which he had found amongst the
treasures of Darius. But notwithstanding the authority
of Plutarch, who sometimes placed too much reliance on
memoirs evidently unwmrthy of confidence, this famous
edition of the casket had, according to Strabo, been re¬
vised by Calisthenes and Anaxarchus, and was only pre¬
sented to Alexander by his illustrious instructor. It is
possible, however, that a second revision, enriched with
the remarks of Aristotle himself, may have been made
under the eyes of the Macedonian conqueror. Before
Aristotle, Cynethus of Chios, Stesimbrotus, Theagenes,
and Antimachus of Colophon, had already undertaken to
comment on the text of Homer. The scholia of Venice,
published by the learned Villoison, leave no doubt what¬
ever as to this fact. We have not the same certainty re¬
specting the editions of Cassander king of Macedonia, and
Ptolemy Evergetes II. king of Egypt, whatever may have
been said by Athenseus, Casaubon his learned interpre¬
ter, and the second Burmann. But it was the school of
Alexandria which began to give truly classical editions
of the works of Homer; Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristo¬
phanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus, and Crates, occupied
themselves not only with the revision, but also with the
critical explanation, of the text; and Aristarchus is said
to have first divided the Iliad and the Odyssey each into
twenty-four books, a division which appears so natural and
judicious that it has been constantly adopted ever since.
So much for the Greek editors of Homer ; let us now pass
on to his interpreters.
At their head stands Didymus, a grammarian of Alex¬
andria, who flourished under the reign of Augustus. He
had enriched several poems with his commentaries; but
the scholia on the Iliad and Odyssey printed with his
name are evidently not his, and are neither of the same
epoch nor by the same hand ; in fact, he is often cited in
them himself, and mention is made of writers who flou¬
rished at a subsequent period. With regard to their lite¬
rary merit, the remarks, purely grammatical, are only
simple glosses on the text; but those which relate to the
subject-matter are not without ability, and may be con¬
sulted with advantage. This compilation, extracted part¬
ly from Didymus, and partly from various other commen¬
tators whose names are not mentioned, contains what are
usually called the lesser scholia. Those on the Iliad were
published, for the first time, at Rome, in 1517, folio, and
those on both poems united, at Venice, in 1528, in two
vols. 8vo. Soon afterwards,, that is, from 1542 to 1550,
appeared the great wrork of Eustathius on Homer, which
was printed at Rome, in four vols. folio, and included the
beautiful table of Devaris. This work, which is merely
a compilation from the scholiasts and commentators who
had preceded the learned archbishop of Thessalonica,
presents nevertheless an immense repertory of literary
and grammatical erudition. But it could have been wish¬
ed that a more severe criticism had directed this vast
compilation, or that an able and practised hand had made
from it a judicious extract, which might have put into
circulation riches almost unknown, or only accessible to
the small number of persons who are profoundly skilled in
the Greek language. The same observation may be ap¬
plied to the valuable scholia discovered and published at
Venice by Villoison.
We shall not attempt here to give a detail of the nu¬
merous editions of Homer. His works complete, includ¬
ing the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Batrachomyomachia, and
the Hymns, were printed for the first time at Florence, in
1488, in two vols. folio, under the superintendence of De¬
metrius Chalcondylas, assisted by another Demetrius from
the island of Crete. The printer, Bernardo Nerli, dedi¬
cated the collection to Pietro, son of Lorenzo de’ Medicis.
This rare and precious edition was faithfully reproduced,
with a few corrections, in 1504, by the Aldine presses, at
Venice, in two vols. 8vo. But the second Aldine edition
of 1517 presents sensible differences in the text, which the
subsequent editions reproduce, till that of 1528 inclusively.
This is what may be called the first age of the editions of
Homer. The second dates from Henri Etienne, who,
with the assistance of an ancient manuscript, and the com¬
mentaries of Eustathius, collected a certain number of
various readings, which he gave upon the margin, or de¬
veloped, along with his own conjectures, in the notes of
his beautiful work entitled Poetoe Grceci principes Heroici
Homer.
548
HOMER,
Homer. Carminis, Paris, 1566. With Barnes the Hellenist, who
was celebrated in his own time, but whose reputation
must necessarily diminish with the progress of philologi¬
cal criticism, commences a third epoch, which may be de¬
nominated that of Clarke, or perhaps of Ernesti, who im¬
proved upon the labours of Clarke, as Clarke had improved
upon those of his predecessor Barnes. But he did not dis¬
semble that his edition still left much to be desired ; and he
modestly admitted that he had only prepared materials
for future editors. Such an editor as Ernesti appears to
have contemplated was found in the person of Wolf, who, in
1784* and 1785, published at Halle, in Saxony, a complete
edition of Homer, the superiority of which, in regard to cor¬
rectness, was soon generally acknowledged. This edition
was distinguished for an exact and severe revision of the
text; and in it the learned professor had already announ¬
ced the system afterwards developed and adopted by him,
when Villoison published his famous edition of the Iliad,
in folio, Venice, 1788. This edition occupies too import¬
ant a place in modern philology, and, as some think, con¬
cerns too deeply the glory of Homer individually, to be
passed by with a simple notice, or without entering into
some details. Villoison was busily occupied at Venice
with the publication of his Anecdoia Grceca, when, by ac¬
cident, he discovered, in the library of St Mark, a manu¬
script of Homer, which, in his judgment, belonged to the
tenth century, and was consequently anterior by two hun¬
dred years to the Commentaries of Eustathius. This
manuscript contained the Iliad entire, accompanied with
an immensity of scholia, abridged from those of Zenodo-
tus, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, Crates Mallotes, Ptolemy
of Ascalon, and several other celebrated grammarians.
But that which particularly struck him, was observing the
margins filled with asterisks, daggers, and all the dif¬
ferent signs adopted to distinguish verses supposed to
have been altered or transposed, from those the authen¬
ticity of which was universally recognised. The publica¬
tion of the work did not fail to realise the great hopes
which the learned of Europe had conceived from its mere
announcement, and the success of the edition was com¬
plete. But it confirmed Wolf more than ever in the opinion
that it was to the critics of Alexandria that recourse must
be had in order to recover and reconstitute the true text
of Homer ; and, fortified by the new proofs of the truth of
his assertion which he conceived to have under his eves,
he ably profited by the assistance which these ancient
scholia afforded him, and made no difficulty in substitut¬
ing for the ordinary readings of the text the variations
which appeared to him to be demonstrated. Thus, by a
singular chance, the beautiful monument elevated to the
glory of Homer by one of the most famous Hellenists of
his age, became the basis of a system calculated to deprive
Homer of the admiration which, for ages, had been lavish¬
ed on him. Villoison was so much affected by this circum¬
stance that he repented of having ever published his Iliad.
That of Wolf, accompanied with the Odyssey and the
Hymns, re-appeared at Leipsig in 1804, in fourvols. small
8vo. This edition adds to its other merits that of a ty¬
pographical execution which does much honour to the
press of M. Goschen. The edition of the Iliad by Heyne,
in eight vols. 8vo, which appeared at Leipsig in 1802, has
not completely justified the expectations which might
have been entertained of such an editor. His principal
meiit consists in presenting a clear and exact interpreta¬
tion of the text, and in collecting, in the Excursus and
Commentaries which accompany it, all that is important
to be known for the perfect understanding of Homer.
Ihe doctrine of Keyne on the spirits rough and smooth
(asper et lenis), which, according to him, were much more
stiongly aspirated in the time of Homer, and pronounced
like the ASolic digamma, has met with more adversaries
than partisans; although it explains very well how certain u
syllables, naturally short, become long at the end of a wl!
word, when the following one begins with a vowel, and
causes to disappear the hiatuses which are of so frequent
occurrence in the verses of this great poet.
From the commencement or towards the middle of the
sixteenth century, Homer was translated into prose and
verse amongst the Italians, the English, the French, the
Spaniards, and other nations ; but we shall only notice those
versions which occupy a place more or less distinguished
in literature. In Italy the most esteemed are those of Sal-
vini, Cerutti, Cesarotti, and Monti; Salvini, however, trans¬
lated all that remains of Homer, but the others confined
themselves to the Iliad. In England, the translation of
Pope threw into the shade those of Chapman, Ogilvy, and
Hobbes; but many, nevertheless, prefer to it thatof Cowper,
as more exact, and preserving better the simple and natural
colour of tire original; whilst some are of opinion that the
recent version of Sotheby, the accomplished translator of
Wieland’s Oberon and Virgil’s Georgies, is, in several re¬
spects, superior to all its predecessors. The French have, in
prose, Madame Dacier, Bitaube, Lebrun, and Dugal-Mont-
bel, each of whom is distinguished for some particular merit.
Of the French translations in verse we shall only notice
two ; those of Rochefort and of M. Aignan, which are both
considered excellent. The Germans attach much importance
to the versions of Bodmer, of the Count de Stolberg, bro¬
ther of the translator of Sophocles, and of Voss, all of whom
have translated Homer into hexameter verses; a system of
versification which prevailed in that school, and which was
applied to the ancients, with what success we shall not ven¬
ture to pronounce. Spanish literature contains no good
translation of Homer. The most recent, and, comparative¬
ly speaking, the best, is that of Don Saverio Malo, a gen¬
tleman employed in the Royal Library at Madrid.
We shall not expatiate here on the literary merit of the
prince of poets. It is too generally known, and too deep¬
ly felt, to require any exposition at our hands. Besides,
what addition could we hope to make to the admirable Es¬
say of Pope on the Life and Writings of Homer; to the
Discours Preliminaire of Rochefort; and, above all, to the
eloquent eulogium which the Abbe Barthelemy puts in the
mouth of the Scythian Anacharsis ? The dissertations of
Lamotte are also, in their kind, so much more honourable
to the author or authors of the Iliad and Odyssey, that the
number and severity of the criticisms contained in them
give to the praise a character more solid and less equivocal.
The authority of genius is powerful, nay universal. That
of Homer has, for thirty centuries, presided over the des¬
tinies of almost every literature of the world. It was from the
works of the first and greatest of poets that iEschylus, So¬
phocles, Euripides, and others, derived not only the subjects
of their tragedies, but the spirit and sentiments by which
these are animated, and the varied charms of that style of
which Homer possessed the secret, and left them a model.
It was to his genius that the epic poets, as Virgil and Tasso,
were indebted for their sublime beauties ; it was from his
works that the greatest artists of ancient and modern times
borrowed their finest conceptions; and both are the more
elevated in proportion as they approach nearer to their great
model. In a word, as Homer has been denominated xar
z&XW’ ^le Poeti 80 the expression Homeric beauties, having
passed into a proverb, has become amongst men of letters
the appropriate qualification of the grand and the beautiful
in poetry.
(Besides the works already quoted, see Biographie Uni-
verselle, art. Home re; Chalmers’s Biog. Dictionary, art.
Homer ; Blackwell’s Inquiry into the Life and Writings
of Homer, second edition, London, 1736, in 8vo; and
Wood’s Essay on the Original Genius and Writings of
Homer^ London, 1775, in 4to.) (a.)
H O M
jj01 ide Homer, Omer, or Chomer, a Jewish measure, contain¬
ing the tenth part of the ephah. See Corus and Mea-
Ho sure.
’• HOMICIDE signifies in general the taking away of the
^ life of a human being. It is of three kinds ; justifiable, ex¬
cusable, and felonious. The first has no share of guilt at
all; the second very little ; but the third is the highest
crime against the law of nature that man is capable of com¬
mitting. See Penal Jurisprudence.
HOMILY, in ecclesiastical writers, a sermon or dis¬
course upon some point of religion, delivered in a plain
manner, so as to be easily understood by the common
people. The word is Greek, formed from 6//,/>.os,
coetus, assembly or council.
The Greek homily signified a familiar discourse, like the
Latin sermo ; and discourses delivered in the church took
these denominations, to intimate that they were not ha¬
rangues or matters of ostentation and flourish, like those of
profane orators, but familiar and useful discourses, such as
those of a master to his disciples, or of a father to his
children.
All the homilies of the Greek and Latin fathers were com¬
posed by bishops. We have none of Tertullian, Clemens
Alexandrinus, and many other learned persons, because, in
the first ages, bishops alone were admitted to preach. The
privilege was not ordinarily allowed to priests till towards
the fifth century. St Chrysostom was the first presbyter
who preached regularly. Origen and St Augustin also
preached, but it was by a peculiar license or privilege.
Photius distinguishes a homily from a sermon by this,
that the homily was performed in a more familiar manner,
the prelate interrogating and talking to the people, and
they in their turn answering and interrogating him, so that
it was properly a conversation ; whilst the sermon was de¬
livered with more form, and in the pulpit, after the man¬
ner of the orators.
The practice of compiling homilies, which were to be
committed to memory, and recited by ignorant or indolent
priests, commenced towards the close of the eighth cen¬
tury, when Charlemagne ordered Paulus Diaconus and
Alenin to form homilies or discourses upon the Gospels
and Epistles, from the ancient doctors of the church. This
gave rise to the famous collection entitled the Homilarium
of Charlemagne, which being followed as a model in many
productions of the same kind, composed by private per¬
sons, from a principle of pious zeal, contributed much, ac¬
cording to Mosheim, to nourish the indolence and to per¬
petuate the ignorance of a worthless clergy.
There are still extant several fine homilies, composed by
the ancient fathers, particularly by St Chrysostom and St
Gregory.
Clementine Homilies, in Ecclesiastical History, are nine¬
teen homilies in Greek, published by Cotelerius, with two
letters prefixed ; one of them written in the name of Peter,
the other in the name of Clement, to James bishop of Jeru¬
salem, in which last they are entitled Clement’s Epitome
of the Preaching and Travels of Peter. According to Le-
clerc, these homilies were composed by an Ebionite in the
second century; but Montfoucon supposes that they were
forged long after the age of Athanasius. Dr Lardner ap¬
prehends that the Clementine homilies were the original
or first edition of the Recognitions ; and that they are the
same with the work censured by Eusebius under the title
of Dialogues of Peter and Appian.
HOMOGENEOUS, or Homogeneal (composed of the
Greek words o/xjjs, lihe, and ysueg, kind), is a term applied
to various subjects, to denote that they consist of similar
parts, or of parts of the same nature and kind ; in contra¬
distinction to heterogeneous, where the parts are of different
natures or kinds.
HOMOLOGATION, in the civil law, the act of con-
HON 549
firming or rendering a thing more valid and solemn, by Homolo-
publication, repetition, or recognition thereof. The word gous
comes from the Greek byohoyiu, consent or assent, formed i!
from byoi, similis, like, and Xoyog, from Xsysiv, dicere, to say ; , °n uras;
that is, to say the same thing, to consent or agree.
HOMOLOGOUS, in Geometry, an appellation given to
the corresponding sides and angles of similar figures.
HONDEKOOTER, Melchior, a Dutch painter, born
at Utrecht, who excelled in painting animals, and especial¬
ly birds. His father and grandfather were of the same
profession, and their subjects the same. He was trained
to the art by his father ; but surpassed him, and even the
best of his contemporaries. Till he was seventeen years
of age he continued under the direction of his father, and
accustomed himself to paint different sorts of birds; but
he took particular pleasure in representing cocks, hens,
ducks, chickens, and peacocks, which he described in an
elegant variety of actions and attitudes. After his father’s
death, which happened in 1653, he received some instruc¬
tions from his uncle John Baptist Weeninx ; but his princi¬
pal and best instructor was nature, which he studied with
intense application. His pencil was neat and delicate ; his
touch light; his colouring natural, lively, and transparent;
and the feathers of his fowls were expressed with a swell¬
ing softness, which might have readily and agreeably de¬
ceived the eye of any spectator. It is reported that he had
trained up a cock to stand in any attitude he wanted to de¬
scribe, and that it was his custom to place that creature
near his easel, so that at the motion of his hand the bird
would fix itself in the proper posture, and would continue
in that particular position without the smallest perceptible
alteration for several hours at a time. The landscapes
which he introduces as the backgrounds of his‘pictures
are adapted with peculiar judgment and skill, and admi¬
rably finished; they harmonize with his subject, and al¬
ways increase the force and the beauty of his principal ob¬
jects. He was very happy in imitating the natural plum¬
age of the fowls he painted; which not only produced a
charming effect, but may also assist an intelligent observer
in determining which are the genuine works of this master,
and which the impositions. He died at Utrecht in 1695,
aged fifty-nine.
HONDURAS, a settlement of Great Britain, in the
southern part of the North American continent, and pro¬
vince of Yucutan. It is situated between the parallels of
17. and 19. north latitude, and 88. and 90. west longitude, on
a peninsula which forms the Bay of Campeachy on the west
and the Bay of Honduras on the east. Its name is derived
from the Spanish term Hondura, which signifies depth, and
was originally given to the coast by its discoverers, on
account of the great depth of water along the shore. Ac¬
cording to the best geographical authorities, the line which
embraces this settlement commences at the mouth of the
Rio Grande, or Hondo, whose course it at first follows, and
afterwards runs parallel with it for thirty miles. It then
turns south, and passes through the New River Lake, in a
straight line, to the river Balize, up which it ascends for a
considerable distance, till again bending in a southerly di¬
rection, it meets the head of the Llbun, whose course it
pursues to the sea. The whole settlement embraces an
area of 62,750 square miles.
This coast was discovered by Columbus in the year
1502, but little that can be relied upon is known of its
early settlement. The abundance and fine quality of the
wood, particularly mahogany and logwood, seem first to
have drawn attention to it; and at a pretty early period
it was occasionally resorted to by wood-cutters. But the
first permanent establishment of British wood-cutters
w’as made at Cape Cartoche, by some adventurers from
Jamaica, whose numbers increasing, they extended as far
south as the river Balize, and as far west as the neigh*
550
HONDURAS.
Honduras, bourhood oF Campeachy. The Spaniards, however, did
not quietly submit to this usurpation of their territorial do¬
minion. Several expeditions were fitted out against the
settlers, but they were uniformly unsuccessful; and on
two occasions, in 1659 and 1678, so complete was their
discomfiture, that the town of Campeachy itself was taken
by the logwood-cutters, with only the assistance of the
seamen engaged in the trade. This last repulse occurred
eight years after a treaty had been concluded with Spain,
by which the territorial right of Britain to the occupancy
of Honduras was generally, although not specifically, em¬
braced. The successes of the settlers aroused the jea¬
lousy of the Spaniards, and led to a renewed discussion of
their right to the territory which they occupied. This
would appear to have been again generally admitted ; but
the Spaniards finally succeeded in driving the woodmen
from the Campeachy shore, and confining them to the li¬
mits which we have already defined. An attempt was
again made in 1718 to dispossess the British of the ter¬
ritory on the river Balize; but the firmness of the wood¬
cutters deterred the Castilians from effecting any thing,
except the erection of a fortification, which in a few years
they abandoned. In 1754 an expedition was undertaken
to exterminate the colony ; but by a treaty of peace con¬
cluded in the year 1763, the Spaniards were compelled
to admit the right of occupancy to the British colonists,
which, however, they subsequently attempted to annul.
In 1779 the Spaniards again attacked the settlement,
and after destroying property to a considerable amount,
they took a number of the colonists prisoners, and march¬
ed them off in irons to Merida, whence they were shipped
to the Havannah, and there confined till 1782. In 1784
Britain obtained from Spain a specific grant of “ the lands
allotted for the cutting of logwood/ by which Honduras
became as much a territorial occupancy of the British
ciown, as Jamaica or any other of our colonial posses¬
sions. I he last attack on the settlement was made dur¬
ing the war in 1798, but the expedition, which consisted
of 3000 men, was gallantly repulsed ; and since that pe¬
riod the colony has remained undisturbed by foreign
aggression.
I he coast of the Bay of Honduras is low, and the shore
is studded with a number of low islands or keys, which,
however, are verdant. As we recede from the coast, the
land rises into a bold and lofty country, interspersed with
rivers and lagoons, and covered with gigantic forests.
The inland frontier is formed by an immense chain of
mountains, which are also covered with impenetrable fo¬
rests and brushwood. Through this rocky barrier there is
only one pass, namely, that leading to Peten. It is merely
a pathway, which might be defended by a few men. The
lagoons or sheets of water, and the falls and rapids of the
i ivers, constitute sublime and beautiful features in the
general aspect of the country. The river and lagoon of
Manatee, which is situated ten leagues south of Balize,
is considered as extremely grand. At about a mile from
tile mouth of the river is the lagoon, a magnificent sheet
of water, extending for several leagues in a northerly di¬
rection. In many places immense mountains ascend
rpm its margin, overtopping large valleys and wood ranges
or great extent, where the tiger, antelope, armadillo,
quash, opossum, racoon, and several species of deer,
abound. Amongst the feathered tribes there are numbers
% qUi e • Plovers’ pigeons, pheasants, and wild turkeys.
ie deficiency of streams amongst the mountain ridges" is
supplied by the presence of large marshy spots or shallow
ponds, the banks of which are frequented by almost every
species of water game. Fish abound during a great part H
of the year in these ponds, but the latter dry up in the
season of drought, and then vast flocks of sea-fowl congre- C
gate around them to prey upon the fish which have been
left dry by the evaporation t)f the waters. The alligator is
also a frequent visitor ; and, to partake of this repast thus
yearly provided for him, he has been known to traverse
trackless wilds, and make long journeys into the interior
Eight or ten miles from the lakes the rapids begin, and
the high rocky banks of the river assume a romantic
and beautiful appearance. Further on there is a cataract
of about a quarter of a mile in length, and of considerable
acclivity. A cluster of beautiful caves, through which the
river winds its way, and beneath which the traveller must
pass, is next reached. They have been described as equally
singular and grand:—These magnificent natural excava¬
tions of the mountains are semicircular at the entrance, and
about five yards in diameter. Within the cave the arch
rises to the height of a hundred feet, and leads to another
low arch, which, being passed, a second cavern of large
size opens, beyond which is a third with a circular orifice,
through which the river enters. During the floods the
mouths of the caverns are filled with water, which boils
up with prodigious fury, and thus detains travellers many
days before they can pass through the caves or tunnels.
In the rainy season, as the water increases on the upper
or inland sides of the mountains, the river forces its pass¬
age through the interstices and openings in its sides with
tremendous noise, forming an indescribably grand cascade
of from forty to fifty feet high, issuing from an hundred
orifices.”1
The country is technically divided into the Pine and the
Cahoun ridges. The soil of the former has a substratum
of loose reddish sand, and its indigenous products consist
of those varieties of vegetation the assimilative pov/ers of
w hich are strong and perennial. Extensive prairies expand
over this soil, and the pine, from which it derives its name,
is extremely abundant. 4 he soil of the Cahoun ridge con¬
sists of a deep loam, capable of growing every species of
European as well as of tropical aliment. Its fertility occa¬
sions the growth of much brushwood, and it is covered
with the wild cotton and other gigantic trees.
F ruits, spontaneously produced, are exceedingly abun¬
dant, and consist of oranges of excellent quality, shad¬
docks, limes, mangoes, melons, pine-apples, water-melons,
avocato pears, cashew, cocoa-nuts, and many others. They
are all found in the neighbourhood of Balize, but are some¬
times brought in large quantities from more elevated plan¬
tations. 1 he mahogany and logwood trees are at present
the staples of Honduras. The former is found best in
elevated situations; and growing generally solitary, it is
discernible at a great distance, from the yellow hue of its
foliage. It is cut down at about twelve feet from the
ground, and when felled, the logs are dragged to the banks
of the streams and floated down in rafts. It is said that
the boughs and limbs afford the finest wood, but the size
is principally looked to in Britain. The logwood is found
in low swampy grounds, growing contiguous to fresh wa¬
ter creeks and lakes, on the edges of which the roots, the
most valuable part of the wood, ramify. They are felled
during the dry season, and carried off when the wet season
has laid the ground under water. There is another valu¬
able tree called the pinus occidentalis, which grows to the
height of sixty feet, and covers many thousand acres of
country. It contains an immense quantity of tar and tur¬
pentine, and might be turned to good account were the
vexatious duties on colonial timber removed. The pine-
exist in^lmcreeksor axms^Ahe owTiven”110 Libu^, eight 01 ten days’ j°urney fro“ Balize; and some interesting caverns
Hon
HONDURAS.
551
ras.wood is of course highly inflammable, and in this respect
it is very valuable to the poor, who make torches of it. It
likewise powerfully resists decay, and is in consequence
much used by builders. The cahoun, or cohoon tree as it
is pronounced, is valuable on account of an oil which it
yields. This unctuous product, when unadulterated, is al¬
most colourless, destitute of any disagreeable taste, and
when burned as a lamp oil it emits a beautiful palish flame
without smoke or smell. There are various other kinds of
wood of beautiful vein and close texture, such as iron-
wood, clay-wood, rosewood, palmaletta, and the like.
Amongst minerals, veins of fine marble and mountains of
alabaster are known to exist. Several valuable specimens
of crystals have been found, and gold has at various pe¬
riods been detected; but no pains were ever taken to as¬
certain whence it proceeded. Labouring Creek, which
lies on the Ealize, about one hundred miles inland, is re¬
markable for the petrifying properties possessed by its wa¬
ters. They have also a powerful cathartic effect on stran¬
gers, and when applied externally to an ulcer, have a
healing property.
The country abounds with all kinds of animals fit for
the food of man. Except in very rough weather, the sup¬
ply of salt-water fish of excellent quality is abundant. The
common green turtle, when in a healthy condition, is a
staple commodity in the market. It is often five feet long,
and weighs from 200 to 250 lbs.
Balize, the capital of the settlement, is divided into two
parts by the river of the same name. The part of the
town which is situated upon the south or right bank of the
river, along the eastern edge of a point of land, is com¬
pletely insulated by a canal on its western side, which
runs across from a small arm of the sea, and bounds the
town on its south side. The houses are about 500 in
number, and are in general well built, spacious, and even
elegant. They are for the most part constructed of wood,
and raised ten feet from the ground. The two parts of
the town are connected by a bridge, which was built in
1818. It is twenty feet in width, and its span is 220 feet.
It is entirely constructed of wood, and is well secured by
balustrades on each side. The streets of Balize are regu¬
lar, running parallel north and south, and intersected by
others. 1 he main one runs in a north-easterly direction
to the bridge from the government-house, which is situat¬
ed on the south-east point or angle of the island on the
right bank of the river, and bounded on the south and east
by the sea. Behind the government-house is the church,
on the east side of the main street. The whole town is
embowered in groves and avenues of the cocoa-nut and
tamarind trees. Fort George is situated about half a mile
from the river, on a small low islet.
The climate in the neighbourhood of Balize is generally
moist. July is the hottest and dryest month of the year,
and then the maximum heat is 83°, the medium 82°, and
the minimum 80° of Fahrenheit. The great heat, how¬
ever, is tempered by the sea breezes, which almost con¬
stantly prevail. During the wet seasons the thermometer
sinks to 60°, and the variation in the temperature is some¬
times very great. But the climate is by no means un¬
healthy ; indeed it is asserted in the Honduras Almanack
that it is more favourable to European constitutions than
any other climate under the tropics. Where temperance
and regularity are observed, the average duration of hu¬
man life will not be less in Flonduras than it is in this
country.
There are various classes of society in this settlement,
including Europeans, coloured people, Indians, and Mos¬
quito men. The blacks of Honduras are distinct from the
aborigines of the country, being of African descent. In
general they are inclined to indulge those low propensities
which are exhibited in a state of barbarism. A few of
them, either from national usage or other causes, show an Honduras,
utter aversion to spirituous liquors, but by far the greater -v-w
proportion are guilty of the most beastly excesses in this
respect. Having been derived from various regions, they
still retain all their national peculiarities; and, to keep
themselves distinct from every other tribe, each nation se¬
lects one individual, on whom the rest of his people bestow'
the title of king, and who exercises over them a certain
degree of authority. The blacks, as a body, have upon the
whole little intelligence, and their dulness of comprehen¬
sion is remarkable. It is asserted, however, in the Hon¬
duras Almanack, the best authority on this point, that some
of the blacks exhibit an originality of talent and a degree of
mental activity little inferior to their European brethren.
1 hey are much attached to their country, and with a na¬
tive of his own land a Honduras black will share his last
plantain. The coloured population has resulted from the
intercourse of Europeans with Africans or Indians. They
of course, morally speaking, assume a medium status, and
partake more or less of the qualities of black and white,
according to their distance from either. The Mosquito
shore men abound in the colony. They are remarkable
for a fine muscular formation of body, but in their counte¬
nances they exhibit an utter destitution of intelligence,
and their habits are most barbarous. They acknowledge
the existence of a good and evil spirit; and the little power
of thought which they possess is displayed in their conduct
towards their deities. The good spirit is neglected, be¬
cause, say they, his goodness is so great that nothing is to
be feared from his wrath, whilst, on the other hand, the evil
spirit is propitiated, in order to deprecate his malevolence.
The w hole wealth of a Mosquito man consists in his canoe,
paddle, and harpoon. With these he satisfies the cravings
of nature, and his grovelling nature asks for no more. The
Indians, the real aborigines of the place, are a timid, inoffen¬
sive race, apparently more under the influence of instinct
than of reason. They pei'form the most astonishing jour¬
neys through woods as trackless as the sea, and impervious
to all but themselves, with infallible correctness of direc¬
tion and amazing rapidity. Although free from vindictive
or malicious propensities, they are addicted to drunkenness
to an excessive degree.
In religious matters Honduras forms part of the bishop¬
ric of Jamaica, and facilities are afforded by the establish¬
ment for religious instruction. There is a well-endowed
school attached to it, conducted on the Madras system, and
the average daily attendance of children is above a hun¬
dred. There are likewise two mission schools, and consi¬
derable benefit has already been reaped from these institu¬
tions. Not one of the least is the change of sentiment
which has taken place with regard to marriage. Only a few
years back this ceremony was little regarded, and virtue and
decency were absolutely despised. A better feeling, how¬
ever, is now beginning to prevail, of which the legislature
has taken advantage; and, for the encouragement of public
morals, great facilities to the marriages of the lower orders
of blacks have been afforded by recent law's and regula¬
tions. Petty larceny, and misdemeanours resulting from
intemperance, frequently occur; but atrocious crimes are
happily seldom perpetrated. In the mechanical arts the
blacks display little or no ingenuity, but the coloured
people, approaching nearer to the European standard of
mind, are considerably above the negroes in this respect.
In architectural designs, however, and other arts by
which domestic comforts are enhanced, the wdiites alon*e
are to be depended upon. Some years back the inhabi¬
tants of Honduras were content with stoccadoed huts of
the most primitive construction, but now there are many
large, commodious, and even elegant houses, particularly
in Balize.
The grand authority of the settlement is a mixed legis-
HON
552
HON
Honduras. Jative and executive power, designated the Magistrates of
' Honduras, by whom enactments are made ; and these be¬
come laws to be enforced by the executive part of the go¬
vernment, after they have been sanctioned by the king’s
representative. The magistrates are in number seven,
and annually elected by the inhabitants. In them the
power is vested, and they conduct the whole public busi¬
ness of the colony, without receiving any remuneration for
their services. The superintendent is of course a nominee
of the crown of Great Britain.
The militia of Honduras, which is a thousand strong,
consists of a brigade of artillery and a regiment of the
line; there is likewise a local maritime force, the whole
being under the command of the superintendent and his
aides-de-camp and staff. The following table exhibits
the revenue and expenditure of Honduras from 1807 till
1830.
1 Years.
1823
1826
1829
1830
White and Free
Coloured.
Males. Females.
842
1896
1596
937
798
891
920
919
Slaves.
Males. Females.
Total.
1654
1606
1329
1347
814
804
798
680
Males. Females.
2496
3502
2925
2284
1612
1695
1718
1599
Ho
Hoik
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
Total,
Revenue.
£7,566
6,005
6,829
9,523
8,643
6,590
5,438
5,474
12,944
10,672
8,168
16,501
104,353
Expendi¬
ture.
£8,291
5,170
6,066
9,604
8,981
6,312
5,548
5,629
12,527
9,276
8,838
18,193
104,435
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Total,
Revenue.
Expendi¬
ture.
£15,967
17,249
12,306
14,831
19,294
14,125
17,594
13,256
17,415
10,653
11,744
15,673
180,107
£16,896
17,266
12,027
14,296
20,112
14,163
17,634
13,755
17,562
10,760
11,759
15,806
182,036
It will be perceived that the revenue of this colony has
very materially increased, and it would still increase were
the interest of this settlement more attended to at home.
Its resources are very great, and were emigration properly
encouraged, it would soon become of vast importance both
in a political and in a commercial point of view, more es¬
pecially as there are still uncultivated many thousand square
miles of the richest soil. Trade is yet in its infancy, but
the value of the imports in 1830 was L.234,379, and of
the exports L.316,151, employing a shipping inwards of
13,918 tons, and outwards of 16,351 tons, independently of
a large coasting trade, which is on the increase. The fol¬
lowing table exhibits the quantities of the principal articles
exported from 1824 to 1830.1
Years. ' Mahogany.
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Feet.
5,573,819
5,083,170
6,385,589
6,904,998
5,466,806
4,631,391
4,556,986
Cedar.
Feet.
2,493
21,000
30,171
19,781
912
Indigo.
Lbs.
199,867
211,447
358,552
81,767
1,610 leeroons.
1,474  
2,650  
Much discrepancy prevails amongst authorities relative
to the numbers of the inhabitants. The following table
fX ioo? the a8'greSate population of Honduras from 1823
to 1830.
It is almost superfluous to observe, that here, as in all
our other colonies, the name of slave has ceased to desig¬
nate a subject of the British empire. (r. r. r.)
HONE, a fine kind of stone, used for setting razors,
pen-knives, and other cutting instruments.
HONEY, a sweet vegetable juice, collected by the bees
from the flowers of various plants, and deposited in the
cells of the honey-comb. See Bee.
HONFLEUR, a maritime city of France, in the arron-
dissement of Pont 1’Eveque and department of Calvados.
It is an ill-built town, situated on the Seine, opposite to
Harfleur. There are four churches, 1027 houses, and
9780 inhabitants, who subsist partly by the fishery, and
carry on some manufactures of vitriol, of alum, and of lace.
The herring fishery is the most extensive. Before the
Revolution it was the principal place for the Newfound¬
land fishery and for the colonial commerce. Long. 0. 3.
E. Eat. 49. 17. N.
HONDSCHOOTE, a town of France, in the arrondisse-
ment of Dunkirk, in the department of the North. It
stands on the canal leading from Bergues to Furnes, con¬
tains 5b9 houses, and 3168 inhabitants. It is remarkable
on account of the battle fought there in 1793, when the
Duke of ^ork, with the combined armies, advanced to
take possession of Dunkirk, and was defeated by the
French under the command of General Houchard.
HONITON, a market-town of the hundred of Ax-
minster, in the county of Devon, 159 miles from London.
It consists of one long street, on the great road from the
metropolis to Exeter. It has suffered by frequent fires,
and good houses have been constructed instead of those
which were burned. The parish church is half a mile
from the town, but there is a chapel of ease within it.
It is an ancient burgh, and still returns two members to
parliament, who are chosen by about five hundred voters.
It had formerly considerable trade in making serges, but
that has of late years greatly declined. Some employ¬
ment for females is provided, by making thread lace ; and
none is more highly esteemed than that which bears the
name of this place. There is here a well-attended mar¬
ket on Saturday. The population amounted in 1801 to
2377, in 1811 to 2735, in 1821 to 3296, and in 1831 to
3509.
HQNORIACI, in Antiquity, an order of soldiery under
the eastern empire, who introduced the Goths, Vandals,
Alani, Suevi, and other tribes, into Spain. Didymus and
Verinianus, two brothers, had, with great vigilance and
valour, defended the passages of the Pyrenees against
the barbarians ; but being at length killed, the emperor
Constantins appointed to defend those passages the horn-
riaci, who, not contented with laying them open to all the
nations of the north then ravaging the Gauls, actually
joined the spoilers.
HONOUR, a testimony of esteem or submission, ex¬
pressed by words, actions, and an exterior behaviour, by
which we make known the veneration and respect ween-
colonialpostesln^To wh^h’thf m^ch othe5 information, have been derived from Mr Montgomery Martin’s work on the British
colonial possessions, to which the reader is referred for more minute details regarding this settlement:
HON
Ho ir- tertain for any one on account of his dignity or merit.
v*' ^ The word honour is also used in general for the esteem
due to virtue, glory, and reputation. It is further employ¬
ed to signify virtue and probity themselves, and an ex¬
actness in performing whatever we have promised ; and
in this last sense we use the term a man of honour. But
honour is more particularly applied to two different kinds
of virtue; bravery in men .and chastity in women. Vir¬
tue and Honour were deified amongst the ancient Greeks
’ and Romans, and had a joint temple consecrated to them
at Rome ; but afterwards each of them had separate tem¬
ples, which were so placed that no one could enter the
temple of Honour without passing through that of Virtue ;
and by this the Romans were continually put in mind that
virtue is the only direct path to true glory. Plutarch tells
us, that the Romans, contrary to their usual custom, sa¬
crificed to Honour uncovered; perhaps to denote, that
wherever honour is, it wants no covering, but shows itself
openly to the world.
Honour, or Ranh. The degrees of honour which are
observed in Britain may be comprehended under these
two heads; nobiles mqjores, and nobiles minores. Those
included under the first rank are, archbishops, dukes, mar-
quisses, earls, viscounts, bishops, and barons, which are
all distinguished by the respective ornaments of their es¬
cutcheons ; and those of the second are baronets, knights,
esquires, and gentlemen. There are some authors who
pretend that baronets are the last under the first rank;
and their reason is, because this honour is hereditary, and
by patent, like that of the nobility.
Honours of War, in one sense, are stipulated terms,
which are granted to a vanquished enemy, and by which
he is permitted to march out of a town, from a camp or
line of intrenchments, with all the pomp and circumstance
of military array. In another sense, the honours of war
mean the compliments which are paid to great personages
or military characters, when they appear before a body of
armed men. The former, however, is the most common
acceptation; and with respect to it we may observe here,
that it is extremely difficult to describe the honours of
war specifically, as almost every thing depends on the
general by whom a capitulation is granted. In some in¬
stances the troops of a besieged garrison are permitted to
march out with arms shouldered, drums beating, colours
flying, and all or part of their baggage ; in others, they
are only allowed to advance silently in front of their
works, ground or pile their arms, face to the right, and
return within their intrenchments. To give examples on
a matter so plain must be altogether superfluous.
Military Honours. All armies salute crowned heads
in the most respectful manner, drums beating a march,
colours and standards dropping, and officers saluting.
Their guards pay no compliment, except to the princes of
the blood, and even that by courtesy, in the absence of
crowned heads.
To the commander-in-chief the whole line turns out
without arms, and the camp-guards beat a march, and sa¬
lute. To generals of horse and foot, they beat a march,
and salute; to lieutenant-generals, three ruffles, and sa¬
lute ; to major-generals, two ruffles, and salute; to bri¬
gadiers, rested arms, one ruffle, and salute; to colonels,
rested arms, and no beating. Sentinels rest their arms to
all field officers, and shoulder to every officer. All go¬
vernors who are not general officers, in all places where
they are governors, have one ruffle, with rested arms;
hut for those who have no commission as governors, no
drum beats. Lieutenant-governors have the main-guard
turned out to them with shouldered arms. The master-
general of the ordnance has the same respect and honours
paid to him as the generals of cavalry and infantry.
HoNouR-Point, in Heraldry, is that next above the cen-
v VOL. XI.
H O O 553
tre of the escutcheon, dividing the upper part into two Honour-
equal portions. See Heraldry. able
HONOURABLE, a title conferred on the younger sons H
of earls and the sons of viscounts and barons; as also on
such persons as have the king’s commission, and upon
those who enjoy places of trust and honour.
HOOD, Robin, a famous outlaw and deer-stealer, who
chiefly harboured in Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire.
He was a man of family, and played his pranks about the
end of the twelfth century. He was famous for archery,
and for his hospitable treatment of all travellers who came
in the way; levying contributions on the rich, and reliev¬
ing the poor. At last, having fallen sick, and requiring
to have blood taken, he is said to have been betrayed
and bled to death. He died in 1247, and was buried at
Kirklees in Yorkshire, then a Benedictine monastery.
Hood, in Falconry, is a piece of leather, with which the
head of a hawk, falcon, or the like, is covered. See Fal¬
conry.
Hood’s Island, the most northerly of the Mendoza’s
islands, in the South Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1774 by
Captain Cook. Long. 138. 52. W. Lat. 9. 26. S.
HOOGHL Y, an extensive district in the province of Ben¬
gal, formerly called Saatgong, situated principally between
the 21st and 22d degrees of north latitude, and extending a
considerable distance along both sides of the river Hooghly.
It is bounded on the north by the districts of Burdwan
and Kishenagur, on the south by the sea, on the east by
Jessore and the Sunderbunds, and on the west by Midna-
poor. This district consists of low flat land, very fertile;
but that part which is nearest to the sea is very thinly in¬
habited ; it is called the Sunderbund, is swampy, covered
with wood, and remarkably unhealthy. It is intersected
in every direction by rivers and their branches, which af¬
ford great facilities for internal navigation ; but these wa¬
ters are unfortunately infested by gang-robbers or river
pirates, who are a most ferocious banditti, robbing in
gangs, and often using torture to extort from their victims
the disclosure of their hidden treasures. Along the shores
of the ocean salt of an excellent quality is manufactured
on account of the government. Although this district is
so near Calcutta, which affords a ready and constant mar¬
ket for its produce, the greater part of the country lies in
a completely desert state, infested by alligators, tigers,
and a countless variety of vermin and reptiles.
Hooghly, an ancient and formerly a large town in the
province of Bengal, situated on the western bank of the
Hooghly, nearly twenty-six miles above Calcutta, and sup¬
posed to have been founded by the Portuguese about the
year 1538. During the Mogul government, it was a town
of great consequence, being the port of the western arm of
the Ganges, where the duties on merchandise are collect¬
ed. It very soon drew away all the trade from Saatgong,
which had been before the government port of Bengal.
During the prevalence of the Portuguese dominion in In¬
dia, Hooghly was fortified, and continued to flourish till
the year 1632, when it was attacked by order of the em¬
peror Shah Jehan, and, after a siege of three months and
a half, was taken by the Mogul troops, a thousand of the
Portuguese being killed, and four thousand four hundred
men, women, and children taken prisoners. From this pe¬
riod Hooghly became the imperial port. All the officers
of the government were ordered to remove thither, and it
was placed under the jurisdiction of a special governor. In
the year 1642, the English, and soon afterwards the Dutch,
obtained the permission of the native government to erect
factories. After this period, every encouragement was
given to commerce ; and Hooghly, which was called Bukh-
shy Bunder, became a great commercial emporium between
Europe, Persia, Arabia, and India. In 1686 hostilities com¬
menced between the English and the nabob. An action
4 A
554
H O O
Hookah.
Hooghly ensued, in which the nabob’s troops were defeated; and at
River the same time the town of Hooghly was cannonaded, and
five hundred houses burned. The result, however, was a
disgraceful peace; an amicable arrangement was made by
the military superintendent of the district. But in conse¬
quence of Calcutta being an open town, the agent and
council retired to that place. Long. 88. 28. E. Lat. 22.
54. N.
Hooghly River, properly the Bhagirutty, a river of
Bengal, formed by the junction of the two westernmost
branches of the Ganges, the Cossimbazar, and the Jellinghy.
This is the port of Calcutta, being the only branch of the
Ganges that is navigated by large vessels ; yet the entrance
to the river is rendered extremely dangerous and difficult,
by reason of numerous sand banks in it, which are fre¬
quently shifting. The shoals are very numerous where
the Ganges is joined by the Roopmarain ; and as this river
directly faces the approach from the sea, whilst Hooghly
turns to the right, it occasions the loss of many vessels,
which are carried up the Roopmarain by the force of the
tide. The spring-tides run up with great violence, ad¬
vancing at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. This is what
is called by the Europeans the Bore, which commences at
Hooghly Point, where the river first contracts itself, and is
perceptible above Hooghly town ; and though the distance
is above seventy miles, it traverses this space in about four
hours, running along the opposite bank to the Calcutta
side, whence it crosses at Chitpoor, about four miles above
Fort William, and rushes with great violence past Barna-
gore, Duckinsore, &c., frequently oversetting boats and
driving ships from their anchorage. At Calcutta it some¬
times occasions an instantaneous rise of five feet. The tide
does not rise more than thirty miles above Calcutta; and
during the rainy season its influence is checked by the
large body of water that comes down the river. The
Hooghly contains several kinds of good fish, particularly
the cockup, sable mangoe fish, and prawns ; and it abounds
also in crocodiles and sharks. It is about three quarters
of a mile broad at Calcutta, and eight or ten miles wide at
the mouth. It is only navigable for ships as high as the
tide reaches, and the upper part of it is nearly dry during
the hot season ; yet there are few rivers that can boast of
a more extensive commerce, all the towns belonging to
European nations, and several others by the natives, stand¬
ing on its banks. It is esteemed to be the most sacred
branch of the Ganges by the Hindus, and it is on this ac¬
count that those who cannot afford to bury their dead
throw them into the Hooghly.
HOOK, in Angling. See Angling.
Hooks of a Ship, are all those forked timbers which are
placed directly upon the keel, as well in her run as in her
rake.
Can-Hooks, those which being made fast to the end of
a rope with a noose, like that which brewers use to sling
or carry their barrels on, are made use of for slings.
Foot-HooKs, in a ship, the same with futtocks.
Loof-HooKs, a tackle with two hooks, one to hitch into
a cringle of the main or foresail, in the bolt-rope at the
leech of the sail by the clew, and the other is to hitch into
a strap, which is spliced to the chess-tree. Their use is to
pull down the sail, and succour the tackles in a large sail
and stiff gale, that all the stress may not bear upon the
tack. It is also used when the tack is to be seized more
secure, and to take off or put on a bonnet or drabler.
Hook Pins, in Architecture, are taper iron pins, only
with a hook-head, to pin together the frame of a roof or
floor.
HOOKAH, amongst the Arabs and other nations of the
East, is a pipe of a singularly-complicated construction,
through which tobacco is smoked. Out of a small vessel
of a globular form, and nearly full of water, issue two
H O O
tubes, one perpendicularly, on which is placed the tobacco, Roo]
the other obliquely from the side of the vessel, and to that v
the person who smokes applies his mouth ; and the smoke
by this means being drawn through water, is cooled in its
passage, and rendered more grateful. One takes a whiff,
draws up a large quantity of smoke, puffs it out of his
nose and mouth in a dense cloud, and passes the hookah
to his neighbour; and thus it goes round the whole circle.
The hookah is known and used throughout the East; but
in those parts where the refinements of life prevail, every ‘
one has his hookah sacred to himself; and it is frequently
an implement of a costly nature, being of silver, and set
with precious stones. In the better kind, that tube which
is applied to the mouth is very long and pliant; and for
this reason it is termed the snake. People who use it in a
luxurious manner fill the vessel through which the smoke
is drawn with rose-water, and the fume thereby receives
some of the fragrant quality of that liquid.
HOOKE, Robert, an eminent English mathematician
and philosopher, was the son of John Hooke, minister of
Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, where he was born in
1635. He very early discovered a genius for mechanics,
by making curious toys with great art and dexterity. He
was educated under Dr Busby in Westminster school,
where he not only acquired a competent share of Greek
and Latin, together with an insight into Hebrew and some
other oriental languages, but also made himself master of
a considerable part of Euclid’s Elements. About the year
1653, he went to Christ-Church, Oxford, and in 1655
was introduced to the Philosophical Society of that place,
where, discovering his mechanical genius, he was first em¬
ployed to assist Dr Willis in his operations in chemistry,
and afterwards recommended to the honourable Robert
Boyle, whom he served several years in the same capacity.
About this time he was also instructed in astronomy by Dr
Seth Ward, Savilian professor of that science ; and hence¬
forward he distinguished himself by many noble inventions
and improvements of the mechanical kind. He invented
several astronomical instruments, for making observations
both at sea and land; and was particularly serviceable to
Mr Boyle in completing the invention of the air-pump.
Sir John Cutler having founded a mechanic school in
1664, he settled an annual stipend on Mr Hooke, intrust¬
ing the president, council, and fellows of the Royal So¬
ciety to direct him with respect to the number and sub¬
jects of his lectures; and on the 11th of January 1665 he
was elected by that society curator of experiments for life,
with an additional salary. In 1666 he produced to the
Royal Society a model for rebuilding the city of London,
destroyed by fire, with which the society was well pleased;
but although the lord mayor and aldermen preferred it to
that of the city surveyor, it was not carried into execution.
As the rebuilding of the city, according to the act of par¬
liament, required an able person to let out the ground to
the proprietors, Mr Hooke was appointed one of the sur¬
veyors ; and in this employment he acquired most part of
his estate. Mr Oldenburgh, secretary to the Royal So¬
ciety, having died in 1677, Mr Hooke was appointed to
supply his place, and began to take minutes at the meeting
in October, but did not publish the Transactions. In the
beginning of the year 1687, his brother’s daughter, Mrs
Grace Hooke, who had lived with him several years, died;
and he was so affected with grief at her death, that he hard¬
ly ever recovered it, but was observed from that time to
become less active, more melancholy, and even more cyni¬
cal, than ever. At the same time, a chancery suit in which
he was concerned with Sir John Cutler, on account of his
salary for reading the Cutlerian Lectures, made him very
uneasy, and increased his disorder. In 1691 he was em¬
ployed in forming the plan of the hospital near Hoxton,
founded by Robert Ask, alderman of London, who appoint-
HOG
HOG
555
jlo . ed Archbishop Tillotson one of his executors; and in De-
^ ^ cember the same year, Hooke was created doctor of physic
by a warrant from that prelate. In June 1696, the chan¬
cery suit with Sir John Cutler was determined in his fa¬
vour, to his inexpressible satisfaction. In the same year
an order was granted to him for repeating most of his
experiments at the expense of the Royal Society, upon a
promise of his finishing the accounts, observations, and de¬
ductions from them, and of perfecting the description of all
the instruments contrived by him; but his increasing ill¬
ness and general decay rendered him unable to perform the
task. He continued some years in this wasting condition ;
and languishing till he was quite emaciated, he died on the
3d of March 1702, at his lodgings in Gresham College,
and was buried in St Helen’s Church, Bishopsgate Street.
In his person he exhibited but a mean appearance, being
of short stature, crooked, pale, lean, and of a meagre aspect,
with lank brown hair, which he wore very long, and hang¬
ing over his face. His temper was penurious, melancholy,
mistrustful; and though possessed of great philosophical
knowledge, he had so much ambition, that he would be
thought the only man who could invent or discover. Hence
it has been asserted by some that he frequently laid claim
to the inventions and discoveries of others, whilst he boast¬
ed of many of his own which he never communicated. He
wrote, 1. Lectiones Cutleriance, or Cutlerian Lectures; 2.
Micrographia, or Descriptions of Minute Bodies made by
Magnifying Glasses ; 3. A Description of Helioscopes; 4.
A Description of some Mechanical Improvements of Lamps
and Water-poises, 4to ; 5. Philosophical Collections. Af¬
ter his death were published, Posthumous Works, collected
from his papers by Richard Waller, secretary to the Royal
Society.
The following is a chronological view of the inventions
to which he laid claim. It would be harsh to say, with
regard to any of them, that he did not at least think him¬
self an inventor; with respect to several, his priority is
beyond dispute.
1656. Barometer, or weather-glass.
1657. A scapement, for maintaining the vibration of a
pendulum ; and not long afterwards the regulating or ba¬
lance-spring for watches.
1658. The double-barrelled air-pump, and the conical
pendulum. His first employment of the conical pendulum
was not less ingenious and scientific than it was original.
He employed it to represent the mutual gravitation of the
planets; a fact which he had most systematically announced.
He had shown, that a force, perfectly analogous to gra¬
vity on this earth, operated on the surface of the moon
and of Jupiter. Considering the numerous round pits on
the surface of the moon, surrounded with a sort of wall,
and having a little eminence in the middle, as the produc¬
tion of volcanoes, he inferred that the ejected matter fell
back again to the moon, as such matter falls back again to
the earth. Seeing Jupiter surrounded with an atmo¬
sphere, which accompanied and therefore pressed on him,
as our air presses on the earth, he inferred that it was
the same kind of power that maintained the sun and other
planets in a round form. He inferred a force to the sun
from the circulation round him, calling it a gravitation;
and said that it was not the earth which described the
ellipse, but the centre of gravity of the earth and moon.
He therefore made a conical pendulum, the tendency
of which to a vertical position represented the gravita¬
tion to the sun, and which was projected at right angles
to the vertical plane, and showed experimentally how
the different proportions of the projectile and centripetal
tendencies produced various degrees of eccentricity in the
orbit. He then added another pendulum, describing a
cone round the first, whilst this described a cone round
the vertical line in order to see what point between them
described the ellipse. The results of the experiment
were intricate and unsatisfactory; but the thought was '
ingenious. He candidly acknowledged that he had not
discovered the true law of gravitation which would pro¬
duce the description of an ellipse round the focus, owing
to his want of due mathematical knowledge; and there¬
fore he left this investigation to his superiors. Sir Isaac
Newton was the person who made the discovery, after
having entertained the same notions of the forces which
connected the bodies of the solar system, before he had any
acquaintance with Dr Hooke, or knew of his speculations.
1660. The engine for cutting clock and watch wheels.
The chief phenomena of capillary attraction. The freez¬
ing of water a fixed temperature.
1663. The method of supplying air to a diving bell.
The number of vibrations made by a musical chord.
1664. His Micrographia was, by the council of the Royal
Society, ordered to be printed. In that work there are
many just notions respecting respiration, the composition
of the atmosphere, and the nature of light, which were
afterwards attributed as discoveries to Mayow and others,
who, though we are far from supposing that they stole
their discoveries from Dr Hooke, were certainly anticipat¬
ed by him.
1666. A quadrant by reflection.
1667. The marine barometer, and the gage for sound¬
ing unfathomable depths.
1668. The measurement of a degree of the meridian,
with a view to determine the figure of the earth, by means
of a zenith sector.
1669. The fact of the conservatio.virium vivarum, and
that in all the productions and extinctions of motion, the
accumulated forces were as the squares of the final or
initial velocities. This doctrine he announced in all its
generality and importance, deducing from it the conse¬
quences which John Bernoulli valued himself so highly
upon, and which are the chief facts produced by Leibnitz
in support of his doctrine of the forces of bodies in motion.
But Hooke was perfectly aware of their entire correspon¬
dence with the Cartesian or common doctrine, and was
one of the first in applying the celebrated 39th proposi¬
tion of Newton’s Principia to his former positions on this
subject, as a mathematical demonstration of them.
1673. That the catenarian was the best form of an arch.
1674. Steam-engine on Newcomen’s principle.
1679. That the air was the sole source of heat in burn¬
ing ; that combustion is the solution of the inflammable
vapour in air; and that in this solution the air gives out
its heat and light. That nitre explodes and causes bodies
to burn without air, because it consists of this air accom¬
panied by its heat and light in a condensed or solid state,
and air supports flame because it contains the same in¬
gredients as gunpowder, that is, a nitrous spirit; that this
air dissolves something in the blood whilst it is exposed
to it in the lungs in a very expanded surface, and, when
saturated with it, can no longer support life nor flame,
but in the act of solution produces animal heat; that the
arterial and venal blood differ on account of this some¬
thing being wanting in one of them.
1680. He first observed the secondary vibrations of
elastic bodies, and their connection with harmonic sounds.
A glass containing water, and excited by a fiddlestick,
threw the water into undulations, which were square,
hexagonal, octagonal, &c. showing that it made vibrations
subordinate to the total vibration ; and that the funda¬
mental sound was accompanied by its octave, its twelfth,
and so on.
1681. He exhibited musical tones by means of toothed
wheels, whirled round and rubbed with a quill, which
dropped from tooth to tooth, and produced tones propor¬
tioned to the frequency of the cracks or snaps.
Hooke.
556
Hooke
H O O
1684. He read a paper before the Royal Society, in
which he affirms, that some years before that period he
had proposed a method of discoursing at a distance, not
by sound, but by sight. He then proceeds to describe a
very accurate and complete telegraph. But, some years
previous to 1684, Amontons had not invented his tele¬
graph ; so that, though the Marquis of Worcester un¬
questionably gave the first hint of this instrument, Dr
Hooke appears to have first brought it to a useful state.
To him also we are indebted for many other discoveries
of lesser note ; such as the wheel barometer, the univer¬
sal joint, the manometer screw, divided quadrant, tele¬
scopic sights for astronomical instruments, representation
of a muscular fibre by a chain of bladders, experiments
showing the inflection of light, and its attraction for solid
bodies, the curvilineal path of light through the atmo¬
sphere.
Hooke, Nathaniel, author of an esteemed Roman his¬
tory, and other performances. Of this learned person the
earliest particulars to be met with are furnished by him¬
self, in the following modest but manly address to the Earl
of Oxford, dated 7th October 1722 ; “ My Lord, the first
time I had the honour to wait upon your lordship since
your coming to London, your lordship had the goodness
to ask me what way of life I was then engaged in ; a cer¬
tain mauvaise honte hindered me at that time from giving
a direct answer. The truth is, my lord, I cannot be said
at present to be in any form of life, but rather to live ex¬
tempore. The late epidemical distemper seized me, I en¬
deavoured to be rich, imagined for a while that I was, and
am in some measure happy to find myself at this instant
but just worth nothing. If your lordship, or any of your
numerous friends, have need of a servant with the bare
qualifications of being able to read and write, and to be
honest, I shall gladly undertake any employments your
lordship shall not think me unworthy of. I have been
taught, my lord, that neither a man’s natural pride, nor
his self-love, is an equal judge of what is fit for him ; and
I shall endeavour to remember that it is not the short
part we act, but the manner of our performance, which
gains or loses us the applause of Him who is finally to de¬
cide of all human actions. My lord, I am just now em¬
ployed in translating from the French a History of the
Life of the late Archbishop of Cambray ; and I was think¬
ing to beg the honour of your lordship’s name to protect
a work which will have so much need of it. The original
is not yet published. ’Tis written by the author of the
Discourse upon Epic Poetry, in the new edition of Tele-
maque. As there are some passages in the book of a par-
ticulai nature, I dare not solicit your lordship to grant me
the favour 1 have mentioned, till you first have perused
it. The whole is short, and pretty fairly transcribed. If
your lordship could find a spare hour to look it over, I
would wait upon your lordship with it, as it may possibly
be no unpleasing entertainment. I shoyld humbly ask
your lordship s pardon for so long an address in a season
of so much business. But when should I be able to find
a time in which jmur lordship’s goodness is not employ-
ed ? The translation here . spoken of was afterwards
printed in 12mo, 1723. From this period until his death,
Mr Hooke enjoyed the confidence and patronage of men
not less distinguished for virtue than for rank. In 1730
he published a translation of Ramsay’s Travels of Cyrus,
in 4to ; in 1733 he revised a translation of the History of
the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, by Thomas
1 own send, printed in two vols. 8vo ; and in the same year
he published, in 4to, the first volume of the Roman His¬
tory, from the building of Rome to the ruin of the Com¬
monwealth^ illustrated with maps and other plates. In
the dedication to this volume, Mr Hooke took the oppor¬
tunity of “ publicly testifying his just esteem for a worthy
H O O
friend, to whom he had been long and much obliged,” by H
telling Mr Pope, that the displaying of his name at the t
head of those sheets was “ like the hanging out a splen- T
did sign to catch the traveller’s eye, and entice him to
make trial of the entertainment the place affords. But,”
he proceeds, “ when I can write under my sign, that Mr
Pope has been here, and was content, who will question
the goodness of the house ?’’ The volume is introduced
by Remarks on the History of the Seven Roman Kino's,
occasioned by Sir Isaac Newton’s objections to the sup¬
posed 244 years’ duration of the royal state of Rome.
His nervous pen was next employed in digesting an ac¬
count of the conduct of the Dowager-duchess of Marl¬
borough, from her first coming to court to the year 1710,
8vo. His reward on this occasion was considerable, and
the reputation he acquired by the performance much
greater. The circumstances of this transaction are thus
related by Dr Maty, in his Memoirs of Lord Chesterfield
(vol. i. p. 116) : “ The relict of the great Duke of Marl¬
borough being desirous of submitting to posterity her po¬
litical conduct, as well as her lord’s, applied to the Earl
of Chesterfield for a proper person to receive her infor¬
mation, and put the memoirs of her life into a proper dress.
Mr Hooke was recommended by him for that purpose.
He accordingly waited upon the duchess, while she was
still in bed, oppressed by the infirmities of age. But,
knowing who he was, she immediately got herself lifted
up, and continued speaking during six hours. She de¬
livered to him, without any notes, her account in the
most lively as well as the most connected manner. As
she was not tired herself, she would have continued longer
the business of this first sitting, had not she perceived
that Mr Hooke was quite exhausted, and wanted refresh¬
ment as well as rest. So eager was she for the comple¬
tion of the work, that she insisted upon Mr Hooke’s not
leaving her house till he had finished it. This was done
in a short time; and her Grace was so well pleased with
the performance, that she complimented the author with
a present of L.5000, a sum which far exceeded his expec¬
tations. As soon as he was free, and permitted to quit
the house of his benefactress, he hastened to the earl to
thank him for his favour, and communicated to him his
good fortune. The perturbation of mind he was under,
occasioned by the strong sense of his obligation, plainly
appeared in his stammering out his acknowledgments;
and he who had succeeded so well as the interpreter of
her Grace’s sentiments, could scarcely utter his own.”
Hie second volume of his Roman History appeared in
1745, when Mr Hooke embraced the occasion of congra¬
tulating his worthy friend the Earl of Marchmont, on
“ that true glory, the consenting praise of the honest and
the wise,’’ which his lordship had so early acquired. To
the second volume Mr Hooke added the Capitoline
Marbles, or Consular Kalendars, an ancient Monument
accidentally discovered at Rome in the year 1545, during
the pontificate of Paul III. In 1758 Mr Hooke publish¬
ed, 1. Observations on the Answer of M. 1’Abbe de Vertot
to the Earl of Stanhope’s Inquiry concerning the Senate
of ancient Rome, dated December 1716 ; 2. A Disserta¬
tion upon the Constitution of the Roman Senate, 1743;
3. A 1 realise on the Roman Senate, by Dr Conyers
Middleton, 1747 ; 4. An Essay on the Roman Senate, by
Dr ihomas Chapman, 1750, a work which he inscribed
to Mr Speaker Onslow. The third volume of Mr Hooke’s
Roman History, to the end of the Gallic war, was printed
under his inspection before his last illness, but did not ap¬
pear till after his death, which happened in 1764. The
fourth and last volume was published in 1771. An octavo
edition of the whole work was afterwards given to the
world.
HOOKER, alias Vowell, John, born in Exeter about
HOC
Hi 2r. the year 1524, was the second son of Robert Hooker, who
^ in 1529 was mayor of that city. He was instructed in
grammar by Dr Moreman, vicar of Menhinit in Cornwall,
and thence removed to Oxford, but to what college is un¬
certain. Having left the university, he travelled through
Germany, and resided some time at Cologne, where he
• kept exercises in law, and probably graduated. He then
went to Strasburg, where he studied divinity under the
famous Peter Martyr. Having returned to England, he
soon afterwards visited France, intending to proceed to
Spain and Italy; but he was prevented by a declaration
of war. He therefore returned to England, and fixed
his residence in his native city, where, having married, he
was in 1554 elected chamberlain, being the first person
who held that office, and in 1571 represented his fellow-
citizens in parliament. He died in the year 1601, and
was buried in the cathedral church at Exeter. He wrote,
amongst other works, 1. Order and Usage of keeping Par¬
liaments in Ireland; 2. The events of Comets or blazing
stars, made upon the sight of the comet Pagonia, which
appeared in November and December 1577 ; 3. An addi¬
tion to the Chronicles of Ireland from 1546 to 1568, in
the second volume of Holinshed’s work; 4. A Descrip¬
tion of the city of Exeter, and of the sundry assaults given
to the same (Holinshed, Chron. vol. iii.) ; 5. A Book of
Ensigns ; 6. Translation of the History of the Conquest of
Ireland, from the Latin of Giraldus Cambrensis (Holin¬
shed, Chron. vol. ii.); 7. Synopsis Chorographica, or an
historical record of the province of Devon, never printed.
Hooker, Richard, a very eminent writer and divine,
was born at Heavytree, near Exeter, in the year 1553.
Some of his ancestors were mayors of that city, and he was
nephew to John Hooker the historian. He was first sup¬
ported by this uncle at the university of Oxford, with the
addition of a small pension from Dr Jewel, bishop of Salis¬
bury, who in 1561 got him admitted as one of the clerks
of Corpus Christi College. In 1573 he was elected scho¬
lar. In 1577 he took the degree of master of arts, and was
admitted a fellow the same year. In July 1579 he was
appointed deputy professor of the Hebrew language ; and
in October the same year he was, for some trivial misde¬
meanour, expelled the college, but immediately restored.
In 1581 he took holy orders; and being appointed to
preach at St Paul’s Cross, he went to London, where he
was unfortunately drawn into an unhappy marriage with
Joan Churchman, the daughter of his hostess. Having
thus lost his fellowship, he continued in the utmost distress
till the year 1584, when he was presented to the rectory
of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire. In this re¬
tirement he was visited by Mr Edwin Sandys and Mr
George Cranmer, his former pupils. They found him,
with a Horace in his hand, tending some sheep in the
common field, his servant having been ordered home by
his Xantippe. Mr Sandys’s representation to his father, of
his tutor’s situation, procured the latter the mastership of
the Temple. In this situation he met with considerable
molestation from one Travers, lecturer of the Temple, and
a bigoted puritan, who in the afternoon endeavoured to
confute the doctrine delivered in the morning. From a
situation so disagreeable he solicited Archbishop Whitgift
to remove him to some country retirement, where he might
prosecute his studies in tranquillity. Accordingly, in 1591
he obtained the rectory of Boscomb in Wiltshire, together
with a prebend in the church of Salisbury, of which he
was also made subdean. In 1594 he was presented to the
rectory of Bishopsbourne in Kent, where he died in the
year 1600. He was buried in his own parish church,
where a monument was erected to his memory by William
Cooper. His great work on Ecclesiastical Polity, first
published in 1594, is a strenuous defence of the English
establishment; but it is at the same time remarkable
H O O 557
for its liberal views of civil government. In this respect Hookery
it coincides nearly with the theory of Locke ; and, indeed, II
Hoadley says that the author was “ styled the father of Hoole-
the Whigs.” Hooker is beyond all question one of the
most dignified and eloquent of our early writers. “ I know
not,” says Mr Hallam, in his Constitutional History of Eng¬
land, “ whether any later writer has more admirably dis¬
played the capacities of our language, or produced pass¬
ages more worthy of comparison with the splendid monu¬
ments of antiquity.” He was the author of several sermons
and tracts. His life, by Isaac Walton, is well known. Dr
Garden, bishop of Worcester, published his works in folio,
with a life by himself, in 1662. This collection has been
several times reprinted, both in folio and in octavo. The
last edition, in three vols. 8vo, with Walton’s life prefixed,
was published in 1830.
HOOKERY, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bejapoor. It is now greatly reduced, being a poor town,
but still exhibits the remains of the magnificence which
it formerly possessed when it was under the Mahommedan
government. The last of the Mogul sovereigns died in
1643. It is fifty-five miles south-south-west from Mer-
ritch. Long. 74. 47. E. Lat. 16. 13. N.
HOOLAIVA, or Holaiva, one of the Hapaee islands,
in the South Pacific Ocean, which was found in a state
of nature when visited by Captain Cook in 1777. It is
joined to Lefooga by a reef that is dry at low water;
and is thirty miles north-north-east of Annamooka. Long.
185. 36. E. Lat. 19. 52. N.
HOOLE, John, translator of the Gierusalemme Libe-
rata of Tasso, was the son of Samuel Hoole, watchmaker,
London, and born at Moorfields in 1727. Having receiv¬
ed some elementary instruction from his uncle, a tailor in
Grub Street, he was sent to a private school in Hertford¬
shire, kept by Bennet, the publisher of Roger Ascham’s
works, where he acquired a knowledge of the Latin and
French languages, and some smattering of Greek. It was
the wish of the father to bring up his son to his own trade
of watchmaker, in which he had met with considerable suc¬
cess ; but the shortsightedness of young Hoole proving
an insuperable objection, he was, at the age of seventeen,
placed as a clerk in the accountant’s department in the
East India House. About this time, having accompanied
to the theatre his father, who had access behind the
scenes, he contracted a fondness for the stage, which, if
indulged, might have proved fatal to him, seeing he
■was entirely devoid of histrionic talents; but his atten¬
tion having been diverted from this pursuit, he employed
his leisure in improving himself in Latin, and in learning
Italian, which he studied with the view of being able to
read in the original the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto, of
which, while a boy, he had become enamoured in the
translation of Sir John Harrington. From admiring he
soon proceeded to translate his favourite production; but
after having made some progress in his task, he laid it
aside for a time, in order to execute a translation of the
Gierusalemme Liberata, which, accordingly, he commen¬
ced in 1758. • In 1761 he printed & specimen, which ap¬
pears to have met the approbation of his friends; for the
whole was published in 1763, with a dedication to the
queen, written by Dr Johnson. This translation is dis¬
tinguished for cold correctness and elaborate elegance ;
but, in the transfusion, the essential spirit of poetry has
in a great measure evaporated, leaving a residuum, the
general character of which is insipidity. In 1773 Hoole
published the first volume of his Orlando Furioso, which
was favourabiy received by the public; but the further
prosecution of the translation was interrupted by his re¬
ceiving an appointment as auditor of accounts to the East
India Company, an office which occupied much of his
time and attention; nor did the whole make its appear-
ance until 1788, when it was published in five vols. 8vo.
In 1785 he wrote the life of his friend Mr Scott, the poet
of Amwell, with whom he had become acquainted in 1757 ;
in 1791 he published the Orlando reduced to twenty-four
books, in two vols. 8vo ; and, in 1792, he gave to the Eng¬
lish public Tasso’s juvenile production, Rinaldo. He also
published, in three vols. 8vo, the dramas and other poems
of Metastasio, his versions of which display more spirit
and variety than his translations of Tasso and Ariosto, of
which the chief characteristic is an uniform and monoto¬
nous smoothness of versification. He was also the author
of several dramas, namely, Cyrus, which appeared in 1768,
Timanthes in 1770, and Cleonice in 1775 ; but none of
these had any success on the stage. Mr Hoole lived in
habits of intimacy with Dr Johnson, whom he attended
in his last illness; and died at Dorking on the 2d of Au¬
gust 1803, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. In his
private character he was amiable and estimable; but
though a man of taste and a good scholar, he had not the
slightest pretension to poetical genius, though, from long
practice, he had acquired considerable skill in the mecha¬
nical construction of verse. He had no kindred sympa¬
thies with the 7nens divinior of true poetry, and in his
hands, accordingly, its finer spirit generally escaped, (a.)
HOOLY Onore, a town of Hindustan, in the Mysore
rajah’s territories. The fort is of a square form, with
towers at the angles, and two on each face. In 1792 this
fort was taken by the British, and completely sacked and
destroyed by the Mahrattas. Prior to this invasion the
country was flourishing and well cultivated; but so dread¬
ful was the havoc occasioned by the Mahrattas, that, ac¬
cording to the statement of one officer, every evening
when the army encamped they could count ten villages
in flames. It is a hundred and twenty-two miles north¬
west from Seringapatam. Long. 75. 41. E. Eat. 13. 44. N.
HOONGA-Hapaee, and Hongatonga, two small
islands in the South Pacific Ocean, consisting of large un¬
inhabitable rocks, seen at the distance of fifteen leagues.
They are thirty and twenty-six miles north from Tonga-
taboo.
HOOPER, John, bishop of Worcester, and a martyr
in the Protestant cause, was born in Somersetshire, and
educated at Oxford, probably in Merton College. In 1518
he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and afterwards be¬
came a Cistertian monk ; but at length, disliking his fra¬
ternity, he returned to Oxford, and there became infected
with Lutheranism. In 1539 he w^as made chaplain and
house-steward, to Sir John Arundel, who afterwards suffer¬
ed with the protector in the reign of Edward VI. But
that very Catholic knight, as Wood calls him, discovering
his chaplain to be a heretic, Hooper was obliged to leave
the kingdom. After continuing some time in France, he
returned to England, and lived with a gentleman called
Seintlow ; but being again discovered, he escaped in the
habit of a sailor to Ireland, whence he embarked for the
Continent, and fixed his abode in Switzerland. When
King Edward came to the crown, Hooper returned once
more to his native country. By his old patron Sir John
Arundel’s interest with the Earl of Warwick, he was con¬
secrated Bishop of Gloucester in 1550 ; and two years after
he was nominated to the see of Worcester, which he held
in commendam with the former. But Queen Mary had
scarcely ascended the throne, when Bishop Hooper was
imprisoned, tried, and, not choosing to recant, condemned
to the flames. He suffered death at Gloucester, on the
9th of February 1554, being then nearly sixty years of age.
He w as an avowed enemy to the church of Rome, and not
perfectly reconciled to what he thought remnants of popery
in the church of England. In the former reign he had
been one ot Bonner’s accusers, a circumstance which suf¬
ficiently accounts for his being made one of Queen Mary’s
first victims. He was a person of good parts and learn- Hood •
ing- . ||
Hooper, George, an eminent English divine, was born at Hoorn,
Grimley, Worcestershire, on the 18th of November 1640. ^y>-
Having been instructed in grammar and classical learning,
first at St Paul’s, and afterwards at Westminster School,
where he was a king’s scholar, he w as thence elected, 1657, .
to Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degrees at
the regular periods, and distinguished himself by his know¬
ledge in philosophy, mathematics, Greek and Roman an¬
tiquities, and the oriental languages. In 1677 he was ap¬
pointed almoner to the Princess of Orange, and went over
to Holland, where he resided about a year, and then re¬
turned. In 1680 he is said to have been offered the divi¬
nity professorship at Oxford, which, however, was confer¬
red on Dr Jane. In 1685 he attended the Duke of Mon¬
mouth in the Tower, and had much free conversation with
that unfortunate nobleman, to whom, in his last moments,
Hooper administered the consolations of religion. In 1691
he succeeded Dr Sharp in the deanery of Canterbury; in
1698 he wms appointed preceptor to the Duke of Glouces¬
ter ; and in 1701 he was chosen prolocutor of the Lower
House of Convocation. In May 1703 he was nominated to
the bishopric of St Asaph ; and in March following he was
translated to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, over which
he presided during the long period of twenty-three years
and a half. Bishop Hooper died at Berkley, Somerset¬
shire, whither he had been accustomed occasionally to re¬
tire, on the 6th of September 1727, in the eighty-seventh
year of his age. Besides some sermons, he published se¬
veral works in his lifetime, and left a number of manuscripts,
some of which he permitted to be printed. The following
is a catalogue of both, viz. 1. The Church of England free
from the imputation of Popery, 1682; 2. Discussion of the
Controversy between the Church of England and the
Church of Rome, concerning the Infallible Guide ; 3. The
Parson’s case under the Land-tax, 1689 ; 4. A Discourse
concerning Lent, 1694 ; 5. A Calculation of the credibi¬
lity of Human Testimony, jP/id. Trans, for October 1699;
6. New Danger of Presbytery/1737 ; 7. Marks of a De¬
fenceless Cause ; 8. A Narrative of the Proceedings of the
Lower House of Convocation from February 1700 to June
1701 ; 9. De Valentinianorum Haeresi conjecturae, quibus
illius Origo ex iEgyptiaca Theologia deducitur, 1711; 10.
An Inquiry into the State of the Ancient Measures, 1721;
11. De Patriarchae Jacobi Benedictione Conjecturae. Among
the manuscripts above mentioned, are a Latin sermon, and
a Latin tract on Divorce. A beautiful edition of the works
of Hooper was printed at Oxford, 1757, in folio, under the
superintendence of Dr Hunt, professor of Hebrew, (a.)
HOORN, a city of the Netherlands, in the province of
North Holland, and the capital of a circle of its own name.
It is situated on the Zuyder Zee, is surrounded with ancient
walls, and has a good harbour, with docks, and accommoda¬
tions for ship-building. It contains ten churches, 2640
houses, and (in 1834) 10,200 inhabitants. The district
around it is celebrated for the quantity of cheese it produ¬
ces, more than four million pounds having been exported in
some years. It was the place where that mode of curing
herrings which has contributed much to the wealth of the
country, was first practised. It was the birthplace of the
navigator Schouten, who discovered the southernmost cape
of America, which still universally bears the name of his
native city. It was taken by the English and Russians in
September 1799, but was speedily abandoned, from being
too far in advance of the line of operations. Long. 4. 54.
E. Lat. 52. 38. N.
Hoorn Islands, two islands in the South Pacific Ocean,
discovered in the year 1616 by Le Maire and Schouten.
They were afterwards seen by the navigator Maurelle in
1781. The natives are treacherous, and had well nigh
HOP
} i succeeded in cutting off a trading vessel by which they were
visited in 1801. They are encircled by a reef of rocks.
H:^ Long. 171. 30. E. Lat. 15. S.
^ HOP, a plant of great importance in brewing. This
plant was originally brought into England from the Nether¬
lands in the year 1524. Hops are first mentioned in the
English statute book in the year 1552, viz. in the 5th and
6th of Edward VI. c. 5. And by an act of parliament of
the first year of James I. c. 18, it appears that hops were
then produced in abundance in England.
HOPE is the desire of some good, attended with a be¬
lief of the possibility at least of obtaining it, and enlivened
with joy, greater or less, according to the greater or less
probability of our possessing the object of our hope.
Hope, Sir Thomas, Bart, lord advocate to King Charles
I. The earliest progenitor of this celebrated person no¬
ticed by our genealogists is John de Hoip, who, they say,
came from France in the retinue of Margaret, queen of
King James V. His son Edward Hoip was a person of repu¬
tation in Edinburgh in the time of Mary ; and being a great
promoter of the Reformation, was chosen a commissioner
to represent the city in the memorable parliament of 1560.
He was father of Henry Hoip or Hope, a considerable
merchant, who had by his wife Jaqueline de Tott, a Dutch
woman, said by a contemporary to have some time kept a
worsted shop in Edinburgh, two sons, ZTewn/and Thomas.
The former became ancestor of the great and opulent
branch of the Hopes, long settled at Amsterdam. Thomas,
the individual before us, after passing through his gram¬
matical education, which he did with some applause, obtain¬
ed the place of servitor or clerk to the eminent Mr (after¬
wards Sir) John Nicolson of Laswade, advocate, under
whom were, in all probability, formed the elements of his
after fortunes. The situation of clerk to a practising ad¬
vocate of the Scottish bar is at this day of some conse¬
quence ; it was then of more. Prior to the institution of
the College of Justice in 1532, division of labour in the
profession of the law was scarcely known ; and in the ad¬
vocate, or procurator, as he was indifferently called, were
united at once the chamber counsel, the barrister, and the
attorney. The legal skill and knowledge, however, which
the institution of the College of Justice induced, gradual¬
ly detached the business of an attorney; and by act of se¬
derunt dated 13th July 1596, advocates’ first clerks were
empowered to act below the bar, exclusive of all third per¬
sons. The place was valuable on a higher ground ; it was
almost the only path to professional knowledge, and in¬
deed the domestic nursery of the bar. Our ancient com¬
mon law having, on the erection of the Court of Session,
been superseded by the principles of the Roman jurispru¬
dence, the Scottish bar was, till the union, or rather till
our own day, generally prepared for at some one of the
foreign colleges, of which those of France and Italy were
the most frequented, until the lustre of the Cujacian
school in the Low Countries, aiding the connection which
arose between us and them at the Reformation, drew the
student thither. A knowledge of practice, however, still
remained to be acquired ; but Edinburgh had not yet its
chairs of law, nor had the bar sent forth its Craig, its
Stair, or its Mackenzie ; and, according to the principles
of the papal tribunals, of whose spirit the Court of Ses¬
sion partook so largely at its institution, the deliberations
of the court were in secret with shut doors; none were
then admitted within except the judges and officers of
court, and these were all sworn to secrecy. The cham¬
ber of a practising advocate was therefore sought by all
who meant to make the law the object of their pursuit.
In the situation of servitor to Mr Nicolson we find Hope
in the year 1600, in which also he married Elizabeth,
daughter of John Binning, Esq. of the old and wealthy
house of Binning of Wallyford, county of Haddington.
H O JP
About the same time he was appcinted solicitor for life,
in all actions and causes touching the collection and re¬
ceipt of new augmentations, with a salary of L.200 Scots
per annum. This appointment was made “ with advice
and consent” of Mr John Preston of Barns, a lord of ses¬
sion, and afterwards president of that court, collector-
general of the augmentations ; who also, on the 10th of
March 1599, resigned his seat as one of the commissaries
of Edinburgh, in Hope’s favour. The general assembly
also nominated him solicitor to the phurch.
On the 7th of February 1605 he was admitted advocate ;
and on the 9th of April following, we find him “ advocate-
substitute” (that is, as we understand, substitute to the
king’s advocate, then Hamilton of Binning) in the prose¬
cution before the justiciary, at the instance of James Lib-
berton, servant to James, Lord Balmerino, president of
the Court of Session, against certain individuals for an as¬
sault.
His next appearance was on the other side of the bar,
in the famous case of the ministers, which, as it exempli¬
fies much not only of Hope’s character, but also of the
sentiments of the time in regard both to religious and civil
liberty, merits some attention.
In 1592 presbyterianism was established in Scotland
by law, but much against the wish of the sovereign, who
accordingly lent all his efforts to suppress it again, and to
substitute in its stead the show and subordination of epis¬
copacy. His first attack was directed against the gene¬
ral assembly (the convocation of the Scottish church),
which, although its meeting “ every yeir at the least, and
ohenerpro re nata, as occasion and necessity sail require,”
was expressly secured by statute of the above year, he
prorogued twice successively, first on account of the ac¬
cession, and then on pretence of adjusting the union. A
third prorogation was issued, and, as if to declare that the
power of calling the assembly was in the king, no time
was fixed for its meeting. The royal designs being thus
manifest, it became incumbent on the church, if it meant to
maintain its liberties, now to make a stand. According¬
ly nine presbyteries sent their representatives to Aber¬
deen on the 2d of July 1605, the day and place named in
the former prorogation. When they had assembled, Strai¬
ten of Laurieston, the king’s commissioner, presented
them a letter from the privy council, which being address¬
ed “ to the brethren of the ministry, convened at their as¬
sembly in Aberdeen,” they resolved should not be read
till they were constituted. They proceeded accordingly
to elect a moderator and clerk. They then took up the
letter, when a messenger-at-arms, also from the privy
council, entered, and charged them to dismiss under pain
of rebellion. The church having, in constituting their
meeting, asserted their right to a general assembly, were
prepared to comply with the wish of the council, and only
requested the king’s commissioner to name a day and
place for next assembly. On his refusal, the moderator
appointed the assembly to meet again on the last Tues¬
day of September ensuing, and then dissolved the meet¬
ing with prayer. The conduct of the church on this oc¬
casion was worthy of a people who had their religious li¬
berty secured to them by law, and was marked at once
by zeal for the rights of the church and respect for the
authority of the sovereign, by intrepidity and moderation ;
but no sooner was the king apprised of it, than he direct¬
ed the parties to be proceeded against with all rigour.
John Forbes, minister at Airfurd, the moderator, John
Welsh, minister at Ayr, and four others, were therefore
cited to appear before the privy council to answer for
their conduct. They appeared accordingly, but respect¬
fully declined the jurisdiction of the tribunal as incompe¬
tent. A new crime thus sprung into being ; and Hamil¬
ton, the king’s advocate, and his ready instrument on all
559
Hope.
560 HOP
Hope, occasions, thereupon brought a prosecution against the
six ministers, under an act passed during the infamous ad¬
ministration of Arran in 1584), which declared that none
should decline the judgment of the king or privy council,
under the pain of treason. On the 10th of January 1606
the trial came on at Linlithgow, and the counsel chosen
by the prisoners were, “ Mr Thomas Gray and Mr Tho¬
mas Hoip, advocates,” Craig and Oliphant having refused
to plead in the cause, though it seems they had previous¬
ly engaged to do so. .Gray was a man of sincere affection
to the cause, and of good skill in the law ; but he had no
great readiness of utterance. Hope had never before
pleaded in that court. A formal plea was first put in and
overruled. Hope then argued the case to the court; but
all his arguments, able and conclusive though they were,
and his courage, learning, and ingenuity in maintaining
them, proved unavailing; the indictment was sustained,
and the truth of the facts sent to the jury as their only
province; for, according to the practice of that time, all
the facts of the case were circumstantially stated in the
indictment, with a view to limit the jury to the single
point whether the facts were proved or not, their effect,
if proved, being already settled by the authority of the
court, which the juries of that period scarcely ever ven¬
tured to dispute. The jury by a majority, and after much
tampering and undue influence, found all the defendants
guilty of treason, and in September following they were
banished the kingdom for life.
The next notice we have of Hope is in a letter from the
council to the king, dated 24th June 1608, where Oliphant,
Russel, King, and he, are mentioned as “ the most learn¬
ed and best experienced of their professioun and we find
that he gradually entered on the largest professional prac¬
tice of his time. His knowledge of tithes and church-law
was particularly remarked, so that King Charles L, whose
anxiety to recover the church property is well known,
impressed with a sense of his value, immediately on his
accession appointed him king’s advocate, in conjunction
with the aged Sir William Oliphant of Newton. The king
also then knighted him ; and the Court of Session, by act
of sederunt dated 12th July 1626, passed at the king’s re¬
quest, allowed him to plead covered. The nature of this
last act has been strangely misapprehended by some of our
writers. The usual explanation is, that having two (Play-
fdir, Sharp, and some other peerage writers, assert he had
three) sons on the bench, the court indulged him with the
privilege of pleading with his cap on like the judges; it
being deemed indecorous, they say, that a father should
stand uncovered before his sons. The truth is, however,
that Hope had no son on the bench at this time, nor for
six years afterwards ; and the act of sederunt had an origin
altogether different. From the institution of the College
of Justice till this time, the king’s advocate was a member,
not only of the bar, but also of the bench. But in Fe¬
bruary 1626, Oliphant was removed from the bench, and a
royal ordinance issued, that no officer of state should have
an ordinary seat there. It was this ordinance which was
the occasion of the act in question ; and the intent and
meaning of the act no doubt was to assert and establish
the equality of the king’s advocate with the bench. It
was not long before Hope took occasion to vindicate his
dignity in a more substantial way ; for it appears that, on
account of some expressions used by him at the bar, the
judges thought fit to visit him with a public censure. This,
however, was not to be endured by Hope ; so on his appli¬
cation to the fountain of honour, a royal letter, of date 4th
ecember 1626, was despatched to the judges, in which
t ie king sharply reproved them for their want of respect*
and desired that in future none in his high office should
therewith CenSUred’ without first acquainting the king
HOP
On the 11th of February 1628, Hope was created a ha- Hope
ronet; and on Oliphant’s death in April following, he ob- ''-’■y-N
tained a patent of the office of sole advocate to the kino-
and prince for life, with a pension of L.200 sterling yearly
out of the crown rents; an allowance larger than that en¬
joyed by the judges, or than had previously been annexed
to the office. Not being a lord of session, a letter from
the king was then also transmitted to the judges to allow
him to remain in court during its deliberations, “ sua that
he may heir and knaw such thingis as sail happin to occur
that concernis his majesty,” the deliberations of the court
being at this time carried on with shut doors; and as they
proved dilatory in the matter, the king despatched a per¬
emptory order, dated 10th October 1628, to allow him to sit
within the bar, and to remain in court during its delibera¬
tions, both, in fact, ancient privileges of the king’s advo¬
cate. This they obeyed on the 19th of November 1628,
taking Hope’s oath “ to keip the secreits of the house.”
In 1630 he received from the crown a gift of L.2000. In
1632 his eldest son was knighted, and made a lord of ses¬
sion ; and the next year his second son likewise received
the honour of knighthood.
It was in 1632 that Hope produced his Minor Practicks,
or Observations on the Law, delivered by him to his son
orally, it is said, at his mornings’ toilet. It is distinguish¬
ed for its legal learning, the breadth and boldness of its
views, the acuteness of its remarks, and the subtilty of its
distinctions. To this last quality of it, indeed, we are in¬
debted for the sketch of its author by Dirleton, who cha¬
racterises Hope as “ juris nostri peritissimus, sed nimiae
et captiosse subtilitatis.” A more minute account of Hope
is given by Mackenzie. His forte, says he, consisted in a
wonderful power of invention, which supplied him with so
great a multitude of topics that he commonly wanted time
for their exposition. His course in debate was uniform,
yet peculiar; for when he had propounded an argument or
exception, he usually adduced the reason upon which it
was founded, and if that appeared doubtful, then the rea¬
son of the reason, or the ultimate principle itself. The
resources of rhetoric were not unknown to him, but it
seemed as if they were unnecessary. Of the illustrious
triumvirate who in the days of Hope, Nicholson, and Stuart,
adorned the Scottish bar, Nicholson improved our eloquence,
Hope the law itself.
It was he who, according to some, devised the irritant
and resolutive clauses of entails; the one to annul the deed
attempted to be granted, the other to dissolve and forfeit
the right of the person making the attempt. He also de¬
vised the title by adjudication on an heir’s feigned bond.
We are moreover told that he recommended to the lords
of erection, or titulars of church lands, a mode of getting
all the kirk livings back again, notwithstanding the act of
parliament which annexed them for ever to the crown, by
causing a wadset of the same to be taken, and declaring in
the writs that his majesty was indebted in large sums of
money, though indeed he owed none. To the exercise of
Hope’s ingenuity in this last case, however, a different cri¬
terion must be applied from any that can be used in the
others, he being in the employment of his sovereign to ob¬
tain and secure the annexation. Burnet expressly says
that “ Sir Thomas Hope, a subtle lawyer, who was believed
to understand the matter of church property beyond all the
men of his profession, though in all respects he was a zea¬
lous puritan, was made the king’s advocate, on his under-
toMng to bring all the church lands back to the crown ; yet,”
adds the bishop, “ he proceeded in the matter so slowly, that
it was believed he acted in concert with the party that op¬
posed it.”
Hope’s conduct was equally unprincipled in another re¬
spect. During the struggles between the king and the
puritans, he was the adviser of both. The tumult at Edin-
H O R
Hie burgh in 1637, the supplication to the privy council in
Is d 1638, the war against the king in 1639, and the conven¬
tion of estates in 1643, were all known to and approved
H°r i!o' of by him ; yet all this time he was the king’s advocate,
and by his flattering carriage, says Bishop Guthry, in¬
sinuated himself so far with his majesty, that notwithstand¬
ing information enough, his majesty consulted and was
ruled by him in most of his affairs. On account of the
benefits derived by them from his counsels, the Covenan¬
ters continued him in his office of king’s advocate ; his se¬
cond son, Sir Thomas, who had commanded the College of
Justice troop in their army against the king, they made a
lord of session, and lord justice general of Scotland; and
his sixth son, Sir James, they made governor-general of
the mint, then an office of importance, to which they an¬
nexed an exclusive local jurisdiction, both civil and crimi¬
nal. The king, on the other hand, appointed Hope to al¬
most the only place then in his gift, namely, that of his
commissioner to the general assembly, a place new to a
commoner, and in which Hope, now giddy with the height
to which he had been raised, carried himself proudly and
extravagantly. He died in November 1646. (u. u. u.)
Hope Island, an island situated in the South Pacific
Ocean, and discovered in 1772. It is not far from Ceram
island. There are also two small islands of this name near
the north-east coast of New Holland. Long. 214. 36. W
Lat. 15. 41. S.
HOPLITES, HopliTjE (formed from ottXoi/, armour), in
Antiquity, were such of the candidates at the Olympic
and other sacred games as ran races in armour. One of
the finest pieces of Parrhasius was a painting representing
two hoplites ; the one running, and seeming to sweat large
drops, and the other laying down his arms, exhausted and
out of breath.
HOPLITODROMOS (formed from ivXov, armour, and
hopfjj'ji, I run), in the ancient gymnastic sports, a term ap¬
plied to such persons as went through toilsome and robust
exercises in complete armour.
HOPLOMACHI, 'O’rr'kogayyji (composed of ikrXov, ar¬
mour, and tMuyppjui, I fight), in Antiquity, were a species
of gladiators who fought in armour ; being either completely
armed from head to foot, or provided only with a casque
and cuirass.
HOPPER, a vessel in which seed-corn is carried during
the time of sowing. 1 he word is also used for the wooden
trough in a mill, into which the corn is put to be ground.
HOR, a mountain or mountainous tract of Arabia Pe-
traea, situated in that circuit which the Israelites took to
the south and south-east of Edom in their way to the bor¬
ders of Moab. On this mountain Aaron died. The inha¬
bitants were called Hordes. This tract was also denomi¬
nated Seir.
HORdSA, in Antiquity, were solemn sacrifices, consist¬
ing of fruits and other products of the earth, offered in
spring, summer, autumn, and winter, that heaven might
grant mild and temperate weather. These, according to
Meursius, were offered to the goddesses called 'Uga/, or
Hours, who, being three in number, attended upon the sun,
presided over the four seasons of the year, and had divine
honours paid them at Athens.
HORAPOLLO, or Hoaus Apollo, was, according to
jsuidas, a grammarian of Panoplus in Egypt, who taught
rst at Alexandria, and afterwards at Constantinople, un-
er the reign of Theodosius, or about the year 380 of our
era. But as there were several persons of this name, it is
uncertain whether the grammarian of Panoplus, or some
ocier Horus Apollo, was the author of the two books still
-taut, r ^rniug the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians,”
which Aldus first published in Greek, 1505, in folio. These
ooks have often been republished since, with a Latin ver-
ion and notes; but the best edition of them is that of
VOL. XI.
HOR
561
Cornelius de Pauw, which appeared at Utrecht in the year Horatii
1727, in 4to. Fabricius is of opinion that the Hierogly- ii
phica did not emanate from the grammarian of Panoplus, to Horatius-
whom indeed Suidasdoes not attribute it, but that it is the
production of another Horus Apollo, who flourished about
fifteen hundred years before Christ, and wrote upon hiero¬
glyphics in the Egyptian language, and from whose work
an abstract was afterwards made, and translated into the
Greek language. And this much seems certain, that,
whatever may have been the epoch of the original author,
the two books of Hieroglyphics contain the substance of
an older work, interspersed with the fancies and conceits of
a later age, when the true import of many of the Egyptian
symbols was no longer understood. These books, how¬
ever, besides being exceedingly curious in themselves,
have derived a new and unexpected interest from the dis¬
coveries of Dr Young and M. Champollion; and though
the former somewhat hastily treated the explanations of
Horus Apollo as mere puerilities, the latter showed, in a
very satisfactory manner, that some of them at least were
well founded, and susceptible of confirmation from the in¬
terpretation of the hieroglyphical texts on the monuments ;
in other words, assuming these explanations as correct,
and combining such assumptions with the values of other
characters ascertained by different means, he found that
the whole led to results, the truth of which was either self-
evident or demonstrable. At the same time, it cannot be
disputed that, in the abridged Greek version, there are
many absurdities that could never have had a place in the
Egyptian original from which it was made, and which must
therefore be regarded as the interpolations of an age when
the knowledge of hieroglyphics had declined, and the va¬
lues of the more recondite symbols, particularly the tro¬
pical and enigmatical, had been lost. Besides, the analo¬
gies on which Horus Apollo endeavours to explain the ori¬
ginal employment and secondary import of the signs, are,
many of them, fanciful and remote, though sometimes in¬
genious ; they proceed upon assumptions, the truth of
which cannot now be ascertained, and which are occasion¬
ally too far fetched and ridiculous not to startle the most
credulous. It is highly probable, indeed, that, in the course
of ages, the primary analogies were forgotten ; that, in
practice, many of the signs were employed arbitrarily,
without reference to their precise original import, whether
kuriological or tropical, usage prevailing over strict prin¬
ciple ; and that abbreviated forms, though possessing in
use a known and determinate value, were no longer sus¬
ceptible of being resolved and re-expanded into their ori¬
ginal elements. But, with all these drawbacks, this abridg¬
ment is highly curious in itself, and, in several instances,
has afforded a clue to explanations which, but for the as¬
sistance afforded by it, might never have been discovered.
See the article Hieroglyphics, passim. (a.)
HORATII, three Roman brothers, who, under the reign
of Tullus Hostilius, fought against the three Curiatii, be¬
longing to the Alban army. Two of the Horatii were
killed; but the third, by his address, successively slew the
three wounded Curiatii, and by this victory rendered the
city of Alba subject to the Romans.
HORA IIUS, surnamed Codes, from his losing an eye in
combat, was nephew of the consul Horatius Pulvillus, and
descended from one of the three brothers who fought against
the Curiatii. Porsenna having laid siege to Rome, drove the
Romans from Janiculum, and pursued them to the wooden
bridge over the Tiber, which joined the city to Janiculum.
Largius, Herminius, and Horatius Codes, sustained the
shock of the enemy at the bridge, and prevented them en¬
tering the city with the Romans; but Largius and Hermi¬
nius having passed the bridge, Horatius Codes was left
alone, and repulsed the enemy till the bridge was broken
down under him, when he threw himself armed into the
4 b
562 H O R
Horatius. Tiber, swam across the river, and entered Rome in tri-
umph.
HORATIUS Flaccus, Q. one of the most celebrated of
the Roman lyric poets, who was born on the 8th of Decem¬
ber, b. c. 65, and died at the age of fifty-seven, b. c. 8. He
was the son of a freedman of Venusia, a small village on the
confines of Apulia and Lucania. His father’s employment
seems to have been that of an auctioneer (Sat. i. 6, 86);
but he possessed also a small landed property, which, how¬
ever, he soon abandoned to proceed to Rome, where he
had a better opportunity of attending to the education of
his son. The studies of the young poet were directed by
the most eminent scholars of which Rome could then
boast, and amongst others by Orbillius Pupillus, a celebrat¬
ed philosopher. Towards his twentieth year Horace fol¬
lowed the custom which was then prevalent amongst the
young Romans, and proceeded to Athens with the view
of studying under the philosophers which that city still
produced. He seems first to have directed his attention
to the doctrines of the Academic School, though he was
afterwards captivated by the more congenial philosophy of
the Epicureans ; and the general complexion of his life
seems to have been influenced by this predilection, though,
towards its close, he seems to have leaned a little to¬
wards the sterner and nobler creed of the Porch. He does
not, however, acknowledge himself as the partisan of any
peculiar system (Epist. i. 1,13), but, like most of the emi¬
nent Romans of his time, was of the Eclectic School,
which pretended to be a selection of the more reasonable
doctrines of all the others. The murder of Caesar, and the
disturbances which ensued (b. c. 43), interrupted the phi¬
losophical studies of Horace. His feelings led him to
support the cause of freedom, and he became a tribune in
the army of Brutus; but his conduct at the battle of Philippi,
which he has himself characterised with equal candour
and naivete, showed that he was not qualified to distinguish
himself in the career of arms. He took advantage of the
amnesty which the conqueror found it politic to grant after
this unsuccessful attempt at resistance, and returned to
his native country, where he found little cause of satisfac¬
tion either in the political aspect of the times, or in the
events which had taken place in his own family. The
death of his father had left him to his own resources, and
his small patrimony had been confiscated in consequence
of the part which he had taken in public affairs. It was
about this time that he seems first to have attracted notice
by his poetical genius, and to have become acquainted with
the poets Virgil and Varius. Through their interest he
was introduced to Maecenas and Augustus, who not only
admitted him to their intimate friendship, but presented
the poet with a small property in the country of the Sa¬
bines, where he spent the greater part of his life in the
quiet enjoyment of rural happiness. Here he composed
most of those works which have immortalized his name.
The works of Horace are of two kinds; lyric and didac¬
tic. To the first class belong the Odes, and in the latter
we reckon the Satires and Epistles, which are often dis¬
tinguished by the general name of Sermones or Eclogcu.
(See Bentley, Prcrfat. ed. Horat.) Though Horace was
only pursuing the path in which he had been preceded
by Lucilius, still we must consider the appearance of his
Satires as constituting a new era in this particular species
of composition. The overthrow of the Roman republic,
and the consequent check given to freedom of speech, the
change which had taken place in political affairs, and the
personal connection of the poet with Augustus, Maecenas,
and the other distinguished men of the emperor’s court,
may well be supposed to have been little calculated to
produce a satire of the peculiar character and freedom of
Lucilius. Satire of such a kind was not only impracti¬
cable, but would have been without interest and without
H O R
effect from the change which had taken place in the Ho.,
modes of thinking amongst the Romans. Such a change ^ j
could not escape the notice of a man so clear headed and
well acquainted with the world as the poet; the acts of
men around him seemed to him to be the result of folly,
and in this ridiculous light he presents them before us in his
Satires. The object which he had in view was not so much
to lash with all the power of indignant virtue the crimes
of mankind, and thereby to procure their amendment, as,
by the employment of the most delicate irony, and by
laughter and ridicule, to draw them to the path of virtue.
It was in this way alone that he could hope to improve the
character of his contemporaries. The Satires of Horace
supply in some degree the absence of all pure Roman
comedy, representative of their actual life and manners.
They may be considered as a mirror, in which the details
of private life, and the every-day transactions of the times,
are faithfully reflected. The Epistles resemble the Satires
in character, except that they teach more directly les¬
sons of virtue and morality.
Horace was a poet in his philosophy, and a philosopher
in his poetry. He viewed the one through the medium
of the imagination, and attempered the other with the
sober spirit of truth. His observation is intuitive and un¬
erring, his ridicule keen but not envenomed; he laughs
at human follies without attempting to depreciate or de¬
grade human nature ; his sarcasms, though cutting, are felt
to be just as well as polished ; and we recognise in him the
Democritus of poetry, who employed ridicule as an instru¬
ment of correction, not of malice. Hence his writings,
with which we are familiar from boyhood, carry with them
attractions which are felt in every period of life, and in
almost every rank of society. They charm alike by the
harmony of the numbers, the purity of the diction, the
correctness of the imagery, and the justness of the senti¬
ments. They exhilarate the gay, and interest the serious,
according to the nature of the subject upon which the
poet exercises his power. Professing neither the preci¬
sion of analysis, nor the copiousness of system, they pos¬
sess advantages which analysis and system rarely attain.
They exhibit human imperfections as these really are,
and human excellence as it practically ought to be ; they
develope every principle of virtue in morals, and point out
every modification of decorum in manners; they please
without the glare of ornament, and instruct without the
formality of precept. These exquisite compositions are
the productions of a mind enlightened by study, and in¬
vigorated by observation; they are comprehensive, but
not visionary ; delicate, but not fastidious; in them saga¬
city is unwarped by prejudice, and generosity uncramped
by suspicion. They are distinguished by diction always
adapted to the sentiment, and by efforts nicely proportion¬
ed to the occasion. They exhibit elegance without affec¬
tation, sublimity without bombast, satire without buffoon¬
ery, philosophy without mysticism. Hence it is that the
writings of Horace are more extensively read, more clearly
understood, and more acutely relished, than those of al¬
most any other ancient author ; they are perfect models
of their kind, and will pass down to the most distant pos¬
terity as among the most finished and faultless productions
of the classic muse.
Numerous editions have been published of his works,
but the best are those by Gesner, Lips. 1752, 1772; Bent¬
ley, Cantab. 1711; Doring, Lips. 1803; Fea, Rom. 1811;
to which may be added the more recent editions of Wake¬
field, Hunter, and Mitscherlich. The first four books of
the Odes have been translated into English verse by
'Wrangham (Lond. 1820), and the Satires and Epistles by
Dunster (1712).
HORDE, in Geography, is used to signify a company
or mass of wandering people, who have no settled habita-
H O R
Ijlorc lia tion, but stroll about, dwelling in waggons or under tents,
ready to shift their quarters as soon as the herbage and
HoriMtal fruits are exhausted.
^ HORDICALIA, or Hordicidia, in Antiquity, a reli¬
gious feast amongst the Romans, in which they sacrificed
cattle large with young. This feast fell on the 15th of
April, on which day they sacrificed thirty cows with calf to
the goddess Tellus, or the Earth, part of them being immo¬
lated in the temple of Jupiter. The calves taken out of
their bellies were burned to ashes, at first by the ponti-
fices, but afterwards by the eldest of the vestal virgins.
HOREB, or Oreb, a mountain of Arabia Petraea, con¬
tiguous to Mount Sinai on the south, and the scene of
many miraculous appearances.
HORISPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the Sikh
territories, in the province of Lahore, ninety-eight miles
east-south-east from the city of Lahore. Long. 75. 27. E.
Lat 31. 30. N.
HORIZON, or Horison, in Geography and Astronomy,
a great circle of the sphere, dividing the world into two
parts or hemispheres ; the one upper and visible, the other
lower and hidden. The word is pure Greek, which
literally signifies bounding or terminating the sight, be¬
ing formed from og/^<w, termino, dejinio, to bound or limit.
See Astronomy and Geography.
The horizon is either rational or sensible. The rational,
true, or astronomical horizon, which is also called simply and
absolutely the horizon, is a great circle of the sphere, the
plane of which passes through the centre of the earth,
and the poles of which are the zenith and nadir. It divides
the sphere into two equal parts or hemispheres. The
sensible, visible, or apparent horizon, is a lesser circle of
the sphere, which divides the visible part of the sphere
from the invisible. Its poles, too, are the zenith and na¬
dir, consequently the sensible horizon is parallel to the
rational; and it is cut at right angles, and into two equal
parts, by the verticals. The sensible horizon is divided
into eastern and western. The eastern or ortive horizon is
that part of the horizon in which the heavenly bodies
rise ; the western or occidual horizon is that in which
the stars set. The altitude or elevation of any point of
the sphere is an arch of a vertical circle intercepted be¬
tween it and the sensible horizon. By sensible horizon
is also frequently meant a circle, which determines the
segment of the surface of the earth, over which the eye
can reach, and it is also called the physical horizon. In
this sense we say, a spacious horizon, a narrow, scanty
horizon, and so forth.
HORIZONTAL, something which relates to the ho¬
rizon, or is taken in the horizon, or on a level with the
horizon. Thus we say, a horizontal plane, a horizontal
line, and the like.
Horizontal Dial is that which is drawn on a parallel
to the horizon, having its gnomon or style elevated accord¬
ing to the altitude of the pole of the place for which it
is designed. Horizontal dials are, of all others, the most
simple and easy. The manner of describing them may be
seen under the article Dialling.
Horizontal Line, in Perspective, \% a right line drawn
through the principal point, parallel to the horizon; or it
is the intersection of the horizontal and perspective planes.
See Perspective.
Horizontal Plane is that which is parallel to the ho¬
rizon of the place, or nothing inclined thereto. The busi¬
ness of levelling is to find whether two points be in the
horizontal plane, or how much is the deviation between
them.
Horizontal Plane, in Perspective, is a plane parallel to
the horizon, passing through the eye, and cutting the per¬
spective plane at right angles.
Horizontal Range, or Level Range, of a piece of ord-
H O R 563
nance, is the line it describes when directed parallel to Horn
the horizon or horizontal line. [j
HORN, in Physiology, a hard substance growing on the florae,
heads of different animals, particularly the cloven-footed
quadrupeds, and serving them both as weapons of offence
and defence.
Horn is also a sort of musical instrument of the wind
kind, which is chiefly used in hunting, to animate and
bring together the dogs and the hunters. The term an¬
ciently was, wind a horn, all horns being in those times
compassed; but since straight horns have come into fashion,
they say blow a horn, and sometimes sound a horn.
The French Horn is merely a wreathed or contorted
trumpet.
Horn Distemper, a disease incident to horned cattle, af¬
fecting the internal substance of the horn, commonly called
the pith, which it insensibly wastes, leaving the horn hol¬
low.
Horn- Worh (puvrage a come), in fortification, an out¬
work composed of a front and two branches ; the front con¬
sisting of two half bastions and a curtain. This work is of
the nature of a crown-work, but smaller, and serves the
same purposes. The use of horn-works, in general, is to
occupy some rising grounds in advance of the principal for¬
tification, the distance of which determines that of the horn-
work ; and they are placed either before the curtain or be¬
fore the bastions, according to circumstances.
HORNBERG, a town of the duchy of Baden, in Ger¬
many, in the circle of Kinzig, the capital of a bailiwick of
the same name, in the Black Forest, comprehending one
town and thirteen villages, with 8350 inhabitants. The
town is situated in a romantic vale, and contains 1225 in¬
dividuals.
HORNBY, a market-town in the parish of Melling, of
the hundred of Lonsdale, in the county of Lancaster, 249
miles from London. It is situated on the river Lyne, has
a Gothic church with an octagonal tower, and near to it
is an ancient castle, built by the Barons Monteagle.
There is a good market held on Thursday. The popula¬
tion amounted in 1801 to 414, in 1811 to 420, in 1821 to
477, and in 1831 to 383.
HORNCASTLE, a town and parish of the county of
Lincoln, in Lindsey Division, 136 miles from London. It
stands on the river Bane, in a valley which at seasons is
nearly overflowed. It was an ancient Roman station, and
some of the walls constructed by the Romans are still vi¬
sible. There is a medicinal spring near the town, but it
is not much applied to. There is a good market, which
is held on Saturday. A canal has been constructed, which
connects the river Bane with the Witham. The population
amounted in 1801 to 2015, in 1811 to 2622, in 1821 to
3058, and in 1831 to 3988.
HORNCHURCH, a town in the hundred of Romford,
of the county of Essex, fourteen miles from London, the
population of which amounted in 1801 to 1331, in 1811 to
1562, in 1821 to 1938, and in 1831 to 2186.
HORNE, George, an English prelate of considerable
eminence, was born in the vicinity of Maidstone, in the
county of Kent, in the year 1730. His father was rec¬
tor of Otham ; and having for some time acted in the capa¬
city of tutor at Oxford, was well qualified to superintend
the education of his son. However, that the latter might
not be spoiled by too long a residence at home, he was,
by the advice of a friend, sent, at the age of thirteen, to
Maidstone school, where he continued under an eminent
teacher for two years, and acquired some knowledge of
oriental literature, particularly the Hebrew. In his fif¬
teenth year he went to Oxford, where he laboured inde-
fatigably to store his mind with almost every branch of
useful learning, and resolved to make polite literature sub¬
servient to the knowledge and illustration of the Scrip-
564 H O R H O R
Horne, tures. He studied the Hebrew more attentively, and was determined, if possible, to defeat their object; and for this H
'"'-'Y exhorted to abandon the method of Buxtorf, encumbered purpose he published Considerations on the projected Re-
as it is with the Masoretic punctuation. The rectitude formation of the Church of England, in a letter to Lord
of his conduct, and the vivacity of his conversation, gained North.
him the esteem of every person with whom he was ac- He now set about finishing his greatest work, which had
quainted. In the year 1749 he was made bachelor of arts, occupied his attention for almost twenty years. This was
and next year was elected to a fellowship in Magdalen his Commentary on the Book of Psalms, which appeared
College, without any solicitation upon his part. in 1776, in two volumes quarto. It exhibits profound eru-
About this time he became a proselyte to the mysteries dition and fervent piety, and will be perused with pleasure
of Hutchinsonianism, chiefly through the influence of Mr and advantage by every judge of merit. In the same year
William Jones. At the age of nineteen, his mind was he was chosen vice-chancellor of the university, which he
completely fettered by these doctrines, believing that it held till the end of the year 1780. On the publication of
was the design of Sir Isaac Newton and Dr Clarke to Dr Adam Smith’s letter, containing an account of the
subvert the theology of the Scriptures, and introduce the death of Mr David Hume, Dr Horne publicly animadvert-
stoical anima mundi instead of the God of the Universe, ed upon it, in A Letter to Adam Smith, LL.D. on the
Under the influence of such an infatuation, it is not asto- life, death, and philosophy of his friend David Huine, Esq
mshmg that he should have endeavoured to discredit the by one of the people called Christians. In 1779, Dr
system of Newton. He obtained the degree of master of Horne published, in two volumes octavo, Discourses on
arts m the year 1752, when he engaged in a controversy various subjects and occasions, which have procured the
on the subject of the Cherubim, With a view to recoin- approbation of all description of readers,
mend the writings of Hutchinson, he published, A fair, As vice-chancellor of the university he became acquaint-
candid, and impartial state of the case between Sir Isaac ed with Lord North, to whose interest, joined with that of
Newton and Mr Hutchinson, in which is shown, how far a Lord Hawkesbury, he was in 1781 indebted for the dean-
system of physics is capable of mathematical demonstra- ery of Canterbury. His time was now divided between
tion ; how far Sir Isaac s, as such a system, has that de- that city and Oxford; and the conscientious discharge of
monstration ; and consequently, what regard Mr Hutchin- every part of his complex duty made him universally be-
claim may deserve to have paid it. In the year loved. In 1784 he published Letters on Infidelity, sinri-
God Mr Horne entered into holy orders, and acquired lar to his reply to Dr Adam Smith. The books‘against
high i eputation as a public speaker, his compositions be- which he levelled his ridicule are, An Apology for the
mg excellent, and his elocution graceful. Whilst preach- Life and Writings of David Hume, Esq.; Hume’s Din¬
ing before the university, he introduced some of his pecu- logues on Natural Religion ; an Essay on Suicide by the
liar notions, which again led him into controversy. A same author, and a treatise entitled Doubts of the Infi-
pamphlet made its appearance, entitled A Word to the dels. In the year 1790, when Dr Bagot was translated
Hutchmsomans ; or, remarks on three extraordinary ser- to the see of St Asaph, Dr Horne was appointed to suc-
mons lately preached before the university of Oxford, by ceed him in the see of Norwich. His last literary labours
Dr 1 atten, Mr Wetherell, and Mr Horne. To this our were, Observations on the case of the Protestant Dissen-
author replied in an Apology for certain gentlemen in ters with reference to the Corporation and Test Acts, 1790 ;
the university of Oxford, aspersed in a late anonymous and a Charge intended to have been delivered to the clergy
pamphlet, ihe vindication of the hint to the Hutchin- of the diocese of Norwich, at his first visitation, 1791.
somans was supposed to be the production of Dr Kenni- When he was raised to the episcopal dignity, his health, al-
cott, who afterwards became so famous for his labours in ways delicate, began rapidly to decline; but from the wa-
co fating Hebrew manuscripts, and his valuable edition of ters of Bath he received great relief, and to this place he
the Hebrew Bible. Mr Horne was chosen proctor of the repaired a third time in the harvest of 1791. On his way
university m 1758; and, on the honourable termination of thither, however, he was seized with a stroke of palsy,
liis authority, was created bachelor of divinity. When Mr, and after languishing for a few iveeks, he died at Bath, on
aftenv ai ds Dr Kenmcott, gave to the world proposals for col- the 17th of January 1792, in the sixty-second year of his
fating the text of the Hebrew Bible, for the purpose of cor- age.
recting the original, and preparing for a new translation, Mr He was powerfully animated in his last moments by those
orne became very much alarmed. He apprehended that hopes which spring from the promises of the gospel, and
the adoption of such a measure would overwhelm the sa- the inexpressible satisfaction of a well-spent life. His eru-
cTcitext with licentious criticism ; and on this ground he dition was extensive, his piety sincere, and his life irre-
pubhshed, in 1/60, A \ lew of Mr Kennicott’s method of proachable. His charity, both of a public and private
correcting the Hebrew text, with three queries formed nature, was extensive; and if not in debt at the end of
t ereon, an humbly submitted to the consideration of the the year, he felt perfectly satisfied. His posthumous
ipiinec and Christian world. But an acquaintance which works are, Discourses on several Subjects and Occasions; a
thus began in hostility was afterwards converted into ge- volume of Sermons; and, Cautions'to the Readers of Mr
mime friendship, which continued throughout the whole Law.
* tvt, rx .... HORNERS, those people whose business it is to pre-
11 1 ^ J 1 Horne was created doctor in divinity, al- pare various utensils from the horns of cattle. The homers
though not as yet advanced to any conspicuous station. On were a considerable fraternity in the city of London some
the death of Dr Jenner, the president of Magdalen College, centuries ago. In the reign ‘of Edward II. they complain-
in e^innin^ ° ^ Horne was appointed to sue- ed to parliament, that by foreigners buying up the horns
, i‘m 111 a once honourable and valuable ; after in England, they were in danger of being ruined, and their
h 1C \ ex^hanSe.d a S1«gle for a married life. Next year business lost to the nation. For this reason was made the
<e pu isie omu orations on the Life and Death of St statute 6 Edward IV. by which the sale of horns toforeign-
' ° m } ® ^ i •St’ ,bejng , substanpe of several sermons ers, excepting such as the horners refused, was prohibited;
preacie y um e ore Lie university. In 1771 he was and the wardens had power granted them to search all the
emsen c lap am in oi inai y to nis majesty, which he held markets in London, and twenty-four miles round, and to
Oi en yeais. n ’, when a number of clergymen had inspect Stourbridge and Ely fairs, to prevent such practices,
. orme the resolution of petitioning parliament for relief as and to purchase horns at stated prices. But on plausible
o ou ^cn mg t it iturgy and thirty-nine articles, Dr Horne pretences this law was repealed in the reign of James L,
H O R
Hoi ig and thereupon the old evil revived. The horners again ap¬
plied to parliament, and King Edward’s statute was renew-
Ho )_ ed, excepting as to the inspection of the fairs, and still, it
^ is believed, remains in force.
HORNING, in Scotch Law, a writing issuing under the
king s signet, at the instance of a creditor against his
debtor, commanding him, in the king’s name, to pay or
perform within a certain time, under pain of being declared
rebel and put in prison.
HORNINGSHAM, a town of the hundred of Heytes-
bury, in the county of Wilts, 102 miles from London, in
which manufactures of fine cloths are extensively carried
on. The population amounted in 1801 to 1030, in 1811
to 1118, in 1821 to 1267, and in 1831 to 1323.
HORNSEY, a large village of the hundred of Ossulton,
in the county of Middlesex, five miles north of London, on
the ascent of a hill commanding a view over the city. It
is one of those places in which the richer citizens have
built their rural retreats. The New River winds in a
pleasing manner through the lower parts of the parish.
The population amounted in 1801 to 2716, in 1811 to
3349, in 1821 to 4122, and in 1831 to 4856.
HORNPIPE, a common instrument of music in Wales,
consisting of a wooden pipe, with holes at stated distances,
and a horn at each end; the one to collect the wind
blown into it by the mouth, and the other to carry off the
sound as modulated by the performer.
Hornpipe is also the name of an English air, probably
derived from the above instrument. The measure of this
air is triple time, with six crotchets in a bar, four of which
are to be beat with the hand down, and two up.
HOROGRAPHY, the art of making or constructing
dials, called also dialling, horologiography, gnomonica,
sciatherica, photosciatherica, and so on.
HOROLOGIUM, 'n^oXoyiov (composed of nlga, hora,
time, hour, and Xoyog, speech, discourse), a common name
amongst ancient writers for any instrument or machine
for measuring the hours. (See Chronometer.)
Modern inventions and gradual improvements have
given birth to some new7 terms, and annexed meanings
to others totally different from those which they origi¬
nally had. All chronometers which announced the hour
by striking on a bell wrere called clocks. Thus we read
of pocket-clocks, though nothing wrnuld seem more absurd
than to suppose that a clock, according to the modern
idea, should be carried in the pocket. In like manner,
all clocks which did not strike the hour were called watches
or time-pieces ; and the different parts of a striking clock
were distinguished by the watch part and the clock part;
the former meaning that part which measures the time,
and the latter the part which proclaims the hours. In
the report of Sir Isaac Newton to the House of Com¬
mons in 1713, relative to the longitude act, he states the
difficulties of ascertaining the longitude by means of a
watch ; yet it is obvious, from several circumstances, that
his remarks w7ere directly to be understood of a time¬
piece, regulated by a pendulum ; for his objections are
founded on the known properties of the pendulum, some
of which differ essentially from the properties of the ba¬
lance and spring. It is also to be remembered that all
the attempts of Huygens for finding the longitude were
by means of pendulum clocks which did not strike the
hour, and which consequently, according to the language
°i the times, were called watches. At this time such ma¬
chines for measuring time as were fixed in one place were
called clocks if they struck the hour; if they did not
strike the hour, they were called time-pieces ; and when
constructed with greater care, for a more accurate mea¬
sure of time, they were called regulators. Some artists
have affected to call such watches as w7ere constructed
lor astronomical and nautical observations by the name of
H o R
565
Horror.
tune pieces, probably to intimate that they possess the ad- Horopter
vantages of those constructed with a pendulum. ii
HOROPTER, in Optics, is a right line drawn through
the point where the two optic axes meet, and parallel to
that which joins the centres of the two eyes, or the two
pupils.
HOROSCOPE, in Astrology, the degree or point of
the heavens rising above the eastern point of the horizon
at any given time when a prediction is to be made of a
future event, as, the fortune of a person then born, the
success of a design then laid, the weather, and so on.
The word is composed of wga, hora, hour, and the verb
axomu, video, I behold. Such was at one time the infatu¬
ation concerning horoscopes, that Albertus Magnus, Car¬
dan, and others, are said to have had the temerity to draw
that of Jesus Christ.
Horoscope is also used for a scheme or figure of the
twelve houses or signs of the zodiac, in which is marked
the disposition of the heavens for any given time. Thus
we say, to draw a horoscope, to construct a horoscope,
and the like. Calculating a nativity, is when the life and
fortune of a person are the subject of the prediction.
HORREA, in Roman antiquity, were public magazines
of corn and salt beef, out of which the soldiers were fur¬
nished on their march along the military roads of the em¬
pire. Horrea was also the name given to their granaries.
HORROX, Jeremiah, an English astronomer, and the
first who observed the passage of Venus over the sun’s
disc, was born at Toxteth, Lancashire, about 1619. Hav¬
ing acquired some grammatical learning at a school in
the country, he was sent to Emmanuel College, Cam¬
bridge, where he spent some time in the ordinary routine
of academical studies. About 1633 he began to turn his
attention to astronomy, and spent some years, with little
profit, in studying the writings of Lansbergius. In 1636,
he became acquainted with Mr William Crabtree of
Broughton, near Manchester, who was engaged in similar
pursuits; and both occasionally consulted Mr Samuel
Foster, professor of astronomy at Gresham College, Lon¬
don. Horrox, having thus obtained a companion in his
studies, resumed them with fresh vigour; he laid aside
Lansbergius, whose tables he found as erroneous as his
hypotheses were inconsistent; and having procured books
and astronomical instruments, he applied himself at once
to the theory of the science, and to the observation of the
heavens. But whilst thus full of hope and of promise, he
was suddenly cut off, on the 3d of January 1641, soon
after he had completed the twenty-second year of his
age. A short time before his death he had completed
his Venus in Sole Visa. This interesting phenomenon he
had observed at Hoole, near Liverpool; but his observa¬
tions did not appear till 1662, when Hevelius published
them at Dantzig, with some of his own, under the title of
Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani anno 1661, May 3, cum
aliis quihusdam rerum ccelestium observationibus rarisque
phcenomenis ; cui annexa est Venus in Sole pariter visa
anno 1639. Besides this work, he had commenced an¬
other, in which he proposed to refute the hypotheses of
Lansbergius, and to draw up a new system of astronomy
agreeably to celestial observations, but for the most part
conformable to the Keplerian laws. Of the papers which
Horrox left behind him, all that escaped destruction were
published by Dr Wallis in 1673, under the title of Opera
Posthuma. (a.)
HORROR strictly signifies such an excess of fear as
makes a person tremble.
Horror of a Vacuum, was an imaginary principle
amongst the ancient philosophers, to which they ascribed
the ascent of water in pumps, and other similar pheno¬
mena, which are known to be occasioned by the simple
weight or pressure of the atmosphere.
566
HORSE.
Introduc. The Horse is a distinct genus belonging to the order of
tion. Belhice, or large beasts, and in himself the most serviceable
■“'y'-""''' of all quadruped animals, as well as the swiftest of those
brought under the dominion of man. Notwithstanding
these high qualifications, ancient history informs us, that,
in the primitive ages of the world, the ass was used in pre¬
ference to him, not only as a mere beast of burthen, but for
the purpose of conveying, from place to place, persons of
the highest distinction. This, however, may be satisfacto¬
rily accounted for. Previously to the art of horsemanship
being known, the ass, a superior race of animal perhaps
to that generally found in Europe, was more easily ma¬
naged than the horse, and better suited to the kind of food
usually met with for his support. He was, in fact, found
to answer every purpose of horses, until mankind increased
in numbers and in wealth, when the complicated interests
that were the result brought their services into use, and
they were trained to the art of war. But another reason
may be given for the late introduction of horses. Their
use was interdicted by the Almighty in the early ages of
the world, first, lest his favourite people, the Israelites,
should be led to idolatry, by carrying on commerce with
Egypt; secondly, by their dependence on a well appoint¬
ed cavalry, they might cease to trust in the promised aid
of Jehovah; and, thirdly, that they might not be tempt¬
ed to extend their dominion by such means, and then, by
mixing with idolatrous nations, cease in time to be that
distinct and separate people which it was His intention they
should be, and without which the prophecies relative to
the Messiah could not be fully accomplished. Thus, in the
Book of Psalms, the horse commonly appears only on the
side of the enemies of God’s people; and so entirely unac¬
customed to the management of him were the Israelites, at
the period of their signal defeat of the Philistines and other
idolatrous nations, that David, their commander and king,
caused the greater part of the horses of the cavalry prisoners
to be cut down, from his ignorance of any use to which
he could apply them. In the reign of Solomon, however,
a cavalry force was established, but to no great extent.
In the infant state of all nations, indeed, we can readily
account for the restrictive use of horses. A great deal of
land that might be applied to the production of human food
is requisite for their maintenance in all countries; and, in
hot and sterile ones, the camel answered better, and was
found ready at hand. It is true they were used in the ar¬
mies of the ancient Greeks and Romans, which were not
considered as complete without them. In Greece they were
not so numerous; but in a war with the Italic Gauls, the
Romans are said to have had no less than seventy thousand
horses, and seven hundred thousand foot, to attack their
formidable enemies.1 The army of Xerxes, when reviewed
by him at Dorsica in Thrace, after it had passed the Hel¬
lespont, is reported by Herodotus, contemporary with him,
to have contained eighty thousand horse; but the judicious
reader will be inclined to make considerable abatements
from the boasted amount of that celebrated but ill-fated
expedition, resting, as it does, entirely on the authority of
Grecian writers, who represented facts in the light the
most unfavourable to their enemies, and the most glorious
to their own gallant countrymen.
As in the scale of excellence, the horse ranks first of all
animals coming under the denomination of cattle, and, as
Buffon justly says of him, “ possesses, along with grandeur
of stature, the greatest elegance and proportion of parts of introd
all quadrupeds,” it is not a matter of surprise, that, as an tion
image of motive vigour, he should have been the subject
of the chisel and the pencil of the first artists in the world,
or that the description of him by the pen should have been
not considered as unworthy the greatest writers of antiqui¬
ty. But it is in his native simplicity, in those wild and ex¬
tensive plains where he was originally produced; where he
ranges without control, and riots in all the variety of luxu¬
rious nature, that we can form an adequate idea of this no¬
ble animal. It is here that he disdains the assistance of man,
which only tends to servitude; and it is to a description of
his release from this servitude, his regaining his natural
liberty, that we are indebted for two of the finest similes
of the immortal Greek and Roman epic bards. The re¬
turn of Paris, with Hector, to the battle of Troy, is thus
given in the sixth book of the Iliad:—
“ 'ft? S’ m T<5 frr^Ta? 'iTVTraq, oucoFTYurci! Itti (pctrvti,
Als-jUov S’Sqj TtCStato xeocitVM,
E/tvOaiz XovirSoii Trorctpoio,
u'-pov Ss e%ei, upityi Ss yjzi'rou
"Clftou; utirtrcwTcii' o S’ otyhetiYiipi iwroiias,
VifAtyx i yovvx (pigti pirct t y-ou vouov iKTrav.”
And Virgil is considered to have even exceeded Homer,
in that splendid passage in the eleventh book of the iEneid,
where Turnus turning out fully accoutred for the fight, is
compared to a horse that has just broken loose from his
stall:—
£< Qualis, ubi abruptis fugit praesepia vinclis,
Tandem liber equus, campoque potitus aperto,
Aut ille in pastus armentaque tendit equarum,
Aut, assuetus aquae perfundi flumine note,
Emicat, arrectisque fremit cervicibus alle
Luxurians; luduntque jubae per colla, per armos.”
It is impossible, at this distance of time, to fix upon the
native country of the horse, as he has been found, in va¬
rious forms, and of various sizes, in every region of the Old
World. The difference in size is easily accounted for.
The origin of all animals of the same species was doubtless
the same in the beginning of time, and it is chiefly cli¬
mate that has produced the change we perceive in them.
Warmth being congenial to his constitution, and cold na¬
turally injurious to him, he is produced in the most perfect
form, and in the greatest vigour, when subject to the in¬
fluence of the one, and not only diminutive, but misshapen
and comparatively worthless, when exposed to the evils
of the other. Buffon, however, is wrong in making the
horse indigenous to Arabia, as is clearly proved by a refer¬
ence to the Sacred Writings. In the reign of Saul, horse-
breeding had not yet been introduced into Arabia; for, in
a war with some of the Arabian nations, the Israelites got
plunder in camels, sheep, and asses, but still no horses.
Even at the time when Jerusalem was conquered and first
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, Arabia appears to have been
without horses, as the Tyrians brought theirs from Arme¬
nia. That the earliest available uses of the active powers
of horses was adopted by the Egyptians, the same authority
satisfies us; for we read in the third chapter of Genesis,
that when Joseph carried his father’s remains from Egypt
to Canaan, “ there went up with him both chariots and
horsemen.” One hundred and fifty years afterwards, the
horse constituted the principal strength of the Egyptian
1 See Duncan’s Discourse on the Roman Art of War.
HORSE. 567
jlc army; Pharaoh having pursued the Israelites with “ six
He • hundred chosen chariots, and with all the chariots of
^ Egypt.” The earliest period now alluded to was 1650
years before the birth of Christ; and 1450 years before
that event, the horse was so far naturalized in Greece, that
the Olympic Games were instituted, including chariot and
horse races.
The origin of the native horse of our own country is now
merely a question of historical interest, the discussion of
which would not lead to much practical benefit. That ex¬
periments, founded on the study of his nature and proper¬
ties, which have from time to time been made to improve
the breed, and bring the different varieties to the perfec¬
tion in which we now find them, have succeeded, is best
confirmed by the fact of the high estimation in which the
horses of Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized
world; and it is not too much to assert, that, although the
cold, humid, and variable nature of our climate is by no
means favourable to the production of these animals in
their very best form, we have, by great care, and after a
lapse of nearly two centuries, by our attention to breed¬
ing, high feeding, and good grooming, with consequent de¬
velopment of the muscles, brought them to the highest
state of perfection (with one exception1) of which their
nature is susceptible. They may be classed under the fol¬
lowing heads, and treated of individually, viz. the Race-
Horse, thorough-bred and not thorough-bred; the Hunt¬
er ; the Hackney, for various purposes; the Charger; the
Troop-Horse; the Coach, Chariot, and Gig Horse; the
Stage-coach and Post Horse; and the Draught or Cart
Horse.
THE RACE-HORSE.
Although we may safely pronounce that the native-breed
of English horses, however esteemed for other purposes,
could not race, in the present acceptation of that word,
yet it is equally obvious that they formed the parent stock
of the renowned English racer. The first step to improve
it by a cross with eastern blood, appears to have been taken
by James the First, who gave the enormous sum (in those
days) of L. 500 for an Arab stallion, which, however, the
Duke of Newcastle, in his work on Horsemanship (great
authority at that time), wrote down, on account, chiefly,
of his comparatively diminutive size. At the Restoration,
however, there appears to have been a tolerably good breed
of horses in England, which Charles the Second improved
by an importation of Barbs and Turks, whose blood was en¬
grafted on the original stock, already very considerably ame¬
liorated by the services of a stallion called Place’s White
Turk, imported by Oliver Cromwell’s Master of the Horse,
who bore that name; and afterwards by those of the Helms-
ley Turk, followed by Fairfax’s Morocco Barb. The change
was at this time so visible, that the Lord Harleigh of that day
expressed his fears lest it might be carried to such an ex¬
treme as to extirpate the strong and useful horse, which, per¬
haps, the majority of his countrymen were well satisfied
with before. In the latter end of Queen Anne’s reign,
however, the first great trump turned up, to secure future
success. This was a stallion, called Barley’s Arabian, pur¬
chased in the Levant, by a Yorkshire merchant of that
name, although without any real attestation of his pedigree,
or country. The prejudice against Arabians, and other
eastern horses, the effect of the Duke of Newcastle’s ana¬
thema against them, having now, for the most part, sub¬
sided, a good deal of their blood had been infused into the
mares of that day, when another stallion, whose services
were still more signal, accidentally made his appearance.
We allude to the Godolphin Arabian, as he was called,
purchased out of a cart in Paris, and consequently of un- Race-
certain caste, but evidently the horse of the Desert; who, Horse,
as will be hereafter shewn, may be said to have won the
game. Although at first thought so meanly of, as only to
be used as a teazer, yet, fortunately for the Turf, he lived
twenty years after his services became notorious (by the
accident of his being the sire of a capital racer, out of a
mare which the stallion to which he was teazer refused to
cover), and, strange to say, no very superior race-horse has
appeared in England, for many years, that cannot be traced
to his blood. The success of this horse was much facili¬
tated by the lucky coincidence of his arrival in England at
a critical time, that is to say, when the stock from Bar¬
ley’s horse, and the several Arabs, Barbs, and Turks, to¬
gether with the Royal Mares imported by Charles the Se¬
cond, had been “ crossed,” as the term is, on each other;
and had produced mares worthy to be the channel of im¬
parting his own transcendant qualities to posterity. Tak¬
ing it for granted, then, that the English race-horse is de¬
scended from Arabian, Turkish, and African (Barb) blood ;
and also taking into consideration the various peculiarities
in the form and power of each of those kinds, requiring
modification of shape, qualities, and action suited to the
purposes for which they were intended, it cannot be denied,
that a task of no ordinary difficulty was imposed on the
English horse-breeders, and that they have executed that
task with a masterly hand. If other countries furnished the
blood, England has made the race-horse.
With the exception of one Eastern horse, called the
Wellesley Arabian, the grandsire of a winner of the Oaks
in 1826, also of Dandizette, who ran second for that stake
in 1823, and one or two more good runners, the English
Turf has benefited nothing, during the last half century,
from the importation of foreign blood. The fact is, that
having once gotten possession of the essential constitutional
parts necessary to form the race-horse, and which will be
described hereafter, we ourselves have, by a superior know¬
ledge of the animal, and the means of availing ourselves of
his capabilities, not only by rearing and training, but by
riding him also, brought him to a pitch of excellence which
will not admit of further improvement. Superior as is the air
of the desert, which is said to be so free from vapours, that
the brightest steel is not affected with rust, if exposed to it
for a night, to that of our humid and ever-varying climate ;
and propitious as it must be to animals found, as the horse
was found, in the greatest perfection when reared in it; yet
were the finest Eastern horse that could be procured, brought
to the starting-post at Newmarket, with the advantage of
English training to-boot, he would have no chance at any
weight, or for any distance, with even a second-rate Eng¬
lish race-horse. It may not, however, be uninteresting to
point out what are the essential racing points originally
imparted to the horse of our own breed by these foreign
stallions and mares, and without which they never would
have arrived at any thing approaching the excellence which
they have, for the last century, attained.
A good deal of pains has been taken to define the mean¬
ing of the term “ blood,” as applied to the horse called
thorough-bred. Osmer, an old but accredited writer on
the Horse, pronounced it to be a certain elegance of parts,
derived from air, climate, and food, which, being suit¬
able to the true natural conformation of the animal, ena¬
bles him to perform extraordinary feats of activity and
motion, coupled with great endurance of the highest bodily
exertion; and hence the expression, “ he shews a vast deal
of blood,” means nothing more than that he is a truly form¬
ed race-horse. Where, he asks, is the blood of the Ostrich,
whose speed is so great, that it can “ laugh at the horse
1 The exception is the English cart-horse, as will be stated hereafter.
568
HORSE.
Race- and his rider ?” “ If the good qualities of the race-horse,”
Horse. sayS he, “ depend upon blood, we could not, as we often
“’~v'~~'uo, see one horse very good, and his own brother, with
equal advantages of good keep and training, very bad.” It
was the opinion of this writer, that it has been to the folly
of expecting, that what is termed high-blood, in the Eastern
horses, unaccompanied with essential form, will produce a
racer, so many failures in the attempt to breed race-horses
have occurred; that the virtue of what racing men call
“ blood,” has been too much insisted upon, not being suffi¬
ciently influenced by the fact, that it can never be consi¬
dered as independent of form and matter. We conceive
there is a great deal of truth in each of the foregoing ob¬
servations. Blood cannot be considered independently of
form and matter, inasmuch as the excellence of all horses
must depend on the mechanism of their frames, which, if
duly proportioned, and accompanied with superior internal,
as well as external organization, gives them stride, pace, and
endurance. The quickness of repeating this stride also, and
the power of continuance, will depend upon vigour of mus¬
cle, capacity of chest, and strength of the constrained lungs.
The result, then, of this argument is, that when we speak of
some of the celebrated stallions of former days having trans¬
mitted the good properties of their blood, or high eastern
descent, to the race-horses of the present time, we can only
imply, that they have imparted that true formation of parts,
that firmness of bone and sinew, and that general superior
organization, competent to give facility of action; together
with great powers of respiration, which will enable horses
to last under the severest trials of their powers. In fact,
their excellence is in a great manner mechanical. Were
it not so indeed, did they not excel each other according
to the degrees of difference in their form and shape, and
all the constituent parts, full brothers and sisters would
prove of equal goodness on the race-course, health and
condition being on a par. But this is very far from being
the case; *and again, if it depended on blood, the same
horse would run alike on every description of ground, which
we know rarely happens ; but of this we may be assured,
that it is a superiority of muscular substance, united with just¬
ly proportioned shape, and not innate blood, which enables
a horse to bear to be pressed, on any description of ground,
still more so upon such as is severe, as several of our race¬
courses are.
Yet if there must be this elegance of form, these nice
proportions in the limbs, or moving levers of the race-horse,
how is it that so many of those called “ cross-made,” plain,
and apparently disproportioned horses, possess the power or
parts conducive to speed and action ? If blood can be de¬
fined the peculiar elegance in the texture of the external
parts, how happens it that several very ugly horses and
mares have at all times distinguished themselves on the
Turf? Are there certain occult causes, not discoverable to
the eye, that produce this excellence to which the rules
and laws of action appear to be opposed ? On these points
it may be observed, first, that the force and effect of mus¬
cular motion is nearly beyond our ken ; and, secondly, such
horses are really not misshapen, inasmuch as there are hid¬
den virtues in the mechanism of their internal frames,
which the eye cannot detect; and where deficient in one
point, they are recompensed by additional powers in others.
They possess the essential points, although not so elegantly
displayed; and this, we believe, is the case with other ani¬
mals than the horse; although, generally speaking, true
symmetry in all is attended with corresponding excellence
in their useful properties, and adaptation to the purposes
ot man. 1
Those persons who insist upon an innate quality in what
is termed “ blood,” are led to believe that there is some-
t nng in toe nature ot a thorough-bred horse, which enables
him to struggle in a race far beyond his natural capabili¬
ties, and which is distinguished by the term “ game.” We [d i
do not think there is. We learn from experience that Htj
horses often allow themselves to be beaten by others which y
are inferior to them, from sheer ill temper; but their ef¬
forts to win a race, we consider to be merely limited by
their physical powers, the effect of a proper arrange¬
ment of their parts ; and that the operation of the mind, or
spirit, has nothing at all to do with it. The hero at the
Olympic Games had, and the champion of the British box¬
ing ring may have had, feelings which, from the supe¬
riority of their nature, and the fact of their character, in¬
terest, and future happiness, being all involved in the event,
might have induced them to struggle even to the very
verge of life ; but the same sense of honour, and the same
spirit of emulation, cannot be ascribed to the race-horse.
If his own acting powers be unequal to those of others op¬
posed to him in the race, he yields to that superiority, al¬
though it must be admitted, that what are called sluggish
horses will not try to exert themselves to the utmost, un¬
less urged to it by the spur and whip; and others, when
spurred and whipped, slacken, instead of increasing, their
speed. The final result of this discussion then is, that
when, as has been previously suggested, we speak of such
horses as King Herod, Highflyer, or Eclipse, having trans¬
mitted their blood to the past and present generations of
running horses, we can only admit that they have trans¬
mitted that true formation of parts necessary to enable
them to run races at a prodigious rate of speed, and to en¬
dure the severity of training for them.
Although we have spoken in disparagement of horses of
the East as racers, upon the same terms with those of our
own breeding, we are willing to allow them the merit of
being the parent stock of all our racing blood ; as it is quite
evident the indigenae of our own country, or of those Eu¬
ropean ones which approximate to it, would never have pro¬
duced the sort of race-horse now seen on the British Turf.
The nature and character, indeed, of the horse of the De¬
sert, are peculiarly adapted to an animal who, like the
race-horse, is called upon to put its physical powers to the
severest test to which nature, aided by art, can submit. In
the first place, the Arabian horse possesses a firmness of
leg and sinew unequalled by any other in the world. This
excellence, which he owes to climate, arises from his hav¬
ing larger muscles and smaller bone than other horses
have;—muscles and sinews being the sole powers of act¬
ing, and on them depend the lasting qualities of an ani¬
mal going at the top of his speed. Bones being the
weight to be lifted, serve only to extend the parts ; and it
is evident, that such as are small, but highly condensed,
like those of the deer, and the horse of the Desert, are, by
occupying less space, and containing less weight, more
easily acted upon by muscular force, than such as are large
and porous, and for a greater duration of time, without
fatiguing the acting powers. But the excellence of the
Arabian horse, or horse of the Desert, does not end with
his highly condensed bone, and flat and wiry leg, so much
esteemed by the sportsman. All the muscles and fibres
of his frame are driven into closer contact than those of.
any other breed; and, by the membranes and ligaments
being composed of a finer and thinner substance, he pos¬
sesses the rare quality of union of strength with lightness,
so essential to the endurance of fatigue in all quick mo¬
tions. He thus moves quicker and with more force, by
reason of the lightness and solidity of the materials of which
his frame is composed; and when to these qualifications,
are added the peculiar and deer-like elegance of his form,
and extraordinary share of muscular power for his inches,
he appears to furnish all the requisites of the race-horse on
a small scale.
M' e have already accounted for the present breed of
English race-horses being no longer susceptible of improve-
HORSE.
569
yja. ment from any foreign blood. But it is worth inquiring
pm into the reason of the improvement of the horse of the De-
pJ^sert, and indeed of all the countries of the East, not ad¬
vancing towards perfection, as that of our own breed has
done. No doubt it was intended that we should improve
upon animal nature, as we improve our own, and nowhere
has the attempt been so successful as upon our varieties of
domestic cattle; but the horse of the Desert now, if he
have not retrograded in his good qualities, is the same ani¬
mal that he was nearly two centuries back. With the ex¬
ception of the Wellesley Arabian, said to have been bred
in Persia (but the assertion is unaccompanied by proof),
who measured fifteen hands two inches high, all the rest
that have been imported have been little better than Gal¬
loways, which must be attributed to two causes ; first, the
want of being forced, as our own horses are, in their colt-
hood, by high keep ; and, secondly, by adhering too closely
to the indigenous breed, or that whose blood is unmixed,
by which means it has dwindled. Accurate observers must
have noticed, that the greater part of the horses brought
to this country as Barbs and Arabians, have exhibited a
palpable deficiency in the points contributing to strength,
and the want of general substance is apparent at first sight.
It is true that, of late years, their estimation has so dimi¬
nished in this country, that no great pains have been taken
to procure stallions of the highest caste, and scarcely any
mares have been imported; and several of those sent over
have been accompanied by very unsatisfactory pedigrees.
We are, however, inclined to think that, as the immediate
descendants of such horses are found quite inefficient as
race-horses, and but few of the second or third generation
have turned up trumps, unless as a rational experiment, the
breeding of race-horses from Arabians is at an end.
In corroboration, however, of the good qualities of form
and texture of this comparatively Lilliputian breed, we give
the following extract from a letter of the late Captain Gwat-
kin, head of one of the Honourable India Company’s studs,
on the subject of crossing the English thorough-bred horse
with foreign blood, dated Hauper, Bengal, September 1828,
to shew, by their rate of going, their great endurance
under the combined pressure of weight and speed; for to
have run these lengths in the time specified, their height
only averaging fourteen hands one inch, and of course
unfavourable to speed, in addition to the ground being
sandy, and therefore void of elasticity, the pace must have
been severe from end to end of the course. Unfortu¬
nately the ages are not given, or a still better judgment
would be formed of the lasting powers of these little ani¬
mals under more than average weight.1
Name.
Run at Bengal.
Weight.
st. lb.
Patrician  9 0
1807. Antelope   9 0
1809. Patriot  9 6
Sulky (sent to England)  9 0
Oddsbobs   9 0
1818. Sir Lowry    7 4
1820. Nimrod  8 IQ
Sultan (not 14 hands).,,,... 8 12
182G. Paragon (sent to England). 11 0
Esterhazy 11 7
Cavalier (not 14 hands)  8 7
•827. Champion 11 7
1828. Barefoot   8 4
Time. Distance,
.,s' V 280 yards, less
5 34 1 3 miles.
6 4.,.2| miles,
t 3 miles and 325
G 46
6 25
t yards.
3 miles and 325
{ yards,
ran second in the above
race.
4 0...2 miles.
4 6...2 miles,
6 16,..3 miles.
4 20...2 miles,
3 42...If miles.
4 4...2 miles.
3 44...If miles.
g ^ (second heat of
\ 3 miles.
Name, ’ Weight.
st. lb.
1828. Cornet  8 4
Chapeau de Paile  8 3
Itedgauntlet    9 0
Botherem..    9 3
Run at Poonah,
1827. Pyramus (not 13 3)  9 0
1828. Dragon    8 8
Run at Bombay,
1827. Slyboots  8 5
Gaslight.  9 0
Creeper 8 6
Run at Baroda,
1827. Harlequin..,.,..,    8 4
Run at Madras.
1828. Orelio    9 0
Time. Distance,
m. s.
ran second to Barefoot,
2 58...li miles.
5 6...2| miles.
2 58,.,H miles.
Race-
H orse.
8.. .2 miles,
4.. .2 miles,
4 2...2 miles.
6 16...3 miles.
4 2...2 miles.
6 9...3 miles,
4 0...2 miles.
We have reason to believe, that the best use to be made
of Eastern horses, would be for the production of the
English hunter, by the best-shaped hunting mares, nearly
thorough-bred. By the help of the dam, and our present
improved system of keeping young horse-stock, there would
be little fear of the produce not coming to a good size, even
in the first generation, as it is, for the most part, the property
of these horses to beget stock larger than themselves; but
by crossing the female produce in the second with our large
thorough-bred horses, hunters for heavy weights might be
looked for, with every prospect of success. We know that
the virtue of the blood, or constituent parts, of the horse
that was no racer (Marske, the sire of Eclipse, for exam¬
ple) has produced a racing son, by acquiring proper for¬
mation of parts from the dam ; and if to the fine form of
the English hunter, could be added the firmness of leg and
sinew for wdiich the Eastern horse is so conspicuous, but
in which the English hunter is too often deficient, in con¬
junction with the larger muscles, more highly condensed
bone, and well-known powers of endurance of the Eastern
horse, not omitting his action, which is generally first-rate,
but of which a proper judgment could be formed previously
to the choice of the stallion, a great improvement upon our
present race of hunters wrould be effected; and all such as
were known to be thus bred, would meet a ready sale. It
is a w ell known fact, that some of the most brilliant hunters
England ever produced, were got by Arabian stallions ;
and one, by Lord Clive’s Arabian, was decidedly the best
horse in Leicestershire, in Mr Meynell’s day, over every
description of country. He was the property of the late
Mr Childe, of Kinlet Hall, Shropshire, who is said to have
been the first to introduce the present very spirited style
of riding after hounds, A powerful Toorkoman stallion
would not, wre think, fail in getting hunters out of good
English mares. That breed is the largest of any of the
Eastern horses, owing to being reared on better land.
One word more on the subject of the Eastern horse, as
connected with the English Turf. Owing to the doubts
and uncertainties that hang over the pedigrees and coun¬
tries of the most celebrated stallions and mares which laid
the foundation of our present breed of racers, it is impossi¬
ble to determine to which individual breed, whether to
the Turkish, the Barb, the Arabian, or the Persian, are the
greater advantages derived from them to be attributed. They
appear to us to be pretty equally divided. To the Byerly
Turk we are indebted for the Herod blood (sire of High¬
flyer) ; to the Godolphin Arabian, said to be a Barb, for
the Matchem blood, the stoutest of any; to the Darley
Arabian (the sire of Flying Childers), for the Eclipse blood;
and to the Wellesley Arabian, believed to be a Persian
horse, to the only real advantage gained to English race-
4 Q
vol. XI.
J See Old Sporting Magazine, vol. xxiv. New Series, p. 12.
HORSE.
570
Race- horses, by a foreign cross, in later years. It must, how-
Horse. ever, be observed, that the most famous horses of the last
' century, such as Childers, Old Crab, Eclipse, and King
Herod, did not appear on the Turf before they were five
years old; which leads us to suppose, that the failure of
horses subsequently bred, as they themselves were bred, from
Oriental blood, and trained at an early age, may, in great
part, be attributed to the fact, of the immediate produce of
such horses requiring more time to come to maturity, or even
to a certain degree of maturity, than those, like our present
breed of race-horses, further removed from such blood;
and the cause may be attributed to climate. It is reason¬
able to suppose, that the produce of stallions and mares
bred in the Torrid Zone, would come slower to perfection
in a damper and colder country than it would have done
in its own ; and we may infer from this, that, in proportion
as horses were brought earlier to the post, and races short¬
ened in distance, Eastern blood got into disrepute.
Breeding the Race-Horse.
Amongst the many things in the history of Ancient
Greece that have called forth the admiration of mankind,
the celebrated games of Olympia claim the foremost place.
Independently of their religious association, and advance¬
ment of literary spirit, they were highly serviceable to the
country; and none proved more so than those at which
horse-racing was introduced, which appear to have been
completely established in the twenty-fifth Olympiad. That
the improvement of the native breed of horses was the chief
object of the government, is beyond all doubt, as it has
been that of all others who have given encouragement to
racing; and it is equally apparent, that the Thessalian
courser, so highly extolled by Pindar, and likewise so ter¬
rible in war, was the result of a foreign cross. So essen¬
tial, indeed, was this object considered in Greece, where
horses were very scarce even after the time of Pindar, that
it is stated, on the authority of Aretius, in a note on Pin¬
dar’s second Isthmian Ode, that there was a general law
in Greece, requiring all, who were able, to breed horses.
As to what state of perfection their horses were bred in at
this early period, is beyond the power of conjecture; but
in Great Britain, from the highly cultivated knowledge of
the mechanical structure of living bodies, with the junc¬
tion of best shapes, although but for the stimulus given by
racing, this knowledge would have been comparatively in
its infancy, the horse has arrived at the highest state of
perfection of which his nature is capable ; and in whatever
country, and in whatever climate, his racing powers are put
to the test, he has scarcely found a rival, excepting under
very disadvantageous circumstances. It is true his lasting
qualities were doubted, and he was challenged to rebut the
charge ; and the following was the result. On the 4th of
August 1825, two second-rate English racers, Sharper and
Mina, contended against the most celebrated Cossack horses
from the Don, the Black Sea, and the Ural, in a race of
the cruel length of forty-seven miles. At starting, Sharper
and Mina ran away with their riders more than a mile, and
up a steep hill, when the latter horse broke down, and pull¬
ed up. Half the distance was run in an hour and forty
minutes. In the last half, only one of the Cossack horses
was able to contend with Sharper, who, notwithstanding
every foul advantage was taken by changing the weight,
and dragging along his opponent by a rope, won his race
in gallant style, performing the distance in two hours and
forty-eight minutes. At starting, the English horses car¬
ried three stone more weight than the Cossacks; and, during
the latter half of the race, the one Cossack who remained
in it was ridden by a mere child.
From the great export trade to the Continent of English
horses, and particularly those of full blood, joined to the
low price of horse-food during the last twenty years, and r.
on which there is not much prospect of an advance, occu- Hi
piers of land cannot turn their attention to a much surer ^
source of profit than that of breeding horses, provided they
go judiciously to work. But, unfortunately for the specu¬
lators in this branch of rural economics, too much is left to
chance and experiment, and thus horse-breeding becomes
absolutely a matter of speculation, instead of a" matter of
judgment. It is true, those noblemen and gentlemen whose
studs have become eminent on the Turf cannot be in¬
cluded in this charge ; but even with the benefit of great
experience, and various other advantages, the utmost ex¬
ercise of their judgment is required, to insure even a pro¬
spect of success against such a field as they have to contend
with. Having said this, we will lay down a few practical
rules for breeding and rearing the various kinds of horses
now used in Great Britain, commencing, as before stated,
with that of the Race-Horse.
In the first place, it may be observed, there has been
a great deal of discussion in various publications on Sport¬
ing, but to very little purpose, on the much agitated ques¬
tion, “ What constitutes full blood, or, what is termed, a
thorough-bred horse ?” We consider this question as very
easily decided; the term “thorough-bred horse” merely im¬
plying one that can be traced through the Stud-Book, by
sire and dam, to any Eastern stallion, or to what were call¬
ed the Royal Mares, imported by Charles the Second, as
they, together with two or three of the first imported stal¬
lions, form the ne plus ultra of all racing pedigrees. As to
the assertion, that, for a horsd to claim the title of thorough¬
bred, it is necessary he should be of pure Oriental descent,
it cannot for a moment be supported; as, independently of
the fact, that only two mares are stated in the Stud-Book,
or elsewhere, on authority, to have been imported into
England, in the early days of racing, it is well known that
the first British race-horses were those of British breed,
changed, ameliorated, and, at last, perfected by the admix¬
ture of Eastern blood, and judicious crossing afterwards.
The effect of what is called crossing blood is as follows:
The first cross gives one-half, or 50 per cent.; the second
75 per cent.; the third 87| per cent.; and the fourth 93f
per cent. In sheep, after this, if the ewes have been pro¬
perly selected, the difference in the wool between the ori¬
ginal stock and the mixed breed is scarcely perceptible;
but with the horse, the breeder must not stop here, if he
means to produce a race-horse ; and a curious fact is stated
respecting sheep, on the authority of the Count Veltheim, of
Brunswick, an extensive breeder of that species of stock.
“ It has frequently occurred to me,” says he, “ that rams,
which, after an improvement of four or five descents, have
rivalled all the visible qualities of the purest Merinos, when
employed in propagation, have got very ordinary lambs,
and consequently they are not fit to be used for breeding.
On the other hand, a fact may be stated, wherein, after a
very opposite cross, pure blood, with evident improvement
upon the original stock, was procured on the eighth descent.
The late Lord Oxford, very celebrated for his greyhounds,
finding them degenerating in courage, crossed his best
bitches with a bull-dog. The result was, after several re¬
crossings with pure blood, that breed of greyhounds for
which he was so eminently distinguished. The immediate
descendants, however, of the Eastern horses, have almost,
witnout an exception, proved so deficient of late years,
that our breeders will no more have recourse to them, than
the farmer would to the natural oat, which is little better
than a weed, to produce a sample that should rival that of
his neighbours, in the market.”
Much speculation has also been indulged in, as to the
effect of close affinity, in breeding the race-horse, or what is
called breeding in-and-in; a system which has eminently
succeeded in breeding cattle, and also with Lord Egremont’s
HORSE.
RaC( racing stud. Beginning with Flying Childers, several of
Hor; our very best racers have been very closely bred ; and it
'■'Y'i certainly appears reasonable that, as like is said to pro¬
duce like, if we have high form and superior organization in
an own brother and sister, that high form and superior orga¬
nization would be very likely to be continued to their in¬
cestuous produce. In a work called “ Observations on
Breeding for the Turf,” published a few years back, by
Nicholas Hankey Smith, who resided a long time among
the Arabs, the author gives his opinion, that colts bred in-
and-in show more blood in their heads, are of better form,
and fit to start with fewer sweats, than others ; but when
the breed is continued incestuous for three or four crosses,
the animal, he thinks, degenerates. By breeding in-and-
in, however, he does not insist upon the necessity of breed¬
ing from brother and sister, or putting a mare to her own
sire, or the sire to her own dam ; but after the first cross,
to return to original blood. A recent proof of the good
effect of a close affinity in race-horses may be found in the
produce of the dam of his late Majesty’s favourite mare
Maria. By those celebrated stallions, Rubens and Sooth¬
sayer, they were worthless ; but by Waterloo and Rainbow,
grandsons of Sir Peter, and thus combining much of her
own blood, they could run to win.
We now come to the most certain source of producing,
good racers, namely, the choice of stallions and mares, and
the treatment of the produce in their colthood. But as re¬
gards the two first-named requisites, reference must be had
to the parts of the country in which horses are intended
to run. If, for the short races of Newmarket, so much
the fashion of the present day, a differently formed animal
would be required to one intended to clear his way on the
provincial courses. But whether it be one description of a
race-hosre or another, although the laws of nature are not
always certain, a proper junction of shape, or similarity in
formation of horse and mare, together with a due regard to
blood, gives the fairest prospect of success. We admit it
is difficult to account for the degrees of excellence between
the running of two full brothers or sisters, where it does not
arise (a common case we conceive) from some violence
or impression on the womb, when the foetus is in a soft
state, or from a decline in the constitution of the mare,
subsequent to her last produce ; but when we find the pro¬
duce of two highly-bred animals, both proved to be good,
and with a proper admixture of blood, unable to race, we
can attribute it to no other cause than a dissimilitude of
parts in the horse and the mare, or a similitude of some
parts tending to an extreme in both. Without going so
far as to assert that there is no innate quality in blood, we
may safely pronounce it so far from being, as some have
supposed it to be, independent of form and matter, that,
unless accompanied with suitable form and action, it is of
very little value in a race-horse. “ Sometimes,” as Sancho
says, “ we look for one thing and find another;” but we
know of no instance of a bad misshapen horse and a bad
misshapen mare, however highly bred, producing good
runners.
The first and most important point in the choice of a
blood-mare for a racing stud, is the soundness of her con¬
stitution and limbs ; although, of course, it is desirable she
should be of good size and shape, with substance. How
highly so ever she may be bred, and however well she may
have run, if she have not a sound frame, she cannot be de¬
pended upon to breed racers. If she have never been train¬
ed, of course the risk is increased ; but, in either case, her
form and action must not be overlooked, as it too often is,
rendering the breeding of thorough-bred stock a mere matter
of chance. Should she have appeared in public, her racing
capabilities are to be consulted. For example, if pace (speed)
was her best, as the jockies say, a stallion should be selected,
who, by the known stoutness of his running, is likely to tie
571
her produce to pace, or, in other words, to give them both Race-
speed and endurance in a race. Her frame should be Horse,
roomy, or her produce will be apt to be small, although,v'—
it must be admitted, there are exceptions to this rule. She
should be of, what is termed, fashionable blood, for, if she
be not, and her produce should come to the hammer, pre-
vious to trial, they would prove utterly worthless in the
market.
It cannot admit of a doubt, that it is trespassing on the
powers of nature to expect a mare, or any other female ani¬
mal, to nourish her foetus, in embryo, so perfectly during
the time she is giving suck, as if she were dry or without
milk. Nevertheless, it is customary to put all blood mares
to the horse the ninth day after foaling, and it is almost too
much to expect that the owners will let them lie fallow,
although they may in some measure resemble the man who
cut up his goose to get at the golden egg. During the
period of gestation, however, the thorough-bred mare should
be highly kept. All animals well fed, produce their species
of a superior description to those which are not well fed ;
and nothing more forcibly shows the beneficial effect of
warmth in rearing superior varieties of the horse, than that
the half-starved horse of the desert should be as good as he
is even now found to be.
In a racing-stud, the period of putting mares to the horse
is much earlier in the year than that of any other sort, by
reason of their produce being almost always called upon to
go into work before they are two years old. In fact, they
can scarcely be dropped too soon in the commencement of a
new year, where proper accommodations are provided for
them. A peep into the three volumes of the Stud-Book
will satisfy inquirers into these matters, that some mares
have produced more than twenty colts and fillies, and, in a
few instances, the greater part of them proved good run¬
ners ; but, we should be inclined to think that the average
would not exceed six, as the produce of each mare. It
sometimes occurs that mares are put into a breeding-stud,
when affected by severe lameness in the feet. When this
is the case, the operations of neurotomy or unnerving
is recommended ; as pain, by producing fevers, not only is
injurious to the formation of the foetus, but often causes
abortion. Bad, putrid, smells, or being struck on the nose,
also produce abortion in brood mares.
Virgil, in his excellent remarks on breeding horses, tells
those of his readers who wished to gain a prize, to look to
the dam ; and, until of very late years, it was the prevail¬
ing opinion of Englishmen, that, in breeding a racer, the
mare is more essential than the horse to the production of
him, in his highest form, and we know it to have been the
notion entertained by the late Earl of Grosvenor, the most
extensive, though not perhaps the most successful, breeder
of thorough-bred stock England ever saw. The truth of
this supposition, however, has not been confirmed by the ex¬
perience of the last half century, and much more dependence
is now placed on the stallion than on the mare. The racing
calendar, indeed, clearly proves the fact. Notwithstanding
the' prodigious number of very highly bred and equally
good mares that are every year put to the horse, it is from
such as are put to our very best stallions that the great
winners are produced. This can in no other way be
accounted for, than by such horses having the faculty
of imparting to their progeny the peculiar external and
internal formation absolutely essential to the first-rate
race,-horse ; or, if the term “ blood” be insisted upon, that
certain innate but not preternatural virtue, peculiarly be¬
longing to some horses but not to others, which, when it
meets with no opposition from the mare, or, in the lan¬
guage of the stable, when “ the cross nicks” by the mare
admitting of a junction of good shapes, seldom fails in
producing a race-horse, in his very best form. It is obvi¬
ous, then, that owners of racing-studs should not hesitate
572
HORS E.
Race*
Horse.
at paying the difference between the price of a first-rate
stallion and an inferior one ; and there is always one of the
former to be found, to suit every description of mare.
Breeders of all kinds of horses, but of the race-horse above
all others, scarcely require to be cautioned against purchas¬
ing, or breeding from, mares, or putting them to stallions,
constitutionally infirm. By “ constitutionally infirm,” is chief¬
ly implied having a tendency to fail in their legs and feet,
during their training, which too many of our present racing-
breed are given to; although the severity of training is not
equal to what it was some years back. It would be invidi¬
ous to particularize individual sorts; but we could name
stallions and mares, from which the greatest expectations
were raised, whose progeny have sacrificed thousands of
their owners’ money, entirely from this cause. It having
been clearly shewn, not only in theory but in practice, that
the diseases and defects of horses are for the most part
hereditary, we may be induced to give credit to the asser¬
tion, that the Arabians, after having brought their breed of
horses to the highest pitch of improvement of which they
themselves considered them capable, have preserved their
chief perfections, namely, great endurance of fatigue, with
highly organized matter, and natural soundness of limb,  
by restricting the use of stallions until approved of by a pub¬
lic inspector of them. Indeed, in several European states,
similar precautions are taken, and stallions are provided by
their governments, for the use of farmers and others who
breed horses, and care is taken in the selection of them to
avoid all such as have proved naturally unsound, or been
affected by any disease, the influence of which may be he¬
reditary. No part of veterinary pathology is more interest¬
ing than that which relates to the hereditableness of dis¬
ease ; and, as an eminent French writer (Professor Dupuy),
on the veterinary art, observes, “ That person will render
an important service to his country, and to rural economy
in general, who may show, by incontestible evidence, that
those organic diseases (farcy and glanders) are very often
hereditary. I knew a mare whose body on dissection pre¬
sented every appearance of glanders; her filly died at the
age of 41 years of the same tuberculous affection. The
other offspring of this mare inherited her particular con¬
formation, and her propensities to bite and kick.” The
Professor produces three similar instances of inherited dis¬
ease, all of which, he says, were too evident and well-mark¬
ed to admit the possibility of any serious mistake, and were
attested by the professors of the Veterinary School at Al¬
ford. Similar observations follow in relation to the diseases
of oxen, cows, sheep, and swine, as also of ophthalmia in
horses, all of which are transmitted from one generation to
another, the effect of hereditary influence. “ These con¬
siderations,” continues the Professor, “ to us are of the
greatest moment, since we have it in our power, by coup¬
ling and crossing well-known breeds, to lessen the number
of animals predisposed to these diseases. Acting up to
such ideas, our line of conduct is marked out. We must
banish from our establishments, designed to improve the
breed, such animals as show any signs of tuberculous dis¬
ease, or any analogous affection. Above all, no stallion
should be allowed to remain in a wet or cold situation, in
consequence of the evils likely to result therefrom.”
In consideration of the preference given to the stallion
over the mare, in the propagation of racing-stock, may be
quoted the following passage, from Part 3d of Percival’s
Lectures on the Veterinary Art (London 1826). “ It
might be supposed that the part the male takes in fecunda¬
tion is comparatively a very unimportant one ; it must be
remembered, however, that the copulative act is the essen¬
tial first cause, that therein the action of the organs is na-
tural and sympathetic, and that the result is the generation
of a new animal, bearing a likeness to one or both of the m
parents ; from which it would appear, although the physi-w
cal part of the male is simply to project the sperm into the
female, who alone has the power of rendering it efficacious,
that the influence of the sperm is much greater in the ge¬
nerative process than we seem to have any notion of, or at
least than we have been able to reveal the nature’of in
physiology.” 1
Hearing of Young Racing Stock.
Under all circumstances, there is too much resemblance
between the speculations of the Turf and a lottery ; but.
as the prizes it exhibits are valuable, the most effectual
means of obtaining them should be adopted. It signifies
little what care and circumspection have been exercised in
the selection of stallions and mares, with a view of breed¬
ing racers ; the prospect of success is very limited indeed at
the present day, unless the produce be reared according to
the improved system acted upon in our first-rate racing
establishments. Such was the pertinacity of opinion, com¬
bined with long-established prejudices, and in direct oppo¬
sition to the daily acknowledged fact, of dry and Warm
countries having been the first to produce the horse in per¬
fection, that it is only within a very few years that young
thorough-bred stock has been reared in the manner in
which it should be reared. A thorough-bred colt may
now be said to be in training from the day on which he is
dropped, so great is the care taken to force him into shape
and substance. Not only is he drawing from the teats of
his dam the milk of a highly fed animal, and consequently,
in itself highly nutritious, but, before he is twelve months
old, he eats nearly two bushels of oats per week. The time
for expansion of frame is youth, and, when we see a two year
old at the post, with eight stone four pounds on his back,
which is to be seen in every meeting at Newmarket, and
looking like a horse able to carry a light man after hounds,
we most cordially assent to the answer given by the most
experienced Newmarket trainer of the present age to the
question, V hat is the best method of rearing a racing
colt ? “ First observe,” said he, “ that the blood, or cross,
is good; secondly, breed him as you would a sheep, from
a roomy dam; and thirdly, give him as little green meat
as possible, and as much corn as he will eat.” The
trainer we allude to has now retired, but he had all the
young stock of the Duke of Grafton, and many of the
first and most successful sportsmen in England, through
his hands, and the annual disbursements of his establish¬
ment exceeded ten thousand pounds. That dry and hard
food, as it is called, is the natural food of the parent
stock from which our race-horses are descended, is be¬
yond all doubt ; and that the firmness of their acting
parts is attributable to that, and to the warmth and dryness
of the climate, is also admitted. Is it, then, to be wondered
at, that breeders of horses, and not only of race-horses,
have at length found out that dry food and warmth have
the same effect in the Temperate as they have had, and
now have, in the Torrid Zone ? that they have discov¬
ered that, when colts are bred on rich succulent food, and
subject to a humid atmosphere, the bulk of the body in¬
creases out of proportion to the strength of the bones; and
to these predisposing causes are to be attributed most of
the false points which we find in horses, such as fleshy
shoulders, deficiency of muscle, weak pasterns, and flat
feet ? Virgil discovered this nearly two thousand years
ago, and, when speaking in praise of Epirus, as suitable
to the breeding of horses, emphatically observes :—-
See Lecture 59, On the Physiology of the organs of Generation, Male and Female, page 94.
HORSE.
i
n
“ Continuo has leges seternaque foedera certis,
Imposuit natura locis." Georg. 1, 1. 60.
^ So careful, however, now are some of our principal and
most successful breeders of race-horses to avoid these evils,
that not only is a thorough-bred colt eating grass ad libi¬
tum become a rare sight, but he is not suffered to be ex¬
posed to rain, even in the midst of summer, no, not even
to a temporary shower. The effect of rain upon horses’
backs, is found to produce the worst of diseases—glanders,
for instance, as is well known to all cavalry officers who
have been on service with their regiments; and it can¬
not be innocuous to the highly-bred foal, or colt. That
he should be sheltered from the cold of winter, need
scarcely be insisted upon here, although we are rather in¬
clined to think, that, in the generality of breeding esta¬
blishments, he is more exposed to weather in the winter
than he ought to be. There is no objection to a moderate
allowance of carrots, and a little green food; but according
to the old Greek proverb, /3«)s a*** another life,
another diet, we must hear no more of the “ natural food”
of an animal insisted upon by many, who is so far called upon
to outstrip the laws of nature as to begin to work at four¬
teen months old, and to appear at the starting-post at two
years old, displaying the form, character, and strength of
one nearly arrived at maturity. Neither is the land on
which a racing-stud is situated oftentimes sufficiently con¬
sidered; but a want of such consideration has been the
source of great loss. It is in vain to expect success unless
upon that which is dry, and consequently of sound subsoil;
and what is termed “ upland ground” is most favourable.
Walls, independently of security, are preferable to hedges,
for inclosures to breeding paddocks, as the latter harbour
flies, which are very injurious to young stock, and also to
their dams, in hot weather; but the present small dimen¬
sions of breeding paddocks, not exceeding a quarter of an
acre, and many still less, preclude the use of hedges.
Racing colts are physicked when foals, and periodically
afterwards ; their hoofs, also, are pared with a drawing-knife,
that, by shortening the toe, the heel may have liberty to
expand. Physic, in this case, may be termed the safety
valve, and such it is in reality, for this System of forcing
nature cannot be free from danger. It is found, however,
materially to promote growth, as indeed does the work that
our racing-colts perform at such a very early age. Mus¬
cular action produces muscular strength, and growth wall be
the result. Yv e have seen a colt that measured upwards of
fifteen hands in height on the day twelvemonth which he
had been weaned from his dam.
Racing colts can scarcely be handled too soon:—
“ Dum faciles animi juvenum, dum mobilis setas,”
as \ irgil says of the bulls; and Horace illustrates the ne¬
cessity of early erudition of the human species by the ex¬
cellence of horses which have been well broken in when
young. The first breaking in of colts is also alluded to by
Ovid, w-ho, like Horace, is in favour of very careful treat¬
ment ot them, and reminds us of the necessity of it in the
following beautiful line :—»
“ FnenaqUe vix patitur de grege captus equus.”
The system of breaking colts, however, is not only tho-
roughly well understood in our racing establishments, but is
accomplished with much less severity than it formerly was,
and consequently with less danger to the animal.
The time of foaling is one of great interest to owners of
valuable brood mares, and particularly so when the pro¬
duce is engaged, perhaps heavily, or when they are of what
is termed a running family. The attention of the stud-
groom is directed by sundry forewarnings, the most palpa¬
ble of which is what is called “ w axing of the udder,” and
appearance of milk, which generally precede parturition
two or three days, but in some instances more. As the
mare brings forth on her legs, there is little fear of the foal
being overlaid by the mother; but the less she is disturbed
the better, lest she should trample on its legs. Her treat¬
ment afterwards is now so well understood, that nothing
requires to be said about it; but a bran mash, with from
four to six ounces of nitre dissolved in it, given as soon as
she has brought forth, keeps off fever. The great preven¬
tive of accidents to foals, is the simple contrivance of rollers
on the sides of the door-frames, which secure them from
being injured as they rush out of the hovel or shed by the
side of their dams, especially in cases of alarm.
Some persons prefer purchasing to breeding young racing
stock, and it is difficult to determine between the advan¬
tages and disadvantages of the systems. It is true that,
in the first case, the purchaser has a certainty of some re¬
turn for his money, inasmuch as he gets his colt or filly,
which the breeder may never get, after incurring a great
expense on the mare. The price of a promising yearling,
from three to five hundred guineas, is a large sum to
begin with; and we cannot, in this instance, say with
Varro, that “ a good horse is known from the first.” If pur¬
chased after he has appeared in public, at two years old,
of fashionable blood, and having run in front, he is not to
be purchased much under a thousand guineas, which is a
large sum to realize, when added to concomitant expenses.
Nothing but the immense amount of stakes for young
racing-stock can justify such a speculation. For example,
in 1824, a filly of the Duke of Grafton’s won four thousand
four hundred and fifty guineas, public money, by only
Starting twice.
One of the principal drawbacks from the’ prospects of
success in a racing establishment, is a complaint called the
Distemper, a sort of catarrhal fever, the cause of which is
generally attributed to atmospheric influence, and also to
any other which may produce what is termed a cold. Un¬
like common catarrhs, however, the distemper will run
through a whole stud of horses; and if it do not, as it fre¬
quently does, end in an affection of the lungs, it leaves a
lassitude behind it, which requires some time to remove.
As a hot sun, w ith cold winds in spring, and the humid air
of the autumn, are the chief predisposing causes of this
complaint, an even temperature in the stable, and warm
clothing when out of it, together with avoiding exposure to
extremes of heat and cold, are the best safeguards against
its attacks. It may be compared to a frost over the blos¬
soms, wdiich in one night blasts all former hopes of a crop.
A most interesting event to a breeder of thorough-bred
stock is the trial of their racing powers, which at once decides
the question of their being worth the expense of training to
run, or not. There is a great deal of judgment necessary in
the act of trying even old horses, but still more is required
to form a just estimate of a young one, from the difficulty of
knowing when he is quite up to the mark, as well as of keep¬
ing him there till it may be convenient to try him ;—and it
is not always so, owing to bad weather, the trial of young
things being generally very early in the yean This subject,
however, coming more properly under the head of Train¬
ing the Race-horse, will be treated of at a future time.
But we have not yet spoken of the form of the race¬
horse, which we will now describe ; and as nothing can be
considered characteristic of a species, but what is perfect
of its sort, we will so far endeavour to make the pen perform
the task of the pencil, as to portray his cardinal points, as
nearly perfect as such means wall admit of. Nature her¬
self, perhaps, rarely exhibits perfect models in the animal
world, leaving the completion of her skill to human saga¬
city ; neither is undeviating symmetry absolutely necessary
in a race-horse. In every composite, however, beauty
consists in the apt connexion of its parts with each other;'
and just proportions in the limbs and moving levers, coupled
5/
Race-
Horse.
574 HORSE.
Race- with that elegance of form in which there is no unneces- sary, but we do not insist upon their running fine at the K
Horse. sary weight to oppress the muscles, so peculiar to the high- withers. We consider the shoulders of Eclipse to have re- Ho !
' ' ly bred race-horse, is all that need be insisted upon in a sembled those of the greyhound, wide at the upper part, ^ ' \ *
racer. It is nevertheless hard to say what horse will make and nearly on a line with the back. Large, or even what
a racer ; and also what will not, until put to the test; for, are called coarse shoulders, contribute greatly to strength,
how many horses have appeared, which the eye of the sports- and are no impediment to speed, if there is proper declivity
man would not wish to study, and yet have proved them- of the scapula, or shoulder-bone. The withers, when high
selves very capital runners ? This excellence, however, in or thin, should enlarge gradually downwards, and there •
those “ cross-made horses,” as they are termed, not mis- should be four or five inches between the fore-thighs, but
shapen ones, arises, as has been before observed, from their less between the feet.
possessing parts conducive to speed and action, not, perhaps, . The true position of the limbs is a most material point
very strikingly displayed, but, by means of greater length in the race-horse, as it causes him to stand over more
and depth, and a peculiar manner of setting on of the acting ground than one which is otherwise formed, although pos-
parts, enabling them to excel others, much handsomer to sessing a more extended frame. One of these essential
the eye, but wanting in either proper declivity, length, or, points is, the setting on of, and length in, the fore-arm, or
what is still more probable, in circular extent of those parts, part from shoulder to knee in the fore-leg; and, another,
Thus, as the wise man, according to the Stoics, alone is is the declension of the haunch to the hock in the hind leg,
beautiful, so is a race-horse to be admired solely for those which is termed “ well let down in the thigh.” It is from
points which make him a good race-horse. having those points in excess, that enables the hare to de-
Although symmetry and proportion form a perfect figure, scribe a far greater circle, and cover more ground at one
and they become deformities when any of the component stroke, than any other animal nearly double her size. In
parts exceed or fall short of their due proportions, yet it is fact, the arm should be set on at the extreme point of the
not always necessary to measure by the standard of perfec- shoulder, which insures this act of extension, and also adds
tion. Suffice it, then, to state the generally approved points to the declivity of the shoulder. The knee should be broad
of the English race-horse. and flat, and if appearing somewhat prominent, the better.
We commence with the head, not merely because it has All the Herod legs had prominent knees (and no legs stood
always been considered as the most honourable member in work better than they did), concussion in galloping being
the human frame, but as it is one of the leading charac- diminished in legs so formed. The cannon, or shank, from
teristics of the thorough-bred horse. His broad, angular knee to fetlock, should be of moderate length in the race-
forehead, gives him that beautiful expression of countenance horse (longer than in the hunter), and, above all, the leg
which no other breed possesses; and the tapering of the should appear flat, not round, with sinews and bones dis-
face from the forehead to the muzzle, forms a striking con- tinct; and the former appearing to be very firmly braced,
trast with the large face of the cart-horse, and the forehead The pastern of the race-horse should be long, lax, and ra-
scarcely wider than the face. I he race-horse should have ther small than otherwise ; length and laxness serving as
a black, lively, and rather prominent eye, which denotes a springs, and smallness contributing to agility, and conse-
sound constitution ; and as horses do not breathe through quently to perseverance or bottom. Some comparison will
the mouth, but only through the nose, the nostrils should hold good between this point in a horse, and the “ small of
be rather expanded and flexible, that they may accommo- the leg,” as it is called, of a man, in contradistinction to
date themselves to quickened respiration, as the speed of the calf. Under the pressure of fatigue, no man complains
the animal increases. But they should not be over large, of the “ small of his leg” giving him uneasiness, but his
“ Naribus non angustis,' says \arro, and he is right, calves often give him notice that he has done too much.
Beauty in the head of the race-horse, however, is only a The hoof of the race-horse should be of moderate size in
secondary consideration to the manner in which it should proportion with the leg above.
foim a junction with the neck, as on that, in a great mea- We have already alluded to the bone of the thorough-
sure, depends the goodness of his wind in a race. His jaws bred horse, which much exceeds that of any other variety
should not only be thin, and not approach too near toge- of this animal, in its compactness and solidity ; which qua*
ther at the throat, but they should not extend too high to* lities, as the span in the gallop must give a shock in pro¬
wards the onset, or they will impede his freedom of breath- portion to its length, are admirably adapted to the race-
mg. neck of all horses should be muscular; but what horse. . We cannot say of him, what Job said of the behe-
is cal eel a loose neck in a race-horse, is not so objection- moth, that “ his bones are like bars of iron;” yet, as in
a ne as m a hunter, and is considered as indicative of speed, proportion to the muscular power of the animal, is the
But as the head of a horse may be called the helm which dense quality of the bone, that of the race-horse need not,
guides his course, changes, and directs his motions, it is not nor should not, be large. Experience teaches us, that bones
on y desirable that, as he cannot move his head, but with very rarely break ; fractures, when they do occur in racing,
the muscles of his neck, those muscles should be pliant, being almost invariably in the joints ; and rather small bone
but that he should also have what is termed a good mouth, in the leg of a race-horse, supported by broad and weli-
It is asserted that the weight of the head and neck, the braced sinews and tendons, placed distinct from the bone,
feet increasing with their distance from the trunk, adds to and forming what is called a flat and wiry leg, is most de-
the speed of the horse, by throwing his weight forward; but sirable, and found to be indicative not only of speed and
Uis is no argument for additional weight or length in those endurance, but likewise of soundness in severe work. It
jxnts, w ic ought to be ouly proportioned to the trunk, is only those who are ignorant of the anatomical structure
Uie neck of the race-horse should be in no extreme, but of animals, that fix the basis of strength in the bony sub-
lat .cr ong , '.an otherwise, and not too much arched. stances alone, not considering the muscular appendages,
s io:.,t s are said to go with their shoulders, these may which constitute the main-spring of strength and action,
e consi ere. as ighly important points. 1 hey vary in As the strongest bodies owe their vigour to the milk they
fr1Ip,1?01 c , ,1a.? ]an“V’ otncr Part °1 the horse’s frame. I hose receive in their infancy, our recommendation to keep brood
°\ . ff’ j 1 ers \ery high and fine towards the mares well will not be considered as unsuitable; but the
M :Urt\VV }ereas’ a . 11 butter is said to have rested, connexion between milk and bone is also deserving of a
unsupported, on the withers of Eclipse, when in covering remark. When animal bones are divested of their oil and
condition. Upright shoulders, however, being an impedi- jelly, the earth which remains is chiefly lime, united with
ment to speed, obliquity of tne scapula is absolutely neces- phosphoric acid. It is worthy of notice, that phosphate of
HORSE.
575
wg,, lime is found in abundance in milk. This seems to indi-
}Iot cate, that Nature thought fit to place, in the first nourish-
-^ment of animals, a quantity of osseous matter, with a view
to the necessary celerity of the formation and growth of the
bones in the earliest stage of their lives. This is one of
the numerous instances of the beneficence of the Creator,
, exemplified by the science of chemistry, and shews the ad¬
vantages to be expected from a good flow of milk in a mare
that is well fed ; and it is a remarkable fact, that the nearer
the female approaches to the period of parturition, the more
is the milk charged with this calcareous phosphate. Nor
is it until the digestive organs of the foot are sufficiently
strengthened, to answer the purposes and work of annual¬
ization, that this earthy salt disappears..
But to proceed with the form of a race-horse. The
race-horse should have length, but the length should be in
his shoulders and in the quarters ; that is, the part poste¬
rior to the hips, and not in his back. To give him that
elegance of form for which he is so conspicuous, there
should be no acute angle or any straight line. His shoul¬
ders should go into his neck at the points, unperceived, and
his back should sink a little behind the withers, which gives
his rider a good seat, and does not in the least diminish
his strength. On the contrary, horses with very straight
backs are generally deficient in their fore-quarters, as well
as in their action ; and we have known some very good
racers even what is termed hollow-backed. There should
be a little rise in the loins, just behind the saddle ; but the
race-horse should not be too closely ribbed up. The ribs
should stand out from the spine, producing what is called
a round barrel, together with depth of carcass, a formation
which not only gives strength of body and constitution,
but, by admitting the intestines to be comfortably lodged
within the ribs, imparts freedom of breathing, activity and
beauty to the whole frame of the horse, other parts being
proportional. These useful points, however, must not be
carried to an extreme, or the horse may be what is term¬
ed “ too heavy for his legs and we know that light¬
bodied horses save their legs much in their gallops, which
accounts for mares and geldings standing the severity of
training to a later period of life than stallions, by reason of
the former requiring less work, from not generally carry¬
ing so much flesh as the latter.
There is no part, excepting the head, so truly charac¬
teristic of high breeding in the horse, as his haunch. If a
little of the elegance of the parts, however, is diminished
by the width of the hips, it will be recompensed by in¬
creased strength in the animal, as is the case with broad-
shouldered men ; and when accompanied with good loins,
these protuberances of the ilium can scarcely be too great
for the purposes of power and action. We next come to
the thigh, the form and substance of which is most material
to the race-horse ; for although horses are said to go with
their shoulders, the power to give the impetus in progres¬
sive motion comes from behind. With all animals endow¬
ed with, and requiring extreme rapidity of, motion, the
thigh is furnished with extraordinary powers and length :
the hare, for example, whose thighs are let down to a great
extent for their size, and the lower part of the hinder leg
placed under them, as that of the racer should be, from a
proper curve of the hock. The speed of the ostrich arises
from the power of the muscles from the pelvis to the foot;
and the thigh of the fighting cock is a point much consider¬
ed by breeders. It is not necessary that a race-horse’s
thigh should be very large, but it should exhibit well de¬
veloped muscle. Descending lowrer in the limb, we arrive
at the hock, a very complicated joint, but the form of which
is most important in the race-horse. It should be large
and lean, and the point of it projecting behind the body,
which greatly increases the power of the lever in action,
as will presently be most satisfactorily shewn.
Sire. *}ace-
Horse.
The point of perfection in most things lies at a middle''^—v~-
distance between two extremes, and such is the case here.
The medium height, about fifteen hands two inches, four
inches to a hand, is the best for a race-horse. As the long
beam breaks by its own weight, so large animals have
rarely strength in proportion to their size. In fact, if there
were any land animals larger than those we know, thev •
would hardly be able to move at all. On the English Turf,
however, the very large horses that have appeared at va¬
rious periods of its existence, have, with a very few excep¬
tions, not been found so good under high weights, as those
of a medium height; and several instances are on record
(Meteora, Whalebone, and others, for example) of the best
horse of his year being very nearly the lowest.
The following are amongst the principal and essential
points of a race-horse, pointed out by Mr Darvill in the se¬
cond volume of his “ Treatise on the Care, Treatment,
and Training of the English Race-horse,” London, 1834.
“ His head should be small and lean ; his ears small and
picked; his eyes brilliantly large ; his forehead broad and
flat His throat should be clean, and fine
from the butt of the ear down to its centre, with a good
wide space between the jaw-bones, which latter should be
thin. . . . The neck should be moderate in length.
I prefer its being wide; I mean its width should be formed
by the substance of muscles which pass along each side of
the top part of it; from the withers to the head it may
gradually rise a little in its centre, but by no means to any
extreme, as I have a great aversion to a high-crested race¬
horse. Indeed, I would prefer that his neck should be as
I have described his face, rather of the ewe or deer-like
shape, than that it should be loaded on top, which I will
by-and-by explain. As to the lower part of the neck, I
have no very particular remarks to make, further than the
trachea or windpipe should be spacious and loosely attach¬
ed to the neck on its way to the lungs.
“ The withers may be moderately high, and, if the reader
like, they may also be moderately thin ; but, with respect
to this latter point, I am not so very particular, provided
the shoulders lay well back. From the withers the back
commences. I confess, that appearance may be in favour of
a horse that has his back a little low or hollow. As a sad¬
dle-horse this may be all very well, but for a race-horse, to
have strength and liberty of stride, his back should be
straight and moderately long, with the shoulders and loins
running well in at each end. The loins should have great
breadth and muscular substance, so much so as for them
to have the appearance of being raised as it were on their
surface ; and those muscles posterior to the loins should
fill up level the top part of the quarters to the setting on of
the tail, which latter should be set on pretty high up.”
After describing the fundament, which, if small, close,
and tight, and rather projecting than otherwise, Mr Dar¬
vill considers as a good constitutional point, he thus pro¬
ceeds :—“ I now come to speak of the body, or what is by
some people commonly called tire ‘ middle piece’ of the
horse, and which is divided, internally, into two cavities
by a muscular substance called the ‘ diaphragm.’ The an¬
terior cavity, the chest, contains the lungs, the heart, &e.
The posterior one, the abdomen, contains the stomach, in¬
testines, liver, kidneys, &c. Now, with respect to the ex'-
ternal form of the body, which contains and protects all
those numerous organs so important to life, I shall first
make my observations on the chest. To use a common
phrase, and somewhat an expressive one, a horse in this
part should be what is called ‘ well over the heart,’ that is,
he should be deep in his girth, round or well arched in his
ribs. I mean by this, that a rider on the back of a race¬
horse (as they are generally better about the chest than
HORSE.
576
Race- horses in common use), should feel he has some breadth
Horse, or substance between his legs; and there should be a good
swell of muscle before his knees, or the centre of the flaps
of the saddle. The chest, thus spaciously formed, gives
room for respiration, so that, in training, the horse’s wind
can be brought to the greatest perfection, which enables
him to run on in long lengths. The next part to be treat¬
ed of is the abdomen or belly, or what is usually called the
• carcass. It may perhaps appear a little strange, but I have
a great aversion to what is commonly called a good car¬
cassed horse, nor am I particularly partial to a large sheath¬
ed one. I like both these parts to be in the medium, as I
do also that of his being well ribbed up. It is true that a
horse being well ribbed up denotes strength, and a short
close made race-horse is, in running, handy at his turns,
and, as I have already noticed, he is generally a pretty
good one under high weights over a small round cock-pit
course ; but this description of course and sort of running
is not now so much practised as formerly, or rather it is a
sort of racing that does not exactly suit long-striding horses,
as most of those are that run in Newmarket. Another
thing is, that horses with large carcasses are mostly great
gluttons; they put up flesh very rapidly, and are very diffi¬
cult and troublesome to train, in consequence of their con¬
stitutions being too strong, or proportionably too much
for their feet and legs. Such horses not only , seldom
remain long in training, but they cannot remain long in
condition without their becoming stale in themselves, as
also on their legs, and those are my reasons for objecting
to very large carcassed horses; yet I do not wish horses to
be what is termed ‘ tucked up’ or waspish in their carcasses.
I like a horse’s carcass to be in the medium; that is, it
should be straight and handsome from behind the girths of
his saddle ; and what will make up sufficiently well, and
give him sufficient strength of constitution, is the well
formation of the parts already noticed, as the chest, the
loins, and the fundament.
“ To return to the fore-extremities. The shoulders com¬
mence from a little below the withers ; they should lie most
particularly well back, should be deep, broad, and muscu-
larly strong ; yet those muscular parts should appear to the
eye as being moderately so, that is, not unproportionally
loaded: These muscles should be distinctly seen, there
should be no appearance of fat, or, as it is technically
termed, ‘ adipose membrane.’ The shoulders cannot well
be too oblique in their descent to the front of the chest;
here, on each side, a joint is formed by the lower part of
the scapula or shoulder-blade being united with the upper
j)art of the humerus or arm-bone. Those joints, thus
formed, are usually called the points of the shoulders, which
points should appear straight or level. There should be
no coarse, projecting, or heavy, appearance about the points
of the shoulders of such horses as are intended to race ; nor
indeed does this often occur, unless where it happens that
the chest or counter of the horse is unproportionally wide.
In taking a front view of the chest, it should appear mo¬
derate as to breadth ; and if its prominency is at all to the
extreme, it should be in consequence of the fulness or sub¬
stance of those muscles covering the breast, which muscles
should be lengthy, and their divisions distinctly to be ob¬
served. The fore-arm should be broad and long, and most
particularly well furnished with muscles on its top parts,
inside as well as out; I mean by this, that the muscles on
the top and inside of the arm should here be so large as to
leave but a moderate space between the fore-legs, imme¬
diately under the chest, and which muscles should appear,
as those in front of the chest, distinctly divided. The pos¬
terior part of the top of the arm is called the ‘ elbow,’
this should appear (the horse in condition) somewhat on a
level with the body ; if it at all deviates from this appear¬
ance, I would prefer its standing in, to that of its standing
unproportionally out. The knee-joint should be large, j),
broad, and flat in front; generally speaking, the larger and Hot
broader all joints are in reason the better and stronger they .
are ; and the longer, coarser, and rougher, their projecting
points or processes are, the greater and more secure will be
the lever for the muscles or tendons to act upon, provided
such projecting parts or joints (as the hocks and pasterns)
do not amount to disease, as that of producing spavins and
ring bones. The legs from the knee to the fetlock, cannot
well be too short, neither can they well be.too broad or too
flat, nor their flexor tendon scarcely be too large or appearing
too distinctly divided, as it were, from the leg. The fet¬
lock-joint should also be large, and the pastern proportion¬
ally strong, but its length and obliquity should be in the
medium. The wall or crust of the feet should also be mo¬
derately oblique, with the heels open, and frogs sound; this,
indeed, is generally the state of racing-colts on first bear¬
ing their paddocks, if their feet have been paid proper at¬
tention to during the time they may have remained there.
Yet, the feet of such of them as have been some time in
work will occasionally get out of order ; they grow upright
and strong; the horn gets hard and brittle, and the heels
more or less contracted, almost all of which defects are
too often occasioned from the want of proper attention
being paid to them at the time of shoeing, and of proper
applications being applied to them in the stables. With
regard to the structure of such horses feet, and the diseases
of them, as also the method of shoeing and plating them,
a description will be found in the different chapters on those
subjects in the first volume. Previous to concluding my
remarks on the fore extremities, it may not be amiss to
observe to the reader, that, supposing him to stand oppo¬
site to those parts of the horse, if the animal is formed in
them, as I have already described the centre of the top
part of the fore-arm, to be well placed, ought to be nearly
or quite in a parallel line with the top or fore-part of the
horse’s withers ; and again, from the top part of the fore-arm
down to the foot, for the horse to stand firm and well, and
have the power of using his fore-legs well, he should stand
perfectly straight on them ; I mean by this, they are not
to appear too much under him, or too much out or away
from him. Suppose again, for example, a man standing
in front of the horse, and here taking a view of the foot,
the centre part of the wall or crust should be in or on a
parallel line with that lower part or joint of the shoulder,
commonly termed its point. A horse’s feet, thus placed,
will neither be too much out or too much in ; but should his
feet deviate from what I have here observed, by amounting
to a fault, in turning too much out or too much in, I should
prefer their being a little out, to that of the other extreme
of turning in, and being what is called 4 pigeon-toed.’
44 I shall now proceed to describe the hind-quarters or
posterior extremities. As may be supposed, the well for¬
mation of those parts is of the utmost importance to a race¬
horse in his running; it is, therefore, necessary that they
should be, in breadth, substance, and length, of very supe¬
rior dimensions. The hips should have a great breadth
between them ; and if they are a little coarse or projecting
so much the better, provided such coarse projections are
not in the extreme, or appear vulgar or unsightly. From
the centre and posterior part of the loins to the top of the
tail is called the 4 croup,’ and should be of great length;
and, if it deviates from that of a straight line, it may be
somewhat arched in the centre; the croup being thus
formed gives great breadth to the top of the quarters, the
length of which, from the croup down to the hock, cannot
scarcely be of too great an extent, in order that there may
be sufficient room here for the attachment of those broad,
powerful, lengthy, and distinctly divided muscles on the
outside of the quarters and thighs ; and there should also
be a similar portion of such muscles on the inside of the
HORSE.
:e- quarters and thighs ; so that a man, who is a good judge,
I se. taking a posterior view, may observe how the horse is
- made. In this position he should be, as it were, struck by
the appearance of the great breadth and length of the back
part of the quarters, and as he moves his head to the right
or left, the centre and outside of the quarters and thighs,
and the swell of the muscles, should appear beyond a level
with the hips. The upper part of the muscles on the in¬
side of the quarters should appear quite close to each other,
so that no vacant space should be visible between them,
as that of an appearance of the horse being (if I may
thus express myself) chucked up in the fork. Such should
be the lengthy and muscular quarters of a well made race¬
horse.
“ The stifle-joint should be in a direct line under the hip,
and the length from this joint to that of the hock cannot
reasonably be too long, and the farther out of the angular
or oblique position of the thigh-bone the better, so as to
admit of the back part or projecting point of the hock ap¬
pearing some distance out beyond the top of the hind
quarters; those parts being thus formed, admit of a very
considerable lever for the main tendon here to act upon
the tendon Achilles, which, like the flexor one of the leg,
can scarcely be too large or too distinctly seen in its com¬
mencement, from the lower part of the quarter to its in¬
sertion into the posterior or projecting point of the hock, the
os calcis. The hock should be broad and wide, with a clean
lean appearance, and those soft parts which are occasionally
the seat of through-pins and bog spavins, in a sound well
formed hock, should appear more as cavities than as having
the above-mentioned projections, and which are sometimes
the cause of lameness. The hind-leg, like the fore one,
should be short, broad, flat, and straight; the trifling angle
formed by the hock should, together with the moderate ob¬
liquity of the pastern, bring the extremity of the toe nearly
under the stifle-joint.”
Action of the Mace-Horse.
As amongst the Egyptians, the lion was the hieroglyphic
of strength, so was the horse of agility ; and truly nothing
displays it more elegantly than he does, w hen gamboling in
a state of liberty. In the race-horse, action, as in eloquence, is
the next thing to substance; and virtus in actione, should be
the horse-breeder’s motto. But the action of the race-horse
is of a nature peculiar to his calling. He must not only pos¬
sess great stride in his gallop, the result of great propor¬
tion in his limbs and moving levers, but also a quickness
in repeating that stride, or he would lose in time what he
gains in space. It is then when stride and quickness are
united, that the fleet racer is produced; and in his race
with Diamond, Hambletonian is asserted to have covered
twenty-one feet at a stroke at the finish of it; and Eclipse
is generally believed to have covered eighty-three and a
half feet of ground in a second, when going at the top of
his speed, which, by a calculation by Monsieur Saintbel,
amounted to about twenty-five feet of ground covered at a
stroke.
The action most approved of in a racer, as describing the
greatest extent, with the least fatigue to the animal, is what
is termed on the Turf “ round action that is, when, on a
side view being taken of a horse in his gallop, his fore legs
appear to form a wheel or circle. Different ground, how¬
ever, requires different action ; and the large, long striding
horse may be beaten on a hilly, or turning course, by one
of a smaller size, but with a shorter stride, which prevents
the Newmarket courses being a certain criterion of a good
nmner at Epsom, which is very trying ground. The state
577
of the ground, likewise, whether wet or dry, soft or hard Itace-
tells so much in a race, as often to give it to a horse very Horse,
little thought of at starting, as was the case with Tar-
rare, winner of the St Leger, at Doncaster, in 1826. The
celebrated Euphrates, the winner of so many gold cups,
and who ran till he was in his teens, was nearly a stone
below his usual form, after even a hard shower of rain.
This variation of fleetness corroborates our assertion, that
the virtue of what is termed blood is mechanical, or, what
is the same thing, that the excellence of all horses is
mechanical, and that the smallest deviation from a true
formation of the acting parts operates so powerfully as to
render them, under certain exertions, nearly valueless.
Wind.
It is true, “ speed wins the race but to make it avail¬
able to the race-horse, it must be accompanied by endu -
ranee, or “ bottom.” A great promoter of this is clear
wind, or freedom of respiration, the want of which makes
the war-horse rebel in the manege, the hunter run into his
fences, the draught-horse fall, as if he were shot, and the
racer either stop, or bolt out of the course. In fact, when
the organs of respiration are fatigued, all animals are nearly
powerless. The cause of good wind may be distinguish
able to the eye, and arises chiefly from depth in the fore¬
quarters, which implies a capacious thorax or chest. How¬
ever wide a horse may be in his foreparts, he will not be
good-winded unless he is, at the same time, deep. But
still wind in the race-horse depends on something more,
on the nature of his constituent and component parts,
which, if in proper proportion, impart to him strength and
agility, giving him that easy action which will not readily
fatigue these organs of respiration; and so enable him to
run on, when others, less gifted by nature than himself, are
forced to slacken pace. The good effect of clear wind in
a race-horse is in fact twofold; first, It gives him signal
advantage in a race; and, secondly, Horses thus organized
require less work to make them fit to start.
The following passage on this point is worthy of remark:
“ When the animal powerfully exerts himself, a more ample
supply of pure blood is required to sustain the energies of life,
and the action of the muscles forces the blood more rapidly
through the veins ; hence the quick and deep breathing of
a horse at speed ; hence the necessity of a capacious chest,
in order to yield an adequate supply, and the connexion of
this capacity of the chest with the speed and the endurance
of the horse ; hence the wonderful relief which the mere
loosening of the girths affords to a horse blown and distress¬
ed, enabling the chest to expand, and to contract to a
greater extent, in order to yield more purified blood ; and
hence the relief afforded by even a short period of rest,
during which this expenditure is not required, and the
almost exhausted energies of these organs have time to re¬
cover. Hence, likewise, appears the necessity of an ample
chest for the accumulation of much flesh and fat; for, if a
considerable portion of the blood be employed in the growth
of the animal, and it be thus rapidly changed, there must
be provision for its rapid purification ; and that can only be
effected by the increased bulk of the lungs, and the corre¬
sponding largeness of the chest to contain them.” 1
Certain thorough-bred horses would deceive an inexpe¬
rienced observer as to the real state of their organs of re¬
spiration, by an appearance of difficulty of breathing, which,
in reality, they do not possess. The term for this apparent
defect is, in one instance, hard breathing, or high-blowing,
and in another “ cracking the nostrils.” Of the first de¬
scription was the celebrated Eclipse, whose breathing in
4 D
yol. XI.
1 Farmers' Series, “ The Horse,” Part VI. p. 182.
578
HORSE.
Race- his gallop could be heard at a considerable distance; and of
Horse, the latter (still more common) may be reckoned many of
-“'v'"'—^ the best racers of past and present days. Indeed, a race¬
horse cracking his nostrils in his exercise, and snorting well
afterwards, are considered indicative of good-windedness.
On the other hand, when a race-horse becomes a roarer,
which is a common effect of a severe attack of the epizootic,
called the Distemper, he is rarely able to struggle in a
race, although there have been several instances of win¬
ners under such very unfavourable circumstances.
Temper is a property of much importance to the race¬
horse, subject as he is to its influence under more trying
circumstances than most other descriptions of horses. In
the first place, his fine and nearly hairless skin, softened
and cleansed as it is by frequent copious perspiration, is so
highly sensible to the friction of the wisp and brush, as to
induce him to try to rid himself of his tormentor, by attack¬
ing the person who is dressing him, and thus becomes
vicious in the stable. It will also be recollected that he is
at this time, perhaps, in the very highest state of condition
and good keep of which his nature is susceptible. On the
race-course, again, he has often to encounter the (to him)
unnatural sound of music, and many strange objects; per¬
haps two or three false starts before he gets into a race;
and too often, when doing his best in a race, very severe
punishment both by whip and spur. It is in his race, how¬
ever, and chiefly in the last struggle for it, that the temper
of the race-horse is most put to the test; and, if really bad,
lie either runs out of the course, to the great danger of
his rider, and to the inevitable loss of his owner and those
who have betted on his winning, or he “ shuts himself up,”
as the term is, and will not head his horses, although in his
power to do so. It is evident, then, that breeders should
not send mares to stallions of known bad temper, as nearly
all those propensities are found to be hereditary; and we
could name one or two of the best horses of the present
day, who are generally rejected as stallions to breed racers
from, by reason of these propensities.
It would be absurd to draw a comparison between the
English race-horse in training, and the horse of the Desert,
“ educated,” as Mr Gibbon eloquently says of him, “ in the
tents, among the children of the Arabs, with a tender fami¬
liarity, which trains him in the habits of gentleness and
attachment.” Nevertheless, we are inclined to believe that
the tempers of many naturally quiet horses are made un¬
certain, and oftentimes decidedly vicious, by want of pro¬
per judgment, as well as good temper, in those also who have
the management of them. Brutes, like men, demand a
peculiar mode of treatment, when we require them to do
their utmost for us; and it is certain that this principle
holds good in regard to both, namely, that, in general,
kindness gains its ■point, cruelty provokes resistance, and
a proper degree of severity produces obedience. The pan¬
ther in the fable knew who fed her with bread, and who
pelted her with stones; and we may be assured, that so
noble and high-spirited an animal as the horse feels with
acuteness sensations of pleasure and pain.
We often hear it asserted that the British thorough-bred
horse has degenerated within the last few years, and is no
longer the stout and long-enduring animal that he was in
the bygone century, particularly during the last twenty
years of it. We are inclined to believe that there is some
truth in this. We do not think we have such good four-mile
horses, as they are termed, as formerly, which we consider
easily accounted for. They are not wanted, very few four-
mile races being now run, even at Newmarket or in the
country, and, therefore, a different kind of race-horse is
sought for. It may, however, be true, that the inducement
to train colts and fillies, at a very early period of their lives,
for these short races, lias had an injurious effect on their
stamina, and, consequently, on the stock bred from them.
Formerly a horse was wranted for a lifetime, now he is cut
up in his youth to answer the purposes of perhaps but one
day;—a system, we admit, quite at variance with the ori-''
ginal object of horse-racing, which was intended to be¬
nefit the community, by being the means of producing,
as well as displaying, the constitutional strength of the horse
in its very highest perfection. Another cause may have
operated in rendering thorough-bred horses less powerful
than they were, or less capable of enduring severe fatigue.
During the period of high weights and long courses,
horses and mares were kept on in training until after they
had arrived at the age of maturity, neither did they begin
to work so soon; whereas nowr, no sooner have they won,
or run well for some of our great three year-old stakes,
than they are put into the stud to produce racing stock,
which is perhaps to be used much in the same manner as
they themselves have been used, or, wre should have rather
said, abused.
But, admitting this alleged falling off in the powers and
performances of the British thorough-bred horse, it may be
the result of causes unconnected with those already noticed.
Although there may be no era of greater intellectual bright¬
ness than another in the history of any animal but man,
yet, as is signified by Plato in the eighth book of his Re¬
public, there have always been periods of fertility and
sterility of men, animals, and plants; and that, in fertile
periods, mankind, as well as animals, will not only be both
more numerous, but superior in bodily endowments, to those
of a barren period. This theory is supported by the rela¬
tions of ancient historians, in the' accounts they give of ani¬
mals which no where exist at present, and in the properties
they ascribe to some of those which now do exist.
But to return to the alleged alteration for the worse in
the British race-horse. We admit the fact, that he is not
so good at high weight over the Beacon at Newmarket, or
any other four-mile course, as his predecessors were, whose
descent was closer than his is to the blood of Herod and
Eclipse, and the descendants of that cross, said to be the
stoutest of any. Nevertheless he is, in his present form,
more generally adapted to the purposes to which the horse
is applied. He has a shorter, but more active, stroke in
his gallop than his predecessors had, which is more available
to him in the short races of the present time than the deep
rate of the four-milers of old times ; and as he is now re¬
quired to start quickly, and to be on his legs, as the term
is, in a few hundred yards, he is altogether a more lively
active animal than formerly ; and, as such, a useful animal
for more ends than one. In former days, not one trained
thorough-bred horse in fifty made a hunter. Indeed few
sportsmen had the courage to try the experiment of making
him one. He went more upon his shoulders, as well as with
a straighter knee, than the modern race-horse does, and
required much greater exertion in the rider to pull him
together in his gallop. All those sportsmen, how ever, who
remember such horses as the late Earl Grosvenor’s, John
Bull, and Alexander, must admit, that, in form and sub¬
stance, they were equal to carrying the heaviest wreight
across a country, and the last mentioned horse was the sire
of several very powerful, at the same time very brilliant
hunters. But as it is action after all that carries weight,
the thorough-bred horses of this day are not deficient in
that respect, unless undersized; and there are more thorough¬
bred hunters at this period, and have been more for the last
thirty years, than were ever known before. This improve¬
ment in action also qualifies the full-bred horse for the road,
whereas formerly not one in a hundred was fit to ride oft
turf. Indeed daisy-cutters and thorough-bred horses were
nearly synonymous terms ; but at present a young lady on
a bit of blood is an every day sight; and a young gentle¬
man on any thing else in the parks, or on his road to
hounds, is become rather a rare one. This is a very saving
—
HORSE.
579
j,f clause to breeders of race-horses, as a market is now gene-
gj rally found for such as are undersized, or tried to be defi-
[7 cient in speed for racing; whereas in former days, a bad
race-horse was, like Rosinante, neither saleable nor pawn-
able.
Speed of the Race-Horse.
All animals in a state of domestication exhibit powers
far beyond those that are natural to them in their wild state,
and writers on the horse have advanced to the utmost verge
of possibility, in recording the maximum speed of the Eng¬
lish race-horse. Most of the instances stated by them,
such as Flying Childers having run a mile in a minute,
are unsupported by authority, and therefore not worthy of
regard. That the horse, however, has ever been consider-
Ied the swiftest beast of the forest, may be gathered from
the frequent allusions to his fleetness by inspired as well as
by heathen writers. Thus, the chariot-horses of Oenomaus,
King of Elis, were said to be begotten by the winds, em¬
blematical of their prodigious swiftness; and Homer repre¬
sents the steeds of Achilles to be the produce of Zephyrus
(the west wind, said to be the swiftest of any), and Podarge,
whose name signifies speed. Nor is Virgil far behind the
rest in his encomium on the fleetness of his colt, which he
makes to challenge the very whirlwind itself. As it is
speed, however, that wins the race, it is most essential to
the race-horse, provided it be accompanied by stoutness ;
and unless we wish to fly through the air like Pacolet on
his wooden horse, we may be contented with the speed of
the present English race-horse. Perhaps the following is
a fair specimen, and, as it is of so late a date, the same un¬
certainty does not attach to it that hangs over the unsup¬
ported traditions of our earlier racing days. In 1832,
Theodore, the property of the Honourable Edward Petre,
and winner of the Doncaster St Leger stakes, ran the dis¬
tance, being one mile six furlongs and one hundred and
thirty-two yards, in three minutes and twenty-three seconds,
carrying 8 stone 6 lb. He was trained and tamed by the
late Mr Croft, who also trained the second and third horses
in the same race.
Expenses of a Breeding Racing-Stud.
Some persons must be breeders of race-horses, but whe¬
ther to profit or loss, depends on various circumstances.
Amongst them may be reckoned the following :—Judgment
in selecting the parent stock or blood ; conveniences for
keeping the produce well and warm, and on land suitable to
breeding; and plenty of money at command, to enable a
breeder to purchase mares of the very best racing families,
and to put them to the best of stallions. When this is the
case, we think breeding (we mean quite distinct from risk in
racing) would seldom fail to pay, if the foals were sold off
at weaning time, or even at a year old. A few years back,
eight of the Earl of Durham’s foals realized L. 200 a-piece ;
and, still later, several of Mr Nowell’s (of Underley Hall,
Westmoreland) yearlings fetched the enormous sum of
L. 500. No doubt, in all studs, great loss is sustained by
a certain proportion of the young stock which promise to
be small and not ■worth training; but here breeders are
often deceived. For example, the late Lord Grosvenor
sent Meteora, the best mare in England of her day, to
Chester Fair, when two years old, to be sold for L. 16, be¬
cause she was considered as too small; and he also suffered
Violante, the best four-mile racer of her day, to be sold, un¬
tried, for L. 50, but fortunately purchased her again. The
great prices, however, occasionally paid to breeders for some
horses (4000 guineas, for example, to the Earl of Jersey Race-
for Mameluke, and 3000 guineas a-piece have lately been Horse,
given for other three year-old colts) make up for the loss ~
inseparable from such as, by misshape, diminutive size, and
casualties, are culled out, and sold for what they will fetch,
which seldom amounts to much.
Value of Stakes and Prizes.
Agamemnon is made to say, that that man would be rich
who had treasures equal to the value of the prizes the horses
had won, which he offers to Achilles. We are inclined to
think, that if this king of Argos could come amongst us
now, he would find prizes more valuable than any contend¬
ed for in his time ; and that sterling cash, and not “ the
bubble honour,” is the main object of the British sportsman
on the Turf. But here is the inducement to the great ex¬
penses of a racing breeding-stud: It is possible that a
three-year-old colt might win, at three starts, the enormous
sum of 8350 guineas; and a three-year-old filly might
win the still greater amount of L. 11,100.1
Colour of the Thorough-bred Horse.
The beauty of forms observable in the animal system is
subordinate to their general utility, and they please us in
proportion to their aptitude to unite these two objects.
We admire the elegant make of a swan, but the pleasure
is doubled when we behold the ease and dignity of its mo¬
tion. The colours, however, which Nature has bestowed
with such profusion upon the surface of some of these ani¬
mals, birds in particular, exhibit beauties independent of
aptitude, and could only have been intended for their
adornment. The prevailing colour of the thorough-bred
horse is peculiarly elegant and chaste, being a bright bay,
with black mane and tail, and black legs to correspond,
although occasionally relieved with a small white star on
the forehead, or a white heel of the leg. It is remarkable,
that what may be termed vulgar colours, such as light
sorrel, or dun, or brown with mealy muzzle, are very sel¬
dom met with in the thorough-bred horse ; and we know
but one instance of the pie-bald, and very few roans.2
Black is not common, nor approved of, although several of
our best racers, almost all the Trumpator blood, have
been of that colour. The real chestnut prevails a good
deal, and is quite equal to the bay in the richness and
brightness of its hues. Such was the colour of Eclipse,
and, as is the case with game-fowls, in the breeding of
which there are instances of a reversion to the original
colour, after fifteen descents, it is not uncommon for
thorough-bred stock to be chestnuts, although got by a
bay stallion out of a bay mare, or from sire and dam of any
other colour, provided the blood runs back to his, Eclipse’s,
source. Indeed, a small dark spot which that celebrated
horse had on his quarter, has been frequently found in his
descendants in the fifth or sixth generation.
It is an old and trite saying, that “ a good horse cannot
be of a bad colour nevertheless, colours of horses are, to
a certain extent, indices of their physical powers. Such
has proved to be the case with men ; and it was found in
the ill-fated Russian campaign, that men of dark com¬
plexions and black hair bore the severity of the climate
better than men of an opposite appearance to them. It is,
however, rather a remarkable fact, that by far the greater
number of eminent English prize-fighters have been men
of light, not dark, complexion. The ancients reckoned
thirteen colours of horses, giving the preference to bay
(badices).
1 Vide Racing Calendar. 1834, for amount of the twentieth Itiddlesworth stakes, at Newmarket; the Derby and Oaks, at Epsom ;
and the St Leger stakes, at Doncaster.
J See “ The Cocker," by W. Sketchley, Gent. London, 1814.
580 HORSE.
Race- A second-rate description of racer has lately been
Horse, prevalent in England, Newmarket excepted, known by the
term “ cock-tail,” or half-bred horse, as he is called, but
improperly so termed, because the stain in him is general¬
ly very slight indeed, and too often difficult to be traced.
Many objections are raised by sportsmen, who are thorough
racing men, and who wish well to the Turf, against the
cock-tail racer, and for very good reasons. In the first
place, if really half-bred, he resembles the royal stamp upon
base metal, for no half-bred horse is deserving the name of
racer, nor will he stand the necessary preparation. Se¬
condly, what are called half-bred stakes, some of which are
very good, have been the cause of a great many frauds be¬
ing committed, by bringing horses to run for them under
false pedigrees, which will ever be the case, from the great
difficulty of proving a horse to be thorough-bred, whose
dam may have been purchased by accident, or in some
clandestine way, and still perhaps of pure racing blood.
Again, as there is no scale by which the degree of impure
blood, which qualifies a horse for those stakes, can be mea¬
sured, the breeder of the cock-tail, of course, avails him¬
self of the parent stock in which the slightest possible stain
can be shewn, which indeed has been attempted to be shewn
in some of the best race-horses of later times. In this case, an
animal is produced against which no half-bred horse, in the
proper acceptation of the term, has a chance, and he sweeps
the country of all the good stakes; and some such horses,
(Habberley, for example) have proved themselves superior
to many of the thorough-bred racers of their year. But
the breeding of horses for these stakes is any thing but be¬
neficial to the country, the great object of racing. It en¬
courages a spurious race of animals, often possessing the
faults of the blood horse without the strength and activity
of the hunter, and it was for the latter description of horse
that this stake was first intended. Bona fide hunters’
stakes would be advantageous, if open to all horses bringing
certificates of their having been regularly hunted through¬
out a season, but not merely ridden by a boy to see a fox
found; and giving no allowance to the horse called “ half-
bred.” Let the best hunter win, which would encourage
the breeding of strong thorough-bred horses, which make
the best hunters of any;—a fact no one who has ridden
many of them will deny.
Weatherly’s General Stud Book.
To assist in the detection of spurious blood, and the cor¬
rection of inaccurate pedigrees, is the chief purpose of this
excellent publication, now increased to a third volume, and
forming a part of every sportsman’s library. Some attempts
have been made by Mr John Laurence, a voluminous, but
by no means a correct, writer on the Horse, to disturb the
pedigrees of several of the first stallions of their time, and
from which several of the distinguished racers of the pre¬
sent day are descended; and all upon hearsay evidence,
without being able to substantiate one single fact in proof
of his vague assertions. He has doubted the pedigree of
Eclipse, put the blood of Sampson into Highflyer, where
it never existed, and has thought proper to pronounce
Sampson to have been a low-bred horse, on the authority
of some old Yorkshireman he picked up on the road, al¬
though in his last work on the Horse he admits him to have
been one of “ the truest four-mile horses that our Turf has
produced; was but once beaten, and also proved a capital
stallion, as sire of Bay Mollon, Engineer,” &c. Such matters
as this would be scarcely worthy of notice, were it not with
a view of cautioning the public, foreigners in particular,
from being led into errors respecting the purity of our
racing blood. Sampson was an animal of immense power,
bo were John Bull and Alexander; he might have had
coarse pomts, so have the stock of Partisan and Blacklock,
two of the best stallions of the present day; but who would Hi»
deny their purity of blood on that account ? Mr Laurence w ^
has been often called to account for these and similar mis-
statements, but he is inaccessible to correction. Sic ac¬
cept Anglice, “ As I have heard,” is the main foundation
of many of his assertions ; and he claims the woman’s pri¬
vilege of having the last word.
THE HUNTER.
There is no description of horse which could be applied to
so many purposes, racing excepted, as the powerful Eng¬
lish Hunter. Setting aside his own peculiar services in the
field, he is fit to carry a man on the road, in the field of bat¬
tle, and he answers for every kind of draught. Indeed, we
are inclined to believe no horse would equal him in plough¬
ing; and as for road-work on harness, either slow or fast,
nothing could touch him, in a carriage properly suited to his
powers. It is, however, no less true than singular, that out of
a hundred sportsmen assembled at the meeting of a pack of
fox-hounds, not half-a-dozen would be found mounted on
horses which they themselves had bred. This arises from two
causes : First, the greater part of them have not patience to
await the arrival of a young horse at his best, and conse¬
quently sell the few they do breed, without giving them a fair
trial; and, secondly, such has, of late years, been the preju¬
dice against riding mares in the hunting field, that they have
been chiefly left in the hands of farmers and yeomen, who
are become the principal breeders of English hunters. Nei¬
ther do hunters find their road direct from the breeder to the
studs of noblemen or gentlemen. They generally go
through the hands of an inferior country dealer, from
whom they are bought by the principal London and coun¬
try dealers, and sold by them to the sportsmen of the va¬
rious hunts. There are, of course, exceptions to this pro¬
ceeding. A great proportion of English yeomen and far¬
mers are very excellent horsemen, and, as such, having the
capability of making their young horses into hunters, and,
distinguishing them by riding them afterwards with hounds,
obtain now and then as high a price for them as they fetch
after having passed through the hands we have described.
It is, however, to be lamented that the last-mentioned de¬
scription of persons, the breeders and trainers of young
hunters, do not, for the most part, realize such large prices
as the first, although fully entitled to it, as a reward for
their trouble and skill.
It is impossible to lay down any precise rules for breed-
ing hunters, so many collateral circumstances being neces¬
sary to be taken into consideration. For example, Pen¬
nant, in his Zoology, says, “ Our race-horses are descend¬
ed from Arabian stallions, and the genealogy faintly ex¬
tends to the hunter.” From this we learn the interesting
fact, that a wonderful change, within the last sixty or seven¬
ty years, has taken place in the form and character of this
sort of horse, inasmuch as, in the opinion of some of the
first of our English sportsmen, and such as put the powers
of the horse to the most severe test, the hunter of the pre¬
sent day is not in his perfect form unless quite thorough¬
bred. This part of the subject we shall discuss hereafter;
but as there are several of our hunting counties not at all
suited to this description of horse, the thorough-bred
hunter, and a large portion of our sportsmen who, some
by reason of their weight, and others from prejudice against
them, neither can nor will ride them, we may safely assert,
that not more than a twentieth part of English hunters are
at this time of quite pure blood. We will, however, set
forth what we consider the best properties of the full-bred
and the half-bred hunter, as he is called, as also the most
probable means of breeding each kind to advantage; at the
same time venturing an opinion, that, when their indivi-
HORSE.
581
3r. dual capabilities are put into the scale of excellence, the
—^ balance will incline to the former.
One great obstacle to the general success in breeding
hunters is, not so much the difficulty of access to good
stallions, but of making breeders believe that it would be
their interest to send their mares to such as are good, al¬
though at an extra expense. Most rural districts, in other
respects favourable to horse-breeding, swarm with covering
stallions, the greater part of which have proved very bad
racers; but which, falling into the hands of persons who
are popular characters in their neighbourhood, and cover¬
ing at a low price, get most of the farmers’ brood mares
sent to them, their owners never reflecting, as they gaze
upon these misshapen animals, that Nature will not go out
of her course to oblige them, but that, in the animal crea¬
tion, “ like begets like.” Neither does the evil stop here.
So much is this made a matter of chance instead of one of
judgment, should the produce of a mare sent to one of
these bad stallions be a filly foal, and she proves so defec¬
tive in shape and action as to be unsaleable at a remune¬
rating price, she remains the property of her breeder, and
in time becomes herself a brood-mare. What, then, can be
expected from such produce ? Why, unless chance steps
in and supplies the defect of judgment, in the first instance,
admitting that she is sent to a better stallion than her
sire was, by the procreative powers of the male so far ex¬
ceeding those of the female, as to produce a foal free from
the defects of the dam, another shapeless, unprofitable ani¬
mal is produced. Nevertheless, in the course of time,
perhaps this produce, if a female, however bad she may
firove, is also bred from, and thus a succession of shape-
ess horses is produced, to the certain loss of the breeder,
and much to the injury of the community. Under the
most favourable circumstances, and with the aid of good
judgment, we cannot consider horse-breeding to be a
certain source of gain: yet there are many inducements
to try it as one branch of rural economics. The money
goes out a little at a time, or by degrees, and there¬
fore it is suitable to such occupiers of land as cannot em¬
bark in more extensive speculations, and it returns in a
lump, oftentimes at a most welcome moment, and, in many
instances, of sufficient amount to render the average of
former less profitable years sufficient to cover expenses, if
not to leave a profit. There is likewise another induce¬
ment to breeding horses ; we mean the interest inseparable
from all human speculations, from which more than an or¬
dinary return may be looked for, which is the case here ;
added to the nearly universal interest attached to the breed¬
ing and rearing of every species of domestic animals.
With respect to brood-mares designed for breeding
hunters, we admit that circumstances, not always within
control, have their weight. An occupier of land is posses¬
sed of a mare or two which he thinks may breed hunters,
and having them, it may not be convenient to him to re¬
place them by those which might be more likely to breed
good ones. But the choice of a stallion is always within
his control, and he should not spare trouble, and moderate¬
ly increased price, in his selection. It is well known to all
hunting men, that the stock of certain horses have been re¬
markable for making good hunters (we could name many
of present and past times), and that there are such horses
always to be found, on seeking for them. A few pounds
extra, laid out by the breeder in putting his mares to such
horses, are sure to be amply repaid; for the produce would
be generally sought after and purchased, even previously
to their being tried. Englishmen know of no such restric¬
tions, nor do we wish they ever should; but the interfer¬
ence of the governments of several European states as to
stallions for the use of their respective countries, reads
us a useful lesson on this head; for it is well known, on
the other hand, that a great number of stallions to which
English hunting mares have been put, have been equally Hunter,
remarkable for begetting soft infirm stock, quite unequal—y——
to endure, for any length of time, the severe work of a
hunter. It should also be borne in mind, that even a first-
rate racer may not be a propagator of first-rate hunters.
The former is called upon to exert his powers on very dif¬
ferent ground, and under very different weight to the latter,
and the action which may suit one may not suit the other.
This accounts for the stock of certain thorough-bred horses,
which were very indifferent racers, proving very excellent
hunters. We have already given it as our opinion, that a
cross of Arabian blood is a great desideratum in that
of an English hunter, and we need not urge this point far¬
ther ; but if breeders would reflect, that the expenses of
rearing a bad colt equal those of rearing a good one, they
would attend more than they do to the following nearly
unerring directions.
First, Observe similarity of shape in horse and mare. As
length of frame is indispensable in a hunter, if the mare be
short, seek for a stallion likely to give her length. Again,
if the mare be high on her legs, put her to a short-legged
stallion, and vice versa ; for it is possible that even a hunt¬
er’s legs may be too short, a racer’s certainly may be. In
fact, to form a complete hunter, it is necessary he should
be more perfect in his shape than a racer, which will admit
of imperfections that would quite disqualify the other.
Secondly, Look to constitution. As no description of
horse endures the long-continued exertion that a hunter
does, this is a point to be attended to. But it may be over¬
done. Horses of a very hard nature, very closely ribbed
up, consequently great feeders, with large carcasses, seldom
make the sort of brilliant hunter now the fashion in Eng¬
land. Besides, one of this description requires so much
work to keep him in place and in wind, that his legs must
suffer, and often give way when his constitution is just in
its prime. Horses with moderately sized carcasses last
longest; and, provided they are good feeders, will come out
quite as often as they ought to do, and are invariably good
winded and brilliant, if well-bred and of good form, with
a few other requisites. We never saw a very closely-
ribbed, large carcassed horse, brilliant as a hunter, and we
know such form is not approved of in the race-horse.
Thirdly, and lastly, Let the breeder of any kind of horse
be careful in avoiding either sire or dam that has proved
constitutionally infirm. As has been already shown on
very high authority, perfect or defective conformation is
not more likely to be the result of a proper selection of
horse and mare, than disease to be inherited from parents
that have been constitutionally diseased. We could name
stallions whose stock have been blind; others afflicted with
splents, curbs, and spavins, and a mare which produced
three roarers by three different sires. But it may be said,
that splents, curbs, and spavins, are the result of malcon-
formation of the parts. Granted ; but avoid all such mal¬
formation which is quite apparent to the eye in a breeding
stud. It may perhaps be carrying this objection too far, were
we to say, we would not breed from a mare or horse, which
had become groggy or lame in the feet, from diseased navi¬
cular joints. Had the feet been more vigorously consti¬
tuted, perhaps such lameness might not have occurred; yet
it is but too probable that here the predisposing cause may
be traced to over-severe treatment, and not to constitu¬
tional defect.
We have already expressed a regret at the prevailing
prejudice against mares as hunters, admitting, however,
that they are not to be so much depended upon at certain
periods as the other sex. Nevertheless, no year passes
over our heads that we do not hear of mares eminently dis¬
tinguishing themselves on the race-course, in the hunting
field, and on the road. Indeed, the majority of the extra¬
ordinary feats performed on the road have been performed
HORSE.
582
Hunter, by mares. As relates to breeding hunters, however, this
prejudice against them is most injurious in two ways. First,
it takes off’ so much from the value of a filly, as in few cases
to leave the mere cost of breeding and rearing her ; and,
next, many a mare, which would have proved a capital hunter,
had she been tried, and, as is reasonable to suppose, a ca¬
pital brood mare as well, is lost to the hunting world by
being sold for harness purposes ; and then, if good, so mined
in constitution as to be totally unfit to breed from. On the
other hand, were mares more generally used as hunters, all
such as proved themselves good, that is, were they stout, and
had the peculiar kind of action that enabled them to go
well on deep ground, over ridge and furrow, and were good
leapers, they might for the most part be relied upon for pro¬
ducing good ones to succeed them. It may likewise be
observed that, as in this case, the risk would be diminished,
more people would breed hunters than do at present; and
it is very generally admitted, that, at this time, so great
is the scarcity of young horses likely to make hunters, were
it not for those annually imported from Ireland, the de¬
mand would far exceed the supply.
Next in importance to the judicious selection of sire and
dam, is the rearing of the colt, which it is intended should
make a hunter. It was the remark of a gentleman, who
kept fox-hounds more than half a century, that “ great part
of the goodness of a horse goes in at his mouth,” and no¬
thing is more true. Nimrod, in his Letters on the Condition
of Hunters (p. 223, first edition), says, “ It is my confirmed
opinion, that unless a colt be what is called ‘ deformed,’ it
is in the power of good keep, exercise, and physic, to make
him what is termed ‘ a fine horse,’ and one which will sell
for a large price, either for harness or the saddle. No one
who has not witnessed it, is aware of the improvement in
shoulders, thighs, gaskins, &c. from good old oats, accom¬
panied by regular work and proper riding.” Breeders of
hunters may be assured that such is the case ; and that it
is of little use to breed colts with the expectation of their
making first-rate horses, unless they keep them very well
in their colthood. They should also be treated as horses at
a very early age. They should be ridden gently, and by
a light man, or boy, with good hands, at three years old,
across rough ground, and over small fences; and at four
they should be shewn hounds ; but they should only follow
them at a distance, and after the fences are broken down ;
for, if put to take large leaps at that tender age, they are
apt to get alarmed, and never make first-rate fencers after¬
wards. Above all things, avoid getting them into boggy
ditches, or riding them at brooks; but they should be
practised at leaping small ditches, if with water in them
the better, in the middle of a field, the rider putting them
at them in rather a brisk gallop. This gives them confidence,
and, the natural result, courage. With respect to the use
of the bar, and teaching colts to leap standing over it, the
practice is now condemned, and the system of letting them
become timber jumpers, by taking it, as it comes, in crossing
a country, is preferred, the present rate of hounds not
admitting of the time occupied in a standing leap.
Some sportsmen adopt, and we believe with good effect,
what is termed the “ circular bar.” Every description of
lence that a hunter is likely to meet w ith, is placed within
a prescribed circle of ground, and in this is the colt lodged,
the man who holds him standing upon a stage in the cen¬
tre. As another man follows him with a whip, he is forced
to take his fences at a certain pace; and, in a very short
time, a good tempered colt will take them with apparent
pleasure.
At five years old it is customary to consider a horse as a
hunter; but we are inclined to demur here. It is true,
that if a colt has been very well kept, on the hard meat
system, he is enabled to go through a good day’s wTork with
hounds at five years old, being quite equal to a six-year
old, which has been kept on soft food, and not sufficiently Hun
forced by corn; yet it is always attended with danger of'—
injury to his joints and sinews, if not to his general consti¬
tution ; and we cannot pronounce a horse to be a hunter un¬
til he has passed his fifth year. As muscular action, how¬
ever, produces muscular growth, he should not be kept in
idleness during his fifth year, but should be ridden to cover,
or with harriers, before Christmas; and Avhen the ground
gets dry and light in the spring, a good burst with fox¬
hounds may not do him harm. We do not, however, con¬
sider any five-year old horse fitting or safe to carry a gen¬
tleman over a country, as he cannot be sufficiently expe¬
rienced to take a straight line.
We have known some masters of fox-hounds who have
preferred purchasing yearling colts, or weanlings, at Michael¬
mas, to breeding them for their own use. The classical
reader cannot fail calling to his recollection here the prac¬
tical lesson which Virgil, in his third Georgic, imparts on
this head; neither can the purchaser of such animals do
better than follow it to the very letter. Should he fix upon
the one which, as he describes him,—
“ Primus et ire viam, et ffimos tentare menaces
Audet, et ignoto sese committere ponti,”
he would be pretty certain of having in due time a first-
rate hunter, that would turn his tail to nothing. Nor
should the breeder overlook the poet’s advice to keep his
young stock well, if he wishes to have them in the high
form (and can any thing be finer ?) in which the one of
his own choice is presented to us iri this most splendid
passage.
There are undoubtedly certain advantages attending
purchasing yearling colts, with the view of making hunters
of them. Such only may be selected as appear calculated
for the country they are intended to cross, and the weights
they will be called upon to carry ; whereas, were the master
of hounds to depend on the produce of his own mares, he
might be disappointed in being able to select the number he
would require to replace, in due time, the vacancies which
occurred annually in his stud. We should consider the sum
of thirty-five or forty guineas for a good colt, at weaning
time, a fair remuneration to the breeder, and well laid out
by the purchaser.
Previously to giving directions for the purchase of a full-
grown hunter, we shall proceed to exhibit him in his high¬
est form, although we are aware of the difficulty, on certain
subjects, of conveying, clearly, an idea from our own mind
to that of another. We shall, however, endeavour to make
ourselves understood by describing each individual point.
As to the form and shape of a hunter’s head, as we do not
ride upon it, it is not of much consequence, provided it
be well hung on, and that is of the very highest importance,
not only, as we have shewn in the race-horse, on account
of his respiration or w ind, but unless it be so, he cannot
be pleasant to ride. Not only must his jawTs be wide, but
when we consider that the head of a horse hangs in a slant¬
ing position from the extremity of the neck, and that the
neck itself projects a considerable distance from the chest,
on the muscular strength and proper formation of the neck
must also depend whether a horse be light or heavy in
hand, and consequently pleasant or unpleasant to ride. A
weak or loose neck may not be so material, as we have be¬
fore observed, to the race-horse; he is generally ridden
in a martingal, and in that case always; add to which, his
race is soon run. Nevertheless, we like to see the neck of
the race-horse rise out of the shoulder with a tapering
curve, in which case he is pleasant to ride in his gallop,
and, if a hard puller, his jockey has much more power over
him than if his neck were loose and low. But, in a hunter,
the proper position of his head is a point of the greatest
moment, as without it his rider cannot handle him properly
HORS E.
er. at his fences ; and if he be not a regular star-gazer, he is
-^always dangerous to ride over a country. The proper junc¬
tion of the head with the neck, and the carrying of it
well or ill, depend chiefly on two particular muscles con¬
tained in the neck. The most important of these is called
the splenius muscle, which constitutes the principal bulk
of the neck above, and its action is sufficiently evident,
namely, very powerfully to elevate the head and neck.
The principal beauty of the neck, indeed, as well as the
carriage of the head, depends on this muscle ; and its ample
developement is a point the sportsman should attend to in
the choice of horses that are to carry him with hounds. A
certain degree of muscularity of the neck is absolutely ne¬
cessary in a hunter, and it is greatly promoted by good
keep in colthood; also by delaying the period of castration
till the second year, which should invariably be done, when
the want of this muscularity is apparent in the first. It must,
however, be observed, that there is a medium in this mus¬
cularity of the neck, although excess is the better extreme
of the "two; for when the neck of a horse appears, like
that of a sheep, to rise out of the chest, and so far from
being arched above, and straight below, is hollowed above,
and projects below, such a horse is nearly worthless for
any pleasurable purpose, as his head cannot, by any means
whatever, be got into a proper place.
It has been said, that a horse with a long neck will
bear heavy on the hand. We do not believe that either
the length of the neck, or even the bulk of the head, has
any influence in causing this. They are both counterba¬
lanced by the power of the ligament of the neck. The
setting on of the head is most of all connected with heavy
bearing on the hand; and a short-necked horse will bear
heavily, because, from the thickness of the lower part of
the neck consequent on its shortness, the head cannot be
rightly placed. The head and neck, however, should be
proportioned to each other. A short head on a long neck,
or a long head on a short neck, would equally offend the
eye.
Although length of neck in a hunter is not desirable,
length of shoulder is indispensable. Horses have raced
well with short upright shoulders ; but it is impossible that
one so formed, however good he may be in his nature, or
even in his general action, can be a safe hunter, and for
this reason : A hunter is constantly subject, by down-hill
leaps, leaping into soft ground, and getting his fore-legs
into grips, or unsound ground, to have the centre of gra¬
vity thrown forward beyond the base of his legs ; and it is
more or less recoverable according to the length or short¬
ness of his shoulder. By length of shoulder is meant obli¬
quity of the scapula, or shoulder-bone, by which the point
of the shoulder is projected forward, and which, added to
the obliquity of the scapula, enables the rider to sit consi¬
derably behind, instead of nearly over the fore-legs, or pil¬
lars of support, which, on a short and Upright-shouldered
horse, he must do. One remark, however, must be made
respecting the oblique shoulder. It is sometimes not suf¬
ficiently supplied with muscle, with which the upright
shoulder generally abounds. We therefore recommend
purchasers of young horses for hunters, to give the prefer¬
ence to what may appear coarse shoulders, nay, even in¬
clined to be somewhat round, or flat on the withers, provid¬
ed they are accompanied by the necessary and absolutely
essential obliquity of the shoulder-bones.
The setting on of the arm, which should be strong, mus¬
cular, and long, is of much importance to a hunter. By
the length of this part in the hare, as we have already
observed, added to the obliquity of her shoulder, she can
extend her fore-parts further than any animal of her size :
in fact she strikes nearly as far as the greyhound that pur¬
sues her, by the help of this lever. The proper position
of the arm, however, is the result of an oblique shoulder.
583
When issuing out of an upright shoulder, the elbow joint, Hunter,
the centre of motion here, will be inclined inw ard; the horse
will be what is termed “ pinn’d in his elbows,” which causes
his legs to fall powerless behind his body ; and he is seldom
able to go wrell in deep ground. There are exceptions,
but they are rare. A full and swelling fore-arm is one of
the most valuable points in a horse, for whatsoever pur¬
poses he may be required ; and although we have occasion¬
ally seen hunters with light thighs carry weight well, we
never have seen it so carried by horses deficient in their
arms.
If sportsmen were to see the knee of the horse dissected,
they would pay more attention to the form and substance
of it than they generally do. It is a very complicated joint,
but so beautifully constructed that it is seldom subject to
internal injury. Its width and breadth, however, when
considerable, are great recommendations to hunters, as ad¬
mitting space for the attachment of muscles, and for the
accumulation of ligamentous expansions and bands, greatly
conducive to strength. Below the knee is a point on which
we will not say much here, as we have already alluded
to it in our remarks on the race-horse. We mean the shank,
or cannon bone, and its appendages. It can scarcely be
too short in a horse that has to carry a heavy man ; round
legs are almost sure to fail; those of the hunter should be
flat, with the back sinews strong and well braced. This
constitutes what sportsmen call a “ wiry leg.”
The fetlock is also a complicated joint, and very liable to
injury. In a hunter it should be large and strong. But
as regards his action, the pastern is still more material,
and also to his standing sound. Very few' horses with short
pasterns can go well in deep ground, and for this obvious
reason: The action of the joint is destroyed by getting
below the surface of the ground, and is of course sooner
immersed than when it is longer. But a greater evil than
this attends a short pastern. It is the predisposing cause
of navicular lameness, particularly in horses carrying weight,
owing to the foot being deprived of that elasticity which a
longer pastern affords, and which consequently relieves
the concussion on the foot coming to the ground in gallop¬
ping and leaping, as well as on the hard road. Horses with
short and, consequently, upright pasterns cannot be plea¬
sant to ride, and they seldom stand many seasons’ work.
Excess in either should be avoided, but of the two, a hun¬
ter is less objectionable, from the extreme of length, than
of shortness, in this most material part.
That the foot of the hunter should be wide, is also ob¬
vious to tile meanest capacity, independent of its being the
form most conducive to health. The nature of the ground
he has to travel over requires at times the widest base he
can present to it, as a foundation for his great bxdk, and thus
the farmer carries out his manure upon tender land, in a broad
and not a narrow wheel cart. Xenophon relates, that certain
people of Asia were accustomed, when snow lay deep on
the ground, to draw socks over the feet of their horses, to
prevent them sinking in it up to their bellies ; and we know
why an ox sinks less in soft ground than a horse does. It
is because his foot enters it expanded, by means of the divi¬
sion of the claws, and when he draws it out it is contracted.
The foot of the hunter, however, should not be too wide,
or it may operate against his speed.
The position of the fore-legs of the hunter admits of
more latitude than that of his hinder ones, or indeed of any
other part of his frame. We have seen brilliant hunters
standing in all positions and postures as regards their fore¬
legs. Some very much over the knees, that is, with the
knees bent and projecting outward; many upon very twisted
fetlocks, turning the toes out; and a few, though only a
few, turning the toes in. In the human frame, a certain
squareness in the position of the feet is consistent with
strength, as wre see in the. statues of Hercules, but the
584
HORSE.
Hunter.
lightness of a Mercury is indicated by the direction of the
toe outwards. This is to a certain extent the case with the
horse. Although, if measured by the standard of perfec¬
tion, his toe is required to be in a direct line with the point
of his shoulder, yet we have seen and heard of some of the
speediest and best racers and hunters, the position of whose
fore-feet have deviated considerably from this supposed es¬
sential line ; but the inclination of the toe outwards is so
common in horses used for these purposes, that it can
scarcely be called a fault. Indeed, some persons argue,
that a leg so placed affords a broader base to the superin¬
cumbent weight, than when quite in a line with the shoul¬
der, that is, provided the twist arises from the fetlock, and
not from the setting on of the arm. Be this as it may, we
are well assured that, provided the hinder legs and quar¬
ters are good, a hunter will admit of a considerable devia¬
tion from the true line in the fore-legs, and carry his rider
brilliantly. It is well known, that a much more twisted
fore-legged horse could not well be seen, than the cele¬
brated Clipper, the property of the equally celebrated Mr
Lindowj for many years said to be the most brilliant hunter
in Leicestershire.
But there is one portion of the fore-quarters of the hunter
to which a rule must be applied, that will not admit of an
exception. He must be deep in his chest or brisket, that
is, fiom the top of the withers to the elbow. Numerous are
the nanow, but deep horses, in their 44 girth,” as the term
is, that have carried heavy weights in the first style with
hounds; but no matter how wide a horse may be, if he have
not depth, he cannot carry weight, and is very seldom a
good-winded horse, even under a light man. One of the
greatest compliments, then, that can be paid to a hunter, at
fiist sight, is, that he appears two inches lower than he
really is. Such, however, is the case with horses whose
growth has been forced in their bodies by good keep when
young, and thus they come under the denomination of
44 short-legged horses,” so much esteemed by hard riders.
They are likewise, for the most part, better leapers than such
as have less growth in the body, and stand upon longer legs.
We have before observed, when speaking of the race¬
horse, that large bone is not required in his cannon or
shank (the part from knee to fetlock), neither is it in the
hunter. The real power of all animals is in the muscles,
sinews, and tendons ; and the leg best calculated to carry
weight and endure to a good old age, is that in which the
bone is small, but of a dense and perfect texture, and in
which three convexities can be very plainly distinguished,
namely, the bone; the elastic ligament behind the bone,
called the sinew; and, behind that, the flexor tendons, large,
round, and strong. I he rare combination of strength, with
lightness, is here beautifully displayed, and is one of the
many instances which might be produced, to show how
Nature delights to work with the least possible expense of
materials.
The hunter should have length in his shoulders and quar¬
ters, and, to a certain extent, also in his back. It is true
that horses with short backs carry weight best up a steep hill,
which, as that is the worst method in which this animal can
employ his strength (in man it is the best), shows that
heavy men should ride short-backed horses. For hunters,
however, that are ridden in our best hunting countries,
w nch, previously to being laid down in grass, were thrown
up by the plough into high ridges, with deep furrows,
must have moderate length of back, or they cannot go
smoothly over such ground. Good loins, with width of
haunch (the vis a ter go being so necessary in leaping, as
well as gallopping on soft ground), need scarcely be insist¬
ed upon; and we now proceed to the hinder-legs, the
pioper or improper form of which makes the difference
between a good or bad hunter, if a horse with badly formed
hinder-legs can be called a hunter at all. But a horse with
short, straight, and weak thighs, cannot make a good hunter. H
Even admitting that they are not weak, but short and -
straight, yet the objection remains, because he cannot, in
the latter case, be pulled together in his gallop, nor have
his stride collected to enable him to take his fences pro¬
perly ; and, what is not generally known, he is almost cer¬
tain to be a hard puller. Indeed, some good judges go so
far as to assert, that horses with straight hinder legs, never
have good mouths, and there is much truth in the remark,
as their form will not admit of their being 44 pulled to¬
gether,” as the horseman’s term is, in their quick paces, and
without it no horse is safe. A long and muscular thigh,
then, with a clean well-placed hock, is one of the most
material points in a hunter, and also one by which the
duration of his services may very nearly be measured; as
when much out of the true form, either inclining inwards,
like the cow, or outwards, like the bandy-legged man, dis¬
ease is almost certain to attack this very complicated but
beautifully contrived joint, when put to severe exertion,
especially in soft ground. The shank-bone of the hinder
leg, below the hock, ought to be equally well supported
by sinews and tendons with that of the fore-leg; and the
pastern of the hind-leg should resemble that of the fore¬
leg, moderately long, strong, and oblique.
But such is the paramount importance of the hock in the
hunter, that we transcribe the following admirable descrip¬
tion of one most material point in it, (from Part IX. of
44 The Horse,” Farmer’s Series, p. 272.) 44 The most power¬
ful of the flexor or bending muscles are inserted into the
point of the hock, or the extremity of the os calcis; and
in proportion to the projection of the hock, or, in other
■u ords, the length of this bone, will two purposes be effected.
The line of direction will be more advantageous, for it will
be nearer to a perpendicular ; and the arm of the lever to
which the power is applied will be lengthened, and mecha¬
nical advantage will be gained to an almost incredible ex¬
tent. Suppose this bone of the hock to be three inches in
length, the joint formed by the tibia and the astragalus is
evidently the centre of motion, and the weight concentrated
about the middle of the shank is the obstacle to be over¬
come. If the weight be four times as far from the centre
of motion as the power, a force equal to four times the weight
would raise it. It is, however, here to be remembered, that
it is not merely the weight of the leg which is to be raised,
but the weight of the horse, for the time resting upon the
leg, and that weight to be propelled or driven forward. At
what shall we calculate this ? W e may fairly suppose that
the muscles, whose tendons are inserted into the point of
the hock, exert an energy equal to 4000 lb. Let us fur¬
ther suppose, that an inch is added to the point of the hock,
which will be an addition of one-third to its length : a mus¬
cular power of less than 3000 lb., will now effect the same
purpose. The slightest lengthening, therefore, of the point
of the hock will make an exceedingly great difference in
the muscular energy by which the joint is moved, and a
difference that will wonderfully tell in a long day’s work.
On this account, the depth of the hock, or the length of
the bone of which we are speaking, is a point of the great¬
est importance. 1 here is, however, a limit to this. In
proportion to the length of this bone, must be the space
which it passes over, in order sufficiently to bend the limb ;
and in that proportion must be the contraction of the
muscle, and consequently the length of the muscle, that
it may be enabled thus to contract; and, therefore, if
this bone were inordinately lengthened, there would re¬
quire a depth of quarter which would amount to deformity.
A hock of this advantageous length is, however, rarely or
never met with, and it is received among the golden rules
in judging of the horse, that this bone of the hock cannot
be too long.”
Hunters which carry very heavy men cannot excel in
HORSE.
ter. the field, unless they exhibit those just proportions in their
limbs, and all the moving levers, necessary to produce full
liberty of action, but not too long a stride. Well placed
hinder legs, with wide hips, well spread gaskins, and great
depth of chest, are essentials, and as much of the vis a tergo,
as is consistent with a not unsightly back, commonly
called “ hog-backed.” Well knit joints, short cannon bone,
moderately oblique pasterns, with rather large feet, are not
only points from which great physical powers may be ex¬
pected, but they are necessary to the duration of them in
the horse we are now alluding to. As, however, it is an
axiom in the animal creation, that the parts which add to
strength diminish swiftness, hunters to carry more than six¬
teen stones well with hounds, at the pace they now run, are
always difficult to be procured, and ought to command good
prices. The stamp of animal most approved of for this
purpose, is the short-legged, thick, but well-bred horse,
not exceeding sixteen hands in height, but appearing, to
the eye, half a hand below that standard. As for his
general appearance, it is “ handsome is, that handsome
does,” in this case ; and we must not look for beauty in all
his points.
Having now described each individual external part of
the horse essential to his being a good hunter, we shall, in
a few words, exhibit him to the reader’s view in what we
consider his best form. He should have a light head, well
put on, with a firm, but not a long neck ; lengthy, and con¬
sequently oblique, shoulders, with very capacious chest, and
great depth of girth ; a long, muscular fore-arm, coming
well out of the shoulder, the elbow parallel with the body,
neither inclining inward nor outward; a short cannon or
shank, with large tendons and sinews, forming a flat, not
round leg ; an oblique pattern, rather long than short, and
an open circular foot; the back of moderate length, with
well developed loins and fillets, and deep riba, making what
is termed by sportsmen a good “ spur-place.” From the
loins to the setting on of the tail, the line should be carried
on almost straight, or rounded only in a very slight degree.
Thus the haunch will be most oblique, and will produce
a corresponding obliquity in the thigh-bone, which forma¬
tion is peculiarly characteristic of the well bred horse. The
dock of the tail should be large, the buttocks close toge¬
ther, and the fundament small, and somewhat resembling
the front or eye of the pippin apple. The thighs should
be muscular and long, rather inclining inwards, with large
lean hocks, the points appearing to stand somewhat behind
the body, which will bring the lower part of the hind-leg,
or shank, under it. The shank, fetlock, and pastern of the
hinder-leg, should exactly resemble those of the fore-leg,
as also should the foot. The legs should appear short, from
the great depth of chest, and well-proportioned substance
of the body, or middle-piece.
The stature of the horse is no more absolutely fixed
than that of the human body, but a medium height is con¬
sidered as best for a hunter, say fifteen hands, two or three
inches. For one good horse over this height, there are a
hundred under it. In fact, there are, in the operations of
nature as well as of art, limits which they cannot surpass
in magnitude, and it is known that no very large animal
has strength in proportion to its size. That the horse has
not, the pony affords proof, if any other were wanting.
Even the heaviest weights find horses about the height w’e
have fixed upon best calculated to carry them. There
have been many extraordinary instances of horses, little
more than fourteen hands high, being equal to the speed
of hounds over the strongest counties in England, for
example, Mr William Coke’s “ Pony,” as he was called,
many years celebrated in Liecestershire; but they are not
pleasant to ride, by reason of the fences, when high, ap¬
pearing higher to the rider than when he is mounted on
a taller horse.
VOL. XI.
585
Temper and mouth are essential points in a hunter. Hunter.
The former adds much to his value, not only as it contri-^
butes to the pleasure and safety of his rider, but a horse
of a placid temper saves himself much in a long day’s work
with hounds, and especially when there is much leaping.
Indeed, fretful horses are proverbially soft, and not gene¬
rally to be depended upon at a pinch, which caused Shak-
speare to make them the symbol of false friends. Thus
Julius Caesar exclaims,
“ Hollow men, like horses, not at hand,
Make gallant show, and promise of their mettle;
But when they should endure the bloody spur,
They fall their crest, and, like deceitful jades,
Sink in the trial.”
A hunter should have courage, but nothing more, to
make him what he is required to be, namely, not afraid to
leap at any fence his rider thinks proper to put him at.
His mouth will depend upon two things; first, upon the
judgment of the person who breaks him in, in his colthood,
and, secondly, upon the position of his hinder legs, but
chiefly upon the first. It ought to be endowed with so
great sensibility, that the slightest motion of the bit should
give him warning, and direct his course, which is signifi¬
cantly implied by Horace, when he said, “ the ear of a horse
lies in his bridle.” It is true, that what we call the “ mouth”
of a horse, is an artificial feature, at all events, a figurative
term for his being easily acted upon by the bridle; but it
is a point of the utmost importance in a hunter. Without it,
in short, he is absolutely dangerous to ride; for although
the skill and power of his rider may prevent his running
away, yet he is always in danger of being placed in some
unpleasant situation or other by him. In the first place, he
cannot be a large fencer, nor safe at all sorts of leaps,
if he will not suffer his rider to pull him together, to collect
him for the effort of rising at them. Secondly, he is as dan¬
gerous in going through gates, only partly opened. Third¬
ly, if the horse immediately before him should fall at a leap,
he is very apt to leap upon him, or his rider; and, lastly,
his strength is sooner exhausted than that of a horse, per¬
haps not naturally so good, which is going quietly, and with¬
in himself, by his side.
No doubt many of the ancient writers were good judges
of horses, although they were deficient, compared with the
moderns, in availing themselves of their highest capabilities.
Were a purchaser of a hunter to look no further than the
first chapter of Xenophon he would find hints
that would be well worthy his attention ; and nothing can
be more expressive of the evils attending a bad mouth, in
a horse of this description, than the following sentence
from Pliny, “ Equi sine fraenis deformis ipse cursus, rigida
cervice, et extento capite, currentium,” which may be thus
translated: The career of a horse without a bridle is dis¬
agreeable, carrying his neck stiff, and his nose in the air.
When we consider how often it is necessary to pull up, or
to turn a horse very short in crossing enclosed countries,
the value, even on the score of comfort, of a good mouth
cannot be too highly appreciated by the sportsman.
We now come to the action of the hunter, which, after
all, is the main consideration. He should have energy
in all his paces, but he may have too much of what is gene¬
rally called action. Nothing conveys to us a better idea
of that which is adapted to his business, than the con¬
cluding sentence of a huntsman of former days, when de¬
scribing to his master a capital run with his hounds. “ The
old mare,” said he, “ carried me like oil” The action of
the hunter should be smooth, or it will not last. His stride
in his gallop should be rather long than otherwise, provided
he brings his hinder legs well under his body; and the
movement of the fore-legs should be round, but by no
means high. Above all things, there should be no “ dweU
586
Hunter,
HORSE.
ling” as it is called, in the limb coming to the ground;
a great obstacle to speed, but often the accompaniment of
excessive action in the fore-legs. But the test of action
in the hunter, is in what sportsmen call “ dirt,” that is, in
soft, tender ground, or when passing over such as appears
dry on the surface, but is not sufficiently so to bear his
weight. It is not exactly in the power of the best judges
to determine whence this peculiar excellence, which some
horses possess over others apparently well-proportioned,
arises, for which reason the eye should never be depended
upon in the selection of horses for the field. Wisdom
here can only be the produce of experience ; and many
sportsmen have paid dear for it on this particular point.
In fact, nothing next to ascending steep hills under great
weight, puts the physical powers of a horse to so severe a
test as carrying a heavy man, at a quick rate, over a country
that sinks under him at every step. Mere strength alone
will not do it. It must be the result of a combination of
strength with agility, good wind, and speed, to produce
which, the most perfect arrangement of the acting parts,
although the exact symmetry and proportion of them may
not be exactly discernible to the eye, are requisite, and, we
may be assured, are present. As the beauty of all forms
is, in great part, subordinate to their utility, a horse of this
description, that is, one which can carry sixteen stones well
up to hounds in any or in all countries, at the rate they
now run, not only, as has before been observed, commands
a very high price, but, to a person who loves to study na¬
ture, presents a feast to the eye.
A hunter should be what is called very quick as well as
very fast; by which is implied, that he should not only
have great speed, but that he should be very quick in re¬
gaining his speed after taking his leap, or being pulled up
from any other cause. One so gifted will cross a country,
especially a close one, in less time than one that is more
speedy, but not so “ quick on his legs,” as Jockies term it.
It is also very agreeable that a hunter should be safe in
his slow paces on the road; and, if a fast trotter, he re¬
lieves himself by changing the action of the muscles, when
the pace of hounds so far abates as to allow him to break
into a trot.
Leaping.
One of the greatest accomplishments in a hunter is being
a perfect and safe leaper. I he situation of a sportsman
riding a horse that is “ uncertain,” as the term is, at his
fences, may be compared with that of the philosopher which
Cicero describes in his Tusculan Questions, (5. c. 21), as
seated on the throne of Dionysius, gazing upon the wealth
and splendour that surrounded him, with a naked sword
suspended over his head by a single thread. But a horse
following hounds often leaps under very great disadvan¬
tages, which accounts for the numerous falls sportsmen get.
Putting aside the labour of rising from the ground, which,
to the horse, with a weight on his back, must be great,
fiom the earths attraction and the body^ gravity, he has
often to take his spring without any fixed point for support;
whereas, in most other cases, leaping takes place on a fixed
surface, which possesses the power of resistance in conse¬
quence of its firmness. Nevertheless, although the surface
yield to a certain degree, leaping can still be performed,
notwithstanding the retrograde motion of the surface pro¬
duces a great diminution in the velocity of the leap, com¬
pared with that which is made from firm ground ; and the
velocity is always greater in proportion as the resistance
is perfect. Urns it is, that we find horses able to cover
much greater obstacles in Leicestershire, and the other
grass countries, where the taking off for the leap is gener¬
ally good and sound, than they can cover in ploughed and
marshy districts, where they have not that advantage, from
the less firm state of the soil. We shall now endeavour to Hi
point out the form most likely to constitute a good leaper. 'w
The very worm that crawls on the ground first carries
its contraction from the hinder parts, in order to throw its
fore parts forward ; and it is chiefly from the vis a tergo,
or strength of back, and hinder quarters, that the power of
leaping in a horse is derived. It must, however, be ad¬
mitted that oblique shoulders give him a great advantage,
by enabling him to extend his fore quarters; but if his
loins be loose and weak, and his hinder legs ill placed,
with weak hocks, he cannot make, in any one’s hands, a
safe and perfect leaper. But the position of his head has
something to do with it. A plank placed in equilibrio can¬
not rise at one end unless it sinks at the other; and al¬
though a horse in light harness cannot, for appearance’ sake,
cany his head too high, provided he be obedient to the
rein, the hunter should carry his low. A colt, running
wild, never raises his head when he leaps, but rather lowers
it, and so should the hunter ; and he is always less liable to
fall in gallopping over a country when he carries his head
low ; likewise, in horses with lengthy shoulders, the seat of
the rider is rather benefited than injured by it.
The sort of fence that stops hunters more than any
other description of obstacle, is a wide brook ; and, like all
other wide places, it takes a good deal out of him, if he
clears it. Lengthy horses are the best brook jumpers;
but they require good loins and hinder quarters as well,
and, above all things, courage. Unless a horse takes a
wide brook in his stroke, he is almost sure to be in it; for
which reason he is generally ridded fast at it, and, for the
most part, not allowed to see it till he comes close to it.
Immense space has been covered by horses when jumping
brooks, particularly when there has been a difference of
elevation of the banks in favour of the horse. We have
heard of thirty feet and upwards from hind foot to hind foot;
but half that space in water is considered a good brook,
and even if the banks are sound, stops a great part of the
field. When unsound, it requires a horse, coming under
the denomination of a “ good brook-jumper,” to clear it
without a fall, and particularly, if towards the end of a run.
To be a good timber leaper is a great desideratum in a
hunter, although many horses are great timber leapers, but,
from their form, can never make good hunters. It only
requires a short backed, truss-horse for this purpose ; and
he can dispense with the general length so necessary to
the complete hunter. Good and well-formed thighs, how¬
ever, are necessary. For those hunting countries, such as
Cheshire, where the hedge is generally placed on a bank
oi “ cop, as it is there styled, rather a short but very ac¬
tive horse performs best. But he must be very good in
his hinder legs, and very'quick in the use of them. Wall
jumpers come within the same class with timber jumpers
as to make and shape.
There is one faculty in which the horse is wanting, that
would, if he possessed it, give him a great advantage in
leaping. In the human species, the power and influence of
feeling are inherent, in a great degree, to the very tips of
the fingers ; but the horse has no proper organ of feeling
or touch. W hen a man takes his spring for a leap, or leaps
on the top of any substance, he has a distinct and certain
sense or knowledge of the nature of the ground from which
he has sprung, and of the substance on which he has
alighted; but, from the insensible nature of the horse’s
hoof, such feeling is, in a great measure, denied to him, and
indispensably so too. Still, however, there are a few in¬
stances upon record of horses going very well over a coun¬
try even after having undergone the operation of neuro-
tomy, by which all sensibility, from the fetlock downwards,
has been destroyed.
Looking at the pace of hounds, and the manner of riding
after them, which have so materially changed within the last
HORSE.
it. half century, it is insisted upon by some that the hunter of
—^ the present day ought to be of full blood. Reasoning from
analogy indeed, between the powers and capabilities of one
and another, we are decidedly in favour of that breed
which has the greatest share of strength within the small¬
est compass, and such is decidedly the character of the
thorough-bred horse. Independently of this, the thorough¬
bred horse, when perfect, and with substance, is peculiarly
fitted for what a hunter is called upon to perform; and
those persons who assert to the contrary, can only do so
in ignorance of the nature of his constituent parts. He
has more depth and declivity in the shoulders than the
lower bred horse has, and is consequently clearer in his wind.
By these means, he can better extend and elevate his fore
feet in going over rough ground, and at his leaps ; and, by
the curve or circular figure he makes with his hinder legs,
he stands more secure on all kinds of ground, and, above
all things, he bears being pressed better than any other
description of horse ; for, although blown, he soon recovers
his wind. Having said this, it may scarcely be necessary
to add, that several of our first-rate sportsmen of the pre¬
sent day will not ride any thing that is not of full blood ;
and such description of horse, when perfect in his work,
as well as in his form, commands the highest price.
Nevertheless, the necessity for the thorough-bred horse
in the field is belied, by the experience of all unpreju¬
diced sportsmen, and even in Leicestershire, where the best
studs are to be found, not a twentieth part of the hunters
are of that description. But this perhaps arises from three
causes. First, there is a difficulty in procuring full-bred
horses to carry even moderate weights, and speed is but a
second attribute to a hunter. He must have sundry other
qualifications, and the mbit prevailing objections to the
thorough-bred horse are generally these : He is apt to be
deficient in substance to carry high weights over rough
and deep countries, without trespassing too much on the
virtue of his high descent. Secondly, he is inclined, and
especially if he have been trained, to be shy of facing rough
and thorny fences, by reason of the delicate nature of his
skin, rendered so by repeated sweats in clothes, when in
training. It often happens, indeed, that even the cheer¬
ing influence of hounds, which has so much effect on other
horses, will not induce him to take them. In fact, which
may appear extraordinary, he does not appear to have in
the field the courage of the half-bred horse. Lastly, his
feet are apt to be small, in which case he sinks deeper in
soft ground than does the lower-bred horse, whose feet are
larger and wider, and thus suffers more than the latter does,
in crossing a deep country. As for his powers of endur¬
ance under equal sufferings, they doubtless would exceed
those of the cocktail, and being, by his nature what is
termed a “ better doer” in the stable, he is sooner at his
work again than the other. Indeed, there is scarcely a
limit to the work of full-bred hunters of good frame and
constitution and temper.
A sportsman, partial to thorough-bred hunters, should
either breed them, or purchase them, not exceeding two
years old. If he breeds them, he should select large and
bony mares, putting them to horses who have hunting ac¬
tion, such as Tramp had, and several more we could name ;
and, if he buy them, it will be his fault if he do not buy
those of the right stamp. From their never having been
trained, but ridden over rough ground in their colthood,
they would have freer and higher action, and, when cas¬
trated at a proper age, would very rarely fail making first-
rate hunters. But it may be asked, why subject them to
the enervating operation of castration, which, as Perceval
says, stamps their form and character with the seal of im¬
becility and pusillanimousness ? Our answer here is, that
we would not do it, if experience did not shew that by far
the greater number of entire horses, used as hunters, are
587
either dangerous in a crowd, and when pressed upon in Hunter.
gateways; or given to refuse their fences, when they feel  ''
themselves somewhat distressed; and, if once well tired,
are not to be depended upon afterwards. When free from
these defects, they are doubtless superior to either geldings
or mares.
Purchase of a Hunter.
Although it may not be necessary that a person should
be perfectly acquainted with the mechanical structure of
the horse’s frame, according to the laws of nature, to ren¬
der him a good judge of a hunter, yet, fortunately for such
as have them to sell, vast numbers of persons purchase
hunters from very slight experience of them, regardless of
the proverb of, “ he hath a good judgment who doth not
rely on his own.” There is also another proverb, preva¬
lent, we believe, in Spain, which well applies here:—“ He
that would buy a mule without a fault must not buy one
at alland, although faultless hunters may be as rare as
faultless riders of them, we will offer a few hints to a per¬
son in the act of purchasing one, addressing him in the
colloquial style.
First, bear in mind the country you are about to hunt in,
whether flat, hilly, firm, soft, open, or enclosed, and refer to
the remarks we have made on the sort of horse we have adapt¬
ed to each ; only be assured that in an open country, espe¬
cially if a hilly one, nothing has a chance with a thorough¬
bred horse, in good form, and not over-weighted. Se¬
condly, consider well your weight, and be sure to have at
least a stone to spare. A light man on a light horse throws
away all the advantage of being light, and can go no fast¬
er, or leap larger fences, than a heavy man on a strong
horse, for strength will be served. Until you try him, it is
hard to say what horse will make a hunter, but the follow¬
ing indices may induce you to try him: If he appear well-
bred, with a loose, bright skin, which may be called his
complexion ; observe that his hair does not stand hol¬
low from the skin, particularly about the poll of his neck.
If you find him standing over a good deal of ground, it is
a sure sign that he has got length where it ought to be ;
not in the back, but from the obliquity of his shoulders,
and the arm being set on at the extreme point of his shoul¬
der, which so much contributes to the act of extension of
the fore parts in gallopping, leaping, and clearing grips.
Next examine minutely his thighs and hocks, being espe¬
cially careful to observe the position of the point of the
hock bone. Above all things, avoid a short, or an overtop¬
ped horse. The former will never carry you to your satis¬
faction, however good he may be in his nature; and the
latter, from being too heavy for his legs, will seldom last
many years. As for the minor points, common observation
alone is wanting. Flave his head placed in such a situa¬
tion as will enable you to satisfy yourself that he has perfectly
organized eyes, free from incipient cataract, sometimes ra¬
ther difficult to be detected; and as for his age, there are but
two ways of satisfying yourself on that point. By his teeth
till about eight years old; afterwards by the state of his
legs, which are, in fact, the best test of his value, the best
proof of what he has done, and the sure source of specula¬
tion as to what he may hereafter be expected to do. Ob¬
serve, also, his joints, that no material injury has been
done to them by blow, &c., and that they are strong.
But the purchaser of a hunter must not trust to his eye.
Neither must he be satisfied with him, how well soever he
may gallop with him upon sound land. It is the peculiar
excellence of “ going well through dirt” that renders a
horse valuable for all our best hunting countries ; and no
man can assure himself that a horse has this peculiar ex¬
cellence, until he puts him to the test. The best method
of doing it is this: The rider should put him along at a
588
HORSE.
Hackney, good pace, with a slack rein, upon sound ground, letting
him find himself all at once upon that which is soft and
holding. If, on quitting the former, he cringes more than
might be expected under the weight, and shortens his
stroke much, he must not purchase him for a hunter. He
may go well over a light, down country, but he will never
distinguish himself over a heavy one, as he will be going
in distress, when other horses are going comparatively at
their ease. Horses possess gradations of excellence in this
natural qualification, or gift, more than in any other, but in
it consists the summum bonum in a hunter; inasmuch as,
whatever may be his other good qualities, they are all use¬
less, when the acting parts are, from this cause, deep ground,
easily over-fatigued. With regard to his wind, he must
not judge hastily of that, in a horse not in work. Should he
not perceive any thing like whistling in his respiration, when
he puts him along at a quick pace, and his chest is capacious
and deep, and his head well set on, he is not to reject him,
in case he appears blown by a short gallop. Condition and
work will rectify that; but many a good hunter has been
rejected on this account, by persons not taking into con¬
sideration the state of his bodily condition, in a trial of this
nature.
The price of the hunter varies with the times, and, no
doubt, is as much regulated by the price of wheat as the
quartern loaf is. During the war prices, the sum of a thou¬
sand guineas was occasionally given, and that of five hun¬
dred guineas frequently. Half the last-mentioned sum
now commands a first-rate hunter. But first-rate horses,
in all ages of the world, have ever produced extravagant
prices. It is recorded of Alexander the Great, that he
gave four Roman talents for Bucephalus, which approaches
near to the Melton Mowbray prices, and those, we may
safely conclude, stand at the head of the list.
THE HACKNEY.
Under this term are comprised the following: The
Cover Hack, the Park Hack, the Lady’s Horse, the Road¬
ster, the Cob, the Galloway, and the Pony.
The difficulty of procuring really good hacks is admitted
by all persons who have kept them for the various purposes
of either business or pleasure, and for the following obvious
reasons. First, very few people try to breed hackneys,
therefore, although we require them to be nearly perfect in
shape and action (and perfect they should be to be “ really
good hacks”), they may be said to be failures in the breed¬
ing stud after all. Secondly, by reason of their appearing
to be failures in their colthood, they are not forced into
good shape, as more promising young horses are, by high
keep and care. Lastly, If a man has a really good hack,
he is unwilling to dispose of it at the price generally given
for such animals. But a question arises, What is a good
hack ? It cannot be answered but with reference to an¬
other question, namely, What description of person is he
to carry ? The horse that a sober citizen of London or
Edinburgh would call a perfect hackney to carry him to his
country seat, would not be worth five shillings to a New¬
market or a country jockey, or as a cover hack to a Lei¬
cestershire or Warwickshire sportsman. We will com¬
mence, then, with the cover hack, and describe the others
in their turns.
The Cover Hack of the present day is very difficult to be
procured, because he must unite, with the good qualities
of the roadster, the requisites and accomplishments of the
hunter. In fact, he must be a hunter in miniature ; and,
after all, the form of the hunter is the best calculated for
a roadster. He must be fast in all his paces, able to gal¬
lop well on deep or soft ground, and equal to carrying his
rider over moderately-sized fences; and if taught to leap
timber, standing, his value is proportionally increased. Ha
But, above all things, he must go from twelve to fifteen^—
miles in the hour, when wanted, without showing any
symptoms of distress; and he is too often unnecessarily
called upon to perform much more than this, by his owner
delaying the period of his leaving home in the morning, for
the purpose of meeting hounds. It may also be observed,
that it is not every sportsman who keeps two cover hacks'
although he may keep six or eight hunters; and it often
happens that the cover hack does more work than any
horse in the stable, although in justice it should be stated,
that the same care in the stable is now taken of him as of
the best hunter in it.
Unless to carry a great weight, the cover hack should
be all but thorough-bred, if he cannot be procured of
quite full blood; with excellent legs and feet, lengthy and
elevated shoulders, and with a susceptibility of mouth that
will not only enable his rider to keep him well on his
haunches, to guard against danger when going fast on all
sorts of roads, but as tending to lessen the fatigue of riding
him ; and the strength of his rider should be reserved for his
day’s diversion after hounds. The chief pace of a cover
hack should be the canter, and his temper should not be
overlooked, for if fractious, and a puller, he will add much
to the fatigue of a severe day’s sport. A horse of this de¬
scription, nearly fifteen hands high, young and sound, will
command from sixty to a hundred pounds. The other
points essential to a good road hackney, which will be no¬
ticed hereafter, apply equally to the cover hack.
The Park Hack of the present day is the race-horse in
miniature. To be quite a la mode, he should be thorough¬
bred, with a very neat head, beautifully set on, and a switch
tail ; and so well bitted as to be ridden with a slack rein.
He should have much liberty in his walk, which, and the
canter, should be his chief paces. Lie must have great
obliquity of shoulder, with a corresponding true formation of
hinder quarters, and above all, the well-bent hinder legs ; in
which case, if the position of his fore-legs enable him to
put his feet down properly, which will be explained in de¬
scribing the general action of the hackney, he will be, if
good tempered, and not given to fret, the perfect park
hack.
The Lady’s Horse is, after all, the most difficult to obtain,
because he ought to approach very near to perfection. His
paces, mouth, and temper, should each be proportioned to
the power and capability of his rider; and he should be
proof against alarm from either noises or sights, which
otherwise might cause him to run away. This description
of horse should likewise be well bred, as in that case his
action will be easier, and his appearance and carriage more
in character with the generally elegant appearance of his
rider. His pace should be the canter ; the trot causes an
ungraceful movement in the person of a woman, to enable
her to rise to it; and if she do not rise to it, she is much
shaken in her seat. Neither is the form of the side-saddle
fitted for the trot; and the canter of a well-bitted horse is
more safe, because his haunches are more under him in that
pace than they can be in the trot. A good, bold, walk,
however, with the head in proper place, is essential to a
horse that has to a carry a woman ; and his action should
be very true, that is, he shoidd not “ dish,” or throw his
legs outward, as the term is, in any of his paces, or he will
cover the lower garments of his rider with mud when the
roads are wet and dirty. To provide against the latter in¬
convenience, however, all horses intended for this purpose,
should not be much under fifteen hands and a half in height,
which size corresponds with the lengthened drapery of a
lady’s riding costume. As a preventive against accidents,
ladies’ horses, however well broken and bitted, should not
be too highly fed; and, if at all above themselves, should
be ridden by a careful servant, with good use of his hands,
HORSE.
589
iey. before ladies mount them. It is, however, an acknowledg-
ecl fact, that horses go more quietly under women than they
do under men, which is accounted for by the lightness of
their hand, and the backward position of the body, in the
saddle. We have, in fact, known several instances of horses
being very hard pullers with men, standing up in their stir¬
rups, and, consequently, inclining their bodies forward, but
going perfectly temperate and at their ease under women.
The power and parts conducive to action in the roadster,
or hackney, are derived much from the same shape and
make as we have shewn to be best fitted for the hunter ;
but it is desirable that he should be more up in his fore¬
hand than the hunter is required to be, as such form gives
confidence to the rider. The most dangerous form he can
exhibit, if we may be allowed such a term, is, with his fore¬
legs standing too much behind the points of his shoulders,
and those points loaded. Even with the best-formed hin¬
der legs, the centre of gravity being thrown so far forward
beyond the pillars of support, is, in this case, with great
difficulty preserved on the horse making a stumble; but
with straight hinder legs, a horse so formed in his fore¬
quarters is only fit for harness, where he can recover him¬
self by the assistance of his collar, having no weight on his
back. Provided a hackney do not cut his legs, by striking
one against the other, which is oftener caused by imperfection
in the upper than the lower extremity of the legs, he is not
to be rejected because he may turn out his toes a little, some
of the very best, fastest, and safest road-horses being so form¬
ed. Cutting the hinder legs is a worse failing than cutting
the fore ones, as it is a certain sign of weakness ; and al¬
though we may be told that shoeing will prevent it, we bring
to our recollection the old adage, that “ a goose always goes
like a goose.” What is called the “ speedy cut” with the
fore-legs, arises from excess of action, and is a great objec¬
tion, by reason of the wound given to the leg, which is
struck just under the knee. Many good hunters, especial¬
ly when ridden in hilly countries, such as parts of Surrey,
where they traverse the hills on loose and stony ground,
are subject to this failing, which is remedied by a boot; and,
after all, the danger attributed to speedy cut, in throwing
horses down, is much overrated.
The size for a road hackney must be regulated by the
size of the person to ride him; but, generally speaking,
from fourteen hands to fourteen hands and a half, is the
proper height. His strength must also be thus calculated,
for a light man does not ride pleasantly on a horse equal to
double his weight. But a road hackney should have strength
of shoulder, with a round barrel, but not a large carcass, which
only wears out his legs. His constitution and feeding
can only be proved upon trial; but there are certain in¬
dices, such as deep ribs, hardy colour, brown muzzle, &c.
which very rarely deceive us. As to the necessity of well-
placed hinder legs, it is most clearly shewn by the answer
given to the following question: If a horse make a se¬
rious blunder forward, and the centre of gravity of his body
fall beyond the pillars of support, and is for a moment lost,
what restores the equilibrium ? Is it merely the chuck
under the chin to an animal of his bulk and weight, and
that “ chuck” given perhaps by the weak, powerless wrist
of a feeble old man, or delicate young lady ? No : the
main effect of the bit, or curb, in this case is, first, warning
the horse of his danger; and, next, by the momentary
raising of his head, he is better able to bring a hinder leg
instantly to his assistance, by advancing it under his body,
and thus restoring the equilibrium. In the walk, in fact,
the horse actually begins to move by advancing the hinder-
leg under the body, before the fore-leg quits the ground;
and if he did not do so, there would be no equal support
for the body, during the suspension of the fore-leg in the
air; nor could the body be moved forwards, until the hinder
leg had, by quitting its station, taken a new point of sup¬
port. Seeing then, that in the walk, as in all other paces, Hackney,
the centre of gravity in the horse is maintained, as well as-v'"—^
the body propelled, by the action of the hinder legs, the
greatest attention should be paid to the position and action
of them in the hackney, as the best safeguard against his
falling. We should observe, then, when he is exhibited to
our view, that, in his walk, the hinder foot oversteps the
fore foot, at least a shoe’s length, which a horse with
straight, ill-formed hinder legs cannot do; and if such
action be accompanied by generally good hind quarters, it
is a great indication of safety, as far as one-half of the body
of the horse is concerned. But as the false step is made,
not with the hinder, but the fore leg, the chief safeguard
against falling is to be found elsewhere, namely, first, in
the length of the shoulder, which throws the centre of
gravity further back than a short one; and, secondly, pro¬
ceeding also from the free use of the shoulder, in the act of
setting the fore-foot down on the ground. It is a general
but very mistaken notion, that the safety of a roadster de¬
pends upon his lifting his fore-feet high from the ground,
when he is said to “ go well above his ground;” whereas
it all depends on the manner in which he places them down
upon it. Not only are the highest goers often the most
unsafe to ride, for, when they do fall, they fall with a
violence proportioned to the height of their action; but,
although we do not advocate such extremes, there are
thousands of instances of horses going very near to the
ground, and never making a trip. It is, however, a well
established fact, that if the form of a horse’s shoulder, and
the position of the fore-leg, enable him to put his foot to the
ground flat, with the heel well down, his lifting up his foot
high is not at all necessary; whereas, on the other hand,
if, by an improper position of the leg, issuing out of a short,
upright, ill-formed shoulder, the toe touches the ground
first, and, as it were, digs into it; no matter how high such
a horse may lift up his leg, in any of his paces, he will al¬
ways be dangerous to ride. And this will be clearly shewn,
if we consider the position of the fore-leg, when off the
ground, or in action. It is bent in the form of a C, and
the foot suspended in the air, turning inwards, with a curve
towards the body. When in this state, were the foot to
come in contact with a stone,- or any other substance, it
would pass over it without resistance, the limb being at
that time in a flaccid state; but when it approaches the
ground, the limb being extended, and having the whole
weight of the fore-quarters about to be thrown upon it, if
it strike against a stone, or any hard substance, then the
case is greatly altered, and a stumble is the inevitable con¬
sequence. The base now requires to be firm and even,
which it can only be by the foot being placed flat upon the
ground. Man, in fact, walks very near the ground, but
his toe rarely strikes it. If it did so frequently, he would
soon become a cripple, putting falling out of the question.
His action proceeds from his hips; that of the horse, as re¬
gards the fore-legs, from his shoulders; but the principle
is the same with each ; each is a piece of curiously-wrought
mechanism, and according to the correctness of that me¬
chanism is their action true. A wrong notion, however,
prevails here, which may lead the purchaser of a hackney
astray. It has been asserted by various writers, that, if
the shoe of a roadster be found worn at the toe, it is a sure
sign of his possessing the dangerous action to which we
have alluded. This is false; many horses wear at the
toe, solely by the act of picking up the foot, and quite in¬
dependently of placing it down. That many hackneys,
however, fall from their shoes being neglected and suffered
to wear too much at the toes, we are well aware, as well as
from their pressing upon the heels and quarters, from the
want of being removed in proper time. When a horse is
given to wear at the toe, the wearing part should be steeled.
The best method of ascertaining the manner of putting
590
HORSE.
Hackney, down the foot, on which we have shewn the safety of a hack-
v'"*-'' ney depends, is, to ride a horse with a slack rein, on a foot¬
path, on which there are trifling undulations, scarcely per¬
ceptible, but sufficient for our purpose. If he walk smoothly
over such ground, and do not strike it with his toe, we may
be sure he puts his foot properly down, and will not, from
that cause, be a tumble-down. But there are various ways
in which horses fall on the road ; bad shoeing, as we have
already said, being one of them, and bad condition ano¬
ther. What is called a false step, very different from a
stumble, may occur to any horse, and is occasioned by his
accidentally putting his foot on a loose stone, that rolls away
from under it, when, of course, his footing is lost. In this
case, his chance of recovering himself is in his shoulders
being oblique and lengthy (for upright shoulders are al¬
ways short) and well placed hinder legs. Thrushes and
corns are likewise the cause of stumbling; as likewise is
starting, one of the worst failings a hackney can have. In
some horses it is a nervous affection, rather difficult to
account for in animals of such strength of frame ; and often
arises from imperfectly formed eyes, such as flatness of the
cornea, or outward surface of the eye, generally a small
one, causing short-sightedness. In the latter case, this fault
in a hackney may be guarded against, by employing a ve¬
terinary surgeon to inspect him previous to purchase.
The old adage of “ No foot, no horse,” applies particu¬
larly to the road-horse. The hunter can cross a country
upon feet that are very far from good; and by the help of
bar-shoes, the coach-horse, with no weight on his back,
and with the support the harness gives him, gets pretty
comfortably over his stage on unsound feet; but the road-
horse must have sound feet. Previously to the use of
horse-shoes, the value of a solid hoof was so great as to
have been made the image by which the Prophet Isaiah
set forth the strength and excellence of the Babylonish
cavalry, “ whose hoofs,” says he, “ shall be counted as
flints.” Both Homer and Virgil mention it as an indispen¬
sable requisite in a good horse, the latter making it to re¬
sound as it strikes the ground,
“ et solido graviter sonat ungula cornu.”
We are not going here to enter on a long discussion upon
the foot, but only to observe, that the wide hoof and expand¬
ed heel of the hunter is not so essential to the road-horse as
many persons suppose. Indeed the hoof that has been
found to stand severe road-work best, is one rather high at
the heel, and not very wide, provided the pastern above
do not approach too near the perpendicular; forming what
is called “ an upright pastern,” which, by the jar the foot
receives from it, when it comes to the ground, is nearly
certain to produce disease. The strong foot, however, of
which we are speaking, is one that requires care, by being
frequently drawn out with the knife, to prevent its becom¬
ing too strong; and by giving moderate pressure to the
frogs, to prevent the heels getting nearer together than we
find them, and they already approximate to contraction in
a foot of this description. The just form of the hoof in
front, upon which mainly depends its form behind, is said
by Clarke to be at an elevation from the ground of thirty-
three degrees,1 and we are inclined to think, that a much
greater elevation than this would approach too near the
perpendicular, for any kind of foot. As the inner heel or
quarter has more weight thrown upon it than the outer, it
is the principal seat of corns and sandcracks, for which
reason great care should be taken that an even bearing to
the whole of the crust be given by the smith to the foot of
the hackney, previously to his setting on the shoe, the inner
heel being given to wear away more than the outer on that Hai
account.
In the action of the hackney consists his chief merit. It
should be smooth, and with not too long a step, or stride,
or he will tire. He should also go straight on his legs, as
the term is; for although horses that dish their legs may
be, and commonly are, safe goers, yet they are disagreeable
to ride in wet roads, as they cover the rider with mud.
As we have already observed, the action of a hackney
should not be high, as that tends to fatigue the rider and
destroy himself; and if he puts his foot well down on the
ground, he will never fall by reason of his action being
low, and he will last the longer for its being low.
The paces of the hackney are in a great measure depen¬
dent on the will of his owner. The walk and the canter
are most essential to what may be called the pleasure
hackney; but for general purposes, the trot is the most
useful and available pace in a roadster, and one in which
he will continue longer, according to the rate he is going
at, than in the canter. There are instances, however, and
here is perfection in a hackney, of horses with very oblique
shoulders, and excellent hinder legs, being able to carry
their riders in a canter, over every variation of road, down¬
hill, as well as uphill, without offering to break into a trot,
for a great distance of ground; and, although not appear¬
ing to go more than at the rate of nine miles in the hour,
are really going twelve. This is the result of the perfec¬
tion of the points to which we have alluded, and can
never be looked for in horses of a contrary make, whose
shoulders are short and stiff, and their hinder legs straight.
Above all things, what is called “ fighting action” in a
hackney should be avoided; neither ought the fore leg to
be throw n out with a dart, as it is always attended with a
dwelling, or temporary suspension of the foot, previously to
its reaching the ground.
Most horses have some peculiarities about them, if not
absolute “ tricks,” as vicious practices in horses are desig¬
nated. Starting has already been noticed ; but plunging is
still more dangerous, as in that case, a horse seldom stops until
he have unseated his rider, at least made many attempts
to do so, or thrown himself upon the ground. This latter
trick often proceeds, not from sheer vice, but from a sense
of pain in the horse, from being too tightly girthed; or from
the, to him, very unpleasant sensation of a cold saddle, with
a weight upon it, being pressed to his back; and having once
taken a dislike to it, he is very apt to continue it. Against
each of these evils, it is in our power to provide. Against
the first, by not girthing the horse tightly, for the doing of
which there is no good reason; and against the second, by
having the saddle put on an hour before the horse is want¬
ed, in which time it will become warm, and not disagree¬
able to the skin of his back, which, in some horses, we
know to be extremely susceptible. It is upon this princi¬
ple that the collars are left day and night upon such road
coach-horses as are given to “jib” at starting, the conse¬
quence of tender shoulders. But there is one failing to
which hackneys are subject, not proceeding from vice, but
still attended with danger, as it is often the cause of their
falling; and we will endeavour to exhibit this failing. We
need scarcely insist upon a good mouth, with neck and
head in good place, in the best description of road-horse;
nevertheless, if he w ill not suffer his rider to avail himself
of those advantages, they are useless to him. Such, how¬
ever, is the case when a hackney, as he is going along in
his fast paces, throws his head backwards, which he has
always the power to do, his rider being unable to prevent
him. Twofold danger attends this fault. First, when in
the act of doing it, he sees not where he places his feet;
ey;
1 White says forty-five.
HORSE.
iey. secondly, his rider loses his mouth for the moment, and in
—^ that moment he may fall. Independently of this, it gives
the rider the idea that the horse is becoming fatigued, and
doubtless it is an indication to that effect. Our idea, then,
of a perfect hackney to carry a gentleman, is this: A well-
bred, short-legged, lengthy horse, with very good legs and
feet, not under fourteen nor above fifteen hands high, that
will walk four miles in the hour, trot eleven or twelve, and,
if wanted, will go fifteen in that time in a canter or hand-
gallop, without once throwing up his head, or requiring to
be pulled up. We are, of course, supposing him to be in
good condition, and in strong work, or it would not be fair
to exact so much from him. But it is only in cases of ne¬
cessity that any horse should be made to perform the latter
task; for we are averse to trespassing unnecessarily upon
the powers and capabilities of so noble an animal. On
the contrary, we recommend every indulgence that can be
granted to him on a journey, and especially in hot weather.
At all times, indeed, it is our interest to do so; but, in very
hot weather, a few sips of soft water, often given, keep off
fever, and replenish the loss he sustains by exhaustion from
excessive perspiration.
One word more respecting action. We are no advo¬
cates for very fast trotting. It forces the animal to the
very extent of his powers, which, of course, wears him out;
it induces his owner either to be constantly displaying these
powers in private, or matching him against time in public.
Add to this, fast trotting is not a gentlemanlike pace; that
is, it has not a gentlemanlike appearance, neither is it
agreeable to the rider. This is apparent at first sight,
when we follow two horsemen on a road, one on a fast
trotter, and the other on a good canterer ; although going
at the same rate, the cantering ly.'rse and his rider are both
much more at their ease. With the ancient Romans, in¬
deed, a trotting horse was called a tormentor. Neverthe¬
less, we admit that fast trotting is a proof of action, in ex¬
cess, but of a peculiar nature, and is, perhaps more than
any other, transmitted from sire to son, as the produce of
the various Norfolk and American trotters have shewn.
The amble is a pace very little known in England, al¬
though very general on the Continent, where the act of
rising in the stirrups by the horseman, in the trot, is not
practised. We wonder, however, that horses are not of-
tener broken to this pace than they are, for the use of
women, or of men unequal to fatigue. Although the am¬
ble is not allowed to be a pace in the manege, the walk,
trot, and gallop being all, it is said to be the first pace of
the horse when a foal, but when he has strength to trot, he
quits it. Another peculiarity attends it. A horse, we
know, can be put from a trot to a gallop without stopping,
but he cannot be forced from an amble to a gallop without
a halt.
The Pack-Horse. This description of horse is not now
in use. His capabilities were prodigious in carrying
weight, but were abused by being trespassed upon. When
crossed with the heavy cart-horse, a most useful breed for
draught was produced, as also what was called the farmer’s
hackney, that is, a sturdy animal between the cart-horse
and the hackney, useful for all purposes of agriculture, as
well as for carrying his owner, and always ready to give
help, upon a pinch, either in the plough, the harrow, or the
harvest-cart.
The Cob. The word cob is one of new mintage in the
sporting world, signifying a powerful, short-legged horse,
about fourteen hands high, without any pretensions to blood,
but able to carry a great weight, at a certain pace, on the
road. He is generally the produce of a light, active cart-mare,
and either a thorough-bred or half-bred stallion; and, failing
to grow in height, often increases in lateral growth to sub¬
stance equal to that of the old pack, or miller’s horse, of
former days. When gifted with action, combined with good
591
shape and appearance, this description of horse is much Hackney,
sought after in London, as also in the country, and often —v'—-'
sells for a hundred pounds, to carry heavy elderly gentle¬
men. The attempt to breed him, however, is a hazard¬
ous one, as in case of fault in his action for the saddle, he
is not suitable to the coach-horse market, the present rate
of travelling requiring more lofty as well as higher bred
cattle.
The term Galloway now applies to any horse not ex¬
ceeding fourteen hands in height, although it originated
with a breed peculiar to a province of Scotland known by
that name. In the early days of English racing, there were
several capital thorough-bred galloways in training, at the
head of which was the Bald Galloway, sire of Cartouch,
and also of the Carlisle Gelding, who, as the Stud-Book
informs us, “ was remarkable for having supported the fa¬
tigue of running as a trial horse in private, and with suc¬
cess in public, till the age of eighteen, at which period, af¬
ter winning a heat at Sawtry, in Huntingdonshire (1731),
he broke his leg, and died.” The celebrated Mixbury Gal¬
loway, of the middle of last century, was only thirteen
hands two inches in height.
Previously to the improved system of coaching, and the
cheapness and expedition of that mode of travelling, the
well-bred galloway was the favourite hackney of jockies,
graziers, horse dealers, and cattle jobbers, and in fact of all
light weights who had occasion to travel long distances on
the road, in a short space of time; and no description of
horse is better adapted to the purpose. Some years since,
there was a little entire horse in Devonshire, called Kat-
terfelto, the sire of many most extraordinary galloways, to
whose labours on the road, indeed, there appeared scarcely
to be any limit.
The Pony. A horse is called a pony when under the
height of thirteen hands, four inches to the hand. It is
difficult to account for this diminutive breed, unless we be¬
lieve it to have been imported from countries farther north
than Great Britain, which appears probable from the fact
of ponies being found in greater abundance in Scotland
and Wales than in any other part of the island ; the effect,
no doubt, of climate. In Ireland they are very rare.
There is no animal that improves in form and character
so much as the pony does from the effect of good grooming
and high keep. A real Welsh mountain pony, in very good
condition, especially if not castrated, is a perfect war-horse
in miniature, uniting almost every good property his species
possesses. As a proof of one essential quality, we can
state upon authority, that the Earl of Oxford had a mare
pony, got by the Clive Arabian, her dam by the same
horse, out of a Welsh mare pony, which could beat any of
his racers four miles at a feather weight. Whether Welsh,
Scotch, or Hampshire (New Forest), ponies have proper¬
ties belonging to them, which should attract the notice of
the hippopathologist, among the most prominent of which
are the following: They are never lame in the feet, or
become roarers. A broken winded pony is a very rare
sight, and they live to the extreme of old age, if not unfair¬
ly treated. They are also very little susceptible of disease,
in comparison with other horses; and as for their powers
of endurance, they stagger belief. A rare instance of the
latter excellence may be produced, from the well-known
fact of the pony, Sir Teddy, only twelve hands high, ac¬
companying the royal mail from London to Exeter, and
arriving in that city fifty-nine minutes before it, distance
172 miles, in twenty-three hours and twenty minutes. It
may scarcely be necessary to state that he carried no
weight, being led between two horses all the way; never¬
theless it was a task that wre think no full-grown horse
would have performed. A correct likeness of this pony
was painted by the elder Marshall, of Newmarket. In
1784, a Shetland pony, eleven hands and a half high, car-
592
HORSE.
Charger, ried a rider weighing five stones from Norwich to Yarmouth,
—and back, forty-four miles, in three hours and forty-five
minutes. As a proof, also, of their powers in crossing a
country, the fact may be stated of the late Sir Charles
Turner riding a pony ten miles in forty-seven minutes,
and taking thirty leaps in his course, for a wager of 1000
guineas with the late Duke of Queensberry, then Earl
March. During the drawing of the Irish lottery, the ex¬
presses from Holyhead to London were chiefly conveyed by
ponies, at the rate of nearly twenty miles in the hour.
The only bad use to which the pony is applied, is in
what is called the “ pony chaise,” or phaeton. The car¬
riage itself is dangerous, by reason of its extreme light¬
ness and shortness, by which it is so easily overturned;
and the lowness of the driver’s seat prevents proper com¬
mand over the animal drawing it. It is too often the case,
also, that “ the pony” is a pet, and for that reason pamper¬
ed in the stable, and not much worked. On the least
alarm, then, such as any unusual noise, horses gallopping
past him, or, as there have been too many fatal instances,
some part of the fore-carriage touching his hocks in de •
scending a hill, away he goes, gallopping and kicking un¬
til he has rid himself of his load. The safest way of using
ponies in harness, is in pairs, in double harness, with the
pole of the carriage raised a little at the futchels, to pre¬
vent their kicking over it in their play.
THE CHARGER.
having the proper requisites for his calling. The position Cl ?et
of his hinder legs, however, is most particularly insisted ^
upon, because, should they be straight, that is, not inclin¬
ing inwards from the hock, after the form of the ostrich’s
leg, he will with great difficulty be made the supple, short¬
turning, handy animal that he ought to be, to render him
perfectly available to his rider, at the head of his regiment,
or in the ranks. Perhaps those horses which were destined
to mount our ancient nobility, or courteous knights of old,
for feats of chivalry, and gained them the palm in that field
of romantic honour, were more highly “ dressed”, as the
term is, in the manege, than an officer’s charger of these
days should be ; nevertheless, as Colonel Peters observes,
in his Treatise on Equitation (London, 1835), “ Although
it might spoil a good horse for military purposes, to form
him perfectly after the higher manege principles, yet he
would be equally unfit for that duty, if he were left in a
raw and ignorant state.”
Amongst the ancient Greeks, all horses, as well as all men,
were strictly examined before they were admitted into the
cavalry ; and the precedent cannot be too closely followed.
It is well known, that in the various campaigns of the last
war, several British officers lost their lives, in consequence
of being mounted on chargers not equal to their weight
over every description of ground. In one particular in¬
stance, a colonel of a light dragoon regiment was cut down
in retreating, by reason of his handsome, but powerless
charger, being unable to gallop with him over a deeply-
ploughed field. At the battle of Waterloo, the ground be¬
came excessively wet and soft, owing to continued rain ;
and, in consequence of it, the Duke of Wellington gave a
large price to an officer on his staff for a fine, powerful
mare, which had been purchased out of an English fox¬
hunting stud. In fact, the sort of horse best fitted for an
officer’s charger, is one which possesses most of the essen¬
tial qualifications, as well as accomplishments, of a hunter,
as his rider, when on service, knows not how soon they
may be called for. He should, however, be of airy form,
with light action, and well-bred, or he will not look in cha¬
racter with the smart costume of his rider; but to his ap¬
pearance there must not be sacrificed those essential points,
substance and strength, which will enable him to strug¬
gle through difficulties, in which a weaker, though more
highly-bred, animal might sink. But a trifling deviation
in form in the charger, from the points insisted upon in
the hunter, may be admitted. For example, the shortness
of leg, that is, in the cannon or shank bone, is not ex¬
actly desirable in the charger, as his action is required to
be of a grander and more showy appearance than we wish
to see in the hunter. A moderate length of leg, then, is
favourable to such 'action, and gives lightness, as well as
gracefulness, to his movements.
We cannot imagine any brute animal more likely to in¬
sure the gratitude of man, than the horse which has borne
him in safety throughout even a single campaign ; and it
is not to be wondered at its having been made a subject for
rebuke to Cato, that he left his charger in Spain, to avoid
the expense of bringing him home; or that it should be
recorded in praise of Andromache, that she fed the horses
of Hector with her own hand. A case parallel with the
first, we would not produce if we coidd ; but without hav¬
ing recourse to history beyond the period of our own time,
we may set forth a flattering resemblance to the second.
The late Duchess of Wellington, during her Grace’s resi¬
dence at Strathfieldsaye, in Hampshire, seldom omitted,
for a day, feeding, with her own hands, the favourite
charger of her gallant husband.
The height of a charger should not exceed fifteen hands
and a half, horses of that size being more easily set upon
their haunches, and also made to turn more readily than
taller ones. His colour must depend upon circumstances ;
No kind of horse, no animal, indeed, of any sort, makes
so prominent a figure in history, sacred or profane, as “ the
goodly horse of the battle,” or war-horse. The description
of‘him by Job is admitted to exceed the powers of human
eloquence ; “ and,” as M. Rollin says of it, “ every word
would bear an explication to display its merits.” The
Guardian (No. 86) has a very ingenious critique upon it;
and Bochart devotes seventeen pages to this, and all the
other passages in Scripture in which the horse is mention¬
ed. Virgil’s representation of him, in his third Georgic, is
considered as the nearest approach to that of the sacred
writer; and the speech, in the tenth JEneid, of the hero
Mezentius to his favourite charger, when on the point of
sallying forth to avenge the death of his son, is not exceed¬
ed, in the pathetic, by any other passage in the poem.
Homer is blamed for his too frequent allusions to the
horse; but the history of all w ars produces materials for
panegyrics on this noble animal. The far-famed Buce¬
phalus is said to have preserved the life of Alexander, by
carrying him out of reach of the enemy, although he had
received his mortal wound, and dropped down dead imme¬
diately on his (Alexander’s) alighting from his back. In
the battle which was to decide the fate of Persia, on the
ground upon wdiich the great Nineveh once stood, the
merit of the victory was chiefly ascribed, by the Byzantine
historians, not to the military conduct, but to the personal
valour of their favourite hero, in which his horse bore his
share. “ On this memorable day,” says the eloquent Gib¬
bon, “ Heraclius, on his horse Phallas, surpassed the bravest
of his warriors. His lip was pierced with a spear, the steed
was wounded in the thigh, but he carried his master safe
and victorious through the triple phalanx of the barbarians.”
How many British soldiers have owed the preservation of
their lives to the courage and docility of their horses.
The movement of turning being the most difficult with
the horse, by reason of the inflexible nature of his back¬
bone, the one selected for a charger should have great free¬
dom of action, having his hinder legs well bent under his
body, so that he may be easily thrown upon his haunches;
also much liberty in his shoulders, and pliancy in the
muscles of the neckin which case he will seldom fail in
HORSE.
c h- but next to the silver gray, which best displays his trap-
l »e. pings, and which, we may presume, was the colour of the
L —^ celebrated Phallas (the Greeks called a gray horse <pxXioS),
bay, black, and chestnut, are the best.
THE TROOP-HORSE.
A change for the worse has taken place in this descrip¬
tion of horse, in several British light dragoon regiments,
the effect of which was apparent in the late war. It ori¬
ginated in a wish to imitate the style and character of the
Hussar, without taking into consideration the fact, that that
description of cavalry was intended more for out-parties
and skirmishing, than for coming in contact with the body
of an enemy; and that consequently, the slender sort of
horse on which the English light dragoon has of late been
mounted, has not been found efficient, under the immense
weight he carries when in marching order, or even in bat¬
tle, which averages at least sixteen stones. The heavy dra¬
goon horse is, indeed, very little more powerful now than
that of the light dragoon was, thirty or forty years back.
The horse best calculated for a light dragoon trooper, is
something between the modern coach-horse and the hack¬
ney; upon short legs, with good bone, and with much
substance in the body. His back should be short, and
well ribbed up, his barrel round and large, to allow plenty
of room for food, as he is often a long time without it; and
hardiness of constitution is a very material point in a sol¬
dier’s horse. When we look at dragoon regiments, how¬
ever, the heavy horse regiments, in particular, our sur¬
prise is excited at the fine appearance the horses make,
contrasting it with the price allowed by government for the
purchase of them. It is true they are purchased when
young, many of those for the household troops, at three
years old ; and their good keep, upon hard food of the best
quality, forces them into shape, and makes them what we
see them.
THE COACH-HORSE.
If it cannot be absolutely asserted that the first use of
the horse was in harness, it is quite certain that the chariot-
horse was held in high estimation in very early times, and
is alluded to by poets and historians of all nations and in
all languages. Homer says that Diomed, an Asiatic prince,
had ten chariots, with a particular sort of horses for each ;
and he also makes Nestor, at the funeral games of Patro-
clus, harness the horses for his son with his own hands;
and, by his skill in directing him in the race, he wins it.
But the Grecian bard goes still further into minutiae. He
even represents Menelaus, on the same occasion, using
(Ethe, one of the horses of Agamemnon, with one of his
own; and Priam is found harnessing his favourite steeds
to the car, in which he returns, with the dead body of his
father, from Achilles’s camp, on the plains of Troy. It
would be endless to turn to other writers, to shew the esti¬
mation in which the chariot-horse has been held.
In its present acceptation, the term “ coach-horse” in¬
cludes two varieties; namely, the horse that draws the
gentleman’s carriage, and the one that is employed in those
public conveyances, called “ stage-coaches.” As regards
the former animals, we believe a similar alteration has taken
place in the form, appearance, and breeding of them, as has
been seen in the English hunter, within the last half century.
The Flanders mares, so highly esteemed, and seen only in
the carriages of families of distinction ; the well buckled-
up, long-tailed blacks and roans, have all disappeared, and
we find, in their stead, the sort of horse nearly approach¬
ing to the one which was formerly considered quite well-
bred enough for the chase. But the fact is, such is the
VOL. XI.
593
present rage for rapid travelling, both in private and public Coach-
carriages, that nothing but well-bred horses have a chance Horse,
to stand what is called harness-work on our roads. Those
used also for “ town-work,” as the term is, are of a supe¬
rior description, amongst which hundreds of good hunters
might be selected; but such have been the high prices
given for them by the dealers, at an age which would not
admit of their being tried in the field, they have found their
way into harness, and, when once there, they remain in it.
The form, however, of what may be termed a splendid
town coach-horse, need not be, by any means, perfect;
and were a judge to examine minutely the points of vast
numbers of those handsome horses seen in the carriages
in London, or other large towns, he would find them very
deficient in several points, essential to any purpose but
harness, shoulders and hinder legs especially. But it is
fortunate for breeders of horses, that it does not require
true symmetry and action to form a grand coach-horse.
His false points are, for the most part, concealed by his
trappings ; and if he be any thing near the following form,
he will make an excellent appearance in harness. His head
is not so material, as the bridle covers so much of it; but
his neck should rise well out of his shoulders, as the higher
he carries his head the better, provided the form of his
neck admits of its being drawn inward by the bearing rein,
when only moderately tight, in which case he will be easily
acted upon by the driving rein. The back of the coach-
horse is a material point, as, without an easy slope behind
the withers, his fore-hand will not appear grand, nor will the
pad sit well upon him. His hinder quarters should be straight
and blood-like ; his gaskins well spread ; and his tail should
be set on, high. His action should not be too short for town-
work, but the knee should be thrown well up in the trot,
to give him a grand appearance. This peculiar action,
the result of strong flexor tendons, suited nearly to this
purpose only, is observable in colthood, but is increased
afterwards by the horse being thrown more upon his
haunches by the bit; and the act of drawing is not unfa¬
vourable to it. Light work in harness, indeed, is favour¬
able to all action, that of gallopping excepted.
The county of York may be called the modern Epirus, as
in that and Lincolnshire are the greater part of the London
coach-horses bred. The most usual cross is between the
thorough-bred horse and the Cleveland-bay mare ; but the
appearance of too many of them incline us to believe, that,
losing sight of their own interest, breeders have recourse,
oftener than they should, to the half-bred horse, as well as
to the half-bred mare. This, added to the rich grass land
they are bred upon, accounts for the coarse, ill-placed
shoulders and flat, fleshy feet that so many of the London
coach-horses exhibit. For road-work, in noblemen and
gentlemen’s carriages, horses cannot be too nearly full blood,
provided they have strength equal to their work. Here,
as over a country, “ it is the pace that killsand as, in
considerable velocity, the power of a horse is nearly ex¬
hausted in moving his own body, he needs every advan¬
tage we can give him.
The colour of the gentleman’s coach-horse is, for the
most part, bay; but by far the most imposing in harness is
the silver-gray, with black mane and tail. This colour
was held sacred by the ancients; and Camillus is said to
have given great offence to the Homans by being drawn
through Rome, in his triumph, by four gray horses, no
general having before ventured to do so. Gray coach-
horses, however, require the nicest grooming, and the best
appointed harness, otherwise all the good effect is lost.
The piebald look conspicuous, and commands a high price,
as no doubt he always did. Virgil was partial to the pie¬
bald, or party-coloured breed, and mounts young Priam
upon one of them in the fifth, and Turrus in the ninth, iEneid-
both Thracian horses.
4 f
HORSE.
Coach- The stage coach-horse has undergone a still greater
Horse, change in the last half century, and particularly the last
twenty years. In fact, his physical condition may now be
said to be better than that of the man who lives by the sweat
of his brow, for he works but one hour in twenty-four,
whereas the man works twelve. The coach-horse also lives
on the best fare, which cannot be said of the labouring
man. As all kinds of horses of a light description find
their way into coaches, it is useless to attempt to fix a
standard by which they should be measured, as to neight,
length, width, or strength. But as al] horses draw by their
.weight, and not by the force of their muscles, which could
not act against a load for any length of time, the object
of the breeder or purchaser of the road coach-horse should
be, to have as much power in as small a compass as may be
possible, combined with good action. Substance is a sine
qua non on roads that are heavy or hilly ; for, as before
observed, it is the weight of the animal which produces the
draught, whilst the play and force of its muscles serve to
continue it.
There are, however, a few points very necessary to be
observed in the purchase of the road coach-horse. As in
drawing, the force applied proceeds from the fulcrum form¬
ed by the hinder feet, well spread gaskins and thighs
form a main excellence. His fore-legs also should be good
to make him a safe wheel-horse, nor can he throw his whole
weight into his collar, unless he be sound in his feet. But
alas, how many are thus deprived of their natural powers,
by being worked upon unsound feet, and expected to exert
themselves to the utmost.
There is no truth so easily proved, or so painfully felt
by the post-master, at least in his pocket, as that, it is the
pace that kills. A horse at a dead pull, or at the begin¬
ning ot his pull, is enabled, by the force of his muscles, to
throw a certain weight into the collar. If he walk four
miles in the hour, some part of that muscular energy must
be expended in the act of walking; and, consequently, the
power of drawing must be proportionally diminished. If
he trot eight miles in the hour, more animal power is ex¬
pended in the trot, and less remains for the draught; but
the draught continues the same, and, to enable him to ac¬
complish his work, he must tax his energies to a degree
that is cruel in itself, and that must speedily wear him out.
Let it be supposed, what every horse cannot accom¬
plish, that he shall be able, by fair exertion and without
distress, to throw, at a dead pull, a weight into his collar,
or exert a force equal to 216 lb.; or, in other words, let
him be able to draw a load which requires a force of 216 lb.
to move. Let him next walk at the rate of four miles in
an hour ; what force will he then be able to employ ? We
have taken away some to assist him in walking, and we
have left him only 96 lb., being not half of that which he
could exert when he began his pull. He shall quicken his
pace to six miles an hour, more energy must be exerted to
carry him over this additional ground. How much has he
remaining to apply to the weight behind him ? 54 lb. only.
We will make the six miles an hour ten ; for it seems now
to be the fashion for the fast coach, and for almost everv
coach, and every vehicle, to attempt this pace. How stands
the account with the poor beast? We have left him a
power equal to 32 lb. only to be employed for the purpose
of draught.
The load which a horse can draw is about fifteen times
greater than the power exerted, supposing the road to be
hard and level, and the carriage to run with little friction;
and the horse which, at starting, can throw into the collar
a weight or force equal to 216 lb., will draw a load of 3200.
Let him, however, be urged on at the rate of ten miles in
tne hour ; deduct the power used in swiftness of pace from
the sum-total of. that which he possesses, and what re¬
mains . not a sixth part, not that which is equal to a
quarter of a ton, or, if it be a stage-coach, the energy exert- fL j
ed in draught by the four horses will not be equal to a ton. tU]
The coach, and its passengers, and its luggage, weigh ^
more than, this, and the whole is still drawn on, and must
be so. Whence comes the power ? from the overstrained
exertion, the injury, the torture, the destruction of the
horse. That which is true of the coach-rose, is equally
true of every other. Let each reader apply it to his own
animal, and act as humanity and interest dictate.
It would be in vain to attempt any standard for road
coach-horses. They must be picked up where they can
be found, and, if possessed of action, the rest must be left
to chance. A good constitution is desirable, for many die
in the “ seasoning,” as it is called, on the road, and a young,
green horse cuts a poor figure in a fast coach. Coach-
masters are too much given to purchase infirm horses, by
which they incur loss, for, if quite sound, it is as much as
can be expected that they remain so for any moderate
length of time; and we believe the average duration of
horses in fast work is not more than four years, if pur¬
chased sound. Unsound horses, then, cannot be supposed
to last nearly so long, independently of the cruelty of driving
them. The most likely horse, however, to stand sound, and
do his work well in a fast coach, is one, that, with sufficient
strength, and a good set of limbs, has action sufficiently
speedy to admit of his keeping time without going at the
top of his pace. When this is the case, he runs his stage,
from end to end, within himself, and is as good at the last
as he was at the first; but when he cannot command the
pace, he soon becomes distressed, and is weak at the end
of his stage. I his accounts for sundry accidents having
occurred by wheel-horses being unable to hold back a
loaded coach down hill, at the end of the stage, although
they would have been more than equal to it at the begin¬
ning of it. In fact, many coach-horses are very good for
eight miles, but very bad for ten, so nicely are their powers
measured in harness. Above all things, we recommend good
legs and feet in working horses, if they are to be had; and
an extra price is well laid out in procuring them. Whether
they are strong in their harness, in very fast work, cannot
be discovered until they are tried ; but well bred ones, ha¬
ving substance, are most likely to prove so.
Dr Johnson, in his Rasselas, makes the Artist of the
Happy Valley tell the prince, he had long been of opinion
that, instead of the tardy conveyances of ships and chariots,
man might use the swifter migration of wings. There ap¬
pears something prophetic here, when we read of the con¬
templated transmission, by all-powerful steam, of a man’s
person from- London to I averpool in two hours, which
would be at a rate that the very “ wings of the winds”
never yet equalled. But surely our coaches now travel suffi¬
ciently fast, and we should be sorry to see their speed in¬
creased beyond what it now is, in consideration for the
sufferings of the horses employed in them. Were they not
always running home (for each end of the stage is their
home), they would not perform their tasks so well as they
now perform them; and it is owing to that circumstance
that the accidents in fast coaches are not so numerous as
might be expected, night work, and many other things
being taken into account.
Coach-horses are subject to many accidents, and some
diseases nearly peculiar to themselves. Amongst the former
is the fracture of a leg, or the coffin-bone of the foot, oc¬
casioned generally, it is supposed, by treading on a stone,
or any other uneven surface, when the limb is strained in
draught. It, however, sometimes happens when the horse
is trotting along on very fair ground, and in such cases
the accident is rather difficult to account for. In very
heavy draught, when the foot is much overcharged with
the weight and pressure of the body, a fracture will some¬
times take place at the first step the horse takes. Perhaps
H O R S E.
59 n
these accidents may be independent of what is called shape
?. and make, but coach proprietors would do well to pur-
chase their horses with good legs and feet, and then they
are less liable to these accidents, and, with good care and
good shoeing, may last many years in very quick work.
The diseases peculiar to coach-horses are, the megrims,
and the lick. The former attacks the head, and is caused
by irregular motion of the fluids within the vessels of the
brain, stopping, for a time, all voluntary motion. The
horse in consequence staggers and falls, if not immediately
pulled up, and that does not always prevent him. This
species of vertigo is generally produced by the effect of a
hot sun, especially if the horse be running in the face of
it, for which reason horses subject to megrims are generally
worked at night. In fact, many coach-horses are good
horses by night, although they cannot keep their time by day,
in the summer, particularly thick-winded horses. Blind
horses also do not like sun, but “ as healthy as a blind horse
in the winter” is a proverb.
The lick can scarcely be called a disease, but it greatly in¬
jures the condition and appearance of coach horses. When
under its influence, they are almost constantly, when not
feeding, licking each other’s skins, or else the rack or man¬
ger. It proceeds from a heated state of the stomach, from
the excitement of high food, and almost daily profuse
sweating, and is invariably removed by alterative medicines
or physic.
A great mistake is made by too many coach-masters in
being under instead of over horsed for their ground. In¬
stead of keeping five horses to work a certain length of
ground, and feeding them very high to perform it, it would
answer them better to keep six horses on the same al¬
lowance of corn that the five horses are eating. The stock
would last longer, and the money they cost be “ kept to¬
gether,” as the term is, longer, by such means. Each horse
would then rest two days out of six, when they were all fit
for work, which would keep him very fresh in condition ;
and there vrould always be one spare horse left, in case
either of the six wanting physic or rest. It is the almost
every-day excitement that breaks down the constitution of
coach-horses.
THE GIG-HORSE.
A few years back, a country parson and his wife, or a
wealthy old farmer, were the only persons seen in England
in two-wheeled carriages, then called Whiskies. They
were useful though far from ornamental vehicles, having what
is termed “ a head” to protect the inmates from weather,
and, with a very quiet horse, were considered as nearly equal
in security to close four-wheeled carriages. In the cha¬
racter and appellations of these carriages, however, a won¬
derful alteration has taken place within the last fifty years,
and even royalty itself has been seen seated in gigs, cabrio¬
lets, Stanhopes, and Tilburies; the two last taking their
names from the inventors of their peculiar forms. The
build of these two-wdieeled carriages has reached the very
summit of perfection, not only as regards their firmness
but their elegance ; and it is scarcely necessary to add, that
the horses driven in them, as likewise their harness, have
equally altered their character. Ftom two to three hun¬
dred guineas (and, in one instance, seven hundred gui¬
neas were paid) have been no uncommon prices given for
gig and cabriolet horses; and for gentleman’s work we
might put sixty as the average of the last forty years.
The choice of a gig-horse (for we confine ourselves to
that term for the present) must be regulated by local cir¬
cumstances. If for London streets, his action should be
rather lofty or “ grand,” as the term is, than fast; that is to
say, he should step with his knee much elevated, which of
course is unfavourable to speed. His appearance also
should be of the first order of his species, not under fifteen
hands tw o inches in height; and if of a fancy colour, the
more money will he fetch in the market. He must be wrell
bitted, carrying his head high, and very quick in getting
into his trot, or “ upon his legs,” as coachmen say, to en¬
able his driver to make his way in crowded streets. We
should also add, that this quickness in his motions should
be accompanied by perfectly good temper, and freedom
from all vice; in which case he is alwmys worth one hun¬
dred guineas, or more, if in the prime of life and sound.
For the country a different sort of gig-horse is required.
In drawing a gig on a soft or newly-gravelled road, the
resistance is much the same as a continual hill; and there¬
fore a horse w ith a quick, short step is best calculated for
the road, as such action fatigues less than that which w e
have recommended for London. For all purposes, how¬
ever, a horse in single harness, to be safe, should be wrell
up before ; that is to say, he should go with his fore quar¬
ters high up, and not boring on his shoulders. In this
case, if he have well-placed shoulders, good legs, and sound
feet, free from corns and thrushes ; good natural courage to
induce him to “ run up to his bit,” and a good mouth,
there will be very little danger of his falling down in a gig ;
but accidents from vice must depend upon other circum¬
stances. These accidents, however, are often the result
not of real vice, or even of ill temper, but of want of know¬
ledge in his owner of putting him properly into his har¬
ness, as w'ell as of driving him afterwards.
Innumerable accidents to horses in gigs arise from some
part of the harness pinching him, particularly about his
withers or back, when he w ill endeavour to kick himself
out of it, to rid himself of the torment. Indeed we have
more than once seen a road coach-horse, in regular work,
set a-kicking merely from a twisted trace, rubbing edgeways
against the outside of his thigh.
We consider mares objectionable in single harness, for rea¬
sons which are obvious ; and fewr of them are to be trusted
at certain periods of the year, particularly in the case of a
rein getting under the tail. When driven, the precaution
of the safety rein should not be omitted. We are also of
opinion that numerous accidents from gigs would be pre¬
vented, if horses intended for them were to be broken in
to them, in bridles without winkers, as a great portion of
the horses on the Continent are driven. The not knowing
what they have behind them is a natural cause of alarm,,
and would bv this means be obviated.
Post-
Horse.
THE POST-HORSE.
This description of horse is one of the most useful we
have, and is of very ancient date. He is spoken of by
Xenophon, in allusion to the posts instituted by the first
Cyrus, and as the most expeditious method of travelling by
land ( Cyropcedia, 1. viii. p. 496, edit. Hutchinson); although,
perhaps, he was chiefly made use of to forward public des¬
patches. Augustus was the first to introduce post-houses,
and consequently post-horses and,post-chaises, amongst the
Romans, disposed at convenient distances (Suet, in vit.
Aug. vi. 49), but these were chiefly for the purpose of politi¬
cal intelligence. Thus, in a letter from Pliny to Trajan., we
find him informing the emperor of his having granted a
courier a warrant to make use of the public posts, as he
washed him to be quickly in possession of some important
facts, communicated to him by the King of Sardinia; and
he subsequently (Letter exxi.) apologizes to his royal mas¬
ter for having ventured, on his own responsibility, to grant
an order for his wife to be forwarded by post-chaises, on
occasion of a domestic affliction. His letter produced a
kind answer from the emperor, approving, in this peculiar
instance, of the use of the. warrants which he had entrust-*
ed to his care.
596 HORSE
Cart- A most material and agreeable change has taken place
Horse. }n (]ie character and appearance of this class of horse, who
■ may truly be said to have marched with the times. Up to
the end of the last century the post-horse was, except in a
few instances, an object of commiseration with travellers.
With galled sides and sore shoulders, and scarcely a sound
limb, he would not go without the lash or spur, whereas
he now comes out of his stable in high condition, and
runs his ten miles’ stage in an hour, with a carriage of
the average weight, and twelve, if required, with a light
one. He is also seen to perform either of these tasks
without being distressed, unless in immoderately hot wea¬
ther, when humane persons would check his speed. Mon¬
taigne says, “ there is a certain general claim of kindness
and benevolence which every creature has a right to from
man,” a sentiment in which we heartily concur; for al¬
though man may be considered as tbe delegate of Heaven
over inferior animals, he has no right to go to the very ex¬
tremity of his authority. It is, however, much to be feared,
that a thoughtless indifference to the sufferings of the post-
horse is too frequently to be laid to travellers in our own
country, who, without any sufficient reason, urge him to a
rate of speed which cannot be unattended with suffering.
The form of the post-horse should resemble that of "the
hunter which is generally ridden in the deep and close
hunting countries of Great Britain ; that is, with as much
blood as can be got, in conjunction with good bone and
strength. The riding horse of the pair must have sound
legs and feet; but if a little the worse for wear, an old
hunter makes an excellent hand-horse, and innkeepers gene¬
rally avail themselves of the saving occasioned by putting
horses of a less price in that place than the one which
carries the driver. Notwithstanding this, the average pur¬
chase money of a useful pair of post-horses cannot be esti¬
mated at less than from L. 40 to L. 60.
THE CAKT-HOESE.
Errors detected by experience are allowed to be equal
to demonstration; but this truism is not admitted by a vast
majority of English farmers, -who persevere in the use of the
heavy black horse for agricultural purposes, for which,
solely, he is by no means fitted, from the slowness of his step
(independently of his weight), unless very highly fed. As
long, however, as the ponderous vehicles made use of in
London and elsewhere, for the transmission of heavy goods,
are persevered in, this equally ponderous animal may be
necessary; but it is certain that lighter horses, in lighter
vehicles, would do the business better, that is, more speedi¬
ly, and at less cost. Notwithstanding the objections to
him, the heavy black cart-horse pays well for rearing ; for
being always saleable at two years old, a certain profit is
insured, as, for the first year, the expense of keeping him
is trifling. If on a large scale, and promising to be fit for
the London market, or the best-conducted road waggons,
he commands a price that leaves a handsome surplus to
the breeder
I he chief desiderata in the cart-horse are substance and
action. If possessed of the latter, his shoulders and fore
quarters can scarcely be too coarse and heavy; for draw¬
ing being an effort of the animal to preserve himself from
the tendency which his weight gives him to the centre of
gravity when he inclines forward, so the more weighty he
is before, and the nearer he approximates this centre, the
more advantageously will he apply his powers. Notwith¬
standing this, we are not advocates of heavy horses for
farmer’s work, much less on the road. The lighter horse
gets over m eight hours what would take the heavy one
ten ; and the great improvement in the present mode of
culture, and the implements used for agricultural purposes,
do not require more weight of strength than what the Suf¬
folk, Clydesdale, Cleveland-bay, and other lighter breeds, ] *1
are masters of. Besides, there are periods of the year
when despatch of business is of great moment to the far¬
mer, which he cannot command in those mountains of
horse-flesh which we see labouring in most of the finest
districts in England, tiring themselves by their own weight.
Iravellers on the Continent, occupying land in England,
should carry in their eye the form and action of the horses
which draw the public carriages, particularly those bred in
Picardy, in France. The prevailing colour is iron roan,
and their nature appears to sympathise with that colour;
for, speaking figuratively, they are as hard as iron itself.
It is not unusual to find four or five of them drawing those
cumbrous diligences, weighing perhaps six or seven tons, a
twenty-mile stage, at the rate of six miles an hour, preserving
up their condition to the highest pitch ; and this with hay
and corn very inferior in quality to that grown in England.
To keep up the condition of the English black cart-horse,
requires him to consume nearly as much as his labour is
worth ; and unless he lives well, he is only half alive, which
his sluggish action denotes. In fact, his chief fault lies in
his having too great a body, and too little spirit, conse¬
quently he exhausts himself in the mere act of carrying
that body. The nimbleness of the smaller kinds of cart¬
horses to which we have alluded, is owing to their mode¬
rate size; and their immense powers in lifting weight
(with the Suffolk, Punch, and Clydesdale breeds, in particu¬
lar) to the same cause, combined with the low position of
the shoulder, which occasions weight to be acted upon in a
just and horizontal direction. The Welsh cart-horses, es¬
pecially those in use in the counties of Denbigh, Merio-
nith, and Montgomery, are eminently adapted to all ag¬
ricultural purposes, combining much strength with a great
share of activity ; and the general criteria of wide breast,
with low shoulders, good carcass, and small head, indicate
their being good workers, with hardihood of constitution.
Their height is about fifteen hands two inches ; and their
colour black or brown.
THE IRISH HORSE.
The Irish hackney may be reckoned amongst the indi¬
gene of his country, a sui generis animal, not mixed, as the
English hackney is, with the black cart-horse, originally
brought from Flanders, of which sort Ireland has none.
He is remarkable for the general soundness of his feet,
which are stronger in the heels than those of English
horses, and he stands his work well, if not too much abused
in his youth. Almost all Irish horses coming under this
description have been broken in to the plough and the car,
so they, for the most part, go in harness ; but the worst
fault they have is not having been properly broken in, and
bitted, which is the cause of many of them being restive.
The Irish hunter is a very different animal from what he
was half a century back. He was always celebrated for
leaping, but until lately the want of breeding rendered
him nearly useless as a hunter, in the countries which re¬
quire speed, as well as the accomplishment of leaping. At
the present time great numbers of excellent well-bred Irish
hunters are annually imported into England, and being
found to answer well, fetch good prices. This is the result
of horse-breeders in Ireland seeing the necessity of putting
their hunting mares to thorough-bred stallions, and not, as
before, to the slow, great-jumping hunter, no matter how
low his breed. The improved cross, being again put to the
thorough-bred stallion, of course has produced a still better
kind of animal, and thus are Irish hunters “ progressing”
towards perfection.
The method of leaping of the native Irish horse is pe-
HORSE. 597
jj culiarly suited to some of our English counties, Cheshire
e. and Lancashire, for example, and likewise to those in-
closed with walls both in England and Scotland. To use
an expressive Irish phrase, “ they have always a leg to
spare,” implying that they have a ready use of their hin¬
der legs; which is the fact, in tipping or touching walls
or banks, with one or both, which gives them a fresh ful¬
crum, from which they can extend their leap, in case of
their finding an unforeseen difficulty or obstacle on the
landing side. In the wall counties of Ireland, indeed, the
horses are taught to alight on their hinder legs upon the
summit of the wall, after the manner of the dog when he
leaps a gate, which, if the wall be broad and firm, adds to
the facility of the exertion, as also to the safety of the
rider. Irish hunters are generally good brook jumpers,
being educated, indeed bred, amongst drains; but field gates,
or stiles, being of rare occurrence in the pastoral districts
of Ireland, they are not to be relied upon as timber leapers,
until they have been initiated to that description of fence.
Persons who have had experience in Irish hunters have
found them very shy of having a whip, with a thong to it,
made use of by the rider, either for the purpose of smack¬
ing it, or to strike an unruly hound. This we fear pro¬
ceeds from unnecessary severity in the exercise of the
whip in breaking, but which would be obviated if breeders
were aware of the inconvenience it occasions to servants,
who are called upon to ride Irish horses with hounds, in the
capacity of huntsmen or whippers-in. We have seen a few
of these horses nearly useless from this cause, as servants’
horses ; although well suited in every other respect, to this
peculiar purpose, from their style of fencing and hardiness.
The Irish race-horse was formerly far behind the Eng¬
lish, neither is it probable that he will ever be his equal,
from circumstances unnecessary to detail. Some horses,
however, coming under the denomination of good runners,
have been imported from Ireland within the last twenty
years ; for which we are principally indebted to Lords Sligo
and Rossmore, and to the late Mr Bowes Daly, who was
esteemed the best judge of breeding racers that Ireland ever
could boast of. It must, however, be admitted, that horses
bred and trained in one country, and running in another,
meet their rivals under disadvantageous circumstances.
THE SCOTCH HORSE.
Like all cold countries, Scotland is unfavourable to breed¬
ing the race-horse in his best form ; and the only prospect of
rearing him to any thing approaching perfection, is to shelter
him with unusual care from the weather, when either cold
or wet, and to force him with the highest keep. Scottish-
bred hunters, however, are esteemed in the hunting world
as a stout, hardy race, and they, like the Irish, are now
well enough bred to live with hounds at the present speedy
rate at which those animals run, according to the fashion
of the present day. Of the native Highland pony, it is
unnecessary to say much, its merits being so well known;
and the Scotch cart-horses are decidedly the best in Great
Britain. The peculiar variety known as Clydesdale horses,
stand first in repute. Of the origin of this race, various
accounts have been given, but none of them so clear or so
well authenticated, as to merit much notice. They ac¬
quired their appellation, not because they are peculiar to
Clydesdale, as the same description of horses are bred in
the other western counties of Scotland, and over all that
tract which lies between the Clyde and the Forth, but be¬
cause the principal markets at which they are sold, namely,
Lanark, Carnwath, Rutherglen, and Glasgow, are situated
in that district, where they are also preserved in a state of
greater purity than in most other parts. They are rather
larger tlmn the Suffolk-punch, and the neck is somewhat
longer; their colour is black, brown, or grey; all the es¬
sential points for heavy draught are very conspicuously de¬
veloped ; and they are extremely docile withal, and excel- Treatment
lent at what is called a dead pull. Some magnificent speci- of Horses,
mens of this breed are to be seen in the streets of Glas- v—^
gow, in the service of the merchants and carriers; and a
beautiful plate of an entire one forms one of the illustrations
of the article Agriculture in the present Work (Plate
XIII.) We have reason to believe, that, if tried by a dy¬
namometer, the Clydesdale horse would exceed any other
of his inches and weight in his powers of draught; and his
quick step adds much to his value.
GENERAL TREATMENT OF HORSES.
Humanity and mercy are esteemed the choicest charac¬
teristics of man ; and there is hardly a greater instance of
ill-nature, or a more certain token of a cruel disposition, than
the abuse of dumb animals, especially of those who con¬
tribute to our convenience and pleasures. Judge Hale
beautifully expresses himself on this subject in his Contem¬
plations : “ There is a degree ofjustice,” says he, “ due from
man to the creatures, as from man to man ; and an excessive
use of the creatures’ labour, is an injustice for which he
must account. I have therefore always esteemed it a part
of my duty to be merciful to my beasts.” But we might
as well expect mercy from the hyaena, as compassion for
the sufferings of horses in the possession of a certain por¬
tion of the community, who purchase them when nearly
worn out, and work them till nature sinks. We know of
no remedy for this; but it is pleasing to reflect, that, in the
better classes of society, so noble, generous, and useful an
animal as the horse, is now freed from many evils to which
he was formerly subjected. The short-docking of the cart¬
horse, the effect of prejudice and ignorance, it being sup¬
posed to add strength to his back, is very generally discon¬
tinued, and he is allowed the use of a full tail, the only na¬
tural defence against the torment of flies in the summer.
Those barbarous operations, nicking the tail, and cropping
the ears of pleasure horses, are very seldom had recourse
to ; neither is firing the limbs nearly so frequent a remedy
as it was, veterinary science having substituted other
equally efficacious, but less painful means. And, though
last, not least, the improved condition, and the effect of bet¬
ter stable management, of all horses employed in fast work,
whether on the race-course, in the field, or on the road,
has very considerably lessened their sufferings. On this
subject we offer the following remarks :—
Condition or Stable Management of the Horse.
Nothing has more largely contributed towards the cele¬
brity of the horses of Great Britain, than the superior ma¬
nagement of them in the stable, or what is termed their
“ condition.” Every species of horse has experienced the
benefit of it, and we have reason to believe it has at¬
tained perfection, under the improved system adapted to
each variety of the animal. The training of the race¬
horse is brought to such a nicety, that his running can
be calculated nearly to a certainty by his work, that is,
by the number of sweats and gallops he has had before
his race; and the stage-coach and post-horse now come
forth from their stalls in all the pride of health and spi¬
rits, instead of being the pitiable objects they were not
fifty years back. Not only the hackney, but the agri¬
cultural horse, has partaken of this advantageous addition
to natural powers, and which, if not unnecessarily trespass¬
ed upon, very considerably diminishes the severity of his
daily labour. But the greatest change for the better has
been effected in the physical condition of the hunter, who
now appears at the cover side in’ the vigorous state of the
race-horse; in a state, in fact, in which he ought to ap-i
pear, inasmuch as he is called upon to go at a racing pace
and yet, if fairly ridden throughout the chase, he is by thi
means rendered nearly superior to fatigue. How all this ha
598 H O R S E.
Treatment been accomplished, we will endeavour to shew; and at the our race-horses are not, and we believe they are not, so Tr<
c Horses. same time to make it apparent, that although Nature never stout in their running as formerly, that is to say, twenty of *
' presents us with animals in what we call condition (a state years back, the cause may fairly be traced to the great value
altogether artificial), yet she is ever ready and desirous of produce stakes and others, which bring them to the post
to meet the demands of Art, when scientifically and judi- at so early an age; so much so, that, in the language of the
ciously made upon her. , Turf, a four-year-old colt of the present day is^calfed “ the
The improvement in training the race-horse has been old horse.”
the result of two distinct causes, each equally likely to pro- But a still more material alteration for the better has
duce the desired effect. First, practical experience, an taken place within the last few years in the stable manage-
excellent schoolmaster in such matters; and, secondly, ment and condition of the British hunter, arising principally
both breeders and trainers of this animal now look into from a different treatment of him m the non-hunting months
books, not only reading them, but reflecting upon what It had, from time immemorial, been the usual remark
they read. Having been told, on indisputable authority, of the sportsman, on his hunters bueing turned out of their
that the highly rarefied air and arid soil of Arabia produce stable in the spring, for the supposed necessary advantage
muscular power and firmly condensed bone in the horse, of the “ summer’s run at grass,” that it was to be lamented
not to be found elsewhere, and that the antelope, the that the hunting season was concluded, as the condition of
fleetest animal in the world, is fleeter there than in, any his stud was so perfect. The fact was, that until then or
other part of the globe, they have naturally been led to the nearly till then, they had not been in condition at all; and
conclusion, that the opposite agents of humid atmosphere how strange soever it may appear to any one reflecting
and succulent food have a directly opposite effect; that upon.the subject, by the act of turning them to grass for
by increasing flesh and humours, they tend in proportion this “ summer’s run,” he was about to undo all that his
to diminish muscular firmness, solidity of bone, and, conse- groom and himself had been doing during the nine pre-
quently, elasticity of action, the main-spring of both speed ceding months, namely, to destroy the perfect state of
and endurance; in short, to alter, if not to destroy, all condition which he was at that time lamentino- over
those points which are so peculiarly characteristic of the Still more strange, however, is the fact, that although the
animal in which they themselves are interested. They evils of this out-of-door system for three months in the
have at length found out, that the race-horse should have year, to an animal who lived the other nine in warm stables
not an ounce of unnecessary bulk in his frame ; on the con- and well clothed, were hinted at by Mr Beckford, in his
t rary, that he should have as much power as can possibly celebrated Letters upon LIunling, and abandoned by a few
be produced in a given space; and that all this can only be of our first-rate sportsmen of, and subsequent to, his day
effected heie by something approaching to the means by and particularly about the commencement of the present
which it is effected elsewhere. A knowledge of these facts, century, by the example of the Earl of Sefton, when he was
then, has produced a substitute for the natural advantages owner of the Quorndon hounds, in Leicestershire, still the
of too “orse °; the Desert, m warm sheds, very small and dry ruinous system of the three, and generally four months’ run
paddocks, and hard, dry food, for our racing colts, instead at grass (viz. from 1st of May to the 12th or 20th of August)
of large paddocks, plentifully clothed with grass, often of continued to be practised, until these evils were exposed
the coarsest description, imperfectly formed sheds, and not in all their appalling deformity, and the advantages of an
more than half the corn eaten by them at present. As we opposite system made manifest, in a series of letters in the
have already observed, a racing-colt may now be said to be in Old Spprting Magazine, under the signature of “ Nimrod ”
training, if not from the day on which he is foaled, from which have since been published in a separate form, and
that on which he is weaned; for his condition, at least the very widely circulated. We may also add, that the effect
foundation of it, is from that period in progress. Again, of this exposure has been nearly a general abandonment
the early period of his going into work, compared with what of the grazing system in the studs of all men who mean to
it formerly was, but now become so general, has not been ride near hounds.
without its effect. It has called forth additional exercise of Previously to our enumerating the real advantages of
the trainer s professional skill; for it may easily be imagined, the modern system of “ summering the hunter,” we will
t iat, bringing very joung horses to the post, in the perfect state the imaginary ones of the old one, and which, as mav
state of condition, and full development of muscular power, be supposed, are still held to be such, by those who reluc-
m winch w e now-a-days see them at every race-meeting in tantly acquiesce in any kind of reform. First, the purging
T-ic ls, (’ 18 a very difficult task, and that it is a still more by spring grass is insisted upon. Secondly, a relaxation
difficult one to preserve them m that state, even for a few of the muscles, and what is called a letting down of the
(lays. Loth constitution and temper being to be consulted, whole system to its natural state. Thirdly, the benefit the
r'ju’1 * nement of the art is called for ; in fact, the trainer feet receive from the dewrs of the evening, and coniincr in
must act upon principle, and very cautiously too, in his efforts contact with the cool earth. Fourthly, the saving of ex-
fo forestal nature. Inasmuch, however, as muscular action penses. Fifthly, a kind feeling towards the animal, who,
produces muscular strength, the racer of the present day, they say, is entitled to his liberty for a certain period of
reared as lie is reared, and consequently in a more conden- the year, also to the free enjoyment of his natural state,
sed form, does not, with few exceptions, require the very And, lastly, the absolute necessity of rest to the limbs, after
severe work which it was formerly necessary to give him, the labours of the preceding season. We will now make
to increase ]us muscular powers, as well as to rid him of our own comment on each of these presumed facts,
me bulk of flesh and humours he acquired in his colthood, And, first, we admit there is a laxative, and therefore a
under the old system of rearing him. A sight of our two- cooling, property in early spring grass, but as a purgative it
year olds at the starting-post, is the best demonstration of is insufficient, which is admitted by the fact of its having
what is here stated. 7 hey exhibit a development of muscle been generally considered necessary to give two dozes of
in their forced and early maturity almost equal to that of the physic to hunters previously to their being turned abroad for
adult horse, and carry eight stones and upwards, at a racing the summer (thus administering the antidote, as it were, be-
pace ; a weight unheard of upon so young an. animal in for- fore the poison), and to physic them immediatelv when taken
mer tunes. How far, however, this forced maturity and its up. Here, then, is at once an answer to the first objection
consequences, namely, severe work, and the excitement of to the improved system of in-door treatment in the sum-
high keep, at so tender an age, are favourable to him or to mer; even supposing that spring grass could not be given to
his produce in after life, is anothei question ; but the use of a horse in a loose box, whereas it is evident that, it can.
a system should never be estimated by the abuse of it. If Secondly, the entire letting down of the system, by a
H O II S E.
ient sudden change of food from that which is highly invigorat-
-ses. ing to that which is only succulent and relaxing, is neither
—-''called for, nor can it be wholesome. It is never had re¬
course to with the race-horse during his period of inacti¬
vity, and why should it be with the hunter ? We would ask
the owner of a horse so treated, how he thinks it would
agree with his own constitution and his digestion, to be
suddenly taken from beef and port-wine to a purely vege¬
table diet; and the analogy holds good.1
Thirdly, a great mistake has prevailed on this point, the
preservation of the feet. A certain degree of moisture
is beneficial to the foot of the horse, a continued ex¬
posure to wet most injurious to it, as the certain cause of
thrushes, and in time total destruction of the frogs. Thus,
history informs us that the horses in Hannibal’s army were
rendered unserviceable by travelling many days in suc¬
cession in very wet ground. But we have better authority
here than that of Livy, because it applies to horses which
wore shoes, whereas Hannibal’s wore none. Mr Goodwin
senior, late veterinary surgeon to his Majesty George IV.,
in his w'ork on the Diseases of the Feet (p. 209, 1st edit.),
has the following passage, in allusion to the evils of having
the feet of horses saturated, as they must be during a sum¬
mer, with wet at one time, and then suddenly exposed to
a hot sun and a drying wind at another. “ I have inva¬
riably observed,” says Mr Goodwin, “ where horses are
turned out to grass during the dry and hot summer months,
that on bringing them up to be put into stable condition,
their feet are in a much worse state than they were when
they went out, dried up, and so hard and brittle, that, on
the application of a tool to bring them into a form to re¬
ceive a shoe, the horn breaks like a piece of glass, and all
the naturally tough and elastic property is lost, so that it
requires some months to remove the bad effects. If it is
necessary that a horse should be put out of work during
the hot and dry weather, I prefer a large box or shed, and
soiling with green food; by which means two objects are
gained, viz. all the injurious effects of a drying wind or a
meridian sun on the hoof are avoided, which create such
an excessive evaporation of the natural moisture absorbed
into the horn from within, that it not only becomes dry,
hard, and brittle, but the whole horny box tightens on the
sensible parts, and frequently produces great mischief. But
in a loose place, moisture may be applied in any desirable
way.” In addition to the above, Mr Goodwin says, “ Horses
at grass are much inclined to thrushes;” which renders it
unnecessary for us to say more on this subject at present,
although we shall by-and-bye offer the result of our own
experience in the treatment of horses’ feet in the summer.
Fourthly, a saving in expense. This is an objection
too trifling to be admitted in opposition to any real advan¬
tages. It was calculated by Nimrod,2 allowing only four
shillings per week to have been the charge for each horse,
supposing him to have been summered at grass, that the
extra expense of his six hunters summered after his system,
which we shall further explain, amounted to only L. 13,
18s. The mere chance in favour of exemption from acci-
599
dents to which horses abroad are liable, is worth more than Treatment
this inconsiderable sum to the man who keeps six hunters of Horses,
in his stable; but twice its amount would be realized in ^
the sale of any of the six, if offered at the hammer in No¬
vember, beyond the sum he would have produced had he
been summered solely in the fields.
Fifthly, we would go any length in advocating the
extreme of kind treatment to so noble an animal as the
horse; but experience has taught us, that neither the open
field, nor the shade, is a bed of roses, in the summer months,
to the well-bred, and naturally thin-skinned hunter; for
the oestrum, or blood-sucker, pursues him in each; and the
desperate attempts he often makes to avoid them, shews
the horror he has of their attacks. But, unluckily for the
advocates of this system, one of the greatest evils of the
out-of-door system here stares us in the face. If the horse
cannot get away from this host of tormentors, his only re¬
medy against them is, galloping from one end of his pas¬
ture to the other, or else stamping with his feet against the
hard ground, and often against the roots of trees, to scare
them from one part of his body, only to settle upon ano¬
ther. The injury to both feet and legs from a daily suc¬
cession of these operations, may be left to the imagination
of the reader; but against the charge of cruelty, we quote
the following remark from Nimrod’s Letters (p. 268, first
edition): “ In the very hot weather,” (he is speaking of
the summer of 1825, which was remarkable for the intense¬
ness of its heat), “ I made a few observations, which are
not irrelevant to my present purpose, particularly as to the
charge of cruelty in keeping hunters in the house, in the
summer. On the 29th of July, one of the hottest days, the
thermometer was one degree higher, at two o’clock at noon,
in my two four-stall stables, in each of which three horses
had stood for sixteen days and nights, than it was in the
entrance-hall of my house, which is twenty-three feet high,
and contains three large windows and six doors, and the
aspect due east. Now, will any one tell me, that the most
tender animal could be injured by breathing such an at¬
mosphere as this ? But all is not yet told. I removed the
thermometer on the same day, and at the same hour, into
the shade, and there it was four degrees higher than in mg
two four-stall stables. Here, then, the objection to horses
standing ‘ sweating in the stables in the summer time,’ re¬
turns to its real insignificance.”
Lastly, upon the subject of rest, and the means of pro¬
curing the advantages of it to the hunter by a sum¬
mer’s run in the fields, we cannot do better than quote
from the same author. “ When discussing the subject,” says
he, (p. 262), “ of summering hunters with a friend, who
is an advocate for the grazing system, he made use of the
following expression: ‘ I dare say it may be all very well
to keep them in the house in the summer, but then
they have not the benefit of the rest which they get when
at grass.’ I could not help smiling at this strange perver¬
sion of facts ; and ventured to ask him, Whether, if he w7ere
examined in natural philosophy, and asked, what is rest, he
would answer, motion ? and that would not be a whit less
1 In No. 59, vol. v. p. 645, of the Veterinarian, we find the Editor coinciding with Nilnrod on this point, in his second review of
his Letters on Condition. “ These pithy and valuable extracts,” sa}7s he, “ at the same time that they serve to expose our author’s
views in regard to summering the hunter, demonstrate a sagacity and experience on the subject, no less worthy of the admiration of
the professional man, than of the sportsman himself. The leading consideration in summering the hunter is to maintain his condition,
or rather, we should say, to guard against his losing that which we know, both by education as medical men, and experience as sports¬
men, once lost, will require much time and pains to be re-acquired. Change of food is necessarily productive, in the animal consti¬
tution, of alteration of structure; though parts cannot be said to change their nature under their influence, yet they do become
greatly altered both in texture and in tone.”
2 Two tons five hundred-weights of hay, at L.4 per ton,   I,.9 0 0
Seventy-one bushels of oats, at 4s. Cd. per bushel,, 14 4 0
Beans,  1 Hi' o
L.24 14 0
Six horses at grass nine weeks, at 4s. per week........    10 16 0
L. 13 18 0
600
HORSE.
Treatment absurd. If rest be desirable, as we know it is, for a hun-
of Horses, ter’s legs, after the labours of a winter, surely he must ob-
tain it more effectually in a small confined place, than when
suffered to run over a large tract of land, and to stamp the
ground with his feet for so many hours each day.” Nei¬
ther does the labour to the legs end here. All persons
who have ridden horses, whose growth has been forced in
their bodies, as that of most hunters has been, must have
perceived that, when letting them drink in shallow water,
their fore-legs totter under them, in the attempt to reach
the water with their mouth. Such is the case with the
hunter, at least with the properly formed one, when in the act
of grazing (for the horse prefers a short bite); and the tre-
mour in his legs shews the stress that is laid upon them, to
enable him to reach his food. In fact, many horses (and
we could name some well known hunters) cannot reach
the ground at all with their mouths, unless it be by the
painful position of placing one fore-foot close to their mouth,
and the other even with the hinder legs; and consequently
their owners have not been able to turn them out, had
they been inclined to do so.
It is now our turn to be heard on this important subject
to all owners of hunters; and we proceed to state, that the
principal objection to summering a horse abroad, consists
in the danger we expose him to by the violent change from
a stable at the temperature of 63° (the common one of
hunting stables), and the addition of warm clothing, to a
bed upon the cold ground on a wet night; or, which often
happens in the month of May, to the influence of sharp
frost; all this, also, when the animal has scarcely any coat
on his back to provide against the effects of bad weather;
and with a skin highly porous, from long continued friction in
the stable. As well might we expect to find animals and
plants that can sustain the heat of the torrid, and the cold
of the frigid zone, as horses to bear those extremes with
impunity! On the contrary, it is the confirmed opinion of
most veterinary surgeons, that more hunters have been
ruined by becoming roarers, broken-winded, or blind, from
this cause, than from any other to which they are subject¬
ed; and they are backed in their opinion by reason. For
it is not necessary that the newly-turned-out hunter should
be exposed to either a wet or a frosty night, to produce
disordered functions; the common exhalations from the
ground in the evening, are sufficient to produce them, bv a
sudden constriction of the pores, opened as they have been
by the effect of a hot sun during the day. “ Heat and
cold, moisture and dryness,” says Mr Percival, veterinary
sm geon to the F irst Life Guards, and author of the Ana¬
tomy of the Horse, in his last work on the Horse (p. 64),
when treating on the theory of inflammation, “ all in their
turn become excitants of inflammation; their mischievous
■ fScncy residing more in the vicissitudes from one state to
its opposite, than in any obnoxiousness in our climate, from
their excess or continuance. They may operate either di¬
rectly as excitants, or indirectly, simply as predisposing
causes. Few veterinarians, indeed, as Mr Percival ex¬
presses himself, now-a-days, feel inclined to deny the un¬
congeniality of cold and wet, to the constitutions of horses,
or to maintain, that they do not very often, in such situa¬
tions, contract the foundations for disease, which, at some
future time, is apt to break out, and prove fatal to them.
i\ or are the remarks of this scientific practitioner and most
perspicuous writer, less to our purpose, when speaking of
the horse that is turned out of his stable in the winter.
, jays he, in his chapter on ‘ Hide-bound,’
( P; fat and sleek in condition, out of a warm stable,
where he has been well clothed and fed, turn him, during
of winter into a straw-yard, and go and
look at him three months afterwards, and you will hardly
recognise your own horse. You will find him with a long,
shaggy staring coat; a belly double the size it was when
m condition; and a skin sticking close and fast to his ribs,
which may now be readily counted with the hand, if notTn
with the eye.” But here the analogy between the horse of ml
turned out to grass in the summer, and the horse sent to a '-U
straw-yard in the winter, ceases. The latter loses flesh
and becomes hide-bound, both of which will find a remedy
in a return to more generous food in the stable, with the
assistance, of alterative medicine ; and he will speedily re¬
sume his condition. But it will not be so with the grass-
fed hunter. He has accumulated a load of soft, unhealthy
flesh, which must be got rid of at the expense of his legs
and feet; or, in the language of grooms, “ it must be ex¬
changed for better flesh, the produce of hay and corn.”
By feeding ad libitum, however, he has so plethorized his
system, and trespassed upon his digestive organs, that this
is become not merely a work of labour and time, but one
of no small risk to the general soundness of his constitu¬
tion. Nor is even this the extent of the mischief. Under
the most favourable circumstances, it is not in the power
of a groom, how good soever he may be, to bring the grass-
fed hunter into the field, fit to be ridden, with hounds, un¬
til the hunting season is half expired. For proof of this
assertion, we need only go to the race-horse, who cannot be
made fit to run under, at least, six months’ preparation, al¬
though he has not been at grass since he was six months
old. Nature will not be put out of her course by violence;
and horses can only be got into good condition by de¬
grees, by long continued slow work at first, increasing in
pace as their condition increases; and it has been the
attempt to get the grass-fed hunter into something ap¬
proaching to condition, by hurrying him in his work, under
a load of flesh, and with his muscles in a relaxed state, that
has ruined thousands of good horses, by the injury done to
their legs especially ; and will ruin thousands more, if per¬
severed in. The change of food, again, has been the
cause of more broken-winded horses than any thing else
that can be named. “ It must dispose,” says Mr Percival,
“ from its being the chief cause of plethora, to general
diathesis of the system ; and so far it contributes to the pro¬
duction of pneumonia, or any other inflammatory affection.”
1 o this we may add blindness, the natural consequence of
the dependent posture of the head when feeding, in an
animal in the plethoric state that a previously highly-fed
hunter must fall into, after being some weeks at grass;
and likewise of constant irritation from flies and sun. Nei¬
ther should the following remark of Mr Percival’s be for¬
gotten by gentlemen who turn out their hunters during a
wet summer. “ Cold,” says he, “ abstractedly from wet,
even although it be alternated with heat, is not found to be
near so prejudicial as when moisture is present too; hence
we are in the habit of viewing frosty weather as a season
of health among horses; and hence it is, that the spring
and autumnal months are the most unhealthy, the weather
being then moist and variable, and the wind generally in
a cold quarter.” Again, “ Two undomesticated horses,”
says he, “ out of three, under five years old, that are taken
from cold situations, and kept in warm stables, will receive
catarrh. But even domesticated horses that are advanced
in years, and that have been accustomed to such changes,
do not always escape, unless some precautionary measures
be taken; for hunters taken up from grass in August, un¬
less due attention be paid to the temperature of the stable,
are often the subjects of catarrhal attacks.”
Perhaps the summer of 1835 may be produced in proof
of the danger of subjecting stabled horses to atmospherical
changes. In the first week of June, 78, 80, 82, and 84 de ¬
grees of heat were marked by the thermometer. On the
13th, the maximum of heat was 15 degrees less than that of
the preceding day; and on the 23d, the thermometer fell
to 47 degrees, succeeded by four days’ rain, with wind veer¬
ing to south-east, back to west, then to north and north¬
east, at times furiously high !
M e must be allowed two more remarks on the evils of
II O R S E.
f, ment the out-of-door system. Amongst the physical changes which
cf jrses. the body is capable of receiving, none is so visibly effected
yj ^-^as in the diminished, or increased, size of the belly ; and the
latter alternation of form is speedily effected by a horse eat¬
ing grass, and nothing but grass. When a man goes into
training for a match against time, or a prize-fight, the first
act of his trainer is, to reduce the size of his belly; for, un¬
til that is done, his respiration is not free enough to enable
him to make such bodily exertions as are essential to aug¬
ment his natural vigour, and put him into the best possible
condition; and this exactly applies to the grass-fed hunter
taken up in August. He has exchanged an active untir¬
ing frame, for a bloated and breathless carcass; and no¬
thing can be done with him until, by purging and severe
work, when he is not in a fit state to endure it with impu¬
nity, the nature of his frame is altered from weakness to
vigorous health. But this must be the work of time, for,
although Nature will admit of improvement, she will not
allow herself to be hurried by the unreasonable innova¬
tions of man.
Our next remarks relate to bodily infirmities and local
diseases, to which the horse, by the severity of his labours,
is always more or less subject. Several of these, such as
splents, spavins, curbs, and ring-bones, are easily checked,
if discovered in their incipient state; but when, by being
undiscovered for only a short time, a certain progress is
made in them, the cure is far from certain, at all events,
more difficult. Now, under the old system of the summer’s
run abroad, this was most frequently the case. Horses,
when taken up, were found to have thrown out those ex¬
crescences unperceived, which, as soon as they began to
work, caused lameness and disappointment; whereas, under
the improved system of summering the hunter, they could
not have escaped the constant inspection of the groom, and
an immediate check would have been given to them. The
short-cough, vulgarly and stupidly called a “ grass cough,”
also too often swelled the catalogue of disasters; and, in
six cases out of ten, ended in broken wind or roaring. But
it may not here be amiss to address ourselves to owners of
hunters, who may adopt either one system or the other of
treating them in the summer months ; we mean, as regards
their legs, the treatment of which now forms a conspicuous
feature in the science of the stable, particularly the racing
stable. Many valuable animals are ruined in consequence
of their owners and their grooms not knowing, perhaps not
wishing to know, when their legs are going amiss, and con¬
sequently stopping them in their work, before the evil gets
a-head. It is irksome, no doubt, to give up the use of a
hunter, especially if a favourite one, and in blooming con¬
dition ; but it is only by such prudent conduct, that we can
expect a lengthened enjoyment of his services. It is a
lamentable fact that, generally speaking, good-constitution-
ed horses would vrear out twro sets of legs and feet, which
shews the urgent necessity of taking care of them.
* We now take our leave of the old, and, we may add,
ruinous system of treating hunters in the summer, and pro¬
ceed to state how, in our opinion (the result of much ex¬
perience) they ought to be treated in the non-hunting
months ; as also to offer a few directions for the manage¬
ment of them when in work. To begin, we are far from
averse to resting the hunter in the summer, although we
cannot shut our eyes to the fact of horses working hard for
a great many years in succession, without experiencing
what is here meant by “ rest” (namely, not having a saddle
on their backs for three or four months), and remaining
sound and healthy to the end of a long life. Our great
object is, to give the hunter fair play, by preserving, in¬
stead of destroying, his condition at the same time that we
rest him; and in this we think, that, by preventing ex¬
haustion in his work when he returns to it, we offer him
much more than an equivalent for the fancied enjoyment
VOL. XI.
601
of his “ snuffing the air in his native liberty,” and “ making Treatment
his bed on the cool ground,” so stoutly insisted upon by of Horses,
many of the old school, who will not march with the times,
and who cannot divest themselves of prejudices, how dear
soever they may cost them.
The period of “ turning up, ” not “ out” hunters towards
the close of the season should depend on circumstances.
Those whose legs may be doubtful, should be the first thrown
out of work ; and after them old ones, who, how well soever
they may go over a country when it is soft, are in danger of
breaking down when it becomes hard, as it always does in
March, particularly in ploughed countries.
The first act of a groom, when his horses have done
their work for the season, is to give them two doses of mild
physic, which, by their effect on their legs, will greatly
assist him in discovering the amount, if any, of the injury
that may have been done to them. Should anything
serious exhibit itself, we recommend him (unless he be a
first-rate professor of his art) to avail himself of the advice
of a veterinary surgeon, as to the steps proper to be taken ;
and the sooner those steps are taken, the better will it be
for his horses. The barbarous, the senseless, practice of
blistering, generally the two fore-legs, and often the hinder
ones also, previously to turning out, under the old system,
is now, we are glad to say, abandoned, not only on account
of its inutility, but, by the spread of veterinary science,
sportsmen have found out that the application of blisters to
healthy legs is injurious. The merely irritating the sur¬
face of the skin cannot be productive of advantage ; on the
contrary, it often rouses the sleeping lion, which it is after ¬
wards difficult to pacify. As counteractors of internal in¬
flammation, or as counter-irritants, as they are called, blis¬
ters are highly useful; likewise to all bony excrescences,
such as splents, spavins, or ring-bones, when in an incipient
state ; but, in order to render them efficacious, they should
be repeated till healthy pus is obtained. If judiciously ap¬
plied in strains, they are also not unserviceable, as they
help to unload the vessels near the affected part. Sup¬
posing, then, no serious mischief has been done to the legs
of a hunter during the season, we thus proceed in our course
of treatment of him:—
Previously to stripping him of his clothes, he should go
through his second dose of physic, and be treated exactly
as if he were in work for at least a fortnight afterwards,
with the exception of his having only walking exercise, a
diminished allowance of corn, and the wisp, without the
brush, applied to his body. We now arrive at a point on
which there is some difference of opinion, at all events,
one which must be left to the option of the owner ; namely,
whether, as is the practice in the stables of some of our
first-rate sportsmen, the hunter is to be kept in gentle work
throughout the summer, or to be thrown entirely aside fof
a certain number of weeks, varying from nine to twelve ?
We will, however, state the best method of proceeding
under each of these systems.
The horse kept in work (we should rather have said exer¬
cise) during the summer, should be exercised very early in
the morning on soft, but not wet ground (a low meadow, or
rather a marshy common, for example), that his feet may
have the advantage of moisture, and also that he may not
be tormented by flies, or exposed to a hot sun. Two hours
will be sufficient, the pace to be varied alternately from the
walk to the jog-trot. It is desirable that a horse thus
treated should not be tied up in a stall, but have the enjoy¬
ment of a large loose-house. Of course, attention should
be paid to his feet, removing his shoes every third or fourth
week; and they should be stopped with wet tow every
second night. To those who object to this in-door treat¬
ment of the hunter on the score of danger to his feet, we
can only say, from our own experience, that their fears are
groundless; and we also infer them to the first cavalry
4 G
602
HORSE.
Ireatmexit barrack they pass by, or even to the stables of our inn-
of Horses, keepers on the road, in which they will find feet in the
N highest state of preservation, that have been subject to in¬
door treatment for many years. We prefer damp tow to
any other sort of stopping for horses’ feet, because, exclusive
of the moisture, it affords a uniform pressure to the frog and
outer sole of the foot, which is favourable to their healthy
state. Indeed, to some of the finely-formed, open feet which
we see on first-rate hunters, the soles of which are apt to be
thin, this pressure is most advantageous in preventing a dis¬
position in them to become flat or convex, instead of mo¬
derately concave ; and for this purpose was the “ horse-
pad,” or “ elastic stopping,” invented by Mr Cherry, vete¬
rinary surgeon of London, which may be preferable to the
tow, but not always at hand. When the latter is used, it
should be forced into the foot with all the strength of a
man’s fingers or thumb.
The food of hunters thus summered should be regulated
by circumstances. Good flesh, we know, is strength; but
that which is generated in comparative idleness only con-
tribtites to weakness. Our object, then, should be to pre¬
vent a horse, treated in the fhanner we now allude to,
from throwing up much flesh, and we must therefore feed
accordingly, and also study constitution. At all events,
three small feeds of oats (we do not feel ourselves justified
in recommending beans, although we know some sports¬
men give them ; except in very peculiar cases, such as ex¬
treme delicacy of constitution, a disposition to scour, or
throw off food) per day are sufficient for any horse, with
the addition of a large, sloppyr, bran mash twice a-week.
As to green food, we recommend that with caution. We
approve of its being given occasionally for three or four
days in succession, merely as soiling, to attenuate the
blood, not to produce flesh; and this repeated now and
then at intervals, whilst the green meat (be it what it may)
is young, but by no means afterwards. Many grooms
mix hay with green food, which, after the first two or three
times of giving it, we think a judicious plan. But, be it
observed, for reasons we have already given, we object to a
hunter acquiring a load of flesh in the summer, the produce
of succulent food. A moderate use of alteratives is bene¬
ficial throughout the summer to horses which live well, but
do not work, as, by their rpild and gradual impression, a
healthy action of the bowels is kept up, as well as insensi¬
ble perspiration increased.
The horse not kept in work should be thus treated in
the summer: He should run loose in the bay of a barn, or
any large covered place where he gets exercise, and breathes
flesh air, without exposure to the sun. His physic, food,
&c. should be as before directed ; but as he is now unshod,
and consequently cannot have his hoofs filled with any
thing which can impart moisture to them, he should be
made to stand two hours every day, under cover, in wetted
clay. Unless after firing, or severe blistering, when the
sedative powers of cold air are efficacious in checking local
inflammation, we prefer the hunter being housed through¬
out the night, to his lying out even in a paddock, as he is
less liable to disease and accidents ; but we admit that the
danger of exposure to night air is greatly diminished by his
having been kept cool throughout the day, by which he is
less susceptible of atmospheric influence, or the alternation
from warmth to cold, than if his arterial system had been
acted upon by exposure to a mid-day sun. The sticklers,
then, for the “ dews of heaven,” and the “ bed upon the
cool earth,” may here indulge their predilections ; but, for
our own part, we give the preference to the house at night
with horses free from disease. °
The state of the horses, summered as we have now de¬
scribed, will in great measure resemble each other, although,
as may be supposed, the one which has been kept on in his
exercise will be most forward in condition. Neither of
them, however, will have lost much of their proper form ;
but a distinction must be made in our proceedings with Tie
them, when preparing them for the forthcoming season.of']
“ Suffer a horse to be idle,” says Mr Perceval (Hippopa'.'—
tkology, p. 14), “ to do little or no work, and feed him
well during the time, and the redundant nourishment float¬
ing in his blood will be laid up in the form of fat; put the
same animal to work, and that blood, which otherwise
would have been turned into fat, will now be transformed
into materials of strength.” Here, then, it is evident that
the horse which has been kept in exercise will require
somewhat of a different preparation to the one which has
remained unshod, and consequently idle. The first will
require very little alteration in his proceedings until nearly
the approach of the hunting season, as he will soon be pre¬
pared for quick work; but it will be by long-continued
slow work, increasing in pace as his condition increases,
that the second will be quite himself again, from the relax¬
ed state of his muscles, somewhat redundant flesh, as well
as his distended belly. In either case, however, there will
be no occasion for all that physicking, galloping, and sweat-
ing, to get rid of bad, superfluous flesh, that "the grass-fed
hunter has been subjected to ; for if the groom has done
his duty by them, neither of these horses will have accumu¬
lated much more flesh than we like to see on hunters when
they first begin to work, and when that flesh is good. We
would have our second horse, the unshod one, taken into
his stable early in August; and during the latter end of
that month and the next, in addition to his daily exercise,
he should, about three times in a fortnight, have a gentle
sweat in clothes, which is best effected in a trot, in a large
fallow field that has been lately harrowed down, and which
is firm, not soft, to the tread.
But we fancy we hear the question asked, Is it not ne¬
cessary to give physic to all hunters when the summer is
past, and previously to their taking the field again in the
winter ? We answer, No. T.he principal end of physicking
hunters is to allay excitement, occasioned by severe work
and high keep ; and the next, for the benefit of their legs.
Thus, for example, as the first-named horse (the one that
has been in gentle work throughout the summer), will not
sweat so easily as the unshod one, a light dose or two of
physic may be serviceable to him during his first prepa¬
ration for the field, say in August or September, as the
means ot saving his legs, should he be a strong-consti-
tutioned horse, and have thrown up too much flesh. But
there is no absolute necessity for physic at this period to
horses that have been properly treated throughout the sum¬
mer, and not suffered to get foul or fat; and it will be
given with more advantage to them after they have been
some time at w ork, or nearer to the commencement of the
hunting season, which, after the manner of the racing
stable, may be termed a second preparation. We think,
however, we cannot do better here than to quote the fol¬
lowing passage on this subject from the April Numbej,
1835, of the New Sporting Magazine (vol. viii. p. 353), as
the ideas exactly correspond with our own.
“ l o horses summered in the house, physic is nowr only
administered when it is wanted, as is the case with the
race-horse ; and the groom or his master ought to be able
to say when. There are many directing symptoms with
horses in work, which cannot escape an observant eye; and
w e do not, as formerly, wait for the swollen leg or the run¬
ning sore. The barbarous practice, also, of three doses in
succession (as was the practice with the grass-fed hunter
on being stabled), ‘ the first to stir up the humours, and
the last to carry them off,’ with two strong urine balls to
wind up, by way of a remedy for consequent debility, is
also happily exploded. The strength of the dose is likewise
greatly diminished, and consequently all danger is avoided.
We take upon ourselves to say, there is no more risk
attending administering physic to a horse, than there is in
giving him a pailful of cold water, perhaps not so much;
HORSE.
I tment that is, provided the drugs are good, and well put together.
0 orses. We, however, strongly recommend all sportsmen and others
^ v—^ to obtain physic from the profession, as veterinarians be¬
stow much attention on the making of it up, and obtaining the
best aloes, in which there is much difference. The sooner
it passes off the better ; and this will be much expedited
by three loose bran mashes on the day preceding the dose,
and exercise previously to its working. Recollect there is
no virtue in this case in the aloes, beyond doing its duty in
clearing and cleansing the bowels. Calomel, when admi¬
nistered to the horse, should not be hurried, as it is intend¬
ed to act upon the system, and should therefore be given
twelve hours previous to giving the purge. Horses whose
bowels are difficult to be moved, should be kept short of
hay a day or two before they are physicked, with an addi¬
tional allowance of bran mashes, and encouraged to drink
before they experience nausea.”
It may, perhaps, be wrell to state the “ directing symp¬
toms” for administering physic to the hunter, which are
thus detailed by Nimrod. {Condition of Hunters, p. 173.)
“ Among the distinguishing symptoms of foulness in a
hunter, are these:—He appears unwell, without any spe¬
cific disease: his mouth is hot, his eyes look dull, and
sometimes yellow': his coat loses some of its usual gloss,
and stares between the hip-bones, and on the poll of the
neck : his appetite frequently remains good, but he is more
than usually anxious for water: his heels are scurfy, and
sometimes crack: he stales often, but a little at a time:
his urine is highly-coloured, and his excrements hard, and
often covered with a slimy fluid : he is dull w hen at exer¬
cise, and frequently coughs without any appearance of hav¬
ing taken cold: he loses flesh, and looks dry in his skin:
his legs and ears are often cold, the latter frequently wet after
exercise, and sometimes deprived of part of their natural
covering: his crest falls ; the whole tone of his system ap¬
pears relaxed; and, without his groom exactly knowing
why, he is not the horse he was a week ago.” To this we
have nothing to add, unless it be to congratulate owners of
horses on the terrors of physicking them having vanished
with the present improved method of administering the
doses ; and on the fact, that only a few days’ cessation from
labour is now required to afford them this relief. We
should say, that a hunter is never more fit to go through a
sharp run, than on the tenth day after his physic has “ set.”
But we do not consider that we can close this part of our
subject, without a few words on the treatment of the grass-
fed hunter, as there are still some who yet abandon him to
shift for himself in the summer, and are content to see him
return to his stall in August, the very reverse of what he
was when he left it in May. Nor is this the wrorst of it.
He cannot be reinstated in the condition in which he was
when he went out in May, until hunting is three parts over
the following season. However, we will lay down what we
consider the most likely plan to pursue, to fit him for the
work he is intended for:—
From the redundancy of blood and humours, and dis¬
tension of bowels beyond their proper size, which the grass-
fed hunter acquires, all violent exertion must be avoided,
until such obstructions are removed, which must be the
work of time. It is in vain to attempt to hurry a horse in
this state into condition, but the first step taken should be
to have him clipped, for reasons which we shall presently
give. Long-continued slow' exercise is the chief agent in
hardening his muscles, and strengthening his organs of
respiration ; but all galloping when in the state in which he
will be for the first two months, to get off his flesh, is very
highly to be reprobated, as his legs will surely suffer by it, if
nothing else does. Two light doses of physic maybe useful
to him, if he have had none given him at grass; and care
should be taken not to use the brush to his coat till the
numth of November be passed, in case he should not be
dipped. Again, veterinary science has informed us, that
603
danger always accrues to horses in the vicissitudes of heat Treatment
and cold, from one state to its opposite; but more from °f Horses,
the latter to the former, as an excitant to general inflam- -
mation. Horses taken from grass, then, should be put into
very cool stables, and the fewer in one stable the better,
for at least the first month. Windows should be left open
day and night, merely taking the precaution of coarse mat¬
ting, or any thing else that will stop the entrance of flies ;
and nothing does that better than matting, frequently sa¬
turated with water. Having been clipped, and kept out
several hours in the day in slow work (which, by the way,
grooms are too often shy of), increasing his pace gradually
as his condition progresses, the grass-fed hunter may be
brought fit to look at by the first w eek in November; but
he will be at least by a stone a worse horse than he was when
he was turned out. We are no friends to quacking in either
man or beast; but, knowing that mischief to horses so fre¬
quently arises from a long respite from work in the winter,
unless some preventive measures are had recourse to, we
recommend the repetition of a light dose or two of physic
to the grass-fed hunter during frost, or even during open
weather, about Christmas.
Having recommended the fashionable operation of clip¬
ping to the grass-fed hunter, we will give our reasons for
having done so. Nine horses out of ten, treated as he has
been treated in the summer, break out into a cold sweat, after
work, during the first part of the season, the natural conse¬
quence of debility; and the dew' on their coat has all the chill¬
ing influence of a wet blanket on their body. The removal
of the coat by the scissars, then, although it is no remedy for
the former, prevents the ill effects of the latter; which, by
producing cold on the surface of the body, occasions a deter¬
mination of blood to the lungs, or other important viscus,
and is a great enemy to condition. Although we deny the
necessity of clipping a horse that has been properly sum¬
mered (for, admitting that he may have a long coat, he will
not in that case break out after work), w'e allow it the me¬
rit of expediting condition, by giving increase of bulk, and
promoting the vigorousness of the horses’ renovating pow¬
ers ; and, therefore, in this case useful. Looking at it,
how'ever, in another light, w'e find many objections to it;
amongst the greatest of which is the deprivation of the pro¬
tection of the coat or hair, to an animal so much in want
of it as the hunter is, and therefore an outrage on nature. In
fact, it is, to a certain degree, a substitute for good groom¬
ing, and as such will continue to be in favour w ith many
grooms, as also with such of their masters as submit to be
dictated to by them, or who may pay too much regard to
appearances.
Having alluded to grooms, a remark or two may not be
ill placed. Such of them as have the care of large studs
cannot be expected to w'ork, but to overlook those who are
under them ; and their responsibility is considerable. There
is much in the choice of helpers ; for none but persons who
have narrowdy watched it, are aware of the effects of a good
dressing to a hunter, not merely in having his skin cleared
from impurity, and in improving its elasticity, as w ell as the
tone and colour of the hair, which may be termed the
complexion of a horse, but it greatly promotes general
health by its effect on the circulation of the blood, as well
as all other secretions, and in bad weather is a substitute
for exercise.
Good stables are indispensable to the well-doing of hunt¬
ers, equally so with a comfortable house and a warm bed to
those who ride them. Even the veterinary professors have
at length acknowledged the benefit of the genial warmth
of a stable to horses at work, although, in common with
ourselves, they insist on the necessity of well ventilated
stables. No doubt it is injurious to any animal to breathe
an under-oxygenated air, and the effluvia arising from ani¬
mal excretions are injurious to eyes and lungs. A hunter
should live in a temperature of about G3° of Fahrenheit in
HORSE.
604
'Treatment the winter, and as much below that point as it can be made
of Horses. in the summer, by means of exclusion of the sun, open
doors, See. But it is essential that a stable in the winter
should not only be warm, but dry; and if not dry, the
ground under and around it should be drained. A delicate
horse never arrives at perfection of condition in a damp
stable, and it operates powerfully against all others, often
being the cause of fever in the feet. Stalls should not be
more than six feet wide, nor raised towards the manger;
but there should be a slight inclination in the flagging to¬
wards the centre of them, to enable the urine to find its
way to a drain, which there always ought to be, as it con¬
tributes much to cleanliness, and consequently to health.
“ Loose places,” or “ boxes,” as they are termed, are most
desirable for all horses after severe work, and a celebrated
veterinary surgeon (Mr Turner of Regent Street, London,
to whom the public is so much indebted for his illustration
of the navicular disease in the foot) has given it as his opi¬
nion, that if all horses were suffered to lie loose after work,
there would not be half the cases of lameness in the feet that
now occur. Desirable as such treatment may be, it is uni¬
versally impracticable, on account of the space which large
studs would occupy; but every sportsman should have boxes
about his premises, and his hunters should be invariably put
into them for two or three days after work. To their
general use there is one objection, although not a serious
one. Horses always lying loose are apt to refuse to lie
down in stalls, when removed to premises where boxes
cannot be had, but they become reconciled to them after a
few days. It is, however, the opinion of a celebrated
sportsman, that if a hunter should have stood his work ten
seasons being always tied up, he would have stood it twelve
if he had lain loose.
We quote the following extract from Nimrod on Condi¬
tion of Hunters, on the subject of warm stables. After
proving, by the fact of the horse degenerating in all cold
countries, that warmth is congenial to his existence, he
thus proceeds:—“ They who attend to such matters will
find, that the constitution and habit of a horse undergo a
change when kept in a warm stable, favourable, no doubt,
to the work he has to perform as a hunter in the stable of
a hard-riding man. He is not that gross animal which he
might otherwise be, if a hard feeder, and kept in a state
more nearly approaching to a state of nature. This we may
attribute to the increase of insensible perspiration occasioned
by increased circulation, whereby the grosser particles of the
body fly off and are got rid of. In this state he would bear
some comparison with a well-fed English farmer, when put
to perform feats of activity with a man of more refined ha¬
bits of life, where nineteen times out of twenty he would
be defeated.” Again: “ As there is an analogy between a
man and a horse in work, let us carry it a little further, and
ask, Whether, after a hard day’s exercise in the winter, a
man would recover sooner if he passed his evening in a
warm room, or if he passed it in a bivouac, or in a room
that was cold and damp ?” He concludes by giving it as
his opinion, that if it be possible to get a horse to look well
in a cold stable, it is not in the power of a groom to put him
into the height of condition in a damp one; and in this we
heartib’’ concur.
We s\ bjoin Nimrod’s plan of stabling for six hunters.
“ I would have,” says he, “ two four-stalled stables, in
which I would keep only six horses, that is, three in each ;
and I would have a box at the end of each. If possible, I
would have a southern aspect, with windows opening from
the top or downward, or else on a pivot in the centre, and
placed so high in the wall, that, when open, the air may
be circulated through the stable, without affecting one
horse more than another, and the height of the interior
should be only twelve feet in the clear. I would have
the stalls paved nearly flat, with only a trifling inclina¬
tion to the centre; in each of which there should be a
small grating over the drain, and the stalls should be noTre; ^
more than six feet wide. There should be at least twelve of 1 pei
feet behind the horses, and the exterior walls and doors ^
should be very thick. The wooden partition-walls of the
boxes should be only nine feet high, with wooden bolts to
the doors; and each box should not exceed ten feet square.
The saddle-room, well fitted up with saddle-cupboards,
boiler, Sec., should be in the centre of the building; in the
front of which there should be a passage, under cover, for
horses to stand in when their legs are washed. Of venti¬
lation I say nothing, that being a matter of course; but I
would have the sides of the stalls nine feet high at the head,
with small iron racks, and pillar-reins for each horse to be
dressed in. I should be very particular about the stall-
posts, for these are frequently the cause of severe injury.
When I went to see the King’s stables at the palace at
Pimlico, I was astonished to see almost every other horse
in them, with capped hocks. On inspecting the stall-posts,
I perceived the cause. They were of fluted stone, and with
angles, which proved that Mr Nash (the architect) knows
nothing about the inside of stables. Stall-posts should be
made of wood, quite smooth and circular; and they should
extend to the ceiling, or be at least ten feet high.”
Paddocks.—Some persons turn their hunters into the
fields in the summer, because they have no small paddocks,
or any outlets to their buildings, and are averse to their
horses remaining all the year round in the house. Nothing,
however, is easier than making temporary paddocks, or
outlets that will restrain stallions, or any horse that may be
put into them, without the chance of their breaking out of
them. Let a small space, say thirty or forty yards, be
hurdled around, and the hurdles lined with faggots reared
up from seven to eight feet high. The faggots will be all
the better for the exposure to the air during a summer;
and as horses cannot see through a fence of this sort, they
will never attempt to break through it.
Food.—The proper feeding of hunters has much to do
with their condition, and likewise with their remaining
sound. Food should be proportioned to work, and it should
also be of the very best quality. Hay that has been much
heated in the stack is above all things to be avoided, as,
from its powerful diuretic properties, it debilitates, and
creates thirst; and mow-burnt or heated oats are equally
productive of mischief. Eight or ten pounds of hay per
day are as much as any hunter should eat,, and that which
is produced on dry upland ground is best. Indeed, we are
far from thinking that rich meadow hay, finely scented as it
is, and apparently so full of nourishment, is fitted for any
description of horse that is required to go fast, and we are
quite certain that thousands of horses are destroyed annual¬
ly by the' effects of hay and water. The latter cannot be
too soft, and when not so, it should be kept in the stable
some days previous to use, and with a small portion of
bran in it. Mr Percival (Hippopathology, p. 25.) mentions
forty-nine horses being killed in one stud, in France, by a
disease produced by eating bad hay and oats.
But nothing puts the groom’s knowledge of the art of
feeding hunters more to the test, than the management of
such as are either naturally thick-winded, or afflicted w ith
chronic cough; and as in man, the digestive organs are
oftener than any other disordered, so the respiratory organs
in the horse are the most common seat of disease. It is,
however, in the power of a groom, by great attention to
feeding, keeping the habit of body from becoming foul and
plethoric, and well regulated work, to make horses of this
description tolerably fit to go with hounds; whereas in bad
hands, they would be nearly useless, at all events danger¬
ous to ride. Such horses are generally hearty feeders, and
when so, should have a setting muzzle, as used with race¬
horses, put on them on the night before hunting, unless
they have been out with hounds within three days. Water
also should be sparingly given to them on that day, and not
HORSE.
-]■ merit after three o’clock p. m. Frequent mild aperients, or alte-
arses.rative medicines, are very efficacious here; for as, in the
^ " human subject, the lungs often become the seat of disease
as a second cause of indigestion, the state of the digestive
organs should be minutely attended to with horses of this
description.
A broken-winded horse is never seen in a stud of hunt¬
ers ; but Nimrod’s remark on this subject is in accordance
with what we have now written upon it. “ Most veterina¬
ry surgeons,” he says, “ attribute this disease to the conse¬
quences of high keep. Here, no doubt, they are in a great
measure correct; but if good grooming were not for the
most part a match for the effect of high keep, what would be
the fate of our race-horses, which eat almost as much corn
as they can swallow from the first month of their existence ?
Amongst them a broken-winded horse is a rarity.”
Many nostrums are prescribed for thick-winded horses,
amongst them, carrots in the winter, and green meat in the
summer. We approve of a few carrots in the winter, but
object to green meat, unless in small quantities. Is not
flatulency the distinctive feature of a disordered respira¬
tion? And what promotes that equally with loading and
distending the stomach with green food? The small di¬
mensions of a horse’s stomach, evidently shew what nature
intended him for, namely, to go fast; and the pathologist
would very soon convince us that, in proportion as that
organ is distended, will the respiratory organs be oppressed.
Hence the indispensable practice of not allowing hunters
their usual allowance of food and water on the morning of
hunting; as also of putting the setting muzzle on the racer
the night before he runs. The food most proper for all
horses, but particularly for such as are not perfect in their
wind, is that which contains most nourishment in the small¬
est compass or space.
But we must not overlook the treatment of the sound
hunter before and after hunting ; as we consider the lives
of more than half of those hunters which have been lost
from the effects of severe chases, to have been lost from
want of knowledge of how they should have been treated,
at either the one or the other of these periods. Nimrod,
in his letters on this subject, doubts whether it be in the
power of hounds to maintain a chase long enough to cause
the death of a horse, fairly ridden with them, provided that
horse have been properly treated in the summer, and is in
what is called strong work, or quite fit to go, on the day of
the run. Without stopping to argue this point, which is
not capable of proof, we will proceed to shew in what state a
hunter ought to be taken into the field, to meet foxhounds,
giving him fair play; and the man who takes him there when
not fit to go, must always be prepared for the consequences.
We consider a hunter, in proper condition, equal to at
least three days’ hunting in a fortnight, taking the average
of sport, which will, of course, at some certain periods, send
him oftener into the field in one given time than in another,
as, after a severe day, he should have a week’s clear rest.
But since the second-horse fashion has been so general, it is
impossible to speculate on this point, as it so often happens
that one of the two horses the sportsman sends to cover,
returns home without having done much. The chief point,
however, to be insisted upon is, that the hunter should have
a good gallop, causing him to sweat freely, on the day before
he goes to hounds, and if for half-a-mile on rising ground,
it will be more favourable to his wind. His food on that
day should also be attended to, in reference to his consti¬
tutional peculiarities; for, if not the best winded horse in
the stud, or given to throw off his meat on his road to cover,
he should have no water after three o’clock the preceding
afternoon, with the exception of a few swallows, to make him
relish his corn, on the morning of hunting. Sending hunt-
605
ers out now with full bellies has no excuse; whereas one was Treatment
found for it, when they left their stables five hours sooner in of Horses.
the morning than they do at present: and returned to them' * 
often five hours later. We allude to past days in which there
were few artificially made covers, and when foxes were found
by the “ drag,” through long chains of woods, and cer¬
tainly ran over much more ground than modern foxes do,
which, being generally bred near game preserves, run
shorter, and are not so stout as formerly.
After Hunting.—The treatment of a horse now, will de¬
pend on what he has been doing. If not a severe day, no
further notice of him is requisite, than to ascertain whether
he feeds as usual; and if not an alterative ball,1 with a liberal
allowance of tepid water, will soon restore his appetite, by al¬
laying the over-excitement that has checked it. It is after a
severe day’s work that danger to a hunter is to be appre¬
hended, the consequence of over-excitement of the vascu¬
lar system, and he should be in this case narrowly watched.
If merely fatigued, such are the restorative powers of the
animal, rest, in a large loose box, with an hour’s exercise
daily, in the open air, will soon bring him about; but we
should be on the alert against fever. Here, however, we
generally have notice,—some directing symptoms which can¬
not be mistaken, such as hurried respiration, extreme thirst,
restlessness in his stall, a considerable relaxation of the
muscles in the interstices of the hips, reddened eyelids, and
a quick pulse. But unfortunately for hard-riding sports¬
men, it too often happens, that such is the rapidity with
which what is termed accidental inflammation takes place
in the horse, that the most prompt measures will not always
arrest its progress, and the most common termination of it
here is in the feet. Not only does the animal suffer great
pain, but should he not cast his hoofs entirely (the fore-feet
are most commonly affected), he becomes, what is called, pu¬
mice-footed, and of no value afterwards as a hunter. Know¬
ing this to be the case, we are advocates for some prophy¬
lactic measures to be taken after a very hard day ; some¬
thing repellant and sedative administered, which may not
only prevent an inflammatory attack, but, by cooling the
system, and consequently restoring the appetite, enable the
horse to go sooner into the field again, than if he had been
entirely abandoned to his own restorative powers.
But the most critical period with the over-ridden hunter
is, when he first appears to shew distress, which he often
does on his road home, or even before he quits the field ;
and here mistakes have been made, which have caused the
death of many a good animal. In the first place, his rider
fancies it necessary to drag him home, perhaps many miles
on a cold winter’s evening, to “ his own comfortable stall,”
than which, just at this time, a large and cold stable, and
the first he could be put into, would be far more beneficial
to him. Again, he says, “ I’ll not do any thing to him
till I get him home, when I will have him bled;” whereas,
since all horses that die from exertion beyond the limits of
vital power, die from suffocation, it will then be, in all pro¬
bability, too late, as instant relief is wanted. A stimulating
cordial is likewise at this time good (a pint of sherry as good
as any other), but both are bad if inflammation has commen¬
ced; also keeping up a strong determination of blood to the
surface by friction of the body, head, and legs, with warm
clothing afterwards on the body and head; a well littered
down stall, with plenty of fresh air. A gallon of blood should
be at first drawn; and if the increased action of the heart and
arteries continues, the horse should be well blistered behind
the elbows, and lose another gallon of blood. Blood-letting
from the foot-veins, is also highly to be recommended in
cases of extreme exhaustion, after a hard day with hounds.
It is a very simple operation, and can never do harm; but
we advise it to be performed by a veterinary surgeon.
1 T. he following alterative and sedative medicines are found efficacious at this time:—Cinnabar of antimony, 3 oz.; balsam of sulphur,
oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; nitre, 4 oz. To be made into ten balls; one ball a dose. These are known among grooms by lire term “ red bails.”
606
H O R S E.
Treatment They who have never before experienced it, may be
of Horses, alarmed by an inward noise in a distressed horse, which
V ''^ " may be mistaken for a beating of the heart, whereas it pro¬
ceeds from a convulsive motion of the abdominal muscles,
or muscles of the belly. It is, however, a symptom of deep
distress, and is only relieved by relief given to the lungs,
by bleeding and other preventive means.
Treatment of Horses’ Legs—We have already said, that
the management of horses’ legs forms part of the science of
the stable, and a most important part too. It is no where
so well understood as in racing stables ; but from the violent
nature of his work, the hunter is equally indebted to it.
The barbarous practice of blistering all four legs previ¬
ously to turning out, is now happily exploded; but as in
less violent exertion than following hounds, a certain inse¬
curity from accidents is inseparable from the delicacy of
all animal structure, the legs of hunters will occasionally
fall amiss. It being useless, however, without stating the
extent of the injury, to talk of prescribing remedies, we
have only to state, that a very efficient one has been found
for the torturing one of firing, in many cases where the
actual cautery was considered as the only one. For example,
for ligamentary enlargements, cases of enlarged joints, ten¬
dons shewing symptoms of giving way, or any other ap¬
pearance in the limbs, of a departure from their primitive
tone and vigour. This consists in the application, during
the non-hunting months, or any other period of rest, of the
mercurial charge, in either of the following forms. It is
made up by Mr Field, veterinary surgeon of London, and
no doubt by others in the profession, in a strong adhesive
form ; or, at a distance from the metropolis, it may be ap¬
plied, as recommended by Mr Kueny of Nottingham, who
is constantly in attendance upon the studs at Melton Mou-
bray, in Leicestershire. It consists of the common mer¬
curial plaster (not ointment) of the shops, made up accord¬
ing to the London Pharmacopoeia; and in the proportion
of half-a-pound to a leg, applied in a warm and consequent¬
ly liquefied state, and when covered by deer’s hair, bound
to the limb by means of a linen roller. At the end of a
fortnight, the stitches of the bandage being decayed, the
charge will slough off, when another, if necessary, is put on.
It is to the highly absorbent property of mercury that the
benefit here derived is to be coscribed; and it is no small
recommendation to it, that, in addition to the general re¬
storation of the limb, the painful operation of the actual
cautery, as also the blemish occasioned by it, are avoided.
It is, however, a well known fact, that hunters will -work
and stand sound, for many successive seasons, with legs ap¬
parently much out of form. Enlargements take place in
the sheath of tendons after strains ; also from blows, where
the parts become lined by a thick coat of lymph ; and
sometimes the body of the bone itself is found" thickened,
from a deposition of bony lamina over the original bone.
When all this has been in progress, we question the pro¬
priety of any active measures, unless, as is generally the
case, a feeling of soreness is expressed after work, by a
shifting, or favouring of the limb, or limbs, in the stall; or
by a “ feeling” manner of going on first quitting the stable.
When legs are really callous, little impression can he made
upon them, unless by active measures; but physic, rest,
and good grooming, are the best preservatives of these
most essential members of the horse’s frame; with the
friendly auxiliaries of hot-water, flannel bandages, and loose
boxes, after severe work, and good shoeing at all times.
1 he Loot—Owners of valuable horses may congratulate
themselves on the assurance that, by the aid and extended
influence of veterinary science, they have no longer to ap¬
prehend injury to the feet from the mere application of
snoes. On the contrary, they may rest satisfied that, pro¬
vided no internal disease attack them, from over-excitement
by work (and that often is created on ground where shoes
woiud be unnecessary, such as crossing a very deep coun¬
try), they will be not only as sound and healthy, but in Tre
better form, from having been properly shod, than if thevof J
had not been shod at all. Some hoofs, however, having a
greater disposition to secrete horn than others, and thus
called strong feet, should never remain more than three
weeks without being subject to the drawing knife of the
blacksmith (the ruinous butteris is now put aside), and the
shoes properly replaced. Neither should stopping with
damp tow be omitted; as moisture, not wet, is beneficial
to the health of the foot. Here then, again, are at once
apparent the evils of the out-of-door summering of hunters.
The foot of a horse so exposed, is at one time saturated with
wet, and at another exposed to a drying wind and a burning
sun, the contractile powers of which upon horn, are too well
known to require comment. Do what we may, however,
horses that are required to “ go the pace,” will always be
more or less subject to diseased feet, quite unconnected with
shoeing ; and against such diseases there are but two pre¬
cautions on which much reliance can be placed: First, let
hunters be well prepared for their work, and properly treated
after it; and, secondly, let them have sufficient obliquity of
pastern-joint (in our opinion one of the most important
points in the whole structure of the horse), to break the
force of concussion; which, together with over-excitement
of the vascular system, is the parent of that irremediable
disease of the navicular bone, formerly called “ founder
and by the wiseacres of old times, “ chest-founder,” be¬
cause the muscles in that part wasted, from the inability of
the suffering animal to exert them. The posture of a
horse in his stall, when afflicted with this complaint, or
fever in the feet, is too characteristic to be mistaken.
We have only one more remark on shoeing. In follow-
ing hounds across deep countries, hunters are apt to strike
a hinder foot against a fore foot, and inflict a severe wound.
There have, indeed, been many instances of the total sepa¬
ration of the back sinew by this, often unavoidable act,
particularly in leaping brooks. It was formerly very gene¬
rally believed, that the blow was inflicted with the toe of
the hinder shoe, to obviate which, shoeing smiths were
ordered, by hunting grooms, to let part of the hoof protrude
over the front of the shoe, but still the evil continued. It
was, however, asserted, in the letters of Nimrod, that it
was by the inside edge, or the rim of the hinder shoe, and
not by the toe, that the act of over-reaching was perform¬
ed. This was at first doubted, but experience has confirm¬
ed the assertion; and we have reason to believe, there has
not been an instance of serious mischief by cutting, from
an over-reach, since the inside edge, or rim, has been
rounded off, or bevelled. Indeed, a moment’s reflection
would dispel all doubts on the subject; for the obtuse
form of the toe of a horse-shoe could not inflict the severe
wounds we have seen inflicted (often cutting off part of the
fore-heel) ; whereas the inside rim of a worn shoe is nearly
as sharp as an ordinary knife. Besides, the act is perform¬
ed after the hinder-foot has overstepped the fore-foot, and
therefore cannot be performed by the toe, but in the act
of drawing the hinder foot back, after it has overstridden its
bounds. Bruises, from over-reaches, still occur, which, though
sometimes serious, are comparatively,with cutting, harmless,
as fomentation, and a few days’ rest, will effect a cure.
1 he action of the hinder leg reminds us of one useful
hint to grooms travelling hunters on the road. If we fol¬
low a well-formed horse, with the free use of his limbs, on
a road upon which his footsteps are imprinted, w’e shall find
the hinder foot oversteps the fore-foot in the walk, but falls
behind it in the slow trot. Exclusive of relief to the muscles
by change of action then, it is safer to vary the pace from
a walk to a slow trot on a journey, as causing less fatigue to
the hock-joint, by which curbs and spavins are frequently
throw n out. Add to this, the slow trot is the safest pace a
horse goes, because his step is shortest,
(n. B. B. B.)
607
HORSEMANSHIP.
man- As to the question, Who was the Jirst horseman ? it
I'- would be in vain to inquire, for even the writers of ancient
'■"'fables do not agree upon the point. By some it is pretend¬
ed that Bellerophoil first mounted a horse ; that Pelethro-
nius first bridled him; that he was harnessed by Erichtho-
nius, and fought upon by the Centaurs of Thessaly. But
quitting fiction, we learn from the Sacred Writings, that to
Egypt we are indebted for the equestrian art, from which
country, by the aid of the colonists who emigrated from it
and from Phoenicia, it was introduced into Greece (per¬
haps by Erichthonius, fourth king of Attica), where it
attained to great perfection. Although there was no cavalry
employed in the Trojan war, equestrianism must have been
much practised and well understood in Homer’s time, which
is at once proved by a reference to his works. In the fifth
book of the Odyssey, the shipwrecked Ulysses, tossed by
the waves on a plank, is compared to a skilful horseman on
an unruly steed; and in the fifteenth Iliad, we find one
man managing four horses at once, leaping from the back
of one to another, at their full speed. Herodotus (in Tha¬
lia) speaks of hunting on horseback in the time of Darius,
even descending to the particulars of an accident in the
field to the noble satrap of Persia; and likewise the same
writer (in Melpomene) mentions the Amazonian women
hunting with their husbands on horseback. Xenophon also
says that Cyrus did so, when he exercised himself and his
horses. Again, with reference to those early times, we
should not pass over the introduction of horses and horse¬
manship into the public games of Greece, and particularly
the Olympic Games, which, according to an expression of
Pindar, as far transcended all the others as gold is superior
to the baser metals.
From the same authority we learn, that the Ethiopians
and inhabitants of India, as cavalry, formed part of the ex¬
pedition of Xerxes against the Greeks. But it appears that
the Arabs and the Parthians, who afterwards became so
famous for their equestrian accomplishments, were ignorant
of the art at the period in question ; at least both these
nations fought under Xerxes, the former on camels, and
the latter on foot. The Persians wrere more celebrated
for their horses than for their riding. According to Athe-
naeus, they were more solicitous of their ease and safety,
than anxious for reputation of boldness and dexterity in
horsemanship. 1 he Scythians and the Sarmatians were
both famous about this period, as well for their breed of
horses as for their skill in riding them. In fact, so re¬
nowned were the former people, that, according to Gibbon,
‘ they were supposed by strangers to perform the ordinary
duties of civil life on horseback; “ to eat, to drink, and
even sleep, without dismounting from their steeds.”
The people of Mauritania, Numidia, Massilia, Nasamo-
nia, and other adjacent parts, are also spoken of as having
possessed breeds of excellent horses, but were still more
distinguished for their singular mode of managing them
(on the authority of Livy, and Caesar) without the aid of a
bridle, and even in battle by means of a small switch or
wand, turning them to the left by striking on the right
side of the head, and vice versa; and stopping them by
striking the front of the face. These practices are also
confirmed by Ausonius, who celebrates the Emperor Gra-
tian as having excelled in them. All we have to remark
here is, that we are glad such practices are abolished, not
only on our own account, but for the sake of horses, who
must have been greatly tortured before they were brought
to suCh a state of obedience as to be ridden ivfrceni (without
bridles), as Virgil says of the Numidians, and this in the
confusion and excitement of a battle. There is an elegant Horseman-
passage on this subject in Lucan’s Pharsalia, descriptive of ship.
the several tributary nations which Juba took into the fields v 
in the cause of Pompey, against Curio’s army, which he
entirely defeated.
“ Autololes, Nurnidseijiie vagi, seniperque paratus
Incuito (Jaetulus equo,” <Xc.
Thus translated by Howe :—
“ With him unnumber’d nations march along,
i h’ Autoloke, with wild Numidian throng;
The rough Gsetulian, with his ruder steed:
The Moor, resembling India’s swarthy breed;
1'oor Nasamons, and Garamantines join’d;
with swift Marmaridans, that match the wind ;
The Marax, bred the trembling dart to throw.
Sure as the shaft that leaves the Parthian bow;
AV ith these JVIassilia’s nimble horsemen ride;
They nor the bit, nor curbing rein provide,
Rut with light rods the well-taught coursers guide.
From lonely cots the Lybian hunters came,
Who, still unarm’d, invade the salvage game,
And with spread mantles tawny lions tame.”
The Greeks transmitted the art of horsemanship to the
Romans, who soon equalled, if they did not excel, their
instructors; and nearly one of the first public acts of their
first king was to establish the equestrian order, the second
order in Rome; the equites, or horsemen, being placed far
above the commonalty, and next to those of the highest
quality and fortune in the state. In short, were proof
wanting that horsemanship, as an accomplishment, was
held in the greatest esteem in the early ages of the world,
it would be found in the fact of the accomplished Cicero
(Z)e Off. 1. 2, c. 13) telling his son Marcus, with the vanity
that now and then breaks forth in the splendid effusions of
that great man’s pen, that the eyes of the w orld were upon
him, on account of his father’s fame; and that he had
received the praise of the whole army for his excellence in
riding. But the exercise and art of horsemanship occu¬
pied much of the study and attention of the Roman youth ;
and we find Horace inviting them to the practice of it, in
the eighth ode of the first book.
Descending from the heroic ages, in which the earliest
history we possess informs us the art of horsemanship was
in full force and vigour, to comparatively modern times,
the first notice we find in our own history of the art of riding
horses, is in the tilts and tournaments ; the earliest mention
of which we find in the French historian Nithard, who re¬
ports, that, at an interview which took place at Strasburg
between Charles the Bald and his brother Lewis of Ger¬
many, the followers of both these princes fought on horse¬
back ; and, by way of marking the period, it may be ob¬
served, that Charles the Bald succeeded to the throne of
France a. d. 840. Ducange affirms, that these combats
were for some time peculiar to France, and expressly
called French combats, conffictus Gallici. Scarcely any
thing distinct, however, is known about them till w^e find
them practised in England, about the year 1140, in the
reign of Stephen, after which time they became general all
over Europe, particularly in England, where they were
displayed on all great occasions. The spots most famous
for them in London, were the Tilt-Yard, near St James’s
Park, and Smithfield; which the neighbourhood of the latter
place confirms, by the names of the streets, such as “ Gilt-
spur,” “ Knight-rider,” and so on. They are also known
to have been practised on the spots now called Cheapside,
Barbican, and Bridewell; and to have been exhibited in
considerable splendour in various parts of the country be-
608
HORSEMANSHIP.
Horseman-sides, which a reference to the highly popular novel Ivan-
ship. hoe will show. These were the days when “ to witch the
world with noble horsemanship” was one of the chief ac¬
complishments of a gentleman ; in which the management of
the horse and the lance was amongst the principal requisites
of knighthood; when the contest, both in real and in mimic
war, was decided by the superiority of such means; the days
of chivalry, in fact, which, as a well-known historian says of
it, in his portrait of the character of a perfect knight, the
accomplished Tancred, “inspired the generous sentiments
and social offices of man, far better than the base philoso¬
phy, or the baser religion of the times.”
The manege, and more especially the high manege-rid¬
ing, is now nearly out of use. As Colonel Peters observes
{Treatise on Equitation, p. 236, London, 1835), “ In the
riding-houses, for mere pleasure, or military purposes, very
little of the manege riding is requisite. The instructions for
a manege rider and his horse go far beyond those required
for a military horseman and his horse. The confined airs,
cadences, or paces of the manege, are not calculated for the
duty of a pleasure or a military horse ; the sensitive, delicate
hand, and its aids, of the manege-rider would not do for a
soldier. It should, therefore, be well understood, that,
although a soldier’s horse should be quick and ready, it is
not required to have him so much on his haunches, nor so
fine in the mouth, as the manege-horse must be. If a mili¬
tary horse be put in his proper equilibrium, it is all that is
requisite; he should not lose that boldness and freedom of
action, which is generally so much admired, and so necessary,
in the different duties that a military rider is called upon to
perform.” We are glad to be enabled to state, on such
high authority as that of Colonel Peters, that the exercise
of the manege is by no means necessary to the education
of the horse, for any purposes which require his being
trained in the school, as it is impossible to read the instruc¬
tions of the masters of that art, as practised so generally at
one time, without being satisfied, that the greatest severity
must have been resorted to in their lessons. It is a maxim
in horsemanship, and a good one, “ that a horse must never
do any thing of his own head, but in obedience to his rider
but to call upon him to force himself into the unnatural
positions which the Manege (FEcole requires, is, in our opi¬
nion, labour very ill bestowed; and as for the gracefulness
of his action, so much insisted upon by the manege-riders,
we think it is never more fully displayed by him than when
nearly in his natural state. There is, however, we admit,
something pleasing in the associations of the horse highly
caparisoned, as well as the airs of the manege, with grand
and imposing spectacles ; and there are several passages in
the third Georgic of Virgil, which shew that the manege
was found out earlier than many persons may imagine.
Not only is good horsemanship well suited to the pith
and nerve of the English character, but it has always been
considered as one of the corporeal accomplishments of a gen¬
tleman. Thus Clarendon, in his character of the Duke of
Newcastle of his day, says of him, that “ he was a very
fine gentleman, active, and full of courage, and most accom¬
plished in those qualities of horsemanship, dancing, and
fencing, which accompany a good breeding; in which his
delight was.” But there are other than mere personal ad¬
vantages attending good horsemanship. It is the habitual
contempt of danger that ennobles the profession of the sol¬
dier ; and horsemanship, as practised in England at present,
and with the esprit de corps of the several hunts, tends
much to the same end. Those who pursue it in the field,
learn to expose themselves to danger with less reluctance,
are less anxious to get out of it, or given to lose their pre¬
sence ot mind when in it, than persons whose pursuits have
been ot a different turn; in fact, it may be said to increase
natural courage. Such persons, again, as merely ride on
horseback for exercise, find in it the great preservative of
health. Nay, more than this, persons of tender constitu- Hon
tions have surmounted the weakness of their nature entirely, s
by horse-exercise and hunting ; in proof of which, manyx—
cases could be quoted. The following, of a patient of the
celebrated Dr Sydenham, is perhaps as conclusive as any
other :—A gentleman, a relation of the Doctor’s, who was
brought so low by consumption,’ that there appeared to be
no possibility of a recovery by medicine, was induced by
him to try horse-exercise, and a journey to his native coun¬
try. On leaving London, he was so weak as to be lifted
on his horse, and was refused admittance to the first inn
he stopped at, being supposed to be in a dying state. Not¬
withstanding, he persisted in riding, by easy stages, to
Exeter, and gained so much strength by the way, that
though one day his horse lay down with him, in some
water, and he was forced to pass many hours in his wet
clothes, he not only sustained no harm by the accident, but
arrived at Exeter greatly recovered. Thinking he had
gained his point, he left off horse-exercise, and had a re¬
lapse ; but, on betaking himself again to the saddle, he ob¬
tained a perfect recovery. Nimrod, in one of his hunting
tours, says, “ My time was almost divided between my
saddle and my bed; but I never knew w hat it was to be
fatigued when I lived temperately, and went early to rest.
Indeed, such a life bade defiance to disease. A celebrated
physician of the last century used to recommend riding on
horseback to his patients. ‘ Live,’ said he, ‘ in a saddle.’
That riding is the most wholesome of all exercises, I have
little doubt. Despite of all the vile stuff that finds its road
down his throat, who ever heard of a bilious post-boy ?”
To this might be added, the no small advantage a person
mounted on horseback derives, from breathing a purer air
than when on foot, and consequently nearer to the ground.
The salutary effect of the motion of a horse, also, on a slug¬
gish or diseased liver, is acknowl edged by all medical men.
We shall now take a view of horsemanship in the only
forms in which it is at present applied to any useful or
pleasurable purposes ; namely, military, hunting, racing, and
on the road, leaving the art of instructing horses for the
Circus to those who find it profitable to fit them for it,
which we admit they do to very great perfection, though
we fear not without the necessary privation and punish¬
ment unavoidable, we believe, in such kind of instruction ;
or, in other words, in making animals perform far more, we
conceive, than the Creator of them ever intended they
should perform.
I he military seat approaches nearer than any other to
that of the manege ; and, by reason of the horse-soldier
having, in general, but one hand to hold his bridle with, is
one which gives him great command over his horse, with¬
out disturbing his seat. He sits well down in his saddle,
on his fork, or twist, with his body erect, and in perfect
equilibrium with his horse ; his legs wrell stretched down
the sides, with a firm pressure of the calves, as well as
of the knees and thighs, and the feet firm in the stirrups.
But it is not by any one of these aids that he becomes a
good horseman. He must be in perfect unison, as it
were, with his horse’s actions and paces, to maintain a
good and graceful seat; and, in proportion to the just ba¬
lance of his body, wall he be able to have a steady hand, a
point of vast importance to the dragoon. The importance
of this balance, and keeping himself in a proper equilibrium
with his horse, is increased by the fact of his not being
allowed to rise to the horse’s trot, and therefore requiring a
still finer use of the bridle hand. “ The man who rides
with the aid of the proper equilibrium,” says Colonel Peters
(p. 234), “ will, in case of necessity, know when to apply
the strength he has retained with a steady, light hand, and
govern every motion according as he finds it necessary for
his purpose ; play light with his own weight upon the sad¬
dle (by a gentle spring in the instep of both feet on the
HORSEMANSHIP.
’man- stirrups), with an easy pressure of both thighs, knees, and
ip. calves of the legs. When the horse jumps or plunges, then
these aids are also requisite to keep the seat; but, in an
easy, steady pace forward, it is most particularly to be
pointed out to a young man, and cannot be too often re¬
peated, that, to become an easy, elegant, or proper horse¬
man, he must learn to ride with comfort and pleasure to
his horse as well as to himself; he must learn to seek his
balance from his hip upwards, to keep the body with a slight
inclination backwards from the perpendicular, and balance
himself thus gradually on his horse in all the different paces ;
which, of course, cannot be expected all at once. A man
that rides by the force of his knees alone, shaking his arms
and hands, although he rides his distance in the same period
of time that the good rider would, yet he cannot be said to
ride his horse, or to have any part of his body in the proper
equilibrium ; but the man who rides his horse with a light,
steady hand, and elastic body (which, when disturbed even,
has the powder of restoring itself to its former seat), in
unison with the horse’s action, may be truly said to ride in
the proper equilibrium.”
It wmuld much exceed the limits of this article, were we
to enter into the detail of the military riding-school; neither
is such a task necessary, from the number of works that
have been published on the subject, and also from the va¬
rious changes in the system that are perpetually occurring,
according with the fashion of the day. We shall proceed,
then, at once to the general principles of horsemanship, as
applicable to the road, the hunting-field, and the race¬
course, commencing with the road.
The act of mounting may be called the first step in prac¬
tical horsemanship. With horses perfectly quiet, it mat¬
ters little in what manner we approach them ; but in every
thing that relates to horses, a certain precaution is neces¬
sary. Let the person who is about to mount, then, walk
up to his horse, not directly in his face, lest he may alarm
him, nor behind him, lest he may strike at him, which he
would thus give him an opportunity of doing. Let him
rather approach him on the left side, over against his shoul¬
der, inclining something more to his head than to his flank.
In the summer time, when the flies are troublesome, this
caution is not ill bestowed, because the quietest horses w ill
sometimes strike out, sidewards, after the manner of cows,
to rid themselves of their tormentors ; and many a man has
been injured in the abdomen, or thigh, from this cause.
Old writers on horsemanship recommend the horseman,
when about to [dace himself in the saddle, after having put
the left foot firmly into the stirrup, to take the reins and
the pummel of the saddle in his left hand, and laying his
right hand fast upon the hinder part of the saddle, thus to
spring into his seat. We should prefer his taking a lock of
the mane, together with the reins, into the left hand ; be¬
cause, if he be a man of any considerable weight, his hav¬
ing recourse to the saddle for all the assistance he may re¬
quire, would be very likely to displace it, especially as no
horse in the hands of a good horseman is now tightly
girthed.
When he is mounted, the proper adjustment of his reins
is the next thing to be attended to. If a single-rein bridle,
he has nothing to do but to draw the reins with his right
hand through his left, till he finds he has got hold of his
horse’s mouth equally on both sides of it, when he shuts the
left hand, letting the little finger separate the two reins,
fhe same should be done with a double-rein bridle, only
observing, as they are drawn through the hand, that the
horse’s mouth is to be consulted, as to w hether that attach¬
ed to the bridoon or to the bit is the one required to be
first acted upon. Many an inexperienced horseman has met
with accidents from want of a proper discrimination as to
the right use of the reins, when mounted on high-spirited
horses, with finely made, that is to say, highly susceptible,
>’ol. xi.
609
mouths, and unused to a rough hand. The bridle reins Horseman,
should be held at a convenient length ; for, if short, they ship.
wall discompose the attitude of the body, by pulling the left , '
shoulder forward ; and they should be held with a firm
grasp, dividing them, as before mentioned, with the little
finger. When a horse pulls at his rider, he should advance
his arm a little, but not the shoulder, towards the horse’s
head, raising his hand towards his breast, and the lower
part of the palm rather than the upper ; but he should not
shorten the rein in his hand, if he can command his horse
without it, or he may lose the proper appui, or bearing of
his mouth. Old writers recommend the bridle-hand to be
held perpendicular, the thumb being uppermost, and placed
on the bridle. Modern practice is in favour of the knuckles
being uppermost. The perpendicular hand may do very
well in the school, or with the severe bit of the highly-drill¬
ed dragoon horse ; but no man could ride a free-going
race-horse over a course, or a hasty hunter over a country,
in that form.
In dismounting a horse, the bridle and mane should be
held together in the left hand, in the same manner as in
mounting. Unless the horseman be very active, he may
put his right hand on the pummel of the saddle, to raise
himself, previously to throwing his right leg back over the
horse ; when, by grasping the hinder part of the saddle
with the right hand, he lets himself down with ease. The
right leg, however, should not be bent at the knee, or the
spur may strike the horse’s side, in the act of being thrown
backward.
The first step towards perfection in a horseman, is to
knowr and to feel how his horse is going; but this must be
the result of some practice and experience. A horse may
not only gallop false, that is to say, if going to the right he
leads with the left leg, or, if going to the left, he" leads
with the right; but he is at times what is called disunited,
that is, he leads with the opposite leg behind, to that which
he leads with before. In both these cases, either in the
school, or in his exercise, he must be stopped, and put
off again properly. The method of effecting this, is by
approaching your outward leg, and putting your hand out¬
wards ; still keeping the inward rein the shorter, and the
horse’s head inwards, if possible; and if he should still re¬
sist, then bend, and pull his head outwards also; but re¬
place it again, bent properly inwards, the moment he goes
off true. A horse is said to be disunited to the right, when
going to the right, and consequently leading with the right
leg before, he leads with the left leg behind ; and is said to
be disunited to the left, when going to the left, and conse¬
quently leading with the left leg before, he leads with the
right behind. A horse may at the same time be both false
and disunited ; in correcting each of which faults, the same
method must be used. He is both false and disunited to
the right, when, in going to the right, he leads with the left
leg before, and the right behind; notwithstanding that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his belly
than the left, because the horse is working to. the right.
And he is false and disunited to the left, when, in going to
the left, he leads with the right leg before, and the left be¬
hind ; notwithstanding, as above, that hinder leg be with
propriety more forward under his belly than the right, be¬
cause the horse is working to the left. A horse will also
occasionally both trot and walk false.
Although the foregoing remarks apply principally to the
working of a horse in a circle, or in the school; yet, as all
horses will occasionally get disunited in their action, w hen
going straightforward, it is very necessary that horsemen
should know when they become so, and be able to set them
right. Such action is extremely unpleasant to the rider;
and likewise so much so to horses themselves, that they
will not continue in it long, but generally quit it of their
own accord.
4 H
610
HORSEMANSHIP.
Horseman- The Seat—It was well observed by Don Quixote, in
ship. one 0f his lectures to Sancho, that the seat on a horse makes
v some people look like gentlemen, and others like grooms.
But a wonderful improvement has taken place within the
last half century in the seat on horseback, of all descrip¬
tions of persons, and effected chiefly by the simple act of
giving the rider a few more inches of stirrup-leather. No
gentleman now, and very few servants, are to be seen with
short stirrups, and consequently, a bent-knee, which, inde¬
pendently of its unsightliness, causes uneasiness to the horse
as well as to his rider ; whose knees being lifted above the
skirts of the saddle, deprive him of the assistance of the
clip, by his thighs and legs. The short stirrup-leather, how¬
ever, was adopted with the idea of its giving relief to the
horse, although a moment’s consideration would have proved
the contrary, and for this reason ; the point of union between
a man and his horse, as well as the centre of action, lies just
behind the shoulder-blades, which, as must be apparent to
every one, is the strongest part of the horse’s body, and
where the sack of wheat or flour is placed by the farmer,
or the miller. With short stirrup-leathers, the seat of the
rider is thrown further back on the saddle, instead of being
exactly in the centre of it, and consequently his weight
thrown upon the part approaching the loins, the weakest
part of the body, and very easily injured. From the
same mistaken notion was the saddle formerly placed near¬
ly a hand’s-breadth from the shoulders, which, of course,
added to the mischief; but modern practice has entirely
remedied this, as it is now placed as near as possible to the
shoulder-bones, so as not to interfere with the action of them.
Next to the advantages of a good seat to the horse, stands
the ease and elegance of it in the rider. In the first place,
what is natural is easy, and there must be no formal stiff¬
ness of the body of a man, or of a woman, who wishes to
look well on horseback. When we see a man sitting as up¬
right as if he were impaled, and his body not appearing to
yield at all to the motion of his horse, we cannot fancy his
haying a good hand upon him, because he cannot be in
unison with him in his action; neither can he be firm in
his seat. But to some persons a good seat is denied by
their shape and make. For example, a man with short
legs with large calves, and very round thighs, cannot sit
so close to his saddle, as another whose legs are thinner
and longer, and of course yield him a firmer clip; and
whose thighs, instead of being round, are hollowed out on
the inside, as we see in the form of our most eminent
jockeys. The seat of the short-legged, large calved, round-
thighed man, has been jocularly termed the “ wash-ball
seat, and not inaptly neither, for, like a wash-ball in a
basin, lie is seldom at rest in his saddle, from the absence
of a proper clip. Ihe thighs, in fact, are a most essential
part of the horseman in giving him a good, graceful, and
strong seat, as on the form of them depends greatly the
good or bad position of the knee, which is a point of the
utmost importance, not only to the eye, but to the firmness
of Ins seat. The thighs, in fact, should be applied to the
saddle and to the sides of the horse, chiefly by their inner
surfaces, or the knees and toes would be too much out;
and although the line is by no means required to be per¬
pendicular, yet the shoulder, the hip, the knee, and the
foot, should not deviate too far from it, to render a seat
perfect. When this is the case, we may be certain the dis¬
position of the thighs and legs is correct, as they will hang
down sufficiently straight, and without force or restraint;
which can never be the case, unless the body of the rider
is placed evenly on the saddle, opening his knees a little,
whereby his fork will come lower in the saddle, giving him
the appearance, as Shakspeare expresses it, of being “ in-
corpsed and demi-natured with the brave beast.”
Ihe position of the foot of the horseman is material both
to comfort, safety, and elegance. In the old style of rid¬
ing, the heels were turned outwards, which, of course, Hors^
threw the toes inwards, and very near to, as well as paral- sh
lei with, the shoulders of the horse; but this is all wrong. ^
The toes should be turned a little outward and upward,
which the slight opening of the knee induces. No animal’
human or brute, can look well, or exert its strength well’
with toes turned in, and the position is contrary to every
thing approaching to elegance.
The position of the foot in the stirrup, however, varies
with the pursuits of the horseman. The soldier always,
the rider for pleasure, or on the road, generally, rests on
the ball of the foot, with a gentle play of the instep. But
the man who rides after hounds, and the jockey when he
rides a race, find it necessary to have the foot more home
in the stirrup, with the toes turned a little upward, as well
as a little outward. The advantages of all this are two¬
fold. First, it gives them more power over their horses,
by furnishing them with a more substantial fulcrum; and,
secondly, to the man following hounds, it is a great se¬
curity against the foot being chucked out of the stirrup,
by the seat being disturbed in a leap, or from any of those
causes which perpetually occur in crossing a country.
Great as has been the alteration for the better in the seat
of Englishmen, in general, by increasing the length of the
stirrup-leathers, and thereby placing them more properly in
the saddle ; yet, in the schools of the military this system has
been said to have been carried too far, so as to endanger the
safety of the rider. Indeed both Hippocrates and Galen speak
of a disease which, in their time, was occasioned by long
and frequent riding, with the legs hanging down without
any support, stirrups then not being in use. How it hap¬
pened that an advantage so obvious was so long in being
made available, is not for us here to inquire ; but we con¬
sider the support of the stirrup to be the sine qua non of
the management and services of the saddle horse, for all
essential purposes. Nevertheless its most essential use is
confined to Great Britain alone, and that is, in enabling
the horseman to rise in his saddle to meet the action of
the horse in his trot, by which means a pace, otherwise
most disagreeable and fatiguing, is rendered nearly the
pleasantest of any. So long as the demi-pique saddle was
in use, in which the horseman was so deep-seated, and
trussed up as to make falling almost impossible; and he
rode, as Sir Walter Scott made King James to ride, “ a
horse keeping his haunches under him, and seldom, even
on the most animating occasions of the chase, stretching
forward beyond the managed pace of the academypres¬
sure on the stirrup might have been dispensed with, but
with the saddles of the present day, and the more natural
action of the horse, we consider it quite indispensable. It
is indeed to the disuse of this practice in France, and other
parts of the Continent, where rising in the stirrups is never
resorted to even on the hardest trotting horses, that is to
be attributed the almost rare occurrence of persons riding
any distance, or at a quick rate, for pleasure. To this peculiar
system in our horsemanship also are we indebted for our
rapid style of posting, as without it post-boys could not en¬
dure the fatigue the action of a horse creates, especially in
hot weather, over a fifteen miles’ stage, at the rate of ten
or twelve miles an hour, without a moment’s intermission;
whereas, by means of it, he performs that task with com¬
parative ease and comfort. The objection to it on the
part of foreigners lies in the fancied inelegance, if not in¬
decency, of the motion, which we consider not worthy of
an argument; but of this we are certain, that what is called
“ riding hard,” that is, not rising in the stirrups, in the trot,
nor leaning any weight upon them in the gallop, or canter,
must be extremely distressing to horses, and especially to
such as carry high weights.
Previously to our describing the various kinds of seat, it
is necessary to observe, that how well soever a man may
HORSEMANSHIP.
ian-be placed upon his horse, his performance upon him will
i. mainly depend on the use he makes of his hands. It is
—^ on this account that old writers on horsemanship have
dwelt upon the difficulty of the art, rendered more so, in
their time, when the airs of the manege formed part of it.
The fact, however, is notorious, that not more than one
man in a hundred of those who have been riding horses all
their lives, has what is called “ a good hand upon his
horse,” much less a fine one, which falls to the lot of but
few. When, however, we consider first, that the hand of
the rider is to the horse what the helm is to the ship, that
it guides his motions and directs his course ; and, secondly,
that we have recourse to a severe and cutting instrument,
acting upon so sensible and totally unprotected a part, as
the natural mouth of a horse must be, it is at once ap¬
parent, that not only a fine hand, with an easy bit, must
be most agreeable, and, at the same time, most serviceable
to the horse, in any thing he is called on to perform, but
that it constitutes the very essence of fine horsemanship.
It has been before observed, that a horse’s ear has been
figuratively said to lie in his mouth, and no doubt he re¬
ceives the instruction from his rider chiefly through that
medium. How material, then, is it that it should be con¬
veyed to him in a manner in which he is not only most
likely to understand it, but in one the least disposed to
irritate him ? How often have we seen a horse fractious
and unpleasant both to his rider and himself, when ridden
by an indifferent horseman (allowing him even a good seat)
but going placidly and pleasantly when mounted by an¬
other with a low and fine hand, which appears to sympa¬
thize with all his motions, and all his wishes. It is here
that Art becomes the handmaid of Nature ; and it is the
assistance which it is in the power of a jockey with a fine
hand to give a horse, which alone exhibits the superiority
of one horse over another in himself equally good.
Whence this superiority of hand arises, it is very diffi¬
cult to determine, particularly as it is so frequently appa¬
rent in men possessing equally good seats on their horses.
From the well-known fact that it is an accomplishment,
which in thousands and ten thousands of cases never can
be acquired by the practice and experience of a long life,
we may almost consider it to be, like the poets, an ex re
natd property in the human composition, and thus sought
for in vain by those to whom nature has denied it. That
it is intimately connected with the nervous influence of
the touch is obvious, from its being the result of the action of
the hand and arm; and it is in being delicately alive to every
motion of the horse, that the excellence of a good hand
consists. That it is associated with the good or bad state
of the digestive organs, is proved by the necessity all per¬
sons find, who are called upon to excel in horsemanship,
of living temperately, and keeping early hours. That it is
the greatest security to the horseman, under all circum¬
stances in which he can be placed, is also shewn by the
numerous instances we meet with, of some persons being
enabled to ride horses over every variety of ground, and in
all paces, with security ; but which, with others not equally
gifted, are constantly getting into scrapes, either by falling
on the road, running into fences in the field, bolting out
of the course in a race, or falling backwards when rearing,
which latter accident arises, in most cases, from a rough,
unskilful hand.
Seat on the Road.—Of the various, and too often fatal
accidents that occur to horsemen, the majority occur on
the road. The reason of this is obvious.. They are gene¬
rally, with the exception of cases of inebriation, the result
of horses running away with their riders, and either coming
in contact with something in their course, which suddenly
stops their career, when either one or both are thrown
headlong to the ground. Accidents of this description are
very frequently attended with the most serious consequen-
611
ces, and shew the necessity of persons who get on horse- Horseman-
back being capable of commanding their horse. Next ship.
come accidents from horses falling, which are often attended' "
with fracture of limbs, if not loss of life, chiefly, perhaps,
from the hard nature of the ground on which the horse and
his rider are thrown; for, if a twentieth part of the falls
sportsmen get in the field, their horses so frequently fall¬
ing upon them, were to occur upon hard ground, the
danger in hunting would put a stop to it. Falls from hor¬
ses starting only happen to persons who have a loose seat,
and such should ride none but horses free from that fault.
But the greatest safeguard on the road, next to a firm
seat, is derived from the hand of the rider, who should
never trust himself entirely to his horse, however safe he
may consider him. He may tread on a rolling stone ; the
ground may give way from under him ; he may step into a
hole; or, by the effect of sudden alarm, he may lose the
centre of gravity, and then, in all or either of these cases,
the fall is worse, by reason of his getting no assistance from
the rider, which he may have looked for, until past reco¬
very, when he comes to the ground with a crash. We
therefore recommend persons who ride the road, always to
feel their horses’ mouths lightly, by which means not only
will the proper equilibrium be sustained, and they will be
carried better for it; for, observe, a horse with a weight
upon his back, and one without a weight upon his back, are
by no means in relative positions, but, should a false step be
made, the aid of the rider being instantly at hand, is nearly
certain to recover him. By which rein the mouth should
be felt, supposing the bridle to consist of a bit and a
bridoon, must depend on the sensibility of it, although
by changing the pressure from one to the other, the mouth
is kept fresher and more lively than when one only is
used, and especially if that one should be the bit. There
is a certain, but not a large, proportion of horses, that are
rideable for all purposes on the snaffle only, whose mouths
are generally kept fresh by the light pressure they receive.
These are perfect mouths; but, nevertheless, horses that
have them in this perfection, should not be left quite to
themselves in any one pace.
Previously to the general use of stage coaches, which
are now to be found in abundance upon all roads, road¬
riding was much more in use than it is at present; and
immense distances were travelled over in a day by graziers,
horse and cattle dealers, racing jockeys, and others, whose
habits of being so much on horseback rendered them supe¬
rior to fatigue. A hundred miles, from sun-rise to sun-set
on the same horse, was no uncommon day’s work, and this
when the roads were in a very different condition from that
in which they now are, abounding in ruts and quarters, so
that horses were travelling over half their ground, either on
a narrow ridge, between two ruts, or over loose unbroken
stones ; and these were the days in which really good
roadsters fetched large prices, as only horses with very good
legs and feet could stand fast work long, or be depended
upon as to safety. But all modern feats of men on horse¬
back, or indeed the feats of any other period, on the authen¬
ticity of which we can rely, retire into the shade before that
performed in the year 1831, by George Osbaldeston, Esq.
of Hummanby Hall, Yorkshire, over Newmarket Heath,
who rode two hundred miles in nine hours and twenty mi¬
nutes, winning his Herculean match with forty minutes in
hand. As may be supposed, he was not restricted to the
number of horses, which consisted of thirteen, then in train¬
ing on the heath ; but he rode one of them, Mr Gulley’s
Tranby, by Blacklock, sixteen miles, at four four-mile heats.
Mr Osbaldeston, also celebrated1 for his bold and judicious
riding to hounds, appeared very little fatigued ; and, after
the use of the warm bath, and a short repose, joined in the
festivities of the evening, and did not retire to rest till an
hour after midnight.
HORSEMANSHIP.
612
Horseman- An easy seat in the saddle is very important to persons
ship, who ride many hours in succession on the road. To ac-
' complish this the following rules should be observed:—
To sit well down in the middle of the saddle, with just that
length of stirrup leathers that will allow of the fork clear¬
ing the pummel of the saddle; for a greater length than
this would add to the fatigue of a journey, and lessen the
rider’s command over his horse. On the other hand, short
stirrup leathers create fatigue by contracting the knees,
and thereby adding to the exertion of rising to the action
of the horse in the trot, which should chiefly proceed from
a gentle play of the instep. The body of the rider should
incline forwai’ds in the trot, as, by forming a proper coun¬
terpoise, the movement of the horse is facilitated ; and,
above all things, steadiness of seat is required, or the latter
will be much incommoded in his action. So distressing, in¬
deed, is a swaggering unsteady seat, that it is a well esta¬
blished, though not a universally known fact, that horses will
carry some persons of considerably greater weight than
others, long distances on the road, or over a country in hunt¬
ing, with less fatigue to themselves, solely because they
ride them with a firm seat and an easy hand. In a long day’s
journey on the road, great relief is given to a horse by now
and then dismounting from his back, and leading him a few
hundred yards ; as also by frequent sips of water, particu¬
larly if the weather be hot. As to frequent baiting of
a hackney in a day’s journey, the practice is not recom¬
mended. In a journey of sixty miles, he should only be
stopped once, but then it should be for at least two hours,
during one hour of which time he should be shut up in a
plentifully littered stall. It is well known that a horse in
good condition would perform this distance without hurting
him, if he were not baited at all, but we are far from recom¬
mending the practice. Short stops, however, on the road
are injurious rather than beneficial, and teach horses to hang
towards every public-house they pass by, in their journey.
Most horses should be ridden in double reined bridles
long distances on the road, and all should be ridden with
spurs. Should they flag, or become leg-weary towards
the end of a day, the use of the curb may be the means
of avoiding falls ; and, by the gentle application of the spur,
a sort of false, that is, more than natural, action is created,
which will have the same beneficial effect. As to the rate
at which horses should be put on the road, that is a point
so much under the control of circumstances, that no line
can be drawn respecting it; but our experience assures
us, that if a horse has to perform the distance we have
already taken as a fair day’s work, namely, sixty miles,
under not a very heavy man, he would perform it with
more ease to himself, and feel less from it the following day,
if he travelled at the rate of seven or eight miles in the
hour, than less. In the first place, this rate of speed is no
great exertion to a horse of good action, and also in good
condition ; and, in the next, by performing his day’s work
in less time than if he travelled slower, he gets sooner to
rest, and is, of course, sooner fit to go to work again. Let
it, however, be observed, that he should have two hours
quiet rest in the middle of the journey, which will enable
him to perform it without fatigue. But we do not recom¬
mend this rate of travelling, when a much greater extent
of ground is before us. If a horse is to be ridden two or
three hundred miles or more, he ought not to travel, in the
best of weather, more than from thirty to forty miles per
day, and he should rest the entire of the fifth day, or he
will become leg-weary, hit his legs, or perhaps fall. We
are of course alluding to valuable horses, with which extra
expense is not to be put into the scale against the risk of
injuring them. The earlier, travelling horses, in the sum¬
mer particularly, start in the morning, the better, that they
may get their day’s journey over in good time, and be early
shut up for the night.
The following good advice to persons riding on the roadHoil
is very much to the purpose (see Emy. Brit. p. 624) :  sn
“ When you ride a journey, be not so attentive to your^ ~
horse’s nice carriage of himself, as to your encouragement
of him, and keeping him in good humour. Raise his head;
but if he flags, you may indulge him with bearing a little
more upon the bit than you would suffer in an airing. If
a horse is lame, tender-footed, or tired, he naturally hangs
on his bridle. On a journey, therefore, his mouth will de¬
pend greatly on the goodness of his feet. Be very careful,
then, about his feet, and not let a farrier spoil them.” To
this we add, that, as has been already observed, horses often
fall on the road, from the state of their shoes being ne¬
glected ; in journeys, and on hot and dusty roads especially,
the feet as well as the shoes demand care. They should
be stopped every night with moist clay, or what is better,
wetted tow, which, whilst it cools and moistens the foot,
acts beneficially, by causing pressure to the sensible sole
and the frog.
The Hunting Seat—Next to that of a jockey, on whose
skill in the saddle thousands of pounds may be depending,
the seat of the fox-hunter is most essential of any connect¬
ed with amusement. He must not only be firm in his
saddle, to secure himself against falls when his horse is in
the act of leaping, but he must unite with a firm and steady
seat a light and delicate hand, to enable him to make the
most of his horse, as well as to preserve himself as much
as possible against danger. His position in the saddle
should resemble that which we have recommended for the
road, with the exception of the length of his stirrup lea¬
thers, and the position of his foot in the stirrup irons. The
former, the length of stirrup leather, should depend on
the form and action of his horse, as well as the nature of
the country he has to ride over. With a horse very well
up in his forehand, with his haunches well under him, and
going perfectly collected and within himself, his stirrup
leathers may be long enough to admit of the knee being
very nearly straight, and the foot resting on the ball. But,
on the other hand, if his horse be somewhat low in his
forehand (which many first-rate hunters are), with very
powerful action in his hind-quarters; if ridden in hilly
countries, or if at all disposed to be a puller, he will re¬
quire to be at least two holes shorter in his stirrups ; and
his foot will be firmer if placed “ home” in them, instead of
resting on the balls. Above all things, he must acquire a
firm, close, and well-balanced seat in his saddle, which is
not merely necessary in leaping, but in galloping over
every description of ground. A swagging seat in the last
mentioned act is sufficiently bad to make a great difference
to a hunter in a severe chase ; but when we picture to our¬
selves a horse alighting on the ground, after having cleared
a high fence, and his rider alighting two or three seconds
afterwards in his saddle, so far forward, perhaps, as to fall
beyond the pillars of support, or backwards behind the
centre of action and the part (just behind the shoulders)
which ought to form the junction between the rider and his
horse, we can readily imaginfe how distressing it must be
to him, and how much a large fence, so taken, must exhaust
him over and above what would be the case if he had had
the assistance of a firm hand to support him on alighting;
but which, however, with such a seat as we have been de¬
scribing, no man can possess. The first requisite, then, for a
person who follows hounds is the combination of a light hand
with a firm seat; and fortunate is it for his horse, as well
as for himself, if he possess it to the degree required to
constitute a fine horseman, over a country.
But as the science of war cannot be learned perfectly by
any thing short of experience in the field, neither can the
art of horsemanship, as far as the sportsman is concerned,
be learned perfectly in the riding-school or the academy. If
our own observation did not confirm this fact, it would ap*
HORSEMANSHIP. 613
>man-Pear evident, from the variety of situations in which the
jp, man following hounds may be placed, in one individual
'run; and we will endeavour to enumerate them. First,
there is galloping at very nearly full speed, not over turf
as smooth as a carpeted floor, and with nothing beyond
a daisy’s head to come in contact with the horse’s feet, but
(cursu undoso) over every description and every variety of
ground ; over the high ridge and across the deep furrow ;
over ground studded with ant-hills, which, unlike the mole¬
hill, are often as hard as if they had been baked in an oven ;
over stones and flints, the latter so sharp as frequently to
sever the sinews of a horse’s leg so completely as to cause
his toe to turn upwards, when his throat must be cut on the
spot; over grips covered by weeds, and thus, if visible to
the horseman, too often invisible to his horse; over deep
under-drains, with rotten coverings, which frequently give
way, and let in a horse nearly to his shoulders ; down steep
hills, stony lanes, through deep sloughs and treacherous
bogs ; and all this very frequently on infirm legs, as those
of hunters which have been long in work are very apt
to be.
Next come the “ fences,” as all obstacles to the follower
of hounds are now technically termed ; and let us just see
of what they are composed. There is the new and stiff
gate, with always five, and sometimes six bars, and each
bar, perhaps, as firm against the force or weight of a horse
and his rider as if it were made of wrought iron. Then
there is the nobleman or gentleman’s park-paling, full six
feet high, and too often a turnpike road on the other side
to alight on. The stiff four-barred stile, generally to be
taken from a narrow and slippery foot-path, and not unfre-
quently on the declivity of a hill. The double post and
rail fence, as it is called, too much to be cleared at one
leap, in which case the horse has to leap the second rails
from the top of a narrow bank, and sometimes from out of
a ditch which is cut between them. Every now and then,
in the rich grazing countries, which are far the best for
hunting, and in which hounds run faster than in others,
there is the ox-fence, which may thus be described: If
taken from one side of it, there is, first, a ditch, then a
thick and strong black-thorn hedge, and about two yards
beyond it, on the landing side, is a very strong rail, placed
to prevent feeding bullocks from running into the hedge,
to avoid the oestrum, or gadfly, in the summer. This fence,
covering a great space of ground, must be taken at once,
or not at all, from either side on which it is approached. In
these countries, from the goodness of the land, the black
thorn attains great strength ; but in places where it happens
to become weak, instead of the ox fence, four strong rails
are put, which, in addition to the ditch, makes also rather
an awful fence; at least, if a horse do not clear it, he must
fall, as the rails very rarely will give way. Some of these
hedges being impracticable, from their thickness, the sports¬
man makes his way to one corner of the field, where he finds
a flight of very high and strong rails, but without a ditch,
and every now and then a sheep-fold. The former is some¬
what of a more severe fence than it appears to be, owing to
the ground on each side of it being either poached by cattle,
or, what is worse, rendered slippery by sheep, which are
driven into the corner to be examined by the shepherd, in
the case of there not being a sheep-fold in the field. The
sheep-fold, or sheep-pen, as it is called in Leicestershire, is a
still more serious undertaking. To get into it, the horse must
leap four strong bars, about the average height of gates, and
then, with a very short space to turn himself round in, must
do the same thing to get out of it. Next comes the brook,
from twelve to twenty feet in width, often bank-full, and
sometimes overflowing its banks, which are often hollow,
and generally rotten. In most of our best countries, few
runs of extent take place without a brook, or brooks, being
to be crossed; and no description of obstacle to which the
sportsman is subject in crossing a country is the cause ofHorseman-
so many disasters. ship.
In what are termed the Provincial Hunting Countries,—v—
in contradistinction to Leicestershire, and the other chiefly
grazing countries, timber, with the exception of stiles, is
not so frequent, nor is the ox-fence to be seen at all; but
there is comparatively more fencing, though chiefly hedges
and ditches. In many of these, Dorsetshire in particular,
the fences are generally what is termed double ; that is, there
is a ditch on each side of the hedge, which it requires a horse
to be prepared for, by receiving, if not his education, a good
deal of instruction in the country. In other parts of Eng¬
land, Cheshire and Lancashire, for example, we find fences
that require an apprenticeship. They consist of a hedge
and ditch, not of large dimensions, but in consequence of the
former being planted on a cop, or bank, a horse must land
himself on the cop before he can get his footing to clear
the fence, provided the hedge be on the rising side. Were
he to spring at it from the level of the field, and clear the
bank, together with the hedge and ditch, the exertion
would be so great as soon to exhaust his powers. Those
fences require horses very active and ready with their hin¬
der legs, and also riders with good hands. In all strong
plough-countries, as our fine loams and clays are termed by
sportsmen, hedges with ditches (for the most part only one
ditch) prevail. For height and width they are not equal,
by much, to those of the grazing districts, but circum¬
stances render them equally difficult and trying to the skill
of a horseman, and the judgment of his horse, and oftentimes
still more so. In the former, although the fence is large
(brooks excepted) the ground on the rising side is almost
always sound and firm ; whereas in deep plough-countries it
is generally soft, and often, what is worse, it is sticky.
Neither is this all. It very often. happens that the head¬
land of a field is ploughed to within a foot or two of the
ditch, when a small ridge, or “ balk,” as it is termed in
some districts, is left to prevent the soil of the field wash¬
ing into the ditch. This ridge is often very perplexing to
the horseman. Fie must either put his horse at the fence
so as to clear all at once, or he must let him take his foot¬
ing from off this narrow ridge, which, if his head be not
in a very good place, and his rider’s hand an indifferent
one, makes even a small fence dangerous. The objec¬
tion to a ploughed country also holds good as regards the
other, the landing side of the fence. In the grass coun¬
tries, a horse alights on turf sufficiently elastic to break the
concussion from the weight of himself and his rider, but
seldom soft enough to sink him below his hoofs. On the
other hand, in the ploughed districts, he is perpetually
alighting in fallowed ground, or in that sown with wheat
or other corn, which, particularly after a severe frost, is so
far from being firm enough to bear his weight, that it sinks
him nearly to the knees. This is very distressing, espe¬
cially to a horse which carries a heavy man ; and here the
skill of the rider is shewn in his preventing his jumping
at fences of this description, higher or farther than is abso¬
lutely necessary to clear them. To a man who follows
hounds, indeed, this art of handing his horse easily over
fences, is one of the very highest value; and to the pos¬
session of it, to perfection, is to be attributed the extraordi¬
nary performance of hunters under some of our heaviest
sportsmen, such as Mr Edge and his brother, Mr Richard
Gurney, Sir Bellingham Graham, Mr Maxse, Lord Alvanley,
and others, in fast runs of an hour or more, over strongly
inclosed countries.
Walls are, we believe, the only fence met with in Great
Britain which we have as yet left unnoticed. They are of two
descriptions, namely, fast, by means of mortar, and loose,
being built without mortar. The first do not often come
in the way of the sportsman ; and it is well that they do not,
for, in the event of a horse striking them, they do not yield
HORSEMANSHIP.
614
Horseman-to his weight. The last, the loose walls, particularly those
met with in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, are the least
' J“~'' dangerous fences he can ride at; for, unless his horse be
blown, or he is himself a very powerless horseman, they sel¬
dom resist him sufficiently to throw him down. Their height
varies from three to five feet; but as there never is a ditch
on either side of them, and the ground is generally firm in
the parts of those counties which are inclosed with walls ;
those even of the last-mentioned height may be taken with
safety by a good horseman, on a horse that is accustomed to
them, and is not distressed at the time by the pace ; for, as
“ it is the pace that kills,” so is it the pace that causes falls.
The following directions may be serviceable to a young
beginner in the hunting field:—When hounds find and go
away, place yourself well down in your saddle, on your
fork, or twist, and dont be standing up in your stirrups (as
formerly was the fashion, and the cause of many a dislo¬
cated neck), sticking out your rump as if it did not belong
to you. Let your knee be not very far from straight, with
your foot well out in front of it, and feeling in the stirrup
as if it formed a sufficient fulcrum for your bodily strength
to act upon, in the assistance your horse may require from
you. Be assured that the military seat, with the very long
stirrup leathers, will not do here, however graceful it may
appear on a parade. There must be a kind of obstando
power in the rider, to act against the preponderance of his
horse, particularly at what are called drop-leaps, in very deep
ground ; or, in case of his making a blunder, or getting into
false ground, in his gallop. Having got well away with the
pack, keep your head up, with your reins in the left
hand, and your whip in your right, held perpendicularly
upwards, with the thong falling loosely through your hand,
when it will be ready for all purposes. Cast your eye for¬
ward, to take a view of the country, and then on the body
of the hounds, to satisfy yourself that they are well settled
to the chase. And now comes the young fox-hunter’s
trial. You must neither take liberties with the hounds, nor
with your horse. Ride wide of, that is, on the left, or on
the right of, the former, turning as you see them turn, and
never find yourself exactly behind them, on their line;
and no matter how perfect may be the latter, never trust
him to himself, nor upset him by going too fast for him, or,
in other words, over-marking him for pace. However good
his mouth, never ride him in chase with quite a slack rein,
tor, independently of your own safety, it is not giving him a
fair chance. He requires your support, and he should have it.
In riding to hounds, there is much to be gained by
what is termed picking out your country. Avoid going
straight across land highly ridged, and, consequently, deeply
furrowed, if possible to avoid it, but rather take your line
diagonally. If the furrows are very deep and holding,
make for the side, or the head-land, where, of course, it is
comparatively level ground. Even if it takes you a little
out of your line, you will find your advantage in this, for
you may increase your rate of going, and that with ease
to your horse, more than equal to the extra distance you
have to go. If your horse appear somewhat distressed,
it is on a head-land, or still more on a long side-land, that
you have a good opportunity of recovering him ; and here
you may have recourse to the old-fashioned style of riding
a hunter. You may stand up in your stirrups, catching
fast hold of your horse's head, and pulling him well toge-
t er, when you will find, that, without slackening his pace,
he has recovered his wind and can go on. Avoid deep
ground as much as possible; but when in it, keep a good
pull on your horse, and by no means attempt to go so fast
t!v,cr ftj as you have been going over that which was sound.
After Christmas, turnip fields should be skirted if possible ;
for, by reason of the many ploughings they receive at seed¬
time, the land sown with turnips becomes so loose and po¬
rous after severe frost, that it cannot carry a horse. Also
avoid crossing fallows, or land sown with wheat. If obliged Homp
to go athwart them, get on the head-land ; or if you ride shi!
straight down them, choose the wettest furrow you can see." N-
It is sure to have the firmest bottom, which is proved by
the water standing in it. *
As no man can say where a fox-chase will end, have an
eye to your horse, and endeavour to give him all the ad¬
vantages in his favour that the country and the pace will
admit of. Next to a judicious choice of your ground, is
quickness in turning with hounds, as the difference be¬
tween riding inside and outside of them, in their turns
(be it remembered hounds very seldom run straight) is
very considerable indeed ; and to a certain degree corres¬
ponds with what is called “ the whip-hand” in a race.
Again, if you wish to stand well with the master of the
pack, and to obtain the character of a sportsman, observe
the following rules:—Never press upon hounds, even in
chase. When they have lost the chase, in other words,
when they are at fault, pull up your horse and keep wide
of them ; and, in the words of a celebrated old sportsman,
“ always anticipate a check”
Never, for the sake of displaying your horsemanship, or
your horse, take an unnecessary leap when hounds are run-
ning, nor a large one when a smaller is in your view, unless
the latter take you too much out of your line, or for a
reason which we shall presently give. If your horse is a
good timber leaper, and not blown, prefer a moderate
timber fence to a rough, and blind hedge-and-ditch fence,
as less likely to give you a fall, neither will it take so much
out of your horse. But when your horse becomes dis¬
tressed, avoid timber, for if he do not clear it, he will
give you a worse fall in that state than if he were quite
fresh. A blown horse falls nearly as heavy as a dead one.
1 here is, however, another precaution to be observed with
horses a good deal beaten by the pace. Have an eye, then,
rather to the nature of the ground on which it is placed,
than to the size of the fence ; that is, prefer a good-sized
fence, where you see firm ground for your horse to spring
from, to a small one where it is soft and sticky. Moreover,
a distressed horse will often rise at a fence of some height
and appearance, whereas he will run into, or, at all events,
endeavour to scramble through, a small one. If you de¬
cide upon the smaller place, let him go gently at it, as he
will be less likely to give you a fall; at all events, he may
not give you so bad a one as if you went fast up to it.
Some horses get out of scrapes better than others; but it
is as well not to give them an opportunity of shewing their
prowess in such matters.
A chief requisite to a good rider across a country is,
courage, one of the most common qualities of human
natute; and another is, coolness. No man, when flurried,
can do any one thing well; but when we consider the va¬
riety of objects that the sportsman, following hounds, has
to attract his notice, and the many obstacles he may have
to encounter, it is evident that, according to the old adage,
“ he must have all his wits about him.” The perfection of
fine horsemanship in the hunting-field, then, is in a man
riding well up to hounds, when going their best pace, over
a stiff country, and yet appearing to be quite at his ease,
and his horse, as it were, sympathising with him in his
calmness. Such a man (and there are some such in every
hunt, but not many) is capable of taking every advantage
that can be taken of country, hounds, and all obstacles
which appear to oppose him in his career. Another signal
advantage to the sportsman also arises from his coolness in
these moments of no small mental, as well as bodily, excite¬
ment and exertion. He is able to observe the beautiful work¬
ing of the hounds, which is displayed to advantage with a
burning scent; and he enjoys it the more, in consequence of
the superiority of his horsemanship having placed him in a
situation where he is not molested by the crowd.
HORSEMANSHIP.
man- The greater part of mankind, it is true, are endowed
ip* with a capacity for performing, and, to a certain degree,
'—■''excelling in, the various exercises which have been in¬
vented for our amusement; but we have reason to believe,
that out of the vast numbers of persons who attempt the
apparently simple art of horsemanship, particularly that
part of it which we have now been speaking of, there are
fewer who arrive at perfection in it, than in any other with
which we are acquainted. Luckily, however, for sportsmen,
it is not in horsemanship as in the fine arts, which admit of
no difference between distinguished success and absolute
failure; and it is certain that there are more good and
spirited riders to hounds at the present day, than were
ever known since fox-hunting, as now practised, begun.
And Englishmen may be proud of this; for although amongst
the classical glories of antiquity, we hear nothing of leap¬
ing five-barred gates, twenty feet drains, and six-feet walls,
after hounds, yet a daring horseman always found ho¬
nour. Alexander the Great first signalized himself by
subduing an unruly horse, which no man but himself dared
to mount; and his celebrated general, Eumenes, was first
noticed by Philip his father, on account of his skill in
horsemanship and all public exercises. Neither are there
wanting parallel cases in our own country, in which titles
and honours have been conferred upon persons who might
never have been known to him who conferred them, but for
their possessing similar accomplishments.
Although speed in the hunter is now absolutely neces¬
sary, from the much increased rate of hounds, yet it is
equally necessary, in most of our hunting countries, that
he should be a perfect fencer as well, and that his rider
should be an accurate judge of the extent of his fencing
powers. Thus it often happens that horses, not equal in
speed to others, get quicker over a stifly-inclosed country
than they do, because, by the means of their superior
fencing, they are able to cut off angles and go straighter.
In fact, there are frequent instances of one individual
sportsman beating every other in the field, and being alone
throughout a run, merely by clearing a great fence in the
direct line of the hounds at starting; in avoiding which, so
much ground had been lost by the rest of the field, that it
could not be recovered by them until the chase was ended.
The effect of the exertion of leaping, in horses, is pretty
accurately ascertained by the observation and experience
of sportsmen; but some rather curious facts are drawn
from them. A very large fence, as has been before ob¬
served, exhausts a horse, or, in the language of the field,
“ takes a good deal out of him nevertheless, a hunter
becomes sooner distressed over quite an open country,
when the pace is very severe, than he does over an in¬
closed one, provided the fences are not very large indeed.
This is accounted for in two ways : First, fences check the
speed of hounds, and consequently the speed of horses.
Secondly, the mere act of pulling or gathering a horse to¬
gether, to shorten his stride previously to his taking his
leap, is a very great relief to his wind, as we know from the
effect a good pull at his bridle, towards the end of his course,
has on that of the race-horse. At several kinds of fences,
likewise, it is necessary that he should be pulled up nearly, if
not quite, into a walk, to enable him to take them with safety,
such as fences by the sides of trees, hedges with ditches
on each side of them, particularly if they are what is
termed “ blind in short, all places known in the hunting
vocabulary as cramped places, as well as now and then a
timber fence, which must be taken nearly at a stand. And
it was the old system of taking all upright fences, such as
gates, rails, stiles, and hedges without ditches, at a stand,
that enabled the low-bred hunter of the early part and
middle of the last century to live with hounds as well as he
did live with them. The very short time that it takes for
a horse to recover his wind, to a certain extent, might be
615
proved by a reference to stage-coach work. Previously Horseman-
to the perfect manner in which it is now performed, and ship,
the superior condition of the cattle, from their owners hav-1
ing at length found out how to feed them, it was not un¬
usual for a coachman to have a high blower, as a thick or
bad winded horse is called on the road, in his team, which
might scarcely be able to keep time. If he found him dis¬
tressed, he would pull up his coach on the top of a hill, and
draw back the distressed horse from his collar. But how
long would he keep him in this position ? Why, not many
seconds, before he would be sufficiently relieved to proceed.
Thus the country of all others which puts the physical
powers of horses to the greatest test in following hounds,
is one which is hilly, and totally without fences, of which
the Sussex South Downs, in the neighbourhood of Brighton,
may be taken as a sample. Nothing but a thorough-bred
horse, and a good one too, can live quite alongside hounds,
going their very best pace, more than half an hour over
such a country as this, and very few can do even so much,
if they carry more than average weight. The open plough¬
ed countries, such as great part of Wiltshire and Hamp¬
shire, are for the same reason very distressing to horses,
and require them to have a great share of blood; but
hounds do not, neither can they, run so fast over ploughed
ground, as over old, or maiden turf, which the Sussex
Downs are clothed with. In the first place, the scent is
seldom so good; secondly, the ground is not only not elas¬
tic, which the other is, but it impedes the progress of hounds
from two other causes; its surface is less even, and the
soil of all ploughed land sticks more or less to the feet of
hounds; or, in the language of the huntsman, it “ carries”
invariably after a slight frost on the previous night.
We now resume our advice to the young foxhunting
horseman : It is the practice of all first-rate horsemen over
a country to ride slowly at the majority of fences. For
example, if the ditch be on the rising side, you may cause
your horse to put his feet into it before he rises at the hedge.,
if you hurry him at it. Should the ditch be on the landing
side, the case is somewhat altered, as the pace you ride at
must be regulated by its width. If you have reason to be¬
lieve it is of moderate width, do not go fast at the fence, be¬
cause it will cause your horse to leap further than he needs
to leap, and of course help to exhaust him. But if, when
within a few yards of the hedge, going slowly at it, you per¬
ceive the ditch is a broad one, “ put in some powder,” as
the modern sporting term is ; that is, urge your horse by
the hand and spur, and he will be aware of what you wish
him to do, namely, to extend himself so as to clear a wide
space of ground. If the ground on the landing side be lower
than that on the rising side, causing what is called “ a drop
leap,” or even if the ground be not lower, but soft or bog¬
gy, your horse will look for assistance from you on alight¬
ing, which you should give him by throwing your body back,
having at the same time a resisting power from your stirrups.
But another precaution is necessary when the ditch is on
the rising side, or indeed with all fences except those (as
will be hereafter named) which require to be ridden quickly
at. This is, to fore-shorten the horse’s stroke so as to ena¬
ble him to gather himself together for the spring, or he may
misjudge his distance, and get too near to his fence to rise
at it. In fact, to judge accurately of the distance from the
fence, at which the spring should be taken, is a great ac¬
complishment in a man and a horse. In the former, it is the
result of experience and a quick eye ; with the latter, it is
in great measure dependent on temper; and consequently
violent horses, “ rushing fencers,” as they are termed,
never perfectly acquire it. It is a serious fault in a horse
to take his spring sooner than he need take it; and perfect
fencers go close up to their fences before they rise at them,
particularly to hedges when the ditches are on the landing
side. Horses, however, of hasty tempers, particularly well-
616 HORSEMANSHIP.
Horseman-bred ones, with great jumping powers, cannot always be
ship. made to do so. Neither will they save themselves by
^ walking into, or pushing through, places which do not re¬
quire to be jumped ; on the contrary, many otherwise ex¬
cellent hunters will scarcely suffer a brier to touch their
legs. A good bridle-hand here comes into play, more es¬
pecially with horses who are rather difficult to handle, either
from too fine a mouth, or a loose, ill-formed neck. It is
difficult, however, to offer instruction here, as there ought
to be an absolute interchange of feeling between the in¬
structor and the instructed, to render them intelligible to
each other ; but we will endeavour to make ourselves un¬
derstood :—When you approach a fence with a horse of this
description, you idiould leave him as much to himself as you
find it prudent to do, particularly when within a few yards
of it. If you are obliged to check his speed, do so with as
light a hand as possible ; and if he shews a dislike to be
much checked, by throwing up his head, or otherwise, drop
your hand to him, and let him go. He has by this time
most probably measured the fence by his eye, and it may
not be safe to interfere with him.
Double fences, particularly with a horse not quite per¬
fect in his mouth, and the setting on of his head, try the
hand of the horseman. The first part of the fence, usually
a ditch, may be cleared without any difficulty, and so may
the second, if visible; but it often happens that neither
horse nor rider is prepared for the second. Here it is that,
in our opinion, lifting a horse is to be recommended, and
in very few cases besides. Our objection to it arises from
the horse being led to expect it; and if he do not get it at
the critical moment, it may mislead him. In fact, it re¬
quires a hand nicer than common to make a practice of
lifting a horse at his fences. Nevertheless, in the instance
we have alluded to, the unforeseen ditch, it is usefvd ; as
also towards the end of a run, when a horse, from distress,
is given to be slovenly at his fences, if not disposed to run
into them. In leaping timber fences, we consider the at¬
tempt to lift a hunter dangerous; for a horse becomes a
good timber-leaper from confidence ; and if he finds he is
to wait, as it were, for your pleasure for him to rise at a
gate or a stile, he will be very apt to make mistakes.
We have already observed, that timber fences are the
most dangerous of any, by reason of their general strength ;
if a horse strikes them with his fore-legs, or gets across
them, as it were, by not being able to bring his hinder-
quarters clear of them, they are nearly certain to cause
him to fall. And he falls from timber in a form more dan¬
gerous to his rider than when he merely stumbles and even¬
tually falls, by putting his feet into a ditch. In the latter
case, his fore-quarters come to the ground first; and by
breaking the force of the fall, the rider has time to roll
awray from him before he himself rolls over, should the vio¬
lence of the fall cause him to do so. In the former, if the
timber be strong enough firmly to resist the weight and
force of a horse that strikes it with his fore-legs, especially
if above the knees, the first part of his body which comes to
the ground is either his back or his rump. Should the
rider then not be thrown clear of him, he must be made of
hard materials if no bones are broken, or some serious in¬
jury sustained. All this, then, enforces the advice we have
already given, of avoiding strong timber with horses not
erfect at leaping it, as much as may be compatible with
eeping your place with hounds; and still more so with
horses, how perfect soever they may be at it, that are blown,
or very much distressed. It likewise induces us to point
out the best and safest method of riding at this description
of fence.
Never ride a horse fast at a timber fence, unless it be a
low one, with something wide to be cleared on the landing
side. If a man or a boy is seen exercising himself in jump¬
ing heighth, you do not see him run quickly at it, nor does he
run over any considerable space of ground before he springs. Horseti.
On the contrary, he only takes a few steps, and those at a ship ;’
moderate rate. Never, then, ride your hunter fast at gates,
stiles, &c. unless in the one case alluded to. Mr Thomas
Assheton Smith, perhaps more celebrated for his horse¬
manship in the hunting field than any other person of the
present age, and who was for many years at the head of
the Quorndon (Leicestershire) Hunt, never rode fast at
any fences, brooks excepted, and then only under circum¬
stances which will be explained when we treat on that part
of our subject. When riding at timber, however, take a
firm hold of your horse’s head, chiefly by the aid of the
bridoon, if his mouth is good enough for it; and let him
understand, by assuming an air of resolution on your part,
that you not only mean him to leap it, and that you will
not suffer him to turn his tail to it, but that it is some¬
thing at which his best energies will be required of him.
But, above all things, do not interfere with his stroke or
stride, unless absolutely called upon by some peculiarity of
the ground, such as a grip on the headland, or a small
ditch on the rising side. A horse making up his mind
to leap a timber fence, will of Ids own accord regulate
that matter, and gradually gather himself together on his
haunches, previous to being required to take his spring.
He will also, if you let him, often make choice of his pace
at which he goes up to a gate, &c. It is true the deer
can clear a greater height in its trot than in any other pace;
but a horse prefers the very slow gallop, or canter, when
thus called upon to exert himself; for if he do trot to any
upright fence, we generally see him break into a canter in
the last few yards. As the fulcrum for the spring comes
from behind, the canter is the most natural pace, the
haunches being at this time more under him.
The same instructions to the horseman hold good with
regard to stone walls as to timber fences, at least to those
met with in England, which are loose, and without ditches.
But in several parts of Scotland the case is different, as the
sportsman very frequently has to encounter walls with
ditches on one side or the other of them. In consequence
of their being placed at some distance from the wall, to
prevent the water which runs down them undermining the
foundation of it, there is frequently room, when the ditch
is on the rising side, for a horse to leap the ditch, and take
a second spring from the intermediate space, and so clear
the wall. But when he has to leap the wall, with the ditch
on the landing side, it becomes a very difficult, fence, and
must be ridden at with judgment. If the ditch be not too
far from the wall, to come within the stretch of a hunter,
he should be ridden quickly at it, and well roused by the
rider, to make him extend himself sufficiently ; but if it be
too far, he should be put very slowly at the wall, so as to
enable him to drop, with his hinder legs at least, on the
intermediate space, and from thence spring over the ditch.
This fence is very trying to horses not accustomed to it;
and with those which are, one fact ‘ becomes apparent,
namely, that the mere holding the reins of a bridle does
not constitute what is called “ a hand” on a horse. A
workman with a “ finger” is wanted here.
In riding at every description of timber your seat as
well as your hand requires attention. You have already
been told on what part of your horse you ought to sit,
namely, in the middle of your saddle, which should be placed
close to the shoulder bones, when your seat will be most
secure, from its being just in the centre of motion when
your horse springs at his fence ; as, in the rising and fall¬
ing of a board placed in equilibrio, the centre will be most
at rest. Your true seat, indeed, will be found nearly in
that part of your saddle into which your body would na¬
turally slide if you mounted without stirrups. But other
security than this is required, to insure safety over very
high fences. It is not the horse’s rising that tries the
HORSEMANSHIP.
(i!7
ubi
n- rider’s seat; the lash of his hinder legs is what ought to be
chiefly guarded against, and is best done by the body’s
^ being greatly inclined backward. Grasp the saddle lightly
with the hollow, or inner part of your thighs, but let there
be no stiffness in any part, of the person at this time, par¬
ticularly in the loins, which should be as pliant as those of
a coachman on his box, when travelling over a rough road.
A stiff seat cannot be a secure one, because it offers resist¬
ance to the violent motions of the horse, which is clearly
illustrated by the cricket-player. Were he to hold his hand
firm and fixed when he catches a ball struck with great
force, his hand or arm would be broken by the resistance ;
but by yielding his hand gradually, and for a certain dis¬
tance, to the motion of the ball, by a due mixture of oppo¬
sition and obedience, he catches it without sustaining in¬
jury. Thus it is in the saddle. A good horseman recovers
his poise, by giving some way to the motion, whereas a bad
one is flung from his seat, by endeavouring to be fixed in
it. In old times, when hunters were trained to leap all
upright fences standing, these precautions were still more
necessary, because the effect of the lash of the hinder quar¬
ters was more sudden and violent, in consequence of the
horse being so close to his fence, that he rose perpendicu¬
larly at it, and not with the lengthened sweep of a flying
leap.
Although Virgil, in his third Georgic, speaks of not suf¬
fering the brood mare to leap fences (non saltu superare
viam), we find nothing on this subject in the classics, to
induce us to believe that the ancients, although they hunt¬
ed, were given to ride over fences. Here they sustained a
loss ; for we know few more delightful sensations, than that
experienced in the act of riding a fine flying leaper over a
high and broad fence. Nothing within the power of man
approaches so nearly to the act of flying ; and it is astonish¬
ing what a great space of ground has been covered at one
leap by horses following hounds, or, at other times, with
first-rate horsemen on their backs, who alone have the
power of making them extend themselves to the utmost;
and particularly when the ground, on the rising side, is
sound, and somewhat in favour of the horse. In the grand
Leicestershire steeple chase of 1829, a grey horse, called
“ The King of the Valley,” the property of Mr Maxse,
and ridden by the justly celebrated Mr Richard Christian
of Melton Mowbray, cleared the previously-unheard-of
space of eleven yards, or thirty-three feet. Yet, after all,
the most extraordinary fact relating to the act of leaping
in horses, is the power they have of extending themselves
by a second spring, as it were, when, on being suspended
in the air, they perceive something on the further side of
a fence, for which they were not prepared. That they
occasionally do this under good horsemen, all good horse¬
men of experience can vouch for; but whence the fulcrum
is derived, it would be difficult to determine. All horses
which have been in Leicestershire, and other countries
where the fences are large and wide, become more or less
accomplished in the act of throwing themselves forward, as
well as springing upward, causing a very pleasant sensation
m the rider, as well as an assurance that he is not likely to
drop short into the ditch or brook.
We have already said, that brooks stop a field more than
any other description of fence, and for the following rea¬
sons: Very few men, and still fewer horses, like jumping
brooks. In the first place, as concern the rider, they are
very apt to injure his horse by a strain, or a bad over¬
reach ; secondly, water is deceiving as to the extent of it;
thirdly, a wide brook takes much out of a horse; and,
lastly, the banks often give way, after the horse sup¬
poses he has landed himself; and although it is easy for
him to get into a brook, it is often very difficult for him
to get out of one. Few horses become very good water-
jumpers, unless they have been hunted a good deal in
VOL. XI.
countries where brooks abound, and also have been fortu- Horsemaa.
nate in not getting into one of them in their noviciate. ship.
For this reason, it is a hazardous experiment to give a large '■—~ .
price for a hunter, how high-soever may be his character,
that has been only hunted in counties like Hampshire or
parts of Wiltshire, where there are no brooks but such as,
from the soundness of their bottoms, horses may walk
through. We have already stated the most likely way to
make a young horse a good brook-jumper ; a very superior
accomplishment in a hunter, and chiefly to be attained by
his acquiring confidence.
There is one other untoward circumstance attending
leaping brooks with hounds. They are, for the most part,
met with in the middle of a field, and it often happens
that, until the horseman arrives on the very brink of them,
he cannot form a correct estimate of their nature or ex¬
tent. They also vary much in both these respects, we
mean in the soundness or unsoundness of their banks, and
in their width, in the space of a few yards ; so that it is in
some measure a matter of chance whether you have to leap
a wide brook or a narrow one. But then, it may be said,
you can always satisfy yourself on these points. True ;
you may do so: but what would too often be the conse¬
quence ? Why, if you shew your horse a brook before
you ride him at it, it would too frequently happen that he
would not have it at all; add to which, whilst you were
doing this, on a good scenting day, the hounds w'ould get
a long wray a-head of you. Besides, the vis vivida, or mo¬
mentum of the horse’s gallop, so necessary to get him well
over wide brooks with rotten banks, is wanted, but in this
case would to a certain extent be lost; and if he is once
pulled up, and turned around, it is not so readily acquired
again, as he is always more or less alarmed, after having got
a sight of what he is going to encounter. Wide brooks,
then, with uncertain banks, are the only fences which
should be ridden very fast at; for, exclusive of the advan¬
tage the horse gets from the impetus derived from the speed,
should he fall on the other side from false ground, he will
generally save himself from dropping backwards into the
brook, an object of no small importance to him, as also to
his rider. There are, however, exceptions to the rule of
riding fast at brooks. When they are not wide, and the
banks are sound, it takes less out of a horse to put him at
a moderate rate at them. Neither should he be ridden
quickly at them when they overflow their banks, as it will
then require all his circumspection and care to know when,
or where, to spring from, to cover them. In fact, over¬
flown brooks are rather formidable obstacles; but (a fine
trial of hand) numerous instances do occur in the course
of a season, where they are leaped when in that state by
some of the field, but not by many.
Although, when the sportsman rides over a very wide
brook, or any other fence which requires much ground to
be covered, he has a certain hold by his bridle ; yet, as may
be supposed, it is very unequal to the weight of his own
body, increased by the resistance of the air. How happens
it, then, that his horse does not leap from under him ? or,
at least, how is it that, when the horse alights, the rider
alights in the very same spot in the saddle on which he
sat when his horse rose at it ? The fact is, his body so far
partakes of the speed of his horse, and increases in common
with it, that, with very little assistance ftom his bridle-reins,
he keeps himself in his proper place. If it were net so,
what would become of the rider in the circus, who leaps
directly upward, through a hoop perhaps, or over his whip,
whilst his horse is going at considerable speed ? He would,
of course, alight upon the ground, perpendicularly, under
the point at which he sprang from his saddle. It is evi¬
dent, however, that on leaving the saddle, the body of the
rider has equal velocity with that of the horse; and the
spring, which he takes perpendicularly upward, in no de-
4 i
HORSEMANSHIP.
CIS
Horseman-gree diminishes this velocity ; so that, while he is ascend-
ship. Jng from the saddle, he is still advancing with the same
' ' • ' speed as his horse, and continues so advancing until his
return to the saddle. In this case, the body of the rider
describes the diagonal of a parallelogram ; one side of which
is in the direction of the horse’s motion, and the .other per¬
pendicularly upward, in the direction in which he makes the
leap. From these facts, these striking instances of the
composition of motion, then, may the advantages of good,
and the disadvantages of bad, horsemanship be appreciated;
and as it appears that the motions of the rider and his horse
are so intimately connected and in unison with each other
(for were the circus rider to project his body forward, in
his leap through the hoop, as he would do if it were on the
ground, he would alight on his horse’s head or neck, or
perhaps before his head, for he would then advance forw ard
more rapidly than his horse), the importance of a steady
seat and a good hand is apparent, and accounts for some
men crossing a country on middling horses, quicker and
better than others do upon really good ones.
Having spoken of overflown brooks, and being aware of
the many fatal disasters that have occurred to sportsmen
in wrater, and the narrow escapes of drowning from cross¬
ing flooded rivers, by others, within the last twenty years,
we are surprised that the exercise of sw imming horses, in
the summer months, is not more generally resorted to. It
was practised by the ancients; for we find Alexander swim¬
ming the Granicus with thirteen troops of horse. But the
horses should be practised in swimming as well as their
riders, or it would not avail the sportsman so much, as we
know some horses are very much alarmed when they lose
their legs in water, and often turn themselves over. That
the act of swimming on horses is a most simple and safe
one to those wlio practise it, may be proved at any of our
watering places in the summer, where boys swim them out
to sea, twro at a time, changing their seats from one to ano¬
ther with the greatest ease. We observe they generally
lean their body forwards, so that the water gets under it,
and partly floats it, interfering as little as possible with the
horse’s mouth; at all events, never touching the curb rein.
When the sportsman or the traveller has occasion, or is
accidentally called upon, to swim his horse through deep
water, and the banks will admit of it, he should enter it as
gradually as possible, as not only will his horse be less
alarmed at the loss of his footing, but less liable to turn
himself over in it. Ihus in fording a brook too wide to
leap, and with a soft bottom, a horse should be ridden very
slowly into it, which will enable him to get his hinder legs
well under his body before he makes his spring to ascend
the opposite bank; which he cannot do if he enter the
brook quickly.
As the young sportsman may be induced to “make his
own horses,” as the term is for qualifying them for the ap¬
pellation of hunters, it may not be amiss to offer him a few
words of advice. Be careful, the first season, how you
ride them at very cramped places, especially where there
is t imber, for they cannot be expected to be an fait at such
things ; and many of the worst falls that some of our hard-
riding sportsmen have experienced, have been from ex¬
pecting young horses to do what old, or at least experien¬
ced ones, only can do. Avoid also taking the lead with
hounds, especially if they run hard, with a young horse, for it
may cause him to refuse a big fence which he might have
followed another horse over, and thus become a refuser
ever afterwards. Although horses do not understand lan¬
guages, they understand the arbitrary signs of their masters
o', riders; and if a young hunter makes a slovenly mistake
with you at a fence, he should be corrected with either
spur oi whip, and also by the voice. The merely calling
out to him, or exclaiming, “ For shame—what are you
about, eh!” accompanied by a slight stroke of the whip,
has often a very good effect, and will be visible at the nextfl
fence, when he will be more careful where he puts his feet si ^
and take a greater spring. A horse knows his errors; aW
when he is corrected, and when cherished, each of which
he should be subject to in their turns ; but as, according to
the old adage, a coward and a madman are equally unfit to
be horsemen, the correction of a young hunter should not
be severe. Nothing would be more likely to make him what
is called a “ rushing,” and consequently an unsafe fencer for
the rest of his life, than beating him severely, for any trif¬
ling faults he may commit in the field. Martingals on
hunters are now generally condemned; but, in our opinion,
more generally than they deserve to be, particularly dur¬
ing the first season of a young horse, as a long martingal
serves to steady his head, if he is a little impetuous, and
saves him many falls, which, putting his rider out of the
question, are injurious to him, as all horses become large
fencers, in a great measure, by having confidence in them¬
selves, which falls must necessarily shake. All horses, in¬
deed, whose necks are weak and loose, may be ridden with
advantage by the aid of a martingal on the bridoon rein,
the rings coming quite up to their jaws, when it cannot
interfere with their galloping or their leaping. We re¬
member the time, indeed, when the first sportsmen and
hardest riders of the day, wTere never seen without a long
martingal, on horses whose heads were not quite in the right
place, and be it remembered that nineteen out of twenty
race-horses are ridden in martingals. Nevertheless we
would avoid the use of them when not absolutely neces¬
sary, as the more liberty a hunter has, the more likely he
is to recover himself when in difficulty.
The perfect command of a horse in the hunting field is
in nothing more essential than in passing through half-
opened gates, and many have been the bad accidents that
have arisen from the want of it, horses being often stuck
fast between the gate and the post, to the no small injury
to their rider’s legs or knees. Indeed the being handy in
opening a gate, is no trifling accomplishment in a hunter;
and here a few lessons in the school may be of advantage
to him. He wmuld there be taught to obey the leg as well
as the hand; and, by a slight touch of the spur, would
throw his haunches round to the left, on his rider unfasten¬
ing the latch with his right hand, and thus enable him to
throw the gate behind him, and pass through it. This has
reference to gates that open towards the horseman ; such
as open from him, require not the horse’s aid. But it often
happens when a horse is blown, or beat, that unless he have
a very good mouth, he will hang upon a gate, and nearly
prevent his rider from opening it at all. One precaution,
however, should always be taken with gates: the rider should
never trust to catching the topmost bar, or what is called
the head of the gate, but should pass his hand inside of it,
when he will be certain to come in contact with some part
of it.
Falls—There is a proverb, and a true one, which says,
“ He that will venture nothing, must not get on horse¬
back.” All men, however, who ride a-hunting are subject
to falls, but those who ride near to hounds, or “ hard,” as
the term is, seldom escape without having several in the
course of a season. It is well, then, that the young sports¬
man should know, that there is an art in falling, as well as
in preventing falls. This consists in getting clear of the
horse as soon as possible, which a man in the habit of fall¬
ing has a better chance to do than one who runs less risk
of it, having greater self-possession at the moment. Next
to a horse coming neck and croup over a high timber fence,
a fall in galloping at full speed is most dangerous, and apt
to dislocate the neck, by the head coming first to the
ground ; and from the velocity of the fall, the rider lias no
time for precautions. However, even in this case he should
endeavour to put out one hand, if not both, to break the
HORSEMANSHIP.
nan.force of the fall, as well as to act in resistance to his head
• coming first to the ground, and receiving the whole force
of the concussion. By so doing, it is true, the collar-bone
stands a great chance of being fractured; but that is an
accident merely of temporary inconvenience, and unat¬
tended with danger^ whereas a dislocated neck is very
rarely reduced. But it is a curious fact, that there are
fewer instances of broken necks in the field in the present
age, than there were nearly a century ago, notwithstanding
that for one man who rode a-hunting then, there are fifty
now; and the pace of hounds, as well as style of riding,
much altered as to speed. This has been accounted for in two
ways: first, the modern sportsman sits, for the most part,
down on his saddle, whereas the sportsman of olden times
stood up in his stirrups, and, when his horse fell with him
in his gallop, was nearly certain to fall on his head. Se¬
condly, he did not ride the well-bred, superiorly-actioned
horse that the modern sportsman rides, which would ac¬
count for his falling oftener in his gallop, and particularly
as the surface of the country, in his day, was very uneven
and uncultivated compared to what it now is. Neither was
the hunting cap of much service to him in accidents of
this description. On the contrary, from its being so low in
the crown, as it was then made, coming in immediate con¬
tact with the top of the head, the concussion was greater
if he were thrown upon his head, than if it had been
cased in a hat which, from the depth of it, would break
tire fall.
In all falls, the horseman should roll away from his horse
as soon as he possibly can, lest in his struggle to rise again
he strike him with his legs or head. It frequently happens
that the horse himself rolls after he falls, and, if in the di¬
rection in which his rider lies, is apt to crush and injure
him. Indeed, there is scarcely any hard rider wrho has not
been thus served; but here again self-possession often
stands his friend. When he sees the body of his horse ap¬
proaching him, he frequently saves himself by meeting it
with one of his feet, and, by obtaining a fulcrum, shoves
his owm body along the ground out of his reach. Coolness
in this hour of peril, likewise serves the sportsman in an¬
other way. Instead of losing hold of his reins, and aban¬
doning his horse to his own will, as the man who is flurried
at this time invariably does, he keeps them in his hand, if
not always, perhaps in nine falls out of ten, and thus secures
his horse. It was the remark of a gentleman to whom we
have before alluded, and who {singulus in arte) was, from
his desperate system of riding, and despite of his fine horse-
manship, known to have more falls than any other man
during the time he hunted Leicestershire, that nothing had
so low an appearance as that of a man running on foot over
a field, calling out, “ Stop my horse.”
Before quitting this part of our subject, it may be well
to observe, that in cases of bad falls, particularly those affect*-
ing the head, w here the lancet cannot be immediately had
recourse to, a large wine glassful of equal parts of strong
vinegar and water, drunk by the sufferer, is found to be
very efficacious, from the revulsive powers of the vinegar
acting on the general circulation of the system. In coun¬
tries where there is much timber to be leaped, stiles parti¬
cularly, calkins to the shoes of the hinder feet of a hunter
should never be omitted, as should those feet slip under his
body, the fulcrum, to spring from, is lost, and a fall nearly
certain.
We have only a few words more to offer to the young
sportsman. Nature is invariably the standard of excellence,
and unless she have endowed you with a cool head, a vi¬
gorous body, and a stout heart, you will not long distinguish
yourself in the hunting field, as what is now termed “ a
first-flight horseman." You may sing with Hector,
“ The foremost place I claim,
The first in danger, as the first in fame
619
but you will not obtain it unless you possess the above Horseman-
named requisites. But having them, do not consider the ship,
following admonitions unworthy of your notice : Never ride ^
at impenetrable, or impracticable places ; you may get over
or through them with a fall, but your horse will surely be
the wrorse for the attempt, and will the sooner sink under
you in a good run. Never abandon your horse to himself
over any ground, but be sure to hold him fast by his head,
either up or down hill, and in soft ground. If you doubt
the effect of a tight hand at these times, ask the first Newr-
market jockey you meet, and he will fully satisfy your
doubts. In the daring movements of that “ lawless moment,”
which the first start after hounds, in some countries^ may
how be termed, from the desperate attempts hard-riding
men make to get the lead, do not fail to have your eyes
about you, and also keep a good command over your horse.
In plain English, do not ride over any man. Some of the
worst accidents to sportsmen have arisen from this cause.
In the first place, one man will often ride so close to another
who is going to leap a fence, that if the first horse falls,
the second is almost certain to leap either on or over him
and his rider, as he can rarely be pulled up, or even turned,
in so short a space. But even should the second man see
the first man’s horse in the act of leaping the fence, he
should allow him some time to get away from it, for in the
event of his clearing it, it is still possible he may fall, by
stumbling over something after landing; stepping into a
grip or rut, or into false ground, all of which he is subject
to, but more especially towards the end of a chase, when,
of course, his strength and action are reduced. It is better,
if you can, to take a line of your own than to follow any
one at this time, as your horse is now fresh; and, by not
having cause to pull him up to let others go before you, you
have a better chance to get a good start, which gives you
a great advantage. When once along side the pack, quit
them not until they have finished their w ork, or at least
as long as your horse can go without trespassing too hard
on his powers. If, however, you get the lead and can keep
it for forty minutes, best pace over the grass, w ith rasping
fences and two wide brooks in your way, the laurels Caesar
w on would be weeds, and w ithered ones too, compared with
those which would, for that one day, be.yours.
There have been, and are now, some splendid specimens
of horsemanship, and the management of horses in other
ways, amongst servants, and it appears there always were
such. Amongst the celebrated ones of antiquity we find
the following, moving in this humble sphere : Autome-
don, servant to Achilles; Idoeus to Priam; Metiocus to
Turnus, king of Rutuli; Myrtilus to CEnomous, a son of
Mars ; Ceberes to Darius; and Anniceris, servant to Cy-
raneus. And why should not the servant, by practice,
become as fine a horseman as his master ? The question
appears to be easily answered, namely, that the chances
are equal, with equal instruction and experience. But
such has not been found to be the case ; and although
amongst the various huntsmen, whippers-in, and what are
known by the appellation of second-horse-men, namely,
those grooms who ride horses with hounds, to supply
the place of those their masters ride, when they become
fatigued, a most humane, as well as economical plan with
all who have a stud of hunters, some super-excellent horse¬
men may be found, the generality of servants are deficient
in that first essential to good horsemanship, a fine or sen¬
sitive hand. Nor is this a matter of surprise. The nervous
influence, proceeding from the organs of touch, may be said
chiefly to constitute what is termed the “ hand” of the
horseman; and that influence may easily be supposed to
be greater in a person whose situation in life has not
subjected him to rough and laborious employments which
must necessarily tend to deaden it. Until of late years
the seat of servants was unfavourable to a good hand on
620
HORSEMANSHIP.
Horseman-their horse, as they, with very few exceptions, rode with
ship. too short stirrups, and, consequently, by being not well
'''■—■'v''*"''placed in their seats, were perpetually interfering with their
horses’ mouths, from their unsteadiness. So fully aware of
these objections was the late Mr Childe of Kinlett Hall,
Shropshire, that, during the period of his keeping fox-hounds,
he had only one servant in his large establishment that he
ever suffered to mount the horses he himself rode, and that
was William Barrow, afterwards more than twenty years
huntsman to the late Mr Corbet in Warwickshire; and
who was remarkable for his fine bridle-hand. Notwith¬
standing this, it may fairly be maintained, that, from the
fact of the comparatively small number of good horsemen
who have obtained instruction from the schools, there is
more of nature than of art in the acquisition of skill and
talent on the saddle.
Saddles and bridles form no unimportant feature in the
equestrian art, as well as in the establishment of a sports¬
man. Nothing sets off the appearance of a horse and his
rider more than a good saddle and bridle, nor does any
thing contribute more to the comfort and safety of the lat¬
ter than a well-made, roomy saddle, with spring bars for
the stirrup-leathers ; stirrups rather heavy than otherwise,
and sufficiently large for the feet. Some persons, not con¬
tented with the spring bars, require spring stirrups as well;
but in our opinion, no man can hang in a common stirrup,
provided he do not wear thick boots nor use small stir¬
rup-irons. Of the various sorts of bridles, the snaffle is
most in use on the turf, and the curb for military horses,
hunters, roadsters, and coach-horses. Not one hunter in
twenty has a mouth good enough for a snaffle only; al¬
though there are a few horses in every hunt that will not
face the curb. Some, however, go very well on the snaf¬
fle tip to a certain period of a run, when all at once they
require the assistance of the curb. Such horses should be
ridden with a double bridle, so that the rider may have re¬
course to the curb-bit, when wanting.
There is often great nicety required in fitting a horse
with a bridle, if irritable in his temper, or a very hard pul¬
ler. If the former, he must have a bit of just sufficient se¬
verity to control him, and not any thing more. The one
called the “ Pelham,” is well adapted to horses of this de¬
scription, as it partakes of the double properties of snaffle
and curb. With very hard pulling horses, the curb to a
severe bit must be used; but the evil of this is, that, after
a certain time, the mouth, thus acted upon, becomes
“ dead,” as the term is, and the horse is unpleasant to ride
and difficult to turn. To remedy this, three players should
be attached to the port of the bit, which, by hanging loose¬
ly over the tongue, keep the mouth alive. A bridle of this
description, very long in the cheek, is known in the hunt¬
ing world, as the “ Clipper bit,” being the one in which
that celebrated horseman Mr Lindow rode a horse, called
the Clipper, several years over Leicestershire, in which far-
famed county he was supposed to be the best hunter going.
If a horse rushes at his fences, a moderately tight nose¬
band is useful, as also to prevent his opening his mouth,
and snatching at his rider’s hand. The less a horse opens
his mouth in his work the better, as it tends to make it dry ;
whereas, it cannot be too moist for his own good. Bits
very high in the port are of course the most severe, owing
to the increased purchase ; but w ith every description of
bits, care should be taken that they are sufficiently wide
for the mouth, so as not to press against the horse’s cheeks, Hoj J
and that the headstall is sufficiently long to let the bit drop > H
well into the mouth. v'— -J
As we read in the 22d chapter of Genesis, 3d verse, that
“ Abraham rose up early in the morning, and saddled his
ass,” saddles of some sort must have been used in very early
days; but few things appear more extraordinary to those
persons who look into ancient history, than the fact of sad¬
dles with stirrups being a comparatively modern invention.
Although a French translator 1 of Xenophon, by an over¬
sight, makes a governor of Armenia hold the stirrup of the
Persian king when he mounted his horse—“ II lui tenoit
Vetrier lorsq’il montoit a cheval,”—it is well known that the
ancients had no stirrups, but that men of rank among them
were accompanied by a person whose office it was to lift
them into the saddle, whom the Greeks called
and the Romans strator. There is no mention of stirrups
in any Greek or Latin authors, no figure to be seen in anv
statue or monument, nor any word expressive of them
to be met with in classical antiquity. In the celebrated
equestrian statues of Trajan and Antoninus, the legs of the
rider hang down without any support; whereas, had stir¬
rups been used at that time, the artist would not have omit¬
ted them. Neither are they spoken of by Xenophon in his
two books upon horsemanship, in which he gives directions
for mounting; nor by Julius Pollux in his Lexicon, where
all the other articles belonging to horse-furniture are spo¬
ken of. The Roman youth, indeed, were taught to vault
into their saddles, (JEneid xii. 287,)
 “ Corpora sailu
Subjiciunt in equos
and in their public ways, stones were erected, as in Greece
also, for such as were incapable of doing so. As another
substitute for stirrups, horses in some countries were taught
to bend the knee, after the manner of beasts of burthen
of the East;2 and in others, portable stools were used
to assist persons in mounting. This gave birth to the barba¬
rous practice of making captured princes and generals stoop
down, that the conqueror might mount his horse from their
backs; and in this ignominious manner was the Roman
Emperor Valerian treated by the Persian King Sapor, who
outraged humanity by his cruelty. The earliest indispu¬
table mention of stirrups is by Eustathius (the commenta¬
tor of Homer), about six hundred years back, who uses the
word stabia.
Although the history of the saddle has not exercised the
learned world so much as the antiquity of the stirrup, a good
deal has been written and said about it. Like all other inven¬
tions, it appears to have been suggested by the necessity qf
making the rider sit easily upon his horse, and some kind of
covering, consisting of cloth or leather (skins or hides, per¬
haps), was placed on the animal’s back. These coverings,
however, became afterwards extremely costly;3 they were
made to hang down on each side of the horse, and were
distinguished among the Greeks and Romans by various
names. After they became common, however, it was es¬
teemed more manly to ride without them; and thus we
find Varro boasting of having ridden bare-backed when
young. Xenophon also reproaches the Persians with hav¬
ing placed as much clothes under their seats, on their
horses’ backs, as they had on their beds. It is certain that
no coverings to the horses’ backs were for a long time used
1 D’Ablancourt.
* See Silieus ItaL, lib. 10. 465, 
“ Inde inclinatus collum, submissus et araios
He more, infiexis praebebat seandere terga
Cruribus.”
3 See "Virgil, JEneid vii. 276, viii. 552; Ovid, Metam. lib. viii. 33; also Livy, lib. xxxi. cap. 7, who speaks of a man who dressed
his horse more elegantly than his wife.
HORSEMANSHIP.
621
[.in War; and, according to Caesar, the old German soldiers
despised the cavalry of his country for having recourse to
- such luxuries. In the time of Alexander Severus, the Ro¬
man soldiers rode upon very costly coverings, excepting at
reviews, when they were dispensed with, to shew the condi¬
tion of their horses. But we should imagine we must look
to later times for the costly trappings of the horse. In his
description of the city of Constantinople, the author of the
Letters of the Turkish Spy says, “ The next thing worthy
of observation is the Serayan, or house of equipages, where
are all sorts of trappings for horses, especially saddles of im¬
mense cost and admirable workmanship. There cannot be a
more agreeable sight, to such as take pleasure in horses and
riding, than to see four thousand men here daily at work in
their shops, each striving to excel the rest in the curiosity
of his artifice. You shall see one busy in spangling a
saddle with great Oriental pearls and unions intermixed,
for some Arabian horse, belonging, perhaps, to the Vizier
Azem; another fitting a curb or bit of the purest gold
to a bridle of the most precious Russian leather. Some
adorn their trappings with choice Phrygian work; others
with diamonds, rubies, and the most costly jewels of the
east.”
But to return to the history of the saddle, its invention,
and general use, the latter a point very difficult to be ascer¬
tained. The word ephippium, by which the ancient Romans
expressed it, being merely derived from the Greek words
‘id, upon, and <Wos, a horse, leads us to conclude that, by
degrees, the covering spoken of was converted into a sad¬
dle. The Greek word used by ancient authors, is
believed to have been to express a saddle, and is more than
once used by Xenophon, in his De Re Equestri; and Vege-
tius, who wrote on the veterinary art nearly 400 years b. c.,
speaks of the saddle-tree. Perhaps the clearest proof of
the use of any thing approaching to the form of the mo¬
dern saddle, is the order of Theodosius (see his Code), in
the year 385, by which such persons as rode post-hoi’ses in
their journeys were forbidden to use those which weighed
more than sixty pounds; if heavier, they were ordered to
be cut to pieces. What wmuld the people of those times
have thought if they could have seen one of our Newmar¬
ket i-acing saddles, weighing under four pounds, but giving
the rider a very comfortable seat. The order here alluded
to, doubtless applied to something resembling a saddle, al¬
though of rxxde workmanship, as its weight bespeaks. Every
traveller, we may conclude, was provided with his own
saddle ; and about this time the Latin word sella more fre¬
quently occurs. In the fifth century, again, we find arti¬
cles bearing something of this stamp, and made so extra¬
vagantly magnificent as to call forth a prohibition by the
Emperor Leo I. against any one ornamenting them with
pearls or precious stones. The saddle-tree is also men¬
tioned by Sidonius Apollinaris, a Christian winter, who was
born a. D. 430; and in the sixth century, the saddles of
the cavalry, according to Mauritius, who wrote on the mi¬
litary art, had large coverings of fur; and about this pe¬
riod, the Greek word g-i'au (sella) is used. It is considered
probable, however, that the merit of the invention of sad¬
dles may be due to Persia, not merely from the circum¬
stance of Xenophon’s mentioning the people of that coun¬
try as being the first to render the seat on the horse more
convenient and easy, by placing more covering on their
backs than wras common in other parts, but also because
the horses of Persia were made choice of for saddle-horses
in preference to any others. That the word saddle is de¬
rived from the Latin word sedeo, to sit, may fairly be pre¬
sumed. That the proper saddle itself, however, was un¬
known in England until the reign of Henry VII., we have
good reason to believe; and in Ireland, from the absence
of any representation of it on their coins, it may be conjec¬
tured, not till many years subsequent to that period. 1 he
woman’s saddle, called by us the side-saddle, first appeared Horseman-
in Richard the Second’s time, when his queen rode upon ship-
one; but from the pictures of men and women’s saddles
used in England’s early days, we find they were miserable
apologies for our modern saddles. Indeed, at the present
time, Great Britain is the only country in which proper
saddles are made. Hunting saddles should have their
pannels well beaten and brushed to prevent sore backs;
and no sportsman, even if light, should use a short saddle,
under sixteen inches from pummel to cantle.
The antiquity of the spur does not appear to have much
excited curiosity ; but the use of this instrument was known
in the very earliest age of which we have any satisfactory
history. At least we may presume that it was so, from the
Hebrew word signifying horseman (Pavash), appearing to
be derived from a Hebrew root signifying to prick or spur.
So at least says Buxtorff; and he adds, tlxat the horseman,
or spurrer, was so called on this account: Eques quod
equum calcaribus pungat; and he quotes Eben Ezra in
confirmation of his opinion: A calcaribus qua; sunt in
pedibus ejus. Spurs occur but seldom on seals, or other
antiques, in the eleventh century, but in the thirteenth
they are more frequent. As it is necessary that a horse
should obey the leg as well as the hand, all military and
parade horses are ridden in spurs; and, as we have already
said, they are very useful to the sportsman in riding across
a country, particularly in the act of opening gates ; also all
race horses that will bear them are ridden with them, be¬
cause, should punishment be wanting in a race, it is more
easily inflicted by the heel than by the hand ; add to which,
these horses not only require the jockey’s two hands at the
same time, but are apt to sw erve, or shut up, if struck
severely by the whip.
Race-Riding, or Jockeyship Race-riding and riding
over a country cannot be called sister arts. Indeed the
former bears little relation to any other system of horseman¬
ship, because, from the rapidity with which the race-horse
gets over the ground, there is neither time nor necessity
for a display of the various aids which it is in the horse¬
man’s power to afford to his horse in most other cases.
Nevertheless, the very refinement of the art, the nice and
delicate hand, together with a firm and strong seat, is ab¬
solutely essential to a good jockey. Neither is this all.
He must possess a stout heart and a clear head.
Something like jockeyship was practised in very early
times, the Greeks having introduced it at their celebrated
games. In the 33d Olympiad they had their race of full-
aged horses. In the 71st Olympiad they instituted that
for mares called the Calpe, bearing a resemblance to our
Oaks Stakes at Epsom; and an interesting anecdote is hand¬
ed down to us, relating to this race. A mare, called Aura,
the property of one Phidolas, a Corinthian, threw her jockey,
but continued her course as if he had kept his seat, in¬
creasing her pace at the sound of the trumpet, and, finally,
as the story goes, presenting herself before the judges, as if
conscious of having wmn. The Eleans, however, declared
her to be the winner, and allowed Phidolas to dedicate a sta¬
tue to her. In the 131st Olympiad, the race of the waAos
xsAjjs, or under-aged horses, was established; but with re¬
spect to all these races, we are left in obscurity as to the
weight the horses carried, as also the distance they ran;
and whether or not such matters were regulated by their
age, and not at all by their size. It is the general opinion
that they were left to the discretion of the judges (the Hel-
lanodics, as they w ere called), who regulated all matters at
Olympia, as the members of our Jockey Club do at New¬
market ; but, as may be expected from the character of the
times, exercising a power over their brother sportsmen,
which would not be relished at the present day, although, in
some respects, well worthy of imitation. For example, they
not only excluded from the games and imposed fines upon
HORSEMANSHIP.
622
Horseman-such as were convicted of fraudulent or corrupt practices,
ship, but inflicted bodily correction upon them besides. But
some very interesting facts are the result of the rigid scru¬
tiny of this Elean Jockey Club. Alexander the Great was
ambitious of obtaining the Olympic crown, but was objected
to as being a Macedonian, the prize he wished to contend
for being confined to Grecians. Alexander cleared him¬
self by shewing, that although he was a prince of Macedon,
he was descended from a family that came originally from
Argos; and the Hellanodics allowed him to start, but he
did not win. Themistocles objected to Hiero, King of Sy¬
racuse, as a tyrant, and proposed that the magnificent pavi¬
lion which contained his race-horses should be pulled down.
The objection, however, was overruled, and he became a
winner; but we do not wonder, that, in a Grecian assem¬
bly, the name of tyrant should have been abhorred.
The seat of the jockey is one of peculiar elegance, height¬
ened by the almost universal symmetry of his form, or
figure, for very few ill proportioned men are seen in the
racing saddle. The good appearance of the jockey is also
increased by the neat fit of his clothes ; his appropriate cos¬
tume to his calling ; the extreme cleanliness of his person,
produced by his necessary attention to it during his prepa¬
ratory course of exercise; and, though last, not least, his
almost affinity with the noble animal we see him mounted
upon. But for this he is indebted to Nature—to the rela¬
tion that the bodies of animals hold to natures altogether
external to their own; and it is most happily exemplified
in that of a man to his horse, which appear to have been
especially formed for each other. But, as a celebrated mo¬
ral philosopher has observed, “ There is throughout the
universe a wonderful proportioning of one thing to another.
The size of animals, of the human animal especially, when
considered with respect to other animals, or to the plants
which grow around him, is such, as a regard to his conve-
niency would have pointed out. A giant or a pigmy could
not have milked goats, reaped corn, or mowed grass ; could
not have rode a horse, trained a vine, or shorn a sheep,
with the same bodily ease as we do, if at all.”
Previously to describing the proper seat of the jockey,
we will now endeavour to exhibit him in the most likely
form to acquire that seat. In height he should be about
five feet five or six inches. We are aware there are seve¬
ral excellent jockeys under this standard ; but they do not
look so well on their horses, neither can they be so firm in
their seat from want of a better clip, which the firm grasp
of a longer thigh gives them. He should be rather long
in the fork for his height, with low shoulders, rather long
arms, moderate length of neck, small head, and a very quick
eye. He should be of a naturally spare habit, to save the
expense to his constitution by wasting ; but he should have
as much muscle in his arms and thighs, as his diminutive
form will admit of; in short, to ride some horses at such
very light weights, he should be a little Hercules. But
there must be nothing like rigidity in his frame. On the
conti'ary, there should be a great degree of pliability about
his arms, shoulders, and back-bone, to enable him to be in
perfect unison with his horse. He should have very free
use of his hands, so as to change his reins from one to the
other in a race, and to whip with the left, as well as with
the right, when occasion requires it; he should possess
much command of temper; and, lastly, he should have the
abstinence of a Brahmin.
I he seat of the jockey may be described in a few words.
He should sit well down in his saddle when he walks his
horse to the post, with his stirrups of moderate length, so
as to enable him to clear his pummel, and have a good re¬
sisting power over his horse. No man can make the most
of a race-horse with long stirrup leathers, because, when
he is going at the top of his speed, he sinks down in his
fore-quarters, in his stride, to the extent of several inches.
It was calculated that Eclipse, naturally a low fore-quar-Hors
tered horse, sank nearly eight inches. The circumstance, si ^
then, of the use of the stirrup, in ancient racing, being un-v''—' ^
known, fully accounts for racing on horseback as we now
race, being, comparatively with chariot-racing, but little
resorted to ; and the excellency of a jockey in the Olym¬
pic Hippodrome, consisting more in a sort of harlequin
feat of jumping from one horse, and vaulting upon ano¬
ther, in a race, than riding and finishing it, as it is now
finished, in a severe trial of speed, bottom, and jockeyship.
Indeed, some racers go with their heads so low as to bear
up their rider from the saddle whether he will or not, and
they would pull him over their heads, if he had not the
power of resistance from his stirrups. Much nonsense
was written by the late Samuel Chiffney, in a pamphlet
called Genius Genuine, on riding the race-horse with a
slack rein, which system, although we by no means approve
of a hard, dead hand upon any horse, we are convinced can
never be put into practice with advantage to either the
horse or his rider. Exclusive of the necessity of restrain¬
ing a free horse, who would run himself to a stand-still if
suffered to do so, or, in making what is called a waiting
race, all race-horses feel themselves relieved by a strong
pull at their heads, and many will nearly stop, or, at all
events, very much slacken their pace, on finding their heads
loose. In our opinion, the hand of a jockey on his horse
should always be firm, though at times delicate to an ex¬
treme ; and he should never surprise or disturb the mouth
of his horse, in his race, by any sudden transition from a
slack to a tight, or from a tight to a slack rein. In fact,
every thing in horsemanship is best done by degrees, but
at the same time with a firmness and resolution which a
horse well understands; and the hand which, by giving
and taking, as the term is, gains its point with the least
force, is the best and most serviceable, as well as most
agreeable to a horse.
Considering the variety of horses of all forms, shapes, and
tempers, that a jockey in much repute rides in the course
of a year, the necessity for a good bridle-hand is obvious.
Some thorough-bred ones have their necks set so low on
their shoulders, that they bend first down, then upwards, like
a stag’s; ana were it not for the power of their rider, such
horses would absolutely look him in the face. Others have
the upper line of their necks, from the ears to the withers,
too short. A head attached to such a neck as this is very
difficult to bring into a good place, because the inflexibi-
lity of it w ill not admit of its forming an arch ; for in long
and short-necked horses the number of the vertebrae, or
neck-bones, are the same. On the other hand, some
horses’ necks are as loose as if they had joints in them, and
consequently have the power of tossing up their nose al¬
most in defiance of their rider’s hand. Others get their
heads down in their gallop, in the act of reaching to get
more liberty of rein, snatching at their rider’s hand with
great force. Some pull very hard, and others will not pull
enough. Were it not, then, for the tackle in which these
low-necked, short-necked, stiff-necked, loose-necked, snatch^
ing, pulling horses are ridden in, even the fine hand and
firm seat of a first-rate jockey would not be a match for
them ; and, as it is, it is as much as he can do to manage
them ; but they would be nearly their own masters with a
man on their back who had neither one nor the other.
This tackle consists, in addition to the bridle, of the com¬
mon martingal, with a spare martingal rein, independent of
that to the snaffle-bit; a gag-bit and rein, and the martin¬
gal running rein. The first, the common martingal-rein,
is merely to prevent a loose-necked horse throwing his
head up. The jockey uses it altogether, or lets it lie on
his horse’s neck till he wants it. The gag-rein, from its
severity, is generally knotted, and remains untouched till
wanted. Its use is to prevent a horse getting his head
HORSEMANSHIP. 623
s<?man- down, when he goes too much on his shoulders, or bores, thumb, and with the ofF-side rein between the middle andHtirseiuan-
hip. and is consequently very difficult to ride, and be made the third fingers of the right hand, in which he also has his ship.
'/—-'"most of in a race. By graduaUy giving and taking with whip; but, at starting, and throughout a race, unless' , '
this and the snaffle-rein, the jockey gets his horse’s head obliged to strike his horse, a jockey always holds his
into a proper place, and rides comparatively at his ease, horse’s head with both hands. If a double rein to a curb-
We say “ gradually,” because if done with violence it may bit is used, the near-side rein passes between middle and
cause him to alter his stride. The running martingal- third fingers of the left hand, and the ofF-side one he¬
rein (the most common now in use, particularly with young tween the middle and third fingers of the right hand. On
things), is merely to steady a horse’s head, and to give his the word being given, as we have already said, he sticks
jockey more power over him to prevent his breaking away the spurs into his horse’s sides, or, by any other means in
with him in a race, and to enable him to pull him up at his power, gets him on his legs, that is, on his speed, as soon
the end of it. No hard puller, or very free-going racer, is as he possibly can, dropping his hand to him to enable him
ridden without this running martingal-rein. The jockey to feel his mouth. He lets him go perhaps half the dis¬
uses it much in the same way as he uses the snaffle-rein, tance he has to run with only his head hard held, before
giving and taking with it in his pulls, so as to keep his he gives him his first pull; but this event (the half-mile
horse’s mouth alive, and thereby bring his head into a race) being soon over, there is no time for much speculation,
proper place. The necessity for this perfect command of and the pull must be but a short one. He then runs up
the race-horse, by some one of these means, is obvious, to his horses again ; lives with them to the end and wins, if
when we see how often they are huddled together in a he can, without a second pull; but if he finds other horses
race, and knowing that, if a foot of either of them should too near to be pleasant, or, in other words, appearing to be
strike or get locked in that of another, a fall is the inevitable as good as his own, he takes a second puli within the last
consequence. Besides, no horse can exert his utmost speed one or two hundred yards, when he again lets loose and
for any length of time, unless he will allow himself to be wins. The same directions hold good in a mile race, with
handled by his rider, and pulled well together, to prevent his the exception that the jockey need not be quite so much
over-striding as well as over-pacing himself. These check- on the qui vive at starting, and his pulls may be longer,
reins can all be used with the double curb-bridle, if neces- and the last further from home.
sary, though they seldom are, with the exception of the The Half-mile Race. Orders, “ To wait." In this case
first, the common martingal-rein. It is pleasant to see a the jockey gets well away with his horses, but never more
race-horse go with his head in a good place in a simple than a length or two behind any of them, as more than
snaffle-bridle, without any additional reins ; and no doubt that distance is difficult to make up in so short a race,
it must be as agreeable to the horse, but it is rather a rare Within a hundred and fifty, or, perhaps, two hundred yards
sight, and particularly w'ith young things. That the snaf- of home, he gets “ head and girth,” as the term is, with the
fle-bit is the best in which the race-horse can be ridden, leading horse, and then lets loose and wins,
there cannot be a doubt, not merely on account of his The Mile Race. Orders, “ To icait." The jockey may
being able to support himself to a certain degree in his start last of all if he like, but he must not lose much
gallop, by leaning upon it to the extent his rider permits him, ground. However good judge a jockey may be of pace, it
hut because his jockey can pull his head any way he likes, is a fault to lie far out of his ground. Let him then also
to the right or to the left; as in a turn, for instance, or to lie well with his horses all the way, creeping up to them
avoid treading on another horse’s heels, which is before by degrees, and not quit them to win till he feels certain
him; whereas the curb-bit only acts in a straight line. It he has the race in his hand; that is, till he sees that the
is better, however, to have recourse to the curb, than to other horses have overmarked themselves by the pace,
let a hard-pulling race-horse get the better of his jockey, His orders to wait have been given him from the supposi
and overpace himself at any period of his race. tion or knowledge that speed, not stoutness, was the best
We will now bring our jockey to the starting post, where of his horse, and, consequently, that if he had made the
the first thing he does is to strip. Having inspected the running or “ play,” he would not have run home,
saddling of his horse, and found every thing about him se- The Two-mile Race. Orders, “ To make running''
cure, he cocks up his left-leg, and is chucked into his sad- Nothing, next to the struggle of the few last yards be-
dle by the trainer, who generally wishes him “ ludi' as he tween two horses very nearly equal, called on the Turf
performs this office for him. After he has seated himself “ the set-to,” is so difficult in racing horsemanship, as
firmly down in it, and tried the length of his stirrup- making running or “ play” by a jockey, solely for the be-
leathers, he takes his “ up gallop,” as he calls it, of perhaps nefit of the horse he himself is riding. In other words, it
half-a-mile, his trainer generally leading the way on his is a great accomplishment in a jockey to be a superior
hack ; and then walks his horse quietly to the starting post, jndge of pace, that is, of not merely the pace he himself
But his method of starting his horse depends entirely on is going, but how- that pace aftects the other horses in the
circumstances. If, for a half-mile race, in which a good race. And this task is more difficult with some horses
start is a great advantage, he catches fast hold of his horse’s than with others, and especially with idle or lurching hor-
head, and, if he will not start quickly without, sticks ses, which, when leading, require urging by the hand or
both spurs into his sides as soon as the word “ go” is leg every yard they go. In this case, the jockey works
given, taking his chance of getting his head dow-n into its hard to keep his horse going. He has to use his hands,
place when and how he can. If, for a two-mile race, or arms, legs, and feet, and occasionally to turn his head
over that distance, he need not be in such a hurry at start- round, with all his limbs in action at one and the same
ing, provided he do not lose too much ground ; but all moment, and yet not disturb his horse’s action; and this, in
this must in great measure be regulated by his orders, addition to great anxiety of mind, lest he should upset his
whether to make running or to lie by, and wait. We will, horse, and so lose the race, T he upshot is, if his horse
however, put him in all these different situations. answ ers the opinion entertained of him, by cutting up his
The Half-mile Race, generally straight. Orders, “ To competitors by severe “play,” he wins his race, and has the
make running." Having turned his horse round beyond, character of being a stout, honest horse,
or we should rather say behind, The post, he brings him The Two-mile Race. Orders, “ To wait." In this case
as quietly as he can back to it, with his near-side bridleT the jockey goes off at a steady pace, with a good hold of
rein passing outside of, and over the lower part of, the his horse’s head, as near to the other horses as he likes,
palm of the left hand, and then pressed firmly by the but not attempting to go in front. Thus he continues in his
624
HORSEMANSHIP.
Horseman- place to within a certain distance from home, probably spe-
ship. cified in his orders, when he brings out his horse, as the phrase
;s? challenges all the others at once, and wins, if his horse be
good enough. This is one of the easiest tasks a jockey
has to perform, and if he is pleasantly mounted, he gets
an agreeable ride. We shall say little of races more than
two miles, for two reasons : First, because the same ob¬
servations apply to them as do to those of two miles, with
proper allowance for the extra distance ; and, secondly,
because four mile races are now very nearly abolished. In
the latter, the chief qualification for a jockey is strength of
constitution ^nd a firm seat, added to a very correct idea
of pace, for a four-mile race seldom comes to a very nice
point at the finish.
The duty of a jockey is to win his race if he can,
and not to do more than win it. A neck is sufficient if he
have the race-hand ; but he should win by a clear length
whenever he is in doubt as to the state of the horses he is
running against. This is a nice point for a jockey to de¬
cide upon, and one which is highly esteemed by his em¬
ployers, who are always anxious that the powers of their
horses should not be unnecessarily exposed. Perhaps one
of the finest specimens of science in this peculiar depart¬
ment of the art of horsemanship, was displayed by those
celebrated Newmarket jockeys, Robinson and Chiftney, in
a struggle for the St Leger stakes at Doncaster in 1827.
All good jockeys avoid the use of the whip as much as
possible. When a race-horse is in the fullest exercise of
his powers and doing his best, it is unnecessary, for it can¬
not make him do more ; but the blow of a whip often does
harm, particularly if it fall under the flank. Instead of its
having the effect of making the horse extend himself over
a larger surface of ground, it may have quite a contrary
effect, from his shutting himself up, as it were, or shrinking,
to avoid the blows. The spur, properly used, is a much
better instrument for increasing the speed of a horse, al¬
though there are times when the application of the whip,
or the mere act of flourishing it in the hand, is eminently
serviceable to the jockey. We mean when his horse hangs
to one side of the course or the other, or towards other
horses in the race, or exhibits symptoms of running out of
the course, or bolting. A jockey ought to be able to use
his whip with vigour when necessary, and (though this do
not often happen) with his left hand, as well as with his
right, in case of his losing what is called the whip-hand,
when he cannot use his right.
The nature and form of race-courses are points very
much to be considered in iockeyship. Such as are quite
flat and straight are, of course, the least difficult to ride
over; but a little variety of ground is favourable to the
horse, and not unpleasant to the jockey. Those which are
hilly require much judgment to know where to make the
best play; or, in other words, what part of the ground is
best suited to the action and nature of the horse. All
horses, however, require holding hard by the head both up
and down hills, or they will soon run themselves to a stand¬
still. A small ascent is desirable to finish a race upon, as
it is safer for the riders, who occasionally lose their horses’
heads in the last few strides ; and also in pulling them up,
when they are often in an exhausted state, and, conse¬
quently, liable to fall or slip, on uneven ground, especially
if it be in a slippery state from drought or wet. Most
country courses have turns in them, which must be provided
against in two ways. First, the jockey, at starting, should
endeavour to get the whip-hand of his competitors; that
is, he should try to be on the right side of the other horses,
if the posts are on his right hand, and on the left side of
them, if they are on the left. He will, of course, in this
case have to describe a smaller circle of ground in his race
than the other horses will have, and also,"if the turns be on
his right, the use of his right or whip-hand, at any period
of the race ; wdiich he would not have, if he were on the norsei
outside of one or more horses in the race. But he must be shij
wide aw ake over a course with turns in it, as some of them 's—-
are very difficult to make, especially if all the horses are in
strong running at the time, and the one he is riding should
not be what is called kind at his turns, or an easy horse to
ride. He must not omit the precaution of lying a little
out of his ground before he comes to a turn, so as to make
it pretty close to the post, when he will be less likely to
disturb the action of his horse, than if he made it at a more
acute angle, which he would necessarily do, if he did not
take this sweep. Another precaution is also necessary ; as,
when a horse is galloping in a circle, the first leg towards
the centre takes the lead, the jockey should endeavour to
make his horse lead with the leg next the turn, which will
prevent his changing his leading leg in the turn, which he
will be obliged to do, unless a very easy one indeed. This
is best effected by keeping his head a little to the op¬
posite side of his body; that is, a little to the left hand,
if the posts are to the right, as they generally are, and
vice versa. When a race-horse is extended at the very
top of his speed, his head should, of course, be kept straight;
but as he is never going his best pace in his turns, the
keeping of his head away from them, for the purpose we have
noticed, cannot be at all injurious to him. In quite straight
running, it is, we believe, of very little consequence with
which leg the race-horse leads.
Our remarks on the art of race-riding may be concluded
by stating the manner in which horses of various tempers,
dispositions, and capabilities, are to be ridden, with the best
chance of being made the most of. Nine racers in ten are
free-going ones, if not hard pullers. On one of this descrip¬
tion, the great art of the jockey is to economize his powers
according to the length he has to go, as also the weight he
is carrying, so as not to let him over-mark himself, and have
little or nothing left in him at the finish. If other horses
make running, this can only be done by his sitting perfectly
still in his seat, dropping his hands, and having fast hold of
his horse’s head. The less he interferes with his mouth
the better; and if he likes to be well up with the other
horses, he is better there, supposing him not to be a regu¬
lar jade, than pulled at, to be kept back. Temper is a
great thing in this case, we mean in the jockey; for a
hasty horse and a hasty rider are sure to disgrace them¬
selves. Every unnecessary movement in the one is in¬
stantly responded to by the other, who becomes flurried,
and pulls more determinedly than he did before.
The lazy, sluggish, or “ craving” horse, as trainers call
him, requires riding from end to end of his race. By this
we mean, that although the body of his jockey should not
move, he is often obliged to raise his hands off his horse’s
withers, to shake him now and then ; as well as to use his
feet to urge him to a better pace, or even to keep him at
the one he is going. Indeed, he will sometimes require a
blow with the whip, or at least to be very much roused, to
make him extend his stride towards the finish of his race.
This is the sort of horse that used to distinguish himself
over the Beacon Course at Newmarket, when four-mile
races were more in fashion than they now are, and was, of
course, not thought the worse of by his owner, whatever he
may have been by his jockey, for taking so much riding to
make him do his best.
But the most ticklish and difficult horse, next to the de¬
termined restive one, or bolter, is what is known by the
appellation of the “ Flighty Horse,” one which is as diffi¬
cult to train as he is to ride, being delicate in constitution,
of extremely irritable temper, and very easily alarmed,
either in his stable or out of it. Nothing, in short, can be
done with him, but by the very gentlest means ; for if once
ruffled, he is very hard to be appeased. The jockey, then,
that has to ride a horse of this description, should have a
HORSEMANSHIP.
an- temper the very reverse of his, and a hand as delicate as
a woman’s. He must also indulge him in every way in
*'/his race save one, which is, in not allowing him to over¬
pace himself. But here, also, he must be careful; for this
horse will neither bear to be pulled nor hustled, but must
be let to go nearly in his own way, with the exception of
being kept well together by a steady hold of his head. If
challenged in the race, he must accept the challenge, and
come out of the conflict as well as he can. He is too often
a jade; at all events, he should always be ridden as if he
were one; and the same precautions, as to steadiness of
seat and hand, that we have recommended for the free-
going horse, or hard puller, should be observed with regard
to him.
Jockeys delight in riding a fine-tempered racer ; such as
Zinganee was in the year 1830, and of which year he was
considered the best horse. In a plain snaffle bridle, without
even a martingal, as he wras ridden, and with an obedient
mouth, it is a pleasing instead of an irksome task. A horse
of this description is easily held, is kind at his turns, in
fact, will nearly make them of his own accord; will either
wait or make play, as his rider’s orders may be ; and when
called upon to challenge, is ready to do his best. More
than this, he is always going within himself, because he is
obedient to his jockey’s hand; and his temper is at least
equal to 4 lb. weight in his favour.
We now conclude our remarks on jockeyship with a short
description of the finish of a race, confining the scene of ac¬
tion to the last four hundred yards ; the leading horses being,
we will suppose, some head and girth, others head and
neck, and others head and head. We will further suppose
our jockey to be in the midst of them, with very little left
in his horse, but just enough to win his race. The set-to
is about to begin, or, in other words equally technical, he is
about to “ call upon his horse.” But before he does this,
he alters his position in his saddle. He has been pre¬
viously standing up in his stirrups, with his body leaning
forward over the horse’s withers, and his hands down, some¬
what below them. He now changes the position of both
body and hands : he seats himself firmly down in his sad¬
dle, his body catching, as it were, the stride of the horse ;
and, raising his hands off his withers, first gives him an easy
pull, and then, and not till then, the set-to begins. He
now moves his hands, as if describing a circle, by way of
rousing his horse, by “ shaking him,” as it is called; and
although he does not quite slacken his reins, he allows him
to reach with his head, as a distressed horse will always do,
and which is technically termed “ throwing him in.” Then
now comes the last resource. If he finds, when within a
few yards of home, that he cannot win by these means,
and that his horse appears to sink in the rally, he stabs
him a few times with his spurs ; gets his whip up in his right
hand, giving a good pull with his left, and uses it as occa¬
sion may require.
Steeple-Chase Racing.—A new system of racing jockey-
ship has come into fashion in Great Britain and Ireland
within the last twenty years, which, however in character
with the daring spirit of our present race of sportsmen, we
know not how to commend. We think it an unreasonable
demand on the noble energies of the horse, to require him
to go so very nearly at a racing pace (for such we find to be
the case) over rough and soft ground, instead of upon
smooth and elastic turf, with the addition of having too
often a country selected for him to run across, abounding
m almost insurmountable obstacles, as well as, in some
cases, deep rivers, as likewise under a heavy weight. One
human life has already been the victim of this practice, and,
we are sorry to say, several horses have died from over¬
exerting themselves in steeple-chases. We have reason to
believe, however, that they will not become a lasting amuse¬
ment of British sportsmen.
VOL. XI.
625
Qualifications for a Steeple- Chase Rider These are 11 orsem-in¬
exactly what are wanting in a very fast run over a stiffly ship,
enclosed country with fox-hounds ; namely, a fine bridle- -v—
hand, a steady seat, a cool head, undaunted courage, and,
above all things, great quickness, and very prompt decision.
But the steeple-chase jockey has one evil to guard against,
which the racing jockey is, comparatively, but little sub¬
ject to, and this is a fall. The best preventive of it is
keeping a horse well together, and making him go in a col¬
lected form at his fences, as well as over rough ground,
which, when going nearly at the top of his pace, will be only
done by a rider with a very good bridle-hand. But, at the
same time, he must be careful not to overmark his horse, or
he will not be able to rise at his fences when he gets to
them. And here lies the great difficulty after all, as far as
the horse is concerned. He must go, at least he is called
upon to go, at a much quicker rate than he can reasonably
be expected to maintain, for any considerable length of
time, without becoming distressed, because his competitors
in the race are also doing so, and he w ill be left behind,
to a certainty, if his rider do not endeavour to make him
keep with them. That horse, then, has the best chance
to win who, barring a fall, is the stoutest runner and surest
fencer, and whose rider is good enough, and strong enough,
to give him all the assistance he requires, at leas-t as much
as a rider can give him, to enable him to struggle through
his difficulties to the end. But there is one quality in a
horse, especially calculated for steeple-chace racing, and
that is quickness. Our readers can distinguish between a
quick horse and a fast horse; the fast horse may require to
be going some time before he begins to extend himself near¬
ly to the extent of his speed ; whereas the quick horse is on
his legs in a few hundred yards. A similar difference is ob¬
served by sportsmen in the fencing of horses. Some are
on their legs again, and almost instantly away, as soon as
they alight on the ground, be the fence ever so large,
whilst others dwell for some time after landing, previously
to their recovering their equilibrium, and so lose time. It
is evident, then, that a quick horse, with a quick man on
his back, is best adapted to a steeple -chase; and would
beat another, supposing leaping and other qualifications,
this excepted, to be equal, who could give him half a stone
weight over the Beacon Course, and beat him. Steeple¬
chase racing never can be a game to bet money upon, from
the almost perpetual liability to accidents ; nor do we think
it fair that such animal suffering as we find it creating, can
be considered a proper medium for that purpose, allowing
for a moment that such a medium must be found. But
has man, who may be considered the delegate of Heaven
over inferior creatures, the right thus to speculate upon
their endurance of suffering? We think not; but of this
fact Ave are certain, There is hardly a more certain token of
a cruel disposition than the unnecessary abuse of animals
which contribute, as the horse specially does, to our ad¬
vantage, convenience, and pleasures; and even a Pagan
has told us that he who smothers a cock, without necessity>
is no less guilty than the man who smothers his father.
Neither is it a great, compliment to this species of horse¬
manship to show its origin, which is thus given in a work
called The Gentleman's Recreation, written nearly two
hundred years back: “ But before I enter upon the sub¬
ject proposed,” (training of horses) says the author, “ I
think it convenient to tell you the way our ancestors had
of making their matches, and our modern w ay of deciding
wagers; first, then, the old way of trial was, by running so
many train scents after hounds, this being found not so un¬
certain and more durable than hare-hunting, and the advan¬
tage consisted in having the trairts laid on earth most suit¬
able to the nature of the horses. Now others choose to
hunt the hare till such an hour prefixed, and then to run the
wild-goose chase, which, because it is not known to all hunts-
4 K
626 H O R
Horseman-men, I shall explain the use and manner of it. The wild-
ship. goose chase received its name from the manner of the flight
Horsley. W^'C^ *s rna^e by wild-geese, which is generally one after
v ^ another, so that two horses, after the running of twelve score
yards, had liberty, which horse (qr. rider ?) soever could get
the leading, to ride what ground he pleased, the hindmost
horse being bound to follow him within a certain distance,
agreed on by articles, or else to be whipt up by the tryers
or judges which rode by, and whichever horse could dis¬
tance the other, won the match. But this chase was found
by experience so inhumane, and so destructive to horses,
especially when two good horses were matched, for neither
H O R
being able to distance the other, till ready both to sink un-Hc
der their riders through weakness; oftentimes the match 7
was fair to be drawn, and left undecided, though both horses \
were quite spoiled. I his brought them to run train scents b ’^J
which was afterwards changed to three heats, and a straight ^ ~
course.” Our readers will acknowledge the resemblance
between the modern steeple and the ancient wild-goose
chase; and we trust that ere long, the example of our an¬
cestors will be followed, and the man who is capable of ex¬
hibiting his horsemanship as the winner of a modern steeple¬
chase, will reserve his prowess for a better if not a nobler
cause- (b. b. b. b.)
HORSENS, a town of Denmark, at the mouth of a fiorde
in Jutland, in the province of Ribe. It contains two churches,
504 houses, and 3650 inhabitants, who carry on fisheries,
and some trade in corn and butter. Long. 9. 43. E. Lat
55. 52.
HORSHAM, a market and borough town in the hun¬
dred of East Easewrith, and rape of Bramber, in the coun¬
ty of Sussex, thirty-six miles from London. It is an an¬
cient place, according to tradition, built by Horsa, the bro¬
ther ot the Saxon Hengist. It stands on the upper part
of the river Arun, _ in a fertile district. The county jail,
a new building, is in the town, and also a county-hall, in
which the assizes are held alternately with the town of
Lewis. It is an ancient, borough by prescription, and re¬
turned two members to parliament till 1832. It now
returns one by about 600 voters. The market is held on
Saturday, and well supplied. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 3204, in 1811 to 3839, in 1821 to 4575, and
in 1831 to 5105.
HORSLEY, a town and parish in the hundred of Long-
trees, in the county of Gloucester, 101 miles from Lon¬
don. It has a market, which is held on Saturday. The
county bridewell is established here. There is some trade
in making woollen goods. Formerly a priory existed,
whose remains are still visible. The inhabitants amount¬
ed in 1801 to 2971, in 1811 to 2925, in 1821 to 3565,
and in 1831 to 3690.
HORSLEY, Samuel, a very learned prelate of the
church of England, the son of the Rev. John Horsley, for
many years clerk in orders at St Martin’s in the Fields, and
afterwards rector of Thorley in Hertfordshire, was born at
his father’s residence in St Martin’s churchyard, in October
1733. He received his early education from his father, and
was entered at Trinity-hall, Cambridge, where he applied
himself much to the study of mathematics, but, at the same
time, perused with care the writings of the ancient and
modern divines and logicians. Why he took no degree in
arts cannot now be ascertained; we find, however, that, in
1758, he took that of bachelor of laws, and became his fa¬
ther s curate at Newington, which living he succeeded to
the following year, and held until his elevation to the Epis¬
copal bench in 1793, as Bishop of Rochester.
In April 1767, he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, of which he continued for many years an active
memoer, and, about the same time, he published a pamphlet
on the Power of God, “ deduced from the computable in¬
stantaneous productions of it in the solar system.” This he
allows to be a “ very singular and whimsical speculation
and observes respecting it, that, in all probability, it would
roll down the gutter ot time, forgotten and neglected.” In
1768, he went to Christ-Church, Oxford, as private tutor
^^er’ea»f Earl 0/ Aylesbury, then Lord Guernsey. In
71A his first mathematical publication, Apollonii Pergwi
Inclinationum libri duo, was elegantly printed at the Cla¬
rendon press. This work, though severely criticised at the
time, an<a, in reality, not distinguished by any peculiar
felicity of restoration, does not appear to have injured his
rising reputation ; for, in November 1773, he was appoint¬
ed secretary to the Royal Society, and in 1774 he had the
degree of doctor of civil law conferred on him at Oxford, and
was presented by the Earl of Aylesbury to the rectory of
Aldbury in Surrey, along with which he obtained a dis¬
pensation to hold that of Newington. The same year he
published Remarks on the Observations made in the Voy¬
age towards the North Pole, for determining the accelera¬
tion of the Pendulum in latitude 79° 5F. These were ad¬
dressed to the Hon. Constantine J. Phipps, 4to, and in¬
tended to correct some errors committed by Israel Lyons,
the mathematician employed on the voyage.
Dr Horsley having long meditated a complete edition of
the works of Sir Isaac Newton, issued, in 1776, proposals
for printing it by subscription, in five volumes 4to; but the
commencement of the undertaking was delayed by severe
domestic affliction, nor was it completed until 1785. In
the meanw hile, his diligence and proficiency in science
attracted the notice of Dr Lowth, who, on his promotion
to the see of London in 1777, appointed Dr Horsley his
domestic chaplain, collated him to a prebend in St Paul’s
cathedral, and procured for him the situation, which had
been held by his father, of clerk in orders at St Martin’s in
the Fields. In 17/8, during the controversy between Dr
Priestley, Dr Price, and others, on the subject of mate¬
rialism and philosophical necessity, Dr Horsley published
a sermon on Providence and Free Agency, in which he
attempted to draw a distinction between the philosophical
necessity of the moderns and the predestination of their
ancestors. This discourse was evidently directed against
the writings of Dr Priestley, but the latter did not take
any immediate notice of the attack. In 1779, Dr Horsley
resigned Aldbury, and, in 1780, was presented to the living
of Thorley, which he held, by dispensation, along with that
of Newington. In 1 /83, he became deeply involved in a
dispute with some members of the Royal Society, which
ended in his withdrawing himself from that learned body.
Dr Horsley was now about to engage in that celebrated
controversy with Dr Priestley; which was conducted on
both sides in the fiercest spirit of polemical contention, but
on that of Horsley with superior learning and ability. In
1 /82, Dr Priestley published a work in two volumes 8vo,
entitled a History of the Corruptions of Christianity; at the
head of which he placed both the Catholic doctrine of
Christ s divinity, and the Arian doctrine of his pre-existence,
in a nature far superior to the human, at the same time re¬
presenting the Socinian doctrine of his mere humanity as
the unanimous faith of the first Christians. Dr Horsley
conceiving that the best antidote to the poison contained in
this work would be to destroy the credit of the writer, and
the authority of his name, made its imperfections, moral as
well as literary, the subject of review in a charge delivered
to the clergy of the archdeaconry of St Alban’s, at a deputa¬
tion held on the 22d of May 1783. The specimens produced
as evidence of the imperfections of the work and the incom-
HORSLEY.
L j. petency of the author, may be reduced to six classes. First,
^ instances of reasoning in a circle; second, instances of quo¬
tations misapplied through ignorance of the subject; third,
.[ instances of testimonies perverted through artful and forced
constructions ; fourth, instances of passages in the Greek
fathers misinterpreted through ignorance of the Greek lan¬
guage ; fifth, instances of passages misinterpreted through
ignorance of the Platonic philosophy ; and, sixth, instances
of ignorance of the phraseology of the earliest ecclesiastical
writers. Dr Horsley concludes his charge by observing,
“ I feel no satisfaction in detecting the weakness of this
learned writer’s argument, but what arises from the con¬
sciousness that it is the discharge of some part of the duty
which I owe to the Church of God.” This vigorous and
systematic attack staggered the admirers of Dr Priestley ;
but he himself felt none of the apprehension with which
they were seized. He promised an early and satisfactory
answer; predicted that he would rise from his supposed
defeat more illustrious than ever ; undertook to strengthen
the evidence in support of his favourite opinions ; flattered
himself that he would find a new convert in his antagonist;
and even hinted something concerning the shame and re¬
morse with which he felt confident that the latter must be
enetrated. Dr Priestley could not but be sensible that
is adversary was a man of no ordinary stamp ; yet, with a
blind self-confidence, he did not profit by this conviction
so as to make a careful revision of his writings, but, on the
contrary, immediately repeated his former assertions re¬
specting the doctrine of the Trinity, in a publication en¬
titled, Letters to Dr Horsley, in answer to his Animadver¬
sions on the History of the Corruptions of Christianity,
with additional evidence that the primitive Christian Church
was Unitarian, 1783, in 8vo. To this production, in which
there are more errors of haste and infirmities of argument
than could have been expected from one who had so much
at stake, Dr Horsley replied in the same epistolary form,
by Letters from the Archdeacon of St Alban’s in reply to
Dr Priestley. The object of these letters, which are seven¬
teen in number, and display great learning and research, is
to prove that if the mistakes of Dr Priestley, formerly
pointed out, are few in number, they are too considerable
in kind to be incident to a well-informed writer; that they
betray a want of general comprehension of the subject, and an
incapacity to draw right conclusions from the passages cited;
that they prove him unskilled in the language of the writers
from whom his proofs were professedly derived, and unac¬
quainted with that philosophy, the doctrines of which he
pretended to compare with the opinions entertained by the
church. Dr Priestley, in his Letters, had attempted to
draw his adversary into a controversy respecting the divinity
of Jesus Christ; but the latter, knowing that question to
have been long since exhausted, defended his own argu¬
ment, and confined himself to the collection of proofs, from
Dr Priestley’s publications, of his inability to throw any light
upon the subject.
Dr Priestley, finding that his letters had failed to pro¬
duce the expected impression, and that his antagonist, un¬
touched with either shame or remorse, remained unshaken
in his opinion, now lost all temper ; and in a second set of
Letters to the Archdeacon of St Alban’s, which appeared
in the autumn of 1784, threw aside all profession of per¬
sonal regard, or even of ordinary civility. The charge
of incompetency and ignorance was warmly retorted, and
“ the incorrigible dignitary” was charged with manifest
misrepresentation of his adversary’s argument; with injus¬
tice to the character of Origen, whose veracity he had call¬
ed in question ; and with the grossest perversion of ancient
history. In a word, he was stigmatised as a “ falsifier of
history, and a defamer of the character of the dead.” Re¬
gardless of this reproach, Dr Horsley remained silent for
eighteen months. A sermon on the Incarnation, preached
627
upon the feast of the Nativity in 1785, formed the prelude Horsley,
to the renewal of the contest on his part, and wus, early in^—
the ensuing spring, followed by Remarks on Dr Priestley’s
Second Letters to the Archdeacon of St Alban’s, with proofs
of certain facts asserted by the Archdeacon. This tract
consists of tw o parts ; one containing new specimens of Dr
Priestley’s temerity in assertion ; and the other defending
the attack upon Origen, and proving the existence of a
body of Christians at TElia after the time of Hadrian, which
was the fact upon which the Archdeacon’s historical fidelity
had been so loudly arraigned by Dr Priestley. With this
publication Dr Horsley had intended that the controversy
on his part should close ; but having been induced to col¬
lect and republish what he had written (in one vol. 8vo,
1789), this led to a second perusal of Dr Priestley’s Let¬
ters, which produced not only many important notes, but
some disquisitions of considerable length ; and as the Re¬
marks on Dr Priestley’s second Letters had elicited a third
set, in which he endeavoured to support the veracity of
Origen, and to maintain his position respecting the ortho¬
dox Hebrews of the church at Adia, these are replied to
partly in the notes, and partly also in two of the disquisitions
Towards the conclusion of his Remarks, Dr Horsley ob¬
serves : “ These and many other glaring instances of un¬
finished criticism, weak argument, and unjustifiable art, to
cover the weakness and supply the want of argument,
which must strike every one who takes the trouble to look
through those second letters, put me quite at ease with re¬
spect to the judgment which the public would be apt to
form between my antagonist and me, and confirmed me in
the resolution of making no reply to him, and of troubling
the public no more upon the subject, except so far as might
be necessary to establish some facts, which he hath some¬
what too peremptorily denied ; and to vindicate my charac¬
ter from aspersions which he hath too inconsiderately thrown
out.”
The reputation which Dr Horsley had now acquired, re¬
commended him to the patronage of Lord Chancellor Thur-
low, who presented him to a prebendal stall in the cathedral
of Gloucester; and, by the interest of the same eminent per¬
son, he was, in 1788, promoted to the see of St David’s. As
a bishop, his conduct was exemplary and praiseworthy; in
this character he fully answered the high expectations of
eminent usefulness, which his elevation to the mitre had so
generally raised. In his diocese, he carried through a ge¬
neral system of reform, regulated the condition of the cler¬
gy, introduced greater strictness with respect to candidates
for admission into holy orders, preached frequently in the
parish churches, and acted with Christian liberality towards
the poor. Bishop Horsley’s first charge to the clergy of
St David’s was delivered in 1790, and deservedly admired,
as was also his animated speech in the House of Lords, 31st
May 1791, on the subject of the Catholic Bill. These ef¬
fective displays are understood to have occasioned his sub¬
sequent promotion to the bishopric of Rochester and the
deanery of Westminster, upon which he resigned the living
of Newington.
During the agitating period between 1793 and the close
of the century, Bishop Horsley ranged himself on the side
of the government, and with great zeal and warmth oppo¬
sed the enemies of the constitution, and the professors oi
democratic principles, under which categories were then
included all those who sought for reform in the representa¬
tion of the people as a guarantee for the removal of abuses,
and the progressive improvement of our institutions, eccle¬
siastical as well as civil. As a senator, his talents and ac¬
tivity necessarily gave him weight; and there were few
discussions of importance in which he did not take part.
He was not, however, an every-day speaker, nor desirous
of protracting the debate, unless he had something original
or important to communicate. In 1802, he was translated
628 H O R S L E Y.
Hor.-iley. to the bishopric of St Asaph, and resigned the deanery of that he hath been insulted in his character, as a scholar and H<
^ Westminster. Until 1806, his vigour of body and mind a man; charged with ignorance, misrepresentation, defa-^ !L
remained unimpaired. In the month of July of that year mation, and calumny; and that, under all this, he hath
he went to his diocese, and after a residence of two months continued speechless. He hath at last spoken, in a tone
intended to visit his patron Lord Thurlow at Brighton, where which, perhaps, will little endear him to the Unitarian
he arrived on the 20th of September, after learning on the zealots. It matters not. The time seems yet so distant
road that his noble friend was no more. On the 30th, he when the train which they are laying may be expected to
became affected with a complaint in the bowels, which, explode, that the danger is exceedingly small that he will
slight at first, soon terminated in mortification, and on the ever be reduced to the alternative of renouncing his faith
4th of October proved fatal. Bishop Horsley died in the or relinquishing his preferments; or to the harder alterna-
seventy-third year of his age. tive which Dr Priestley seems to threaten, of a prison with a
Dr Horsley was throughout life an indefatigable student; good conscience, or his present emoluments without one. If
he indulged no indolence in youth, and amidst an accumu- those happy times of which Dr Priestley prophecies, should
lation of preferments, contemplated no time when he might overtake him ere his course is finished; when an Arian or
rest from his labours. His mind was constantly intent on Socinian Parliament shall undertake the blessed business
some pursuit, and, setting a high value upon the fame he of a second reformation, and depose archbishops from their
had acquired, his ambition was to justify the favourable opi- thrones, and archdeacons from their couches of prefer-
nion of the public, and the liberality of his patrons. In ment; he humbly hopes that he may be supplied with for-
classical acquirements, and in the critical knowledge of the titude to act the part which may not disgrace his present
languages in which the sacred books were originally writ- professions. The probability, however, seems to be, that
ten, he stood in the very first rank of excellence. In the ere those times arrive (if they arrive at all, which we trust
mathematical and physical sciences, if he stood not in the they will not), my antagonist and I shall both be gone to
first rank, he occupied at least a very respectable station, those unseen abodes, w here the din of controversy, and the
In metaphysical acuteness and research, he had probably din of war, are equally unheard. There we shall rest
few superiors ; whilst, in his proper science of theology, we together, till the last trumpet summon us to stand before
wall venture to affirm that he had none. The ablest cham- our God and King. That whatever of intemperate wrath,
picn of orthodoxy that the church had for many years seen, and carnal anger hath mixed itself, on either side, with the
he was so much of an original thinker, and so independent zeal with which we have pursued our fierce contention,
of his predecessors or contemporaries, that his mode of de- may then be forgiven to us both, is a prayer which I breathe
fence was entirely his own, and his style and manner, like from the bottom of my soul, and to which my antagonist,
Warburton’s and Johnson’s, though dangerous to imitate, if he hath any part in'the spirit of a Christian, upon his
w^ere nevertheless the best, perhaps, that could have been bended knees will say Amen.”
devised in the conflict of opinions with which he was sur- As a preacher, or rather as a writer of sermons, Bishop
rounded. In his writings, as in his character, there was Horsley must be allowed to stand in the first class, yet
nothing lukewarm, nothing compromising. His character we do not know with whom in that class we can well
, and manner were indeed somewhat harsh, and arrogant, and compare him. In force, depth, and erudition, in precision
dogmatical; but, whilst due allowance must be made for and distinctness of ideas, in aptitude and vigour of ex-
the heats and errors which controversy engenders, charity pression, and, above all, in the original powers of think-
mduces us to believe that much of his apparent asperity ing displayed in them, Dr Horsley’s discourses are un¬
arose fiom his zeal for the truth, and his high sense of its questionably sui generis. But difficult as the subjects
importance; and that, in fact, he possessed more genuine often are, which he discusses in them, even ordinary
liberality than some of his most clamorous opponents. He readers, moderately conversant with the Bible, and with
was classed, indeed, and he classed himself amongst High- the theory and practice of their religion, may derive more
churchmen; but he was no doubt perfectly sincere in his advantage from them than from any volumes of sermons
attachment to the constitution and doctrines of the Church which have issued from the press for more than half a
o Eng and ; and on more than one occasion he gave proof century. Even difficulties, and very serious difficulties,
that he understood the great principles of practical tolera- Dr Horsley frequently renders plain and practical, by clear,
tion better than some who made louder pretensions to libe- patient, and ingenious criticism ; and having fixed his prin-
ra ity. It is certain, indeed, tha,t he was not only willing, ciple on a scriptural ground, and made that ground com-
ut anxious, to enter into a Parliamentary inquiry into the paratively clear and easy, he enforces the practical conse-
c aims of the Roman Catholics of Ireland, and to grant quences on that direct authority of God which, within the
tiem whatever that inquiry might shew could be granted walls of a Christian church, ought to supersede every other,
wuh seem ity to the Protestant Establishment, and the Pro- Dr Clarke, in his sermons, which stand in the very first
testant succession. rank of excellence, often treats and largely discusses, Chris-
In his fierce controversy with Dr Priestley, Bishop Hors- tian subjects, the mysteries of redemption, and the various
ley had a manifest advantage both in learning and argu- positive ordinances of the gospel. But he does so with
ment; and when we reflect that his adversary aimed at no- this remarkable difference from Bishop Horsley, that he is
thing less than the overthrow of the English establishment, never satisfied with any scriptural principle or precept, till
and avowed his purpose in language not remarkable either he has laboured to render it conformable to what he calls
for modesty or for delicacy, we cannot justly wonder that eternal reason and the fitness of things. Thus, even on
he used strong language in return. Yet it is dignified subjects of which we should never have known any thing
language ; and will not now, perhaps, appear to any candid but from Scripture, and which derive all their importance
reader, to be much stronger than the case required. The and authority from revelation, we are frequently perplexed
concluding paragraph of his Bemarks upon Dr Priestley’s with thorny and intricate discussions, intended to accom-
iSecorul Letters, affords a striking specimen of his manner modate them to this eternal reason and immutable relation
as well as of his temper ; of a manner, no doubt, sufficiently of things. The evil of such discussions is, that they are
authoritative and decided, but of a temper which appears apt to leave an impression on the mind that the obligations
to us entitled to^ the name of Christian. “ For eighteen of duty rest on something different from, and independent
months or more, says he, “ it hath been the boast of the of, the will of God ; whereas, to a Christian, the source of
Unitarian party, that the Archdeacon of St Alban’s hath the obligation, whether as respects moral or religious du-
been challenged to establish facts which he had averred; ties, is beyond all controversy, the revealed will of God
H O R H O R 629
« t. alone. Hence it was that Bishop Horsley, when he had a time suspended, and the youth enrolled themselves for the Horten,
distinctly traced a principle, doctrine, or precept to Scrip- defence of their country. Hortensius, like others of his ^sius.
H'm' ture, justly conceived that he had done all which a Chris- own age, joined the army, and in the second campaign was '
s' tian could require to enforce obedience. It may be inte- raised to the rank of tribune. It does not appear, however,
resting, it may even be important, to trace the admirable that he possessed military talents, as we do not find him
conformity which subsists between the revealed will of taking an active part in any warlike proceedings. His
God, and the same will as it may be deduced from the na- cedileship was distinguished by the magnificence of his ex-
ture of things, and the condition of man ; but it never can be hibition of the public games, and by a gratuitous distribu-
absolutely necessary to establish this conformity ; for whe- tion of corn among the people. It was in 70 b. c. that he was
ther we are able to trace it or not, the Christian obligation first directly opposed to Cicero in the celebrated trial of
is the same. The supposition that revelation may, in every Verres, but notwithstanding the utmost efforts of his elo-
instance, be accommodated to reason, or, in other words, quence, Verres was brought in guilty of the charges which
that a conformity can always be traced between the die- Cicero brought against him. The following year (b. c. 69)
tates of reason and the doctrines of Scripture, is a supposi- we find him raised to the consulship, along with Q. Cecilius
tion not only fraught with danger, but incompatible with Metellus; but it was a period during which Rome enjoyed
the very import of the term revelation, which necessarily profound peace at Rome, whilst she was triumphing over
implies the disclosure to man of that which reason could Mithridates in the east by the arms of Lucullus. The
never have informed him of. conduct of the war against the Cretans fell by lot to Hor—
Besides the works already mentioned, Bishop Horsley tensius, but feekng that the proper arena for the display of
was the author of the following, viz. 1. On the Properties his talents was in the peaceful contests of the Forum, he
of the Greek and Latin Languages, 1796, in 8vo ; 2. On refused to leave Rome, and gave up the commission to his
the Achronical Rising of the Pleiades, appended to Dr colleague Metellus, who derived the name of Creticus from
Vincent’s Voyage of Nearchus, 1797 ; 3. A Circular Letter the subjugation of the island. {Xiphilin. Epit. Dion. tom. i.
to the Diocese of Rochester, on the Scarcity of Corn, 1796 ; p. 75.) He amassed great riches, and became remarkable
4. Another Circular Letter to that Diocese on the Defence for the magnificence of his villas, and his sumptuous mode
of the Kingdom, 1798 ; 5. Critical Disquisitions on the 18th of living. He opposed with success a sumptuary law pro¬
chapter of Isaiah, 1799, in 4to; 6. Hosea translated from posed by Pompey and Crassus {Dion.') ', and resisted the
the Hebrew, with Notes explanatory and critical, 1801, proposals of Gabinius and Manilius to invest Pompey with
in 4to; 7. Elementary Treatises on the fundamental prin- powers of so extraordinary a nature, that they seemed calcu-
ciples of Practical Mathematics, for the use of Students, lated to annihilate the independence of Rome. Though the
1801, in 8vo. Since his death have appeared, 1. Sermons, most formidable rival of Cicero in the Forum, he was the
1810 and 1812, in three vols. 8vo; 2. Tracts in contro- intimate and affectionate friend of that orator; and when
versy with Dr Priestley, upon the historical question of the Clodius threatened Cicero with exile, Hortensius appeared
belief of the first ages'in the Divinity of Jesus Christ, re- in the assembly of the people in deep mourning^ and was at-
vised and augmented by the author, with an appendix by tacked by the slaves of that factious tribune. { Cic.MiL 14.)
his Son, 1812, in 8vo; 3. The Speeches in Parliament of In his latter years, he did not exert himself to maintain
Samuel Horsley, 1813 ; and, 4. The Charges delivered at the rank to which he had attained, and allowed his glory to
his several visitations of the dioceses of St David’s, Ro- be eclipsed by the wonderful powers of eloquence displayed
Chester, and St Asaph, 1813, in 8vo.—(Chalmers’s Biog. by Cicero. A few days before his death, B. c. 50, he de-
Dict. art. Horsley ; Edinburgh Review, vol. xvii. p. 465, fended the cause of Appius Claudius; and it was m const-
4gg \ (a.) quence of the exertions which he made in that case that
HORST, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of he broke a blood-vessel, which put an end to his life. Cic.
Limburg, and circle of Ruremont. It contains 2246 inha- Br. 94 ; Ep. Earn. viii. 13 ; Ep. Att. vi. 6. Hortensius
bitants ; but is an extensive parish, which has a population was first married to Lutatia, the daughter of the celebrated
of 4490, who are occupied in weaving linen and cotton Lutatius Catullus, by whom he had a son, whose conduct
g00t]Si gave him great cause of uneasiness, and a daughter, Hor-
HORTENSIUS, Quintus, one of the most celebrated tensia, distinguished for her talents, who married Valerius
orators that Rome produced, the contemporary and rival of Messala. Hortensius afterwards contracted a second ^r-
Cicero, was born b. c. 114, and eight years before Cicero, riage with Marcia, daughter of Philippus, and wife oi a °*
He was son of L. Hortensius, who had distinguished himself This transaction was of a very extraordinary nature, an w as
in his praetorship in Rome, and proconsulship in Italy, by a little to the honour of any of the parties; but the ^ \s
strict adherence to justice and the ancient laws of his may be read in Plutarch {Life of Cato). As none o us
country. His mother Sempronia was grand-daughter to writings have been preserved, we are without the means ot
Tuditanus. Of the manner in which he spent his earlier forming an opinion of his eloquence, except from the state-
years, w'e have received no information; but we find him nients of the ancients. It was highly ornamented, flowery,
at the age of nineteen (b. c. 95), at once taking a distin- and even more Asiatic in its character than that o icero.
guished place amongst the orators of his country. ( Cic. Br. His style was full of animation, and his composition was
64.) The first cause which he undertook was that of Afri- extremely polished. Hortensius also cultivated poetry
ca, in which he was eminently successful; and shortly af- with success. (Ovid. Trust, ii. 441, ^ w. c . X1^*
terwards he was employed by the king of Bithynia in his See Sallier, Recherches sur la I le de Q. Hort. m the em.
defence before the senate. The breaking out of the Social de TAcad. des Inscript, vi. 500. Luzac. Specimen is o-
War, b. c. 90, so alarmed the Romans for the very exist- ric. jurisdic. de Q. Bort. oratore, Lugd..Bat. 1810. lira-*
ence of their power, that all domestic proceedings were for boschi Storia della Litter at. Italiana, m. 2.)
630
HORTICULTURE.
Introduc- Horticulture is that branch of rural economy which if we would ascend into remote antiquity, we can have re- intro
consists in the formation and culture of Gardens. Its re- course only to conjecture, for although, in the Sacred tio
suits are culinary vegetables, fruits, and flowers. On one Writings, and in the earliest profane authors, allusions to^—%
side it is allied to Agriculture, from which, however, it is gardens occur, little is told us either of their productions
distinguished by the nature of its products, and by the or their culture. At the close of the Roman common-
smaller extent and greater complexity of its operations; wealth, the catalogue of fruits had become considerable,
on the other side, in its processes of embellishment, it ap- the principles of grafting and pruning were understood
proaches the arts of the Landscape Artist and the Fo- and practised, and shortly afterwards, even artificial heat
rester, from which, however, it also retires in the compa- seems to have been partially employed. With the decline of
rative minuteness of its details. Respecting the former of the empire, horticulture also declined or became stationary •
these departments of rural art, considered as distinct from but at the revival of learning, it arose from the slumber of
Horticulture, information may be obtained in the article the dark ages, encumbered, it is true, by the dreams of the
on Gardening. alchymists, the restrictions of unlucky days, and the imagi-
Like other arts, Horticulture borrows its principles from nary effects of lunar influence. From these fetters it was
the general sciences. To Botany it is beholden for the ere long emancipated by the diffusion of knowledge, and it
facts and theories of vegetable physiology; to Chemistry has hitherto kept pace with the general improvement of
for assistance in reference to soils, manures, and artificial society. Modified by climate and other circumstances in
heat; and to Meteorology for a knowledge of many cir- different countries, its advancement has been various; but
cumstances which very materially affect the labours of the nowhere has it made greater progress than amongst our-
gardener. On these subjects, with which the philosophical selves. Introduced into England at an early period, gar-
horticulturist will not fail to make himself familiar, we refer dening became conspicuous in the reign of Henry VIII.
to the various scientific articles in this Encyclopaedia. It and his immediate successors, and met with considerable
is very desirable that such information should be exten- attention during the reigns of the Stuarts. In the first
sively diffused among practical men ; as it is only from this half of the eighteenth century, Miller, Switzer, and others,
quarter that much improvement, in our present state of laboured with success in improving the operations, and un¬
knowledge, can be expected. Truth, however, obliges us folding the principles, of the art; and these were succeeded
to admit, that gardening has been most successfully practis- by Abercrombie, Speechly, and a host of writers, who
ed, when treated as an empirical art. Few of those who are added greatly to our stores of knowledge. In 1805 was
minutely conversant with its numerous manipulations have established the Horticultural Society of London, which was
undergone such an intellectual training as to enable them soon followed by the institution of the Caledonian Horti-
to wield general principles with effect. Many who are not cultural Society at Edinburgh; and in their train have
inexpert or unsuccessful while they follow the routine prac- sprung up a multitude of provincial gardening societies,
tice (a practice, be it remembered, founded on long expe- all of which have given an impulse to the public mind, and
rience) epegiously fail, when, with imperfect information, stimulated the exertions of individuals. Experimental gar-
or ill-advised ingenuity, they endeavour to strike out new dens have been formed, in which, amongst other things, the
paths for themselves. The object of the art, too, limits the important work of distinguishing and classifying the nume-
apphcation of the deductions of science. Its whole busi- rous varieties of our hardy fruits has been zealously prose-
ness consists in the imitation of Nature, whose processes cuted. The mass of information now collected is immense,
may indeed be, in some measure, originated, as when a seed and the labour expended in its diffusion unwearied. Judg-
is inserted in the ground, or modified, as in the artificial ing from the literature of the day, and passing downward
training of fruit-trees, but which may not be entirely con- from the sumptuous Transactions of the metropolitan So-
trolled, much less counteracted. The principle of vegeta- ciety, through the numerous periodicals, to the penny in-
ble life will not endure interference beyond a certain point, formation for the people, we shall scarcely find any art,
and our theoretical views should be so directed as to inter- however nationally important, which receives more atten-
fere with it as little as possible. Observation and experi- tion, or on which the liberality of the wealthy is more
ment are the grand means by which the art has arrived at abundantly bestowed. The public nursery-gardens, too,
its present state of advancement: at the same time it is both at London and elsewhere, establishments intimately
obvious, that an enlarged acquaintance with science will connected with our subject, and which, in a manufacturing
aid us in imitating the processes of nature, will guide the nation, are not the least wonderful amongst the applications
hand of experiment, suggest contrivances, and enable us to of skill and capital, prove the extent and perfection to
guard against error; and above all, will tend to dispel those which gardening has advanced. Although, however, there
prejudices which practitioners in the empirical arts are so is not, perhaps, in the annals of invention, a chapter of
prone to cherish. higher interest than the history of Horticulture, our limits
hardening, Mr Walpole observes, was probably one of do not permit us to enter further into details: we must
the first arts which succeeded to that of building houses, and therefore refer to Loudon’s Encyclopcedia of Gardening,
naturally attended property and individual possession. Cu- a work which, for minuteness of exposition, and copious-
inary, and afterwards medicinal herbs, were objects in re- ness of illustration, is unrivalled amongst the didactic trea-
quest by every head of a family ; and it became convenient tises of our times.
to have them within reach, without searching for them in We intend to confine our attention almost exclusively to
moo s, m mea ows, or on mountains, as they were want- the horticulture of Great Britain, and we shall endeavour
ed. separate enclosures for rearing herbs were soon found to give such an exhibition of its practice as may suit the
expedient, bruits were in the same predicament; and middle districts of the island. The objects of culture are
tfiose most m use, or the cultivation of which required par- so numerous, the operations so varied, and the materials so
icmar attention, must early have entered into and extend- copious, that, in presenting what can claim only the cha-
• n c, m£st,c enclosure. Such may be deemed the lead- racter of a sketch of our subject, it will be necessary to fol-
mg heads of a conjectural history of the art; and indeed, low a plan of selection. It would be unprofitable to de-
HORTICULTURE.
fn ind scribe all the methods of culture in practice; we shall there-
Ki en fore notice such only as are deemed the best.
Gi -n- The subject naturally divides itself into the Fruit, the
^ ^ Kitchen, and the Flower Garden ; but as the first two ge¬
nerally occupy the same locality, or are intermingled with
each other, and as every thing connected with their forma¬
tion is inseparably involved, we shall, to some extent, take
them together. Then will follow the Flower-Garden; and
by way of conclusion to the whole, a short Calendar.
FRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN.
In this department are cultivated the articles which are
necessary for the supply of the kitchen and the dessert
table. It is inclosed within walls, not only for the sake of
security and general shelter, but, in our climate, as afford¬
ing the means of cultivating the finer fruits, by training
the trees close to the walls. It is furnished with hot-houses,
melon-frames, and similar contrivances, by which the fruits
of other climates are subjected to an artificially increased
temperature, and thus brought to maturity. The size of a
walled garden ought evidently to bear some proportion to
the splendour of the mansion-house of which it is an appen¬
dage, to the extent of the park, and the means of the fami¬
ly. Where the demand is large, such a garden should
comprehend from four to six acres. In many places this
extent will not afford an adequate supply of culinary vege¬
tables, but some of the bulkier crops, such as pease, pota¬
toes, and turnips, may be grown in the exterior fields.
From an acre and a half to three acres may be regarded as
forming a respectable garden ; but, within the limits already
mentioned, it is better, in the first formation of a garden,
to enclose too large a space than too small a one.
The productiveness of such an establishment will depend
chiefly upon the natural fertility of the soil, and the eligi¬
bility of the situation, but also in a considerable degree
upon the labour expended upon the culture. Where a gar¬
den is underworked (to use a gardener’s phrase), the finer
products must necessarily be scanty, for whatever requires
care, requires time; and it not unfrequently happens that
a gardener fails in some crop, not from defect of method or
skill, but because he has not been able to overtake it, or
has been obliged to make his preparations in a hurried and
insufficient manner. All circumstances being favourable,
a British garden is perhaps unrivalled in fertility by any
cultivated spot in the world. A copious supply of escu¬
lents flows into the kitchen at all seasons; and after a rich
abundance of fruit has been afforded during summer and
autumn, the winter stores may be easily prolonged till the
early forced fruits come again to the table.
We shall first treat of the general properties and appen¬
dages of the Fruit and Kitchen Garden.
Situation.—The position of the garden in relation to the
mansion-house, properly belongs to the province of Land¬
scape-Gardening, as it obviously should be in keeping with
the general features of the park scenery. It may, however,
be remarked, that, as a place of interest to every well-in¬
formed proprietor, it should be so near as to be convenient¬
ly accessible on foot, probably within little more than a
quarter of a mile; while it should be so distant as to avoid
the possibility of offence arising from gardening operations
and the resort of workmen. A position on one side of the
house is to be preferred, unless a much more eligible one
occur in the rear. Wherever it be placed, it should be so
masked by evergreen shrubs and trees, as not to be visible
from the principal lawns, or from the walks in the shrub¬
bery and flower-garden. If the surface of the domain be
undulated, the garden is almost unavoidably seen from
some point or other, and the coup-cFceil of the enclosure
631
walls is apt to present the idea of a large box; an unplea- Fruit and
sant impression, which should by all means be avoided or Kitchen
lessened by plantations judiciously placed. Garden.
Ground possessing a gentle inclination toward the south " ^"
is desirable for a garden. On such a slope effectual drain¬
ing is easily accomplished, and the greatest possible benefit
is derived from the sun’s rays. The lower part of a gentle
declivity is perhaps to be preferred; but a very low situa¬
tion should scarcely be chosen, as the subsoil is apt to be
damp, fogs often brood over such spots, and frosts are more
injurious there than on higher ground. It is beneficial to
have an open exposure towards the east and west, so that
the garden may enjoy the full benefit of the morning and
evening sun.
Shelter is absolutely necessary; and that afforded by
natural objects, such as rising grounds, is the best. Where
this is wanting, its place should be supplied by masses of
forest-trees, disposed at such a distance, however, as not to
shade the wall-trees, perhaps not nearer than 150 feet.
The purpose of such screens is to break the force of the
winds; and as every situation is, in this respect, liable to
some peculiarities occasioned by the general structure of
the country, or by the reverberation of aerial currents from
adjacent eminences, these peculiarities should be carefully
observed and obviated. The idea that crowded plantations
increase the warmth of a place is often fallacious ; and, in
the opinion of many, they do more harm than good, by en¬
couraging blight. The trees employed may be of a varied
character, but lime-tree, horse-chestnut, beech, sycamore,
weeping birch, and the smooth-leaved wych elm, should
prevail. There may also be a proportion of evergreen trees,
such as firs, pines, hollies, and evergreen oaks. When
these masses of wood are planted at the time the garden is
formed, poplars, larches, and other fast-growing trees,
should be thickly intermixed to act as temporary trees and
nurses, which are afterwards to be weeded out, as the per¬
manent trees more slowly advance to maturity.
A supply of water is equally necessary. Where a
streamlet can be made to flow through the garden, and
keep a central pond constantly full, it will conduce both to
utility and amenity. If this cannot be effected, a pipe of
sufficient caliber should be led from some neighbouring
pond to the hot-houses, and to two or three different sta¬
tions in the garden. Well or spring water should be ex¬
posed in tanks or reservoirs to the action of the sun and air,
when it becomes comparatively soft and salubrious for
plants. As rain water is found better than any other for
this purpose, all that can be collected should be stored and
kept for use.
Connected with the situation is the approach to the gar¬
den from without, a matter requiring some taste and con¬
trivance. If possible, it should be from the south, when
the range of glazed houses will be seen at once, and pro¬
duce a pleasing effect. Sometimes a lateral entrance is very
suitable, leading, it may be supposed, from the flower-gar¬
den through an intermediate shrubbery, and coming upon
the hot-houses in flank. It is delightful to be introduced
at once and by surprise into a Slip, as it is called, where on
the one hand there is an extent of wall covered with luxu¬
riant fruit-trees in full bearing, and on the other is display¬
ed a rich collection of ornamental shrubs and large peren¬
nial border-flowers.
Form.—The form of a garden, it is obvious, must chiefly
be determined by the nature of the situation and the taste
of the proprietor. In general, gardens are either squares
or oblongs, chiefly, it is presumed, because walls of this
configuration contain the greatest space within the least
perimeter, a result of very questionable value. They may
be of any form, with this limitation, that attention should
be paid to facilitating the transport of manures and garden
products, for when the grounds are straggling, or compli-
HORTICULTURE.
632
Fruit and cated in structure, the labour of cultivation is much in-
Kitchen creased.
Garden. ^ Exterior Fence—Most gardens are encircled by an outer
boundary, formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha, surmounted by
an invisible wire fence to exclude hares, or by a hedge and
paling. Occasionally this sunk wall is placed on the exte¬
rior of the screen plantations, and walks lead out among the
trees, to give favourable views of the adjacent country.
Although the interior garden receives its form from the
walls, the ring fence and plantations may be adapted to the
shape and surface of the ground. The spaces between the
outer fence and the walls are, as already noticed, called
Slips, and, where circumstances render it eligible, a con¬
siderable extent of ground is sometimes included, and ap¬
propriated to the culture of small fruits and vegetables. If
]possible, the gardener’s house should be situate here, as
being convenient for him, and as tending to scare depre¬
dators.
Walls—For the production of the finer fruits, such as
peaches, apricots, hardy grapes, and most of the delicate
french and Flemish pears, the aid of walls is indispensable
in our climate. Indeed, in the northern and higher parts
of the country, where there is no walled garden, the dessert
can seldom consist of more than small fruits, and ill-ripen¬
ed apples and pears. So valuable in this respect are walls,
that it is perhaps a matter of surprise that they have not
been multiplied by the erection of slight and cheap struc¬
tures, such as are common in the peach-gardens in France.
The north wall having, in the interior, a south aspect, is of
course appropriated to the more tender kinds of fruit-trees ;
here, it is generally estimated, they enjoy an increased tem¬
perature equal to 7° of south latitude; the east and west
walls are set apart for fruits of a somewhat hardier charac¬
ter ; while the inner face of the south wall, having a north
aspect, is well adapted for retarding Morelia cherries and
currants.
The north wall is generally placed nearly perpendicular
to the meridian, that is, so as to have the sun directly in
front at 12 o’clock. Minute directions have indeed been
given to make it face towards 11 or 11£ a. m., on the
ground that thus it would sooner meet the rays of the
morning sun ; but it does not appear that this arrange¬
ment has been the subject of direct experiment, and cer¬
tainly the arguments, by which the superiority of this
aspect is supported, are far from being satisfactory. The
east and west walls are commonly placed at right-angles'to
that already mentioned, but they may follow the shape of
the ground, and if this slope to the south, they descend with
the declivity. The south enclosure wall, as affording on
the outside a valuable aspect to the south, is deserving of
particular attention. It is presumed that the walls are to
be covered, both within and without, with trees trained
en espalier.
Different portions of the enclosure wall are always built
of different heights, and this variation of height is the more
necessary, when the ground approaches to a level. In such
a situation, and when the enclosure does not exceed two
acres, the north wall may rise to the elevation of 14 feet;
the walls on the east and west may be two feet lower, and
the south wall need not exceed 10 feet. In larger gardens,
the walls are generally made proportionally higher : on the
north, perhaps 16 feet, on the east and west 14, and on the
south 12. In several excellent Scottish gardens planned
by Mr John Hay, such as that at Castle Semple, a piece
of building is made to project diagonally outwards from the
corners where the walls meet at right-angles. This pro¬
jection is 16 or 17 feet in length. It serves to strengthen
the fabric, and, at the same time, breaks the force of the
winds which sweep around walled gardens.
Walls inclined to the horizon have been recommended
by Desaguliers and others ; but, independently of the theo¬
retical objections which might be urged against them, and Fruit d
which, in actual practice, would probably counterbalance KiteL
their supposed advantages, they must be extremely incon- Gari
venient from their bulk, or the space which they occupy;
and hence they have never come into general use.
Bricks afford the best and the most kindly material for
garden-walls. Being bad conductors of caloric, they ac¬
cumulate heat; they do not retain moisture, and, by their
numerous interstices, they furnish every facility for nailing
in the twigs of the fruit-trees. Where freestone (that is,
sandstone capable of being easily dressed) is abundant, the
exterior wall is often formed of coursed masonry, and the
interior is faced with bricks. The foundation should, if
possible, be formed of stone. Whinstone (that is, either
the greenstone or the basalt of mineralogists) forms an ex¬
cellent material for fruit-walls. It is susceptible of a neat
hammer-dressing ; it does not readily imbibe moisture, and
therefore is not much cooled by evaporation ; and being of
a very dark colour, it absorbs more solar heat during sun¬
shine than a lighter surface, while at night the radiation
from both is nearly the same. Part of the principal fruit- •
wall of the Experimental Garden at Edinburgh is built of
greenstone ; and the plants trained against it have evinced,
by their growth, that they enjoy a superior temperature.
For the preservation of the walls, a coping is necessary;
and it seems a matter of indifference whether it be formed
of stones with a rounded surface, or of flat pavement, or of
tiles. Probably it should not project more than an inch,
though some contend for a larger measure, on the ground
of its preventing to some extent the radiation of heat from
the tree towards the sky in clear nights, and affording shel¬
ter from the perpendicular deposition of dew. Temporary
copings of wood are often adopted, and are found to answer
every good purpose. They are put on in spring, to protect
the tender blossom and embryo fruit from the hoarfrosts,
and when danger is past are removed, to give free access
to the genial showers and sunshine of summer and autumn.
Hot Walls—A considerable proportion of the walls of
every good garden, especially in the north, should be con¬
structed with flues, to supply the means of applying artifi¬
cial heat. The additional expense is trifling ; and in colder
situations, the aid of this species of wall is nearly indispen¬
sable for the regular ripening of peaches, grapes, and figs.
The application of fire-heat for a few weeks in spring will
secure the setting of the fruit, and the same operation con¬
tinued for a short time in autumn will suffice to ripen it,
and also to prepare the young wood for the next year. The
flues may be about twenty inches deep, and should make as
many horizontal turns as the height of the wall will allow.
One furnace will be enough for a surface fifty feet in length.
When the boundary walls do not furnish room sufficient for
the production of the finer fruits, one or perhaps two mid¬
dle walls are built across the garden from east to west, of
the same height as the side walls, to which they nearly ap¬
proach. They are generally flued, and are sometimes
covered, on their southern aspect, with glazed frames, either
fixed or moveable. These cross walls add greatly to the
capabilities of a fruit-garden, and are useful in affording
additional shelter to the small fruits and crops of vege¬
tables.
Espalier-Rails.—Subsidiary to walls as a means of train¬
ing fruit-trees, espalier rails were formerly much employ¬
ed, and they still prevail in many parts of the country. In
their simplest form, they are merely a row of slender stakes
of ash or Spanish chestnut, driven into the ground, and
connected by a slight rod or fillet at top. In some gardens,
the perpendicular rods are fastened into two horizontal
rails, supported by strong posts, which are battened into
stones. Cast-iron rails have also been proposed. The
frame-work is sometimes inclined to the horizon, and some¬
times flat like a table, which last, when there is room, «
HORTICULTURE.
pru in(I perhaps the best arrangement. Espalier rails, especially
Ki the more elaborate sorts, are expensive and formal, and
Ga n* therefore in many instances have given place to dwarf
' / standard trees, which are equally productive, and far more
elegant in their appearance.
Soils.—It is of great importance that the ground select¬
ed for a garden should be naturally of a good quality. A
hazel-coloured loam, of a light or sandy texture, is well
adapted for most crops, whether of fruits or culinary vege¬
tables. As it is more easy to render a light soil sufficiently
retentive, than to make a tenacious clay sufficiently porous,
a light soil is preferable to one which is excessively stiff
and heavy. It is advantageous to possess a variety of soils ;
and if the garden be on a slope, it will often be practicable
to render the upper part light and dry, while the lower re¬
mains of a heavier and damper nature. The soil should be
good to the depth of two feet, and any necessary additional
deepening by manures or otherwise, should not be neglect¬
ed. The nature of the subsoil demands particular atten¬
tion. If it be strongly impregnated with metallic sub¬
stances, or composed of cold till, it will prove pernicious
to the roots of fruit-trees, and will scarcely admit of a re¬
medy. A decomposing rock, or a bed of sand, is prefer¬
able. Perhaps the best of all is a dry bed of clay, overly¬
ing sandstone, which crops out within the enclosure. If
the inferior strata be retentive, and if water lodge in any
part of the garden, draining should be carefully executed,
so as to carry off the superfluous moisture.
Preparatory to the distribution of the several parts of a
garden, it is proper that the ground be trenched to the
depth of two feet at least; but the deeper the better. In
this operation all stones larger than a man’s fist are taken
out, and all roots of trees, and of perennial weeds, are care¬
fully extracted and cleared away. When the soil is not
tolerably good to the depth of two feet, it will often be
proper to remove a portion of the subsoil; and its place
shouldbe made up by a proportional quantity of turf or fresh
loam from the fields. If the subsoil be gravel, and the up¬
per layer sandy, the additional earth should be clayey loam,
or the scourings of ditches ; but if the original body of soil
be of a compact texture, the materials introduced should be
mixed with sand, marl, and other light opening substances.
When the whole ground has been thus treated, a moderate
liming will, in general, be useful. After this, supposing the
work to have occupied most of the summer, the whole may
be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface as possible
to the action of the winter’s frost. The draining, trench¬
ing, and other operations here recommended, will unavoid¬
ably be attended with considerable expense, and this ex¬
pense will not immediately be followed by any perceptible
beneficial result. The lapse of a few years, however, will
develope the vast advantages of such a mode of procedure,
which, if it have been neglected at first, cannot be practised
at a subsequent period but with indifferent success, and not
without a great increase of care and labour.
Manures.—In enumerating the general appendages of
gardens, it may be proper to say something of manures,
hut we do not consider it necessary to enter into minute
details on this subject. Where there are extensive melon
grounds, an abundance of stable and other litter is required;
and this substance, in its partially decomposed state, as afford¬
ed by exhausted hotbeds, supplies a manure well adapted
to aid the processes of vegetation. Decayed leaves, which
are plentiful where there are extensive pleasure-grounds,
also form an excellent manure for many purposes. Some
practical men prefer composts to simple dungs, or such
substances as have undergone fermentation. For fruit-
trees turf from rich pastures, mixed with vegetable earth,
is perhaps the best stimulant which can be applied. It is
questionable whether any sort of trees are permanently be¬
nefited by the application of crude manures to their roots;
VOL. XI.
633
and it is certain that many have been irremediably injured Fruit and
by this practice. But whatever caution may be necessary Kitchen
in their use, the prudent horticulturist will find it expedient Gar(len-
to pay particular attention to the collection of manures.
He cannot go on long without them; for ground which is
exhausted by continual cropping, requires to be continual¬
ly repaired.
Internal Arrangement of Gardens A considerable por¬
tion of the north wall, or of the cross-wall, is covered in
front with glazed structures, called hothouses, or forcing
houses. To these the houses for ornamental plants are some¬
times attached ; but the last are more appropriately situate
in the flower garden, when that forms a separate depart¬
ment. It is well, however, that every other thing connected
with the forcing, whether of fruits or flowers, should be
concentrated in one place. The melonry and other smaller
pine-pits, should occupy some well-sheltered spot in the
slips, or on one side of the garden, and, if possible, in the
neighbourhood of the stable-yard. Adjoining to this may
be found a suitable site for the compost ground, in which
various kinds of soils may be kept in store, and composts
may be prepared.
Extensive gardens, in exposed situations, are often divid¬
ed into compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break
the force of w inds. Where these are required to be lofty
yet narrow, holly, yew, or beech is preferred; but if space
be no object, common laurel-bay is one of the most beauti¬
ful plants that can be employed for this purpose. Smaller
hedges may be formed of evergreen privet, or of tree-box.
These subordinate divisions, though often neglected, are
worthy of attention; for, in addition to shelter, they fur¬
nish shade, which, at certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable.
The laying out of the area of the garden in walks> bor¬
ders, and compartments, may be regulated very much by
the shape of the ground, and the taste of the owner. In
general, a gravel walk six or eight feet broad, is led quite
around the garden, both within and without the walls. A
walk of similar dimensions is often constructed in the centre
of the garden in the direction of the glazed houses, and
this is sometimes crossed by another at right-angles. At
times these walks are led diagonally from the corners. The
space between the w all and the walk that skirts it, is called
the wall-border, and is commonly from fifteen to twenty feet
broad. On the interior of the walk there is usually another
border five or six feet broad, w hich is generally occupied by
fruit-trees trained to espalier rails, or by dwarf standard
trees. The middle part of the garden is divided into rect¬
angular compartments for the raising of the various culi¬
nary crops. These compartments may be divided by rows
of moderate-sized fruit-trees, or of gooseberry and currant
bushes. It is advantageous to have several small beds, in
which to cultivate the less bulky articles, such as basil,
sage, tarragon, &c. which, in large spaces, are apt to be over¬
looked or neglected.
Wall-Borders.—The preparation of borders for fruit-
trees is a matter of the utmost importance, and no pains
should be spared in this essential operation. Where bor¬
ders are not in good condition, the care and toil of the
most experienced gardener will avail but little to the pro¬
duction of fruit. The first object is effectual draining. The
next, if the subsoil be indifferent, is the formation of a bot¬
tom impervious to the roots of trees. This is sometimes
done with stone-shivers and lime-rubbish, or with coal-ashes
and clay, compacted by treading with the feet, and beating
with the back of a spade, Loudon recommends successive
layers an inch thick of clean gravel, pulverized earth, and
then gravel, well watered and firmly compressed by means
of a heavy roller. Good soil to the depth of twro feet and
a half, or three feet, is placed over this impervious bottom.
Three-fourths rich loam, and one-fourth light sandy earth,
form a mixture congenial to the generality of fruit-trees,
4 L
634
HORTICULTURE.
Garden.
Fruit and In selecting the soil, regard may be had to the particular
Kitchen trees which are to cover each portion of the wall. Thus a
, heavy soil may be allotted to pears and plums; loam of a
medium character, inclining to be strong, to peaches;
and a lighter earth for cherries and figs. Above all, care
should be taken to render the borders sufficiently rich and
substantial. Whilst every skilful horticulturist can in vari¬
ous ways reduce the luxuriance of his trees, nothing can
compensate for extreme poverty in the soil. The same
principle will dictate moderation in cropping wall borders
with culinary vegetables; a practice in which gardeners
are apt to exceed, from a desire to furnish very early crops
of pease, turnips, cabbage, or potatoes.
Orchards.—In most large gardens dwarf standard trees
may be planted, sufficient to afford a supply of fruit for an
ordinary family. Where this is not the case, it is desirable
that there should be a separate orchard. A situation simi¬
lar to that of a garden, and the same preparatory operations,
are necessary: but a simple hedge will, in most situations,
suffice for a fence. The trees may here be on free stocks
and high standards, and the taller growing pears and apples
are best suited for a large orchard. Thorseby in his Diary,
under date of March 1702, mentions, as a novelty, an or¬
chard “ kept in the new order of dwarf trees,” evidently in¬
timating that dwarf standards were introduced from Hol¬
land by the Prince of Orange at the time of the Revolu¬
tion. When an additional supply of culinary vegetables is
required, they may be cultivated in the orchard; and then
the trees should be planted in rows, with considerable in¬
tervals between the rows, otherwise the close quincunx
order is preferable. In any circumstances, the trees should
not be choked up with currant and gooseberry bushes, as
is common in market gardens. On the margin of the or¬
chard may be planted Walnuts, Chestnuts, Filberds, and any
other fruit-trees less commonly cultivated, or the fruit of
which is not much in demand. The whole should be effec¬
tually screened from the prevailing winds, by rows of forest
trees, at a sufficient distance, however, to prevent shading,
or the robbing of the soil.
FRUIT GARDEN.
We shall first direct our attention to the culture of hardy
fruits, or of such as, in our climate, do not, to an extensive
degree, require the assistance of artificial heat. But before
proceeding to a minute detail of the management of the
different varieties, it may be proper to attend to some of
the operations which are common to all.
Preliminary Operations.
These may be classed under the heads Propagation,
Planting, Training, and the Protection of Blossom.
Propagation by Seed.—Although fruit-trees are furnish¬
ed with all the natural means of reproduction, it is not
in general expedient to attempt to propagate them by the
sowing of seed. This method is found to be equally tedious
and precarious, requiring the labour of a good many years,
and very seldom producing an exact copy of the fruits from
which the seeds are taken. All our present admired
fruits are seminal varieties obtained from the wild inhabi¬
tants of the forests ; they have been trained into an artificial
condition; and when sown, seem to have a tendency to
resume their original constitution. In the peach-orchards
of America, for instance, which are planted with the kernels
of choice sorts, there are seldom more than a few trees
affording fruit fit for the table : the produce of the majority
is so worthless, that it is employed for feeding the hogs.
Notwithstanding this embarrassing circumstance, there are
some considerations which render this mode of propagation
at once interesting and important to horticulturists. It is ^
the only way by which we can procure new kinds to supply Gar,
the place of those which are falling into decay; and it is a
great means of adapting the tender sorts to the rigour of
our climate. It is well known that some of the favourite
cider apples of the seventeenth century have become extinct,
and others are fast verging into decrepitude; and hence the
conclusion has been drawn, that all our present fruits, as
they are artificial in their constitution, are also limited in
their duration. Each variety springing from an individual
at first, however extended by grafting or budding, partakes
of the qualities of the individual: and where the original is
old, there is inherent in the derivatives the tendency to de¬
cay incident to old age. It is assumed that all the indivi¬
dual trees of any given variety, such as the golden pippin,
or the grey leadington, are in a lax sense equivalent to orie
individual. By careful management, the health and life
of this composite individual may be prolonged; and grafts
inserted into vigorous stocks, and nursed in favourable
situations, may long survive their parent tree ; still there is a
sure progress towards extinction, and the only renewal of the
individual, the only true reproduction, is by sowing seed.
It is admitted by those who have paid attention to the sub¬
ject, that this curious principle of vegetable economy holds
true, at least so far as regards fruit-trees.
Mr Knight, to whom this ingenious theory is due, con¬
ceived the idea of supplying the lack of old varieties by semi¬
nation. It further occurred to him, that advantage might
be taken of that tendency which plants exhibit on repeated
sowings, to adapt themselves to the climates in which they
are raised, so that trees of warmer countries may thus be¬
come habituated to colder regions. He therefore devoted
much of his attention to the production of improved and
robust varieties; and his zeal and labours have been re¬
warded by the Acton Scott Peach, the Ingestrie and Down-
ton Apples, and many others, in almost every sort of hardy
fruit. Mr Knight entertained the opinion, deduced, we
may presume, from experiment, that more is to be expect¬
ed from hybrid varieties, than from the mere reproduction
of old kinds ; he therefore had recourse to the nice opera¬
tion of dusting the pollen of one kind on the pistil of ano¬
ther. Fie opened the unexpanded blossom of the variety
destined to be the female parent of the expected progeny,
and, with a pair of small-pointed scissors, cut away all the
stamens, while the anthers were yet unripe, taking care to
leave the style and the stigma uninjured. When the female
blossom, thus prepared, naturally expanded, the full blown
blossoms of the other variety destined to be the male pa¬
rent were applied. Mr Knight has often remarked in the
progeny a strong prevalence of the constitution and habits
of the female parent: in this country, therefore, in experi¬
menting on pears, the pollen of the more delicate French
kinds, such as crasanne and chaumontelle, should be dusted
upon the flowers (always deprived of stamens) of the muir-
fowl egg, the grey achan, the green yair, or others, that are
hardy, or of British origin.
As this is a subject of interest, we may state some of the
precautions adopted by Mr Knight and his followers, in
conducting their experiments. It is, in the first place, a
rule to employ seeds of the finest kinds of fruit, and to take
them from the largest, ripest, and best-flavoured specimens
of that fruit. When Mr Knight wished to procure some
of the old apples in a healthy and renovated stffte, he pre¬
pared stocks of such good sorts as could be propagated from
cuttings, he planted them against a south wall in rich soil,
and then grafted them with the kind required. In the
following winter the young trees were taken up, their roots
retrenched, and then replanted in the same place, by which
mode of treatment they were thrown into bearing when
only two years old. Not more than a couple of apples
were allowed to remain on each tree, and these m conse-
HORTICULTURE. 635
I? jt quence attained a larger size and more perfect maturity.
Ga «• The seeds were then sown, in the hope of procuring an
equally excellent and more vigorous offspring. In the case
of cross-impregnation, every seed, though taken from the
same fruit, produces a different variety, and these varieties,
as might be anticipated, prove to be of very various merit.
In general those seeds are to be preferred which are plump
and round. An estimate of the value of the seedlings may
be formed, even during the first summer of their growth,
from the resemblance they bear to those of highly cul¬
tivated and approved trees. The leaves of the promising
seedlings improve in character, becoming thicker, rounder,
and more downy every season. Those whose buds in the
annual wood are full and prominent, generally prove more
productive than those whose buds are small and shrunk
into the bark. Early flowering and hardy blossoms are
desirable characters. It has been observed, that even after
a seedling tree has commenced bearing, its fruit has a ten¬
dency to improve as the tree itself acquires vigour, so that,
if, in the first season, there is any considerable promise, a
great improvement may be expected in succeeding years.
The slowness with which seedlings reach the bearing
state, has been the subject of complaint among horticul¬
turists, and indeed is the principal reason why this mode of
propagation has not been more frequently practised. Ac¬
cording to Mr Knight, the pear requires from twelve to
eighteen years to reach the age of puberty; the apple
from five to twelve or thirteen years; the plum and
cherry four or five; the vine three or four; the rasp¬
berry two years. The peach, he found to bear in two,
three, or four years. This period, however, must depend
on the soil, situation, and mode of culture. In the warm
and highly manured garden of M. Van Mons at Brus¬
sels, (called Pepiniere de la Fidelite), seedling pear-
trees produced fruit in considerable quantities in the sixth
and seventh summers. The great means of accelerating
the epoch of bearing, seems to be, to make the trees grow
vigorously when young. Crude manures are indeed to be
avoided; but vegetable earth, and, above all, a liberal sup¬
ply of rotted turf, are wholesome and excellent stimulants.
The seed-bed, and the ground on which the seedlings are
transplanted, should be extremely well worked and commi¬
nuted with the spade ; and should not be too much exposed
to the parching rays of the sun, and the action of the wind.
Great care ought to be taken to prevent the young plants
from becoming stunted. In pruning, the small twigs in the
interior should be removed, so as to relieve the tree from
the bushy appearance which it frequently assumes. It has
been recommended to transfer cions and buds of promising
individuals into other trees in a bearing state. This is pe¬
culiarly advantageous with respect to the peach and other
stone fruits, as it both hastens the period of puberty, and
economises the space which must be occupied on the wall.
Propagation by Cuttings.—Gooseberries, currants, figs,
vines, and some others, are increased by means of cuttings.
An annual shoot is taken off, along with a thin slice, or heel,
as it is called, of the former year’s wood, which is found to
facilitate the production of roots. The cuttings are placed
firmly in the soil, at various depths, according to their
length, the buds or eyes which would thus come beneath
the surface having been previously removed. Vines are
sometimes propagated from small pieces of shoots having a
single bud: when they have to be transmitted to a distance,
an inch in length may suffice. Most of the codlin apples
may be increased by cuttings; and even large branches of
those which produce burs, may be planted at once, with
success. In all deciduous trees, the operation is most ad¬
vantageously performed in winter.
Propagation by Layers This is not much resorted to
m the fruit garden. It is occasionally employed as the
means of dwarfing trees. “ Laying,” says Mr Bindley, “ is
nothing but striking from cuttings which are still allowed Fruit
to maintain their connexion with the mother plant by means Garden,
of a portion at least of their stem.” The operation is per-
formed by bending down a branch to the earth, and pinn¬
ing it there with pegs. A few inches from the extremity
a notch or slit is cut upwards, generally from the insertion
of a bud. Sometimes the shoot is pierced with a number of
holes ; a wire is bound round it; or even a ring of bark is
removed. The object of these expedients is to retard
the descending sap, and thus to promote the formation of
radicles, or young roots. This is also aided by bending the
branch upward from the point at which the roots are want¬
ed ; and the whole branch, except a few buds at the ex¬
tremity, is covered with soil. The seasons best fitted for
these operations, are early in spring and about midsummer,
that is, before the sap begins to flow, and after it has com¬
pletely ascended. One whole summer, sometimes two sum¬
mers, must elapse before the layers be fully rooted.
Propagation by Grafting—When a shoot or young
branch of one tree is inserted into the stem or branch of
another, and, by the influence of vegetation, is made to
coalesce with it, the process is termed grafting. In this
manner apple and pear trees, sometimes plum and cherry
trees, are propagated. Our attention must be directed to
the stocks into which the shoots or cions, as they are called,
are inserted; to the cions themselves, and to the mecha¬
nical operations employed in grafting.
The stock should be of the same genus, or, at least, of
close affinity in natural family, to which the graft belongs.
The following are the principal kinds of stocks, including,
by anticipation, such as are used in budding. For apples,
seedlings of the crab apple, layers of the doucin or para¬
dise, and of the codlins, with cuttings of the bur-knot varie¬
ties. For pears, seedlings of the common, and wilding
pear ; with seedlings or layers of quince. For plums, seed¬
lings of any of the common sorts, particularly the muscle,
the Brussels, and the Brompton; also the Bullace plum.
For cherries, seedlings of the small black cherry or gean,
Prunus Avium; and, for dwarfing, P. Mahaleb. For apri¬
cots, seedlings of the wilding apricot, with the muscle and
Brussels plums. For peaches and nectarines, seedlings of
the muscle, white pear-plum, and Damas noir plum, the
almond, and the wilding peach.
Stocks are commonly divided into two classes, viz. frce-
stocks and dwarfing stocks. The former consist of seed¬
ling plants which naturally attain to the same size as the
trees from which the cions are taken. The latter are plants
of diminutive growth, either varieties of the same species,
or species of the same genus as the cion, which have a
tendency to lessen the expansion of the engrafted tree.
The Paradise or Doucin is the dwarfing stock for apples,
the Quince for pears, the Bullace for plums, and Prunus
Mahaleb for cherries. The nature of the soil, in which
the grafted trees are destined to grow, should also have
weight in determining the choice of stocks. When the
garden is naturally moist, it is proper to graft pears on the
quince, because this plant agrees with a moist soil, and at
the same time serves to check the luxuriance thereby pro¬
duced. In France, peaches are commonly budded on al¬
mond stocks, to adapt them to the dry soils of that country.
The seeds from which stocks are to be raised, are generally
sown in beds in March; but the germination of some kinds
is promoted by placing the seed, for a time, in moist sand
in a greenhouse. Next season the seedlings are trans¬
planted into nursery rows, in which they are allowed to
reach the size necessary for the various forms of fruit-trees
hereafter to be mentioned.
The cion is always a portion of the wood of the preced¬
ing year. As the diseases incident to fruit-trees are trans¬
mitted by this mode of propagation, it is desirable that the
parents should be as healthy as possible. In the shy-bear-
636
Fruit
Garden.
HORTICULTURE.
ing kinds, it has been found beneficial to select shoots from
the fruitful branches. The cions should be taken off some
weeks before they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth,
as it is conducive to success that the stock should, in for¬
wardness of vegetation, be somewhat in advance of the
graft. During winter, grafts may be brought from Ame¬
rica, or from the Continent of Europe, if carefully wrapped
up in hypnum-moss. If they have been six weeks or two
months separated from the parent plant, they should be
grafted low on the stock, and the earth should be ridged
up around them, leaving only one bud of the cion above
ground. Out of forty cions of new Flemish pears, procur¬
ed by the Caledonian Horticultural Society from Brussels
and Louvain, and treated in this way, only one failed.
Success in grafting depends almost entirely on accurately
applying the inner bark of the cion to the inner bark of the
stock, so that the sap may pass freely from the one to the
other. They are therefore fitted together and held fast by
a slight bandage of matting. To lessen evaporation, a
portion of ductile clay is moulded around the place of junc¬
tion, and is retained until it appears, from the develope-
ment of leaves, that the operation has succeeded. The
best season for grafting is the month of March ; but it may
be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock is fairly in
motion, and may be continued during the first part of
April.
The most usual mode of grafting is called whip-grafting,
or tongue-grafting, represented in Plate CCXCIIL, Fig.
8, a, a'. The top of the stock and the base of the cion are
cut off obliquely at corresponding angles, as nearly as can
be guessed by the eye ; the tip of the stock is then cut off
horizontally ; next a slit is made downwards in the centre
of the sloping face of the stock, and a corresponding slit
upwards in the corresponding face of the cion. The tongue
or upper part of this sloping base is then inserted into the
cleft of the cion, and so adjusted that the inner bark may
unite neatly and exactly on one side. The junction is then
tied up and covered with clay. Several other methods may
be mentioned, such as cleft-grafting, Plate CCXCIIL, Fig.
8, b, b', in which the cion is sloped at the base, and insert¬
ed like a wedge into a cleft in the stock. Side-grafting,
Plate CCXCIIL, Fig. 8, d, d', which resembles whip-graft¬
ing, but is performed on the side of the stock without head¬
ing it down. Crown-grafting, Plate CCXCIIL, Fig. 8,
e, c', in which the cion is inserted between the bark and
the wood. Grafting by approach, or inarching, also re¬
sembling whip-grafting, but the cion remains attached to
the parent plant. Plate CCXCIIL, Fig. 8, e, e'.
It is evident that the method of performing the operation
may be diversified to a great extent. The late M. Thouin
of Paris described, in the Annales du Museum, nearly fifty
greffes, but little practical utility results from such nice dis¬
tinctions. It is of greater importance that the horticulturist
should be expert in the manipulation of the more common
forms, such as those above enumerated. An extensive
fruit-garden requires a frequent repetition of the operation,
in order to secure proper kinds, and productive branches.
At Dalkeith Lark, Mr Macdonald, the excellent gardener
officiating there, annually inserts on his established trees
numerous grafts, and by this means is enabled to over¬
come the disadvantages of a somewhat unfavourable situa¬
tion, and to obtain abundant crops of large and beautiful
fruit.
1 ropagation by Budding—Most kinds of fruit-trees
may be propagated by budding ; and there are some, such
as peaches and apricots, which can scarcely be multiplied
m any other manner. It consists in removing a bud with
apportion of the bark from one tree, and inserting it in a
slit of the baik of another tree. The season for perform¬
ing this operation is in July or August, when the buds des¬
tined for the following year are completely formed in the
axils of the leaves, and when the portion of bark parts
freely from the wood beneath. The buds to be preferred
are those on the middle of a young shoot. There are
many forms of budding, but that which is simplest, and is
generally practised in this country, called Shield-budding,
need alone be described. The operator should be provided
with a budding-knife, in which the cutting edge of the blade
is rounded off at the point, and which has a thin ivory or
bone handle, like a paper-folder, for raising the bark of the
stock. A horizontal or transverse incision is made in the
bark quite down to the wood, and from this incision a per¬
pendicular slit is drawn downwards, to the extent of per¬
haps an inch. The slit has now a resemblance to the letter
T (see I late CCXCIIL, Fig. &, f f, f") ; a bud is then
cut from the tree wished to be propagated, having a por¬
tion of the wood attached to it, so that the whole may be
an inch and a half long. The bit of wood is then gently
withdrawn, care being taken that the bud adhere wholly
to the bark or shield, as it is called. The bark on each
side of the perpendicular slit being cautiously opened with
the handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted.
The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and
brought neatly to fit the bark of the stock at the transverse
incision. Slight ties of moist bass-matting are then applied.
In about a month or six weeks the ligatures may be taken
away, when, if the operation have been successful, the bud
will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly united to the
wood. Next spring a strong shoot is thrown out, and to
this the stock is headed down in the course of the summer.
Planting—After propagation, the next care is to trans¬
fer the young trees to those places, whether in the open
air or against the wall, where they are to remain. It is of
some importance that these situations should be consider¬
ately selected ; for although all fruit-trees admit of repeat¬
ed transplantation at a subsequent period, they seldom fail
to exhibit injurious effects from it. Planting may be per¬
formed at any time in the beginning of winter, and in the
early spring months ; but it is considered that the most
advantageous seasons are immediately after the fall of the
leaf in autumn, and before the ascent of the sap in spring.
The trees should be carefully lifted from the nursery lines,
avoiding the mutilation or bruising of the roots; and, to
prevent the desiccation of the fibres, they should be plant¬
ed as soon as possible after being lifted. When they have
to be carried to a distance, the roots should be enveloped
in moist hypnum-moss. In the ground, which is presumed
to have been previously trenched or otherwise prepared,
pits or holes are formed, and the soil is finely pulverized;
and in these the trees are placed, their roots being spread
out and intermingled with the earth. Shallow planting is
strongly recommended ; two or three inches of soil being
in general a sufficient covering. On filling up the hole, a
surface of at least an equal size is mulched, that is, covered
with dung or litter, so as to restrain evaporation, and pre¬
serve moisture. In the case of wall-trees, a space of five
or six inches is usually left between the stem at the inser¬
tion of the roots and the wall, to allow for the effects of
growth. To young standard trees stakes are added, to
prevent their roots being ruptured by wind-waving. During
the dry weather of the first summer, the trees should be
watered from time to time as occasion requires.
The selection and distribution of the different kinds of
fruit-trees is an important and interesting point in the
formation of a garden. Regard must necessarily be had to
local situation and climate, as the selection ought manifestly
to be different for a garden in the south-west of England,
and for one in Yorkshire or Scotland; for one near the
level of the sea, and for another elevated several hundred
feet. The best walls, having a south or south-east aspect,
are dedicated to the grape-vine, the fig-tree, the peach, and
apricot. The finer varieties of French and Flemish pears
Gle,
HORTICULTURE.
637
require and deserve a good aspect, as also the early sorts of finical in this matter, as these branches will soon grow be- Fruit
Fig. 1.
cherries. The later cherries, and the generality of plums,
■ ^ succeed very well either on an east or west aspect. In
Scotland, the mulberry requires the protection of a wall,
and several of the finer apples do not arrive at perfection
without it.
The wall-trees which are intended to be permanent are
called dwarfs, from their being grafted near the ground.
Between each of these, trees with tall stems, called riders
in Scotland, are planted as temporary occupants of the
upper part of the Wall. The riders should always be five
or six years trained in the nursery, in order that when
planted out they may come into bearing as speedily as pos- justly gaining ground,
sible. The distances at which the permanent trees are
planted is to be regulated by the known mode of growth of
the different sorts, and by the height of the wall. When
the walls are about twelve feet high, the following average
distances have been recommended:—For vines, 10 or 12
feet; peach and nectarine trees, from 15 to 20 feet;
fig-trees, 20 feet at least; apricots, from 15 to 24 feet;
plums and cherries, from 15 to 20 feet; pear-trees, 20
feet if on quince stocks, and 30 feet on free stocks ;
apple-trees, 12 feet if on paradise stocks, and 15 to 25 feet
on free stocks. Where the walls are only seven or eight
feet high, the distance should be increased by nearly one-
fourth, as in this case the want of height must be compen¬
sated by greater breadth.
i Apples and pears make the best espalier-rail trees, espe¬
cially in Scotland. These should be of the more robust
sorts, and should be planted at the distance of 15 or 20
feet. Cherries and plums are sometimes introduced into
the espalier-rail row, but these succeed in those situations
only where they would do equally well or better as stan¬
dards.
In many excellent gardens, dwarf standards are preferred
to espalier-rail trees. They are placed along the inner
borders at 8 or 10 feet apart. W hen proper attention is
paid to such trees, the effect is very pleasing, each being
in itself a handsome object, and generally clothed with fine
fruit. Where the situation is warm, and the climate fa¬
vourable, a few of such of the finer pears as have hardy
blossoms should be planted out in this form. Though they
may fail to ripen in some seasons, they will often add
greatly to the resources of the fruit-room, their produce
being frequently superior in flavour to the fruit grown on
walls.
Training. — Two functions belong to training,—that,
namely, which modifies the form of the tree, and that
which regulates the bearing wood, and consequently the
supply of blossom. The latter, more accurately termed
'pruning, being of a varied character, will more properly fall
to be considered wrhen treating of the several fruits; at
present we shall make a few remarks on the former
yond the power of the pruner, and of any artificial system Garden,
which he may adopt. Dwrarf standards being more acces-'
sible, are more under the dominion of training. Wfien
worked on paradise stocks, they may be kept not much
superior in size to gooseberry bushes, and in a state of
abundant fruitfulness. The more fanciful Dutch modes of
training apple-trees, in the cup-and-ball fashion, and after
many other curious devices, have never been relished in
Britain. In this country, they are generally allowed to
grow en buisson, that is as bushes. For pears, the French
forms, en pyramide, fig. 1, and en quenouille, fig. 2, are
Fig. 2.
Training of Wall- Trees A fruit-tree planted against
a wall is evidently in a constrained and artificial situation,
from which it makes continual efforts to escape. Much
attention is necessary to repress this tendency, which, were
it permitted to act, would disfigure the tree, and neutralize
the advantages of a wall, without imparting in their place
the freedom of a standard in the open air. To be success¬
ful, the operator should be acquainted with the theory of
vegetation, should study the mode of growth in different
trees, and, above all, remember the purpose of all training,
viz. the production of bearing wood.
One great difficulty is to preserve equilibrium in the
growth of the several parts of the same tree : for the attain¬
ment of this object, excellent hints are to be found in the
Pomone Framjaise: we shall mention only two or three.
A shoot will grow more vigorously whilst waving in the air,
than when nailed close to the wall; a weak shoot should
therefore be left free, whilst its stronger antagonist should
A shoot diverging slightly from the per-
be restrained.
The pendicular, will, other things being equal, obtain a more
essential properties of training are, that it should be sim- copious supply of sap than one that is laid out horizontally,
pie, not requiring frequent amputation ; that it should be or is deflected downwards. A luxuriant shoot may be re-
appropriate to the growth of the tree ; and that it should tarded for some time, by having its tender extremity pinch-
be such as to facilitate the production of fruit. The knife ed off, and thus allow a weaker brother to overtake it. By
is the great instrument in training, and whoever can wield these and other expedients, which will suggest themselves
it skilfully, will have a perfect command over his trees: to an attentive horticulturist, and by the prudent use of the
at the same time, it may be laid down as a maxim, that it knife, it will be easy to execute the following forms, which,
should be used with some degree of reserve, as nothing is on account of their simplicity and general excellence, we
more prejudicial to the health and fruitfulness of all sorts of select out of many to be found detailed in works on gar-
trees, than severe and injudicious cutting. dening.
Training of Standards.—Orchard-trees are generally The horizontal form (fig. 3.) has long been a favourite in
worked in the nurseries with stems five or six feet high
All that is necessary, in pruning trees of this sort, is merely
to cut out the branches which cross or press upon one an¬
other. Bushy heads should be thinned out, and those
this country, having been strongly recommended in the ex¬
cellent work of Mr Hitt. There is one principal ascending
stem, from which the branches depart at right-angles, at
intervals of ten inches or a foot. In trees of ordinary
which are too lax cut back. Three or four leading branches vigour, the vertical shoot is cut back every winter to with-
may be selected, to pass ere long into boughs, and form a in fourteen inches of the highest pair of branches : a num-
handsome skeleton for the tree; but it is useless to be ber of shoots are produced in the beginning of each sum-
HORTICULTURE.
Fruit
Garden.
there is no leading stem, and tne Drancnes are arranged P
somewhat like the spokes of a fan. Fig 5. represents this Ga
shape as it commonly occurs in gardens. It is difficult to"— ^
say how, in the case of apple and pear trees, this mode
though frequently adopted, is superior or even equal to the
horizontal configuration: it is evident, that when the
branches reach the top of the wall, where they must be cut
short, a ttte de saule is inevitable. It would be better to
adopt the modification of the fan shape used for stone fruits
(fig. 6) ; to establish a certain number of mother branches
Fig. 6.
mer, out of which three are selected: one is trained in the
original direction of the stem, and one on each side of it,
parallel to the base of the wall. By pinching off the point
of the leading shoot about midsummer, another pair may
be obtained in autumn. In luxuriant trees, the vertical
shoot may be left two feet in length, by which means, and
by summer pruning, we have known four pairs of branches
added in one season. The great object, at first, ought to
be to draw the stem upwards : when it has reached the top
of the wall, it is made to divaricate into two, and the tree,
thus completed as to its height, is henceforth suffered to
increase in breadth only. Horizontal training is best adapt¬
ed to those trees which produce strong shoots, as the Rib-
ston Pippin apple, or the Gansefs Bergamot pear. For the
more twiggy kinds, the form represented in Fig. 4. is more
h Fi
suitable. In this the horizontal branches are eighteen or
twenty inches distant, and the small shoots are trained in
between them, either on both sides, as below letter a in the
figure, or on the under side and downwards, as below1' b. This
last is an excellent method of reclaiming neglected trees of
this description. Every alternate branch being taken away,
and the spurs cut off, the young shoots are trained in, and
soon produce excellent fruit. It is rather singular that
Thouin, in his account of the Ecole d'Agriculture pratique
dii Museum, classes the horizontal form among les tailles
heteroclites ou peu perfectionnees, and says, that, in conse¬
quence of its invariably producing a tete de saule, that is,
a hedge of young shoots at the top, it has been long since
abandoned. From this remark, we must draw the conclu¬
sion, that in France the theory of training is in advance of
the practice.
The other principal form is called^m-training. In this
and on these to form a series of subordinate members,
chiefly composed of bearing wood. The mother branches
or limbs should not be numerous, but well marked, equal
in strength, and regularly disposed. The side branches
should be pretty abundant, short, and not so vigorous as to
rival the leading members. To ensure regularity, training
should commence with maiden plants; leaders of equal
strength should be selected, and encouraged to grow
out longitudinally as much as possible, and all crowding
among the inferior shoots should be prevented. In riders
this form passes into the stellar arrangement. The French
have made considerable improvements in this mode of
training, some of which are noticed, infra, under the article
Peach.
Intermediate between horizontal and fan training, is the
half-fan, described in the first volume of the Caledonian
Horticultural Society’s Memoirs, by Mr Smith, gardener at
Hopetoun-House, and practised by him with great success.
It is nearly allied to the horizontal form, but the branches
form an acute angle with the stem, and are supposed thus
to favour the equal distribution of the sap. In the winter-
pruning, three and sometimes four central branches are
cut back ; the shoots which arise from these are arranged
in the fan order, and, as they elongate, are gradually brought
into the horizontal position. The tree is finished at top as
in the horizontal form. Sometimes, as in fig. 7., two
Fig. 7-
Fife- 5.
vertical stems are adopted. For vigorous trees, this figure
seems to combine the advantages of both the foregoing
varieties.
The choice of particular modes of training is too often
determined by mere fashionable prejudice, which leads to
HORTICULTURE. 639
p , the application of the same form to all sorts of trees. Thus
Ga n< the French are apt to reduce every thing to the fan system,
^ whilst some Engl i#i horticulturists are inclined to force trees
of the most rambling, growth into the pillory of a horizontal
arrangement. Such a uniformity cannot possibly be in
accordance with nature. The enlightened cultivator will
employ various forms, and will determine for himself which
is the most appropriate, not only for every species, but
even for each particular variety of fruit-tree. By attentive
observation and rational experiment, more knowledge in
this department may be attained in a few years, than by a
whole life spent in routine practice.
As supplementary to the preceding remarks on training,
we may mention some of the expedients for inducing a
state of fruitfulness in trees. Of these, the most common
is the cutting back of the roots to within three or four feet
of the stem ; an operation which is generally found effica¬
cious, when barrenness proceeds from over-luxuriance and
too copious a supply of sap. To attain the same end, re¬
course is sometimes had to ringing the branches or stem,
that is, removing a narrow annular portion of the bark.
The trees, it is said, are thereby not only rendered pro¬
ductive, but the quality of the fruit is at the same time ap¬
parently improved. The advantage is considered as de¬
pending on the obstruction given to the descent of the sap,
it being thus more copiously afforded, in its elaborated
state, for the supply of the buds. The ring should there¬
fore be made in spring, and of such a width that the bark
may remain separated for the season. It ought to be ob¬
served, however, that none of the stoned fruit-trees are
benefited by ringing. Analogous to this practice is decor¬
tication, or the removing of the old cracked bark from the
stems of apple and pear trees, a practice warmly recom¬
mended by Mr Lyon of Edinburgh, and some other culti¬
vators, but which has never been extensively adopted.
Sometimes barrenness proceeds from defect of climate
and poverty of soil ; in which case, a warmer situation
and more generous treatment are the most effectual reme¬
dies. Fruit-trees should never, if possible, be allowed to
become stunted; for in this state they produce only worth¬
less fruit, and acquire a habit which scarcely admits of
amelioration.
Protection of Blossom In our variable climate, and
particularly in the northern and eastern parts of the island,
it is very desirable that the horticulturist should be pro¬
vided with the means of defending the blossom of his fruit-
trees from the late frosts in spring. For this purpose, some
cultivators partially cover their walls with branches of fir
or beech, or the fronds of the common broken fern {Pteris
aquilina), fastened firmly by several points of attachment,
to prevent rubbing. Others recommend frames covered
with bunting, osnaburg or similar light fabrics, set in a
sloping position in front of the trees. Screens formed of
reeds have been used, and nettings of worsted-yarn or of
straw-ropes have been employed with good effect. What¬
ever contrivance serves to interrupt radiation, though it
may not keep the temperature much above freezing, will
be found sufficient Standard fruit-trees must be left to
their fate, and, indeed, from the lateness of their flowering,
they are generally more injured by blight, and by drench¬
ing rains, which wash away the pollen of the flowers, than
by the direct effects of cold.
CULTURE OF HARDY FRUITS.
We now proceed to the more special culture of the in¬
mates of a British fruit-garden. We shall begin with the
more tender, but for details regarding these, we must, to a
considerable extent, refer to the forcing department, in
which alone many of the finer fruits can be perfected. The
nomenclature of the numerous varieties of the principal Fruit
fruits is still in an uncertain and unsatisfactory state. Mr Garden.
Thompson, of the Horticultural Garden at Chiswick, has,
however, with much discrimination and judgment, set¬
tled the synonyms of many of those chiefly cultivated
in our gardens; and we shall therefore (when the con¬
trary is not intimated) adopt the names employed in the
second edition of the London Horticultural Society’s Fruit
Catalogue.
The Grape Vine ( Vitis vinifera) can scarcely be said
to be a hardy fruit in our climate. In every case it re¬
quires a good aspect; and north of York, a crop of dessert
grapes cannot be expected without the aid of a hot wall.
In the extreme south-west districts of England, indeed,
grapes fit for the manufacture of wine, perhaps equal in
quality to those in the north of France, might be produced
on dwarf standards ; and there is abundant historical evi¬
dence that productive vineyards once existed in that part
of the country.
In the Lond. Hort. Soc. Catalogue, 182 varieties of
grapes are enumerated. Some of these, however, have not
as yet been well ascertained ; some are pronounced indif¬
ferent, and others worthless. We shall name only a few
of those most deserving the attention of the cultivator.
Miller’s Burgundy. This sort is distinguished by the
hoary pubescence of its leaves. It is a black grape, with
short compact clusters, small round berries, and clear, high-
flavoured juice. It is hardy, ripening completely on a
south wall.
Black Damascus. Bunches large, with round berries
and sweet juice. This valuable late variety does not set
well, and the bunches are improved by the blossom being
dusted with the pollen of some hardy kind.
Frankenthal. A valuable grape, resembling the black
Hamburgh. Bunches moderate in size, berries obovate,
flavour excellent. Succeeds best in a warm vinery.
Frontignan (or Frontignac). Five varieties under this
appellation, and distinguished by the names of black, blue,
grizzly, red, white, are mentioned in horticultural cata¬
logues. They vary in colour and form of the cluster.
The berries are round, the skin thick, and the juice of
a rich muscat flavour. They are all of the highest excel¬
lence.
Black Gibraltar, or Bed Hamburgh of Lindley. This
is an excellent grape, with large clusters, and large dark-
red berries, full of a sweet juice.
Black Hamburgh. This is a well-known grape, of great
value, and perhaps more generally cultivated for the dessert
in this country than any other sort. It ought to be in
every collection.
Black Lombardy (or West’s St Peter’s). Bunches large,
berries round, skin thin, with a sweet flavour ; an excellent
late sort. The fruit will hang on the vines till March.
Royal Muscadine, L. Hort. Cat. or White Muscadine
of Lindley. Usual Chasselas of Paris. This, though not
a first-rate grape, is a favourite with many. Bunches large,
berries white, round, with sweet flavour.
Muscat of Alexandria. Bunches long, berries white
and oval, with a delicious muscat flavour. This most ad¬
mirable variety requires a high temperature, and should
properly have a small vinery for itself.
Pitmaston White Cluster. This excellent variety sprang
from a seed of the small black cluster grape. The bunch
is compact, the berry is round, when ripe of an amber
colour, bronzed with russet on one side. It comes to per¬
fection on the open wall in England, and is also well suited
for forcing.
White Sweet Water. Bunch loose, berries round, fla¬
vour sweet. It ripens early, generally from the middle to
the end of September ; and in the south of England it sue-
640
HORTICULTURE.
Fruit ceeds against the open wall. The bunches should be
Garden, allowed to hang until they be perfectly ripe, when the ber-
^ lies acquire a slight russet colour. It has long been a fa¬
vourite grape.
Stillioard’s Sweet-Water is a recent variety, of equal
merit.
Black Morillon, or Burgundy Grape, or Small black
cluster, ripens in England against a south wall.
The Black Prince is of easy cultivation in a common
vinery, and the berries are of a pleasant flavour.
The Zante, or Corinth Grape, is often called Zante
Currant. In general it is a shy-bearer, and the berries are
small; but Mr Gow, gardener at Tulliallan, having fer¬
tilized some bunches with the pollen of the Black Hamburgh,
found that they set more freely, and that the berries were
larger and better flavoured ; a hint worth attending to in
other cases.
Verdelho. Bunches loose, colour greenish-yellow, berries
small, oval, numerous ; when fully ripe, of a rich saccharine
flavour. It is the principal grape cultivated in Madeira
for making the celebrated Madeira wine. The plant grows
vigorously; and Mr Knight has observed of it, that the
same degree of shade which would render the greater num¬
ber of sorts wholly unproductive, scarcely affects the fertility
of this; a convenient property, which adapts it for the
back wall of a glazed house. The same horticulturist men¬
tions another economical property of the verdelho : it bears
plentifully when planted in very small pots : a few pots of
it may therefore be introduced among green-house plants
in early spring; the almost leafless stems do no injury till
the end of May, when some of the more hardy ornamental
plants can be set abroad; and during the warm months
which follow, when the green-house is otherwise empty,
abundant crops of these grapes may be procured.
Esperione, or Turner’s Early Black. The bunches are
large and shouldered, not unlike those of the Black Ham¬
burgh. The berries are of a fine dark colour, with a
bluish farina: the pulp adheres to the skin; and though nei¬
ther highly flavoured nor melting, it is very pleasant. This
grape ripens on the open wall near London.
The Syrian Grape is remarkable for the extraordinary
size and beauty of its bunches; but it is a late variety,
and the berries have not much flavour. This is generally
regarded as the kind produced in the valley of Eshcol, a
cluster of which was brought to the camp of Israel swung
on a staff between two of the spies; not probably on ac¬
count of its weight, but (as Dr Clarke observes) to prevent
the berries from being bruised.
In addition to the above, the editor of the Bond. Hort.
Cat. mentions the following as excellent grapes :—Ciotat,
or Parsley-Leaved ; Genuine Tokay, or White Morillon ;
Chasselas Musque ; Chasselas precoce ; Elford ; Lunel;
Mignonne White Cluster ; Black Morocco ; Black Musca¬
dine ; Petersburgh ; Raisin des Carmes; White Tokay,
and Black Tripoli.
The kinds commonly grown on the open wall in Eng¬
land are the Miller Burgundy, Esperione, White Musca¬
dine, and White Sweet-Water. In the north of England,
and in the south of Scotland, vines always require hot
walls. At Erskine-house, on the Clyde, Black Hamburgh
grapes are every year produced against a hot-wall, equal in
size and flavour to those of the vinery or hot-house. In
some gardens, an entire wall is dedicated to vines, but, in
general, they occupy only the interstices between other
trees. Mr Williams of Pitmaston trained a vine under the
coping of a wall to the extent of fifty feet, and bent down
the shoots at intervals to fill up the spaces between the
fruit-trees, and he found that the grapes were the finer the
farther they were distant from the stem. The culture of
grapes on a wall does not differ materially from that prac¬
tised in a moderately worked vinery ; we shall. therefore
defer any further observations, till we resume the subject
in treating of the forcing department.
*
The Fig-Tree (Ficus Carica) is not a great favourite in
this country, the fresh fruit not being much relished, and
our tables being supplied with a vast abundance of dried
figs imported from the Mediterranean. Every good garden
ought, however, to contain a few trees, to furnish an occa¬
sional dish ; and we doubt not that the fresh fruit, if it were
more common, and better grown, would be more liked.
The foliage of the tree is large and elegant; and the mode
of fructification is curious: the pulpy part, which we call
the fruit, being, in fact, a common receptacle, and the
anthers and stigmata being produced inside. The nomen¬
clature of figs is still very uncertain, and it is with some
hesitation that we give the following names:—
1. Black Ischia. 6. Murrey-coloured or Brown
2. Black Genoa. Naples.
3. Large Blue, or purple. 7. Pregussata.
4. Brunswick or Madonna. 8. Lee’s PerpetuaL
5. Brown Ischia or Miller’s 9. Early White.
chestnut fig. 10. Marseilles or Figue bknehe.
Of these the Marseilles, the Early White and Black Ischia,
and Large Blue, are best adapted for forcing ; the others are
suitable for walls. Lee’s perpetual answers well for either
mode of culture ; but it is not mentioned by Loudon or by
Lindley, being probably regarded by them as a sub-variety
of the Large Blue.
Fig-trees may be propagated by cuttings put into flower¬
pots, and placed in a gentle hot-bed. They are, however,
most speedily obtained from layers. The shoots laid down
should be two or three years old; and these, when rooted,
will form plants ready to bear fruit the first or second year
after planting. Suckers ought never to be used.
In some places in England fig-trees are planted out as
standards; and in Kent and Sussex, a few small fig or¬
chards exist. In Scotland a south wall is indispensable,
trained to which, in good situations, and when the trees
are old enough, they bear remarkably well. The best soil
for a fig border, is a rich friable loam, on a subsoil not re¬
tentive of moisture, or which has been effectually drained.
It is advantageous to have a lofty wall, and the trees should
be planted at considerable distances, perhaps not nearer
than forty feet, to allow them full space to exhaust their
luxuriance.
It is of the nature of the fig-tree to produce two sets of
shoots, and two crops of fruit, in the season. The first
shoots generally shew young figs in July and August, but
those in our climate very seldom ripen. The late or mid¬
summer shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, how¬
ever, do not develope themselves till the following spring,
and then form the only crop of figs on which we can de¬
pend in this country.
Various modes of training fig-trees have been proposed.
Mr Lindley recommends the horizontal form. Mr Knight
carries up a central stem perpendicularly to the top of the
wrall, and then radiates the side-branches horizontally and
pendently, in close contact with the wall. Luxuriance of
growth is supposed thus to be checked, and the branches
thrown into a bearing habit. The finest fig-trees which
we have seen in Scotland, are trained in the old fan form.
The shoots are laid in, thinly, at full length, and encouraged
to extend themselves as fast as possible, precaution, how¬
ever, being taken to leave no part of the tree bare of young
wood, M ach of the pruning is performed in summer by
pinching off unnecessary shoots, and the knife is seldom
employed, except in removing naked branches, or in cut¬
ting back to procure a supply of young wood. Some cul¬
tivators break off the points of the spring shoots, in order
to produce laterals, but this must be done at an early period,
not later perhaps than mid-summer, otherw ise the young
HORTICULTURE.
pj; shoots will not ripen. The Rev. G. Swayne recommends
Gu: n. rubbing off all the young figs which appear in autumn on
^ shoots of the same year; observing, that for every young
fig thus displaced, the rudiments of one, or perhaps two
others, are formed before winter, and developed in the fol¬
lowing year.
The winter dressing of the fig-tree takes place imme¬
diately after the fall of the leaf. The immature figs which
may remain are removed, irregularities are corrected, and
the shoots nailed neatly to the wall. Various modes of
protecting the branches during winter have been adopted.
As Argenteuil, where figs are cultivated on standards for
the Paris market, the lower branches are bent downwards,
and buried about six inches deep in the soil; while the
upper branches are tied together, and bound round with
straw and litter. Mr Swayne mentions that he wraps up
the young shoots with waste paper. Mr Forsyth recom¬
mends covering wall fig-trees with the spray of laurel or
yew, and then tucking in short grass or moss {hypnum)
among the spray. Mr Smith, first at Ormiston Hall, and
afterwards at Hopetoun-house, has found ( Cal. Hort. Soc.
Mem. vol. ii.) a covering of spruce-fir branches to be very
effectual. The branches are so placed as to overlap each
other, and to form a layer nearly equally thick on every
part of the tree. The foliage of the spruce branches re¬
mains green till March, and as the light and heat increase,
the dried leaves gradually fall off, and admit air and sun to
the fig-branches below.
Mr Monck {Land. Hort. Trans, vol. v.) states, that the
same fig-tree seldom produces fruit containing both perfect
stamens and pistils, and conjectures that this is the cause
of the fruit being so often prematurely shed. Caprijication,
or assisting the fructifying and maturation of figs, has often
been sneered at; but here we see reason in that kind of it
which consisted in hanging or shaking the branches of the
wild fig {caprijicus') over the cultivated tree at the time
when both were in blossom.
The Peach {Amygdalus Persicd) is a stone-fruit of ori¬
ental origin, said to have been brought from Persia by the
Romans, about the beginning of the empire; but the pre¬
cise period of its introduction into our gardens, of which it
has long been the pride and ornament, is not well ascer¬
tained. There are two principal varieties : the Peach, pro¬
perly so called, with a downy skin ; and the Nectarine, with
a smooth skin. These, follow ing the authority of Linnaeus,
we consider as one species ; and as their culture is precise¬
ly the same, we shall speak of them as distinct only when
referring to their sub-varieties. Each of these varieties is
again divided by gardeners into freestones or peches, and
clingstones or pavies, according as the stone parts freely
from the pulp, or adheres to it. We shall here treat chief¬
ly of the freestones, as being most hardy, and fittest for the
open wall in Britain.
Mr George Lindley, whose arrangement is the best that
has hitherto been published, enumerates 60 kinds of peach¬
es, and 28 of nectarines. In the Horticultural Catalogue,
the names of 183 peaches, and of 65 nectarines, are record¬
ed. We doubt not but that in America, where the trees
are commonly raised from kernels, and grown as standards,
several thousand varieties and sub-varieties might be col¬
lected. To enumerate even the limited number existing
in Britain, would far exceed our limits : we shall therefore
notice only a few of those which are most distinct, and best
adapted to our climate.
Peaches.
Bed Nutmeg, or Avant rouge. This is one of the earliest
peaches, ripening about the beginning of August. The fruit
small; colour pale yellow towards the wall, bright vermilion
VOL. XI.
641
next the sun; pulp white, but red at the core; the juice Fruit
rich and musky. The tree is an abundant bearer. Garden.
Acton Scot. This was raised by Mr Knight between '
the noblesse and the nutmeg peach, in 1814. The fruit is
red next the sun, and white on the other side; the pulp
rich, juicy, and saccharine; the tree is a good bearer, and
not apt to be affected with mildew. It ripens in August.
Spring- Grove. This is another of Mr Knight’s peaches,
raised from the grosse mignonne crossed with the pollen of
the nutmeg. It is dark red on one side, and bright yellow
on the other ; pulp firm, but melting, and of excellent fla¬
vour. The tree is a good bearer, but succeeds best on an
apricot stock. The fruit ripens in the beginning of Sep¬
tember.
Grosse Mignonne, L. Hort. Cat., or NeiVs Early Pur¬
ple. Fruit large; skin pale yellow, and deep purple next
the sun ; flesh melting; juice plentiful, and of delicious fla¬
vour. This excellent peach is a good bearer, and forces
well, but the fruit does not bear carriage. It ripens in the
end of August and beginning of September.
Madeleine de Courson ; Red Magdalene of Miller. Blos¬
soms large ; fruit rather below the middle size ; colour yel¬
lowish white next the wall, beautiful red next the sun;
flesh white, with very little red at the stone ; juice rich and
vinous. Tree a good bearer; fruit ripening about the be¬
ginning of September. “ An excellent peach,” says Mr
Lindley, “ and ought to be found in every collection.”
Poyal George. This is a well-known peach, much cul¬
tivated. By nurserymen it is often given out as the Red
Magdalene; but it is at once distinguished from the Red
Magdalene of Miller, by the blossoms being small. Against
a good wall it ripens in the beginning of September, even
in indifferent seasons. Fruit large, purplish red next the
sun, whitish where shaded; flesh white, varied with red
next the stone which is free ; melting, rich, with an abun¬
dant sugary juice. It is also one of the best kinds for a
peach-house, fruiting freely, and ripening well. The foliage
is, however, rather subject to mildew.
Noblesse. This has long and deservedly been a favour¬
ite in our gardens. It is a very large fruit; the skin pale
red when ripe, the flesh juicy and rich. The tree is a good
bearer, and the fruit ripens in September.
Bellegarde; the Galande of the nurseries. Fruit large
and globular; skin deep red, with purple streaks on the
sunny side; flesh pale yellow, very melting; juice rich.
An excellent peach; the tree forces well, and the fruit
ripens on the open wall about the middle of September.
Late Admirable, or La Royale. Fruit large ; skin pale
green next the wall, pale red on the sunny side; flesh
greenish white, red at the stone ; juice abundant, and, when
well ripened, of a high flavour. “ One of the very best
late peaches,” says Mr Thompson, “ and ought to be in
every collection: it is very proper for the peach-house, to
succeed the earlier sorts.”
Nearly allied to the preceding is the Teton de Venus,
a beautiful fruit, but requiring a warm situation. In a good
season, it ripens at the end of September; is saccharine,
and at same time of fine flavour.
George the Fourth. L. Hort. Cat. 65. American Or-
chardist, p. 223. This is a fine large peach, of American
origin ; bears forcing well, and is a semi-clingstone. It is
too tender for the open wall in this country.
Among other excellent peaches may be mentioned:—
Freestones, Barrington, Chancellor, Knight’s Early, Down-
ton Early, Malta, Merrisania Pound, Royal Charlotte, Royal
George Mignonne, William’s Early Purple; Clingstones,
Catharine, Heath, and Old Newington.
Nectarines.
Fairchild’s Early. A beautiful little freestone, chiefly,
4 M
642 HORTICULTURE.
Fruit however, cultivated for its earliness. It ripens about the
Garden, middle of August.
'v Elruge, L. Hort. Cat., 21. Lind. p. 287 (not of Mil¬
ler). It is an excellent fruit, of a moderate size; flesh
white almost to the stone, which is free. The tree forces
well, and is a good bearer. Fruit ripens about the begin¬
ning of September.
JJunfs Tawny. Size moderate; skin pale orange next
the wall, russet-red towards the sun; flesh deep orange,
juicy and well flavoured; a freestone. A very distinct
sort, worthy of cultivation for its earliness.
Early Newington. A fine large clingstone ; pale green
on the shaded side, bright red next the sun; juice saccha¬
rine and well flavoured. Ripens in August.
Red Roman. An excellent old clingstone, now seldom
to be met with genuine, but worthy of re-introduction.
A few other first-rate nectarines may be enumerated: 
Freestones, Brinion, Down ton, Murrey (*. e. murrey-co¬
loured), Pitmaston Orange, Violette Grosse, Violette Ha-
tive; Clingstones, Imperatrice, Newington Late Tawny.
A very good nectarine was raised by the late Mr Hender¬
son at Woodhall, in Scotland. It approaches the Elruge.
The fruit is early, and of excellent flavour, and the tree
bears plentifully. It has been named the Woodhall nec¬
tarine.
For information respecting the best modes of raising new
varieties of peaches and nectarines, the reader may be re¬
ferred to Mr Knight’s papers in the first volume of the
Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. That
ardent horticulturist entertains the hope, that, by repeated
sowings, the peach may acquire so robust a habit as to be
capable of succeeding as a standard in favourable situations
in England and Ireland. But with this desirable object in
view, we would rather see the number of the kinds dimi¬
nished than increased j and it would be well for the coun¬
try, were all the indifferent sorts banished from the nursery
catalogues.
I o perpetuate and multiply valuable varieties, peaches
and nectarines are budded upon plum or almond stocks,
b or dry situations, almond stocks are preferable; and for
damp or clayey loams, it is better to use plums. The peach
border should be composed of a light mellow loam, such as
is suitable for the vine and the fig. It should be quite free
from all stagnant water, or latent dampness. It need not
be of great depth, as the peach tree thrives best, and is
most productive, when the roots are near the surface of the
ground. In this country, nothing is a greater obstacle to
success in peach culture than trenching the borders, and
cropping them with vegetables. We believe that, in many
instances, all that is required to remedy sickly and unfruit¬
ful trees is to bring up their roots within five or six inches
of the surface.
I he fruit of the peach is produced on the twiggy shoots
of the preceding year. If these be too luxuriant, they pro-
duce nothing but leaves; and if too weak, they are incapa¬
ble of maturing the fruit. To produce these, then, in suf¬
ficient abundance, and of requisite strength, is the great
object of peach training and pruning. All twiggy trees
naturally fall into the fan form ; and accordingly this has
generally been adopted in the culture of peaches. Some
Jiave followed the horizontal arrangement, and Mr Knight
las recommended a method, the principal purpose of which
seems to be to thwart the usual mode of growth of the
tree. In reference to such arrangements we can only say:
Nat u ram expelles/wra?, tamen usque recurret.
Me shall first notice the old English method, and then
Dnefly the French, and other new varieties of training.
1 he old an form is very nearly that which we have already
given (svyra, p. 638,) as a specimen of fan training for twiggy
trees, ihe young tree is often procured when it has been
trained for two or three years in the nursery, but it is gene- Fr
rally better to commence with a maiden plant, that is, in the Gar,
first year after it has been budded. It is then headed down v—
to five or six buds, and in the following summer two or four
shoots, according to the vigour of the plant, are trained in;
the laterals also being thinned out, and properly nailed to
the wall. Suppose there are four branches, in the following
winter the two central ones are shortened back to produce
others, and the inferior ones are laid in nearly at full length.
In the following season additional shoots are sent forth*
and the process is repeated till eight or ten principal limbs
or mother branches be obtained, forming, as it were, the
frame-work of the future tree. These mother branches
are occasionally raised or depressed, so as to maintain then-
equilibrium, and are as much encouraged to grow outwards
as is consistent with the regular filling up of the tree. The
laterals are carefully thinned out (by pinching off with the
fingers) in summer; and the remainder are nailed in, to
afford subordinate members and bearing wood. When the
centre of the tree has been filled up, all the training neces¬
sary is merely to prevent the inferior members from acqui¬
ring an undue ascendency over the mother branches. It
is highly advantageous to have abundant space, and to
draw the tree outwards, so that it be thin, but nowhere
destitute of young shoots.
Meanwhile the pruning for fruit has been going on. This
consists in shortening down the laterals which had been
nailed in at the disbudding, or summer pruning. Their length
will depend on their individual vigour, and the luxuriance
of the tree. I he buds, which are generally double, or ra¬
ther two together, with a fruit bud between them, seldom
occur quite close to the insertion of the shoot. Perhaps
two or three pairs are left with a wood-bud at the point to
afford a growing shoot, in order to act as its lungs, for it is
necessary that there should be leaves above the fruit.
When the fruit begins to swell, the point of this leading
shoot is pinched off that it may not drain off the sap. Any
young shoot from the wood-eyes at the base of the bearing
branch is carefully preserved, and in the following winter
it takes the place of the branch which has borne fruit and
is cut out. If there be no young shoot below, and the
bearing branch be short, the shoots at the point of the lat¬
ter are pruned for fruit; but this must be done cautiously;
and if the bearing branch be long, it is better to cut it
back for young wood. It is the neglect of this which con¬
stitutes the principal error of the English fan system as it
is usually practised. Several times during summer the trees
are regularly examined; the young shoots are respectively
topped and thinned out; those that remain are nailed to
the wall, or braced in w-ith pieces of peeled willow, and the
whole trees are occasionally washed with the force-pump.
The Montrueil form is described at length in the Hor-
Fig. 8.
ticultural^ I our, p. 429, or in the Cal. Hort. Mem. vol. iv.
p. 145. The principal feature constitutes the great princi¬
ple of all French training, the suppression of the direct
channel of the sap. Four, more commonly two, mere
branches are so laid to the wall that the central angle con¬
tains about 90°. 1 he other branches are all treated as
subordinate members.
Fkr. 11.
ULTURE.
643
Fruit
Garden.
H O R TIC
PY The form a la Dumoutier (so called from its inventor,
Gar i- and described at great length by Lelieur), is merely a re-
Fig. 9,
finement on the Montrueil method. It will be sufficient
to mention to the experienced trainer (and none other can
be expected to execute this form), that the formation of
the tree commences with the inferior limbs, and proceeds
towards the centre, the branches being lowered from time
time, as the tree acquires strength. What is most worthy
of notice in this method, is the management of the subor¬
dinates in the pruning for fruit. W hen a' shoot promises
blossom, it is generally at some distance from the point of
insertion into the old wood, and the intermediate space is
covered with wood buds. All the latter, therefore, which
are between the old wood a and the blossom c, in the outer
figure, except the lowest b, are carefully removed by ebour-
geonnement. I his never fails to produce a shoot, b in the
inner figure, the growth of which is favoured by destroy¬
ing the useless spray above the blossoms, and pinching off
the points of those which are necessary to perfect the fruit,
A replacing shoot is thus obtained, to which the whole is
invariably shortened at the end of the year. The branch
thus treated is called the branche de reserve.
The form d la Sieulle is another modification of the
Montrueil training, for an account of which we must again
refer to the Horticultural Tour. Fig. 10. will give an idea
Fig. 10.
of the general arrangement of the tree. The two mother
branches are laid in very obliquely, and are never shorten¬
ed. On the subordinate branches only three buds are left,
at the winter pruning, one terminal, and two at a consider^
able distance from each other on the sides of the shoot.
I his method, probably, is not well adapted to our climate.
Mr Seymour’s form, as described in vols. i. and ii. of the
Gardener’s Magazine, approaches more nearly to the French
methods than any other practised in this country. It will
be seen, however, from the annexed figure (fig. 11), that he
does not suppress the direct channel of the sap. This cir¬
cumstance, although considerable stress seems to be laid
upon it, is not essential to the plan, nor is perhaps the best
part of it. The principal novelty is, that the bearing shoots
are all on the upper sides of the mother branches, and that
these bearing shoots are wholly reproduced once a-year.
The one side of this figure represents the tree after the
winter pruning, the other side before it has undergone that
operation. It will be observed, that on this last side there
are pairs of shoots on the upper parts of the mother branch,-
es. The lower shoot, that, namely, which has borne fruit,
i® cut °ut, and the other is brought down into its place.
I his replacing shoot is shortened to about eight or nine
inches, care being taken to cut at a wood-bud; and at the
time of disbudding, the best situate buds, and those nearest
the base, are left for the future year’s bearing. To this
plan it is objected, by a writer in the Horticultural Regis¬
ter, that the annual excision of the bearing shoots produces
a series of rugged and increasingly ugly protuberances at
their base and along the upper surface of the principal
members; an objection which also militates against Du-
moutier’s form. Mr Loudon, on the other hand, declares
that Mr Seymour’s mode is the most perfect in theory that
has been described. For ourselves, w^e are inclined to pre¬
fer the old fan form, when well executed, as nearest the
natural habit of the tree, and as best adapted to our uncer¬
tain climate. In the training of peaches, “ whatever is best
administered is bestand there is no doubt that many in¬
genious gardeners have only partial success, because, from
the multiplicity of their engagements, their trees can re-'
ceive only partial attention.
tor cold and late situations, Mr Knight has recommend¬
ed the encouraging of spurs on the young wood ; such
spurs, when close to the wall, generating the best organized
and most vigorous blossoms, and ensuring a crop of fruit.
They may be produced, by taking care, during the sum¬
mer-pruning, or disbudding, to preserve a number of the
little shoots emitted by the yearly wood, only pinching off
the minute succulent points. On the spurs thus procured,
numerous blossom-buds form early in the following season.
Peach-trees, particularly in the north of England, and
also in Scotland, require protection from atmospherical in¬
fluences, especially at the period of blossoming. As al¬
ready noticed, branches of spruce or silver fir, or other
spray, are sometimes woven into frames, which are fixed
in front of the trees, and removed during the day in fine
weather (Cal. TIort. Mem. i. 276). Canvass or bunting
screens are equally effectual, and perhaps more easily
moveable. Straw-ropes, straw-nets, and a variety of other
expedients, have been proposed, and may be used accord¬
ing to circumstances. If the screens be applied early in
the season, great benefit may be derived from retarding
the blossom till the frosty nights of spring be past. If the
night frost have been severe, a copious sprinkling of water
over the whole tree, before the influence of the morning
sun be felt, has been found by Harrison to be very useful
in gradually raising the temperature of the foliage and
blossoms, and thus preventing injury from the sudden tran¬
sition. To trees trained against hot-walls, if fire be used
in spring, screens are indispensable; but perhaps hot-walls
are most beneficially employed in ripening off the fruit of
the late sorts of peaches in autumn ; and, what is equally
important, ripening the young wood of such sorts.
Ihe AuMOND-Tree (Amygdalus communis), a native
of China, may be noticed here rather on account of its
HORTICULTURE.
Fruit
Garden.
affinity to the peach and apricot, than because of its im-
, portance as a fruit-tree in this country. Every good gar¬
den should contain a tree or two trained against a west or
east wall, and also a few standards ; for in very fine seasons
the latter will yield crops, and they are always ornamental
in spring from the beauty of their blossoms. The sorts
most worthy of notice are:
Tender-shelled Sweet Almond, or Joi’dan.
Common Almond, or Bitter.
The altnond is generally budded on seedlings of its own
kind ; but for heavy soils, plum-stocks are preferable. The
training and pruning of almond-trees on walls are much
the same as in the peach or the apricot.
I he Apricot (Prunm Armeniaca) is a native of the
Caucasus and China ; it was cultivated by the Romans, and
was introduced into England from Italy in the reign of
Henry VIII. It has always, and deservedly, been a fa¬
vourite fruit. The principal varieties are :
Red Masculine. Flowers small; fruit small, roundish,
yellow, and red; flesh sweet and juicy ; stone impervious;
kernel bitter. This is a very early sort. The tree is ten¬
der, and requires a good aspect.
Breda. Flowers large ; fruit roundish, sometimes almost
four-cornered, orange-coloured; juice rich; stone small,
impervious ; kernel sweet. The true Breda is an apricot
of first-rate excellence, and in the south of England the
tree bears well as a standard.
Roman. Flowers large ; fruit oblong, compressed, pale
yellow; flesh soft; stone impervious; kernel very bitter.
The tree is a good bearer, but the fruit is fit only for pre¬
serving. It is sometimes called the Brussels,—a name also
occasionally given to the preceding.
Moorpark. Flowers large ; fruit roundish, compressed,
orange and red; flesh parting from the stone, juicy and
rich; stone pervious; kernel bitter. This is generally
considered the best apricdt in this country: there are several
sub-varieties known under different names, and it scarcely
differs from the Abricot Peeke of the French.
Turkey. Flowers large; fruit middle-sized, spherical,
deep yellow; flesh juicy and rich, parting from the stone,
which is impervious; kernel sweet. This is an excellent
late variety.
Besides these, we may mention the Large Early, the
White Masculine, Hemskirke, Musch-musch, and Royal.
File last is a French variety of recent origin; it is excel¬
lent, and ripens earlier than the Moorpark.
Apricots are propagated by budding on muscle or com¬
mon plum-stocks. Mr Knight recommends the wilding
apricot as a stock for the Moorpark variety. Some gar¬
deners have adopted the horizontal form of training, but
the most usual, and certainly the best, is the common fan-
arrangement. The fruit is produced on shoots of the pre¬
ceding year, and on small close spurs formed on the two-
year old wood. The apricot is a tree of much stronger
growth than the peach, and therefore requires more room;
tins and the peculiarity of the spurs being kept in mind,
the observations made on the training and pruning of the
peach may be readily applied to this tree. It requires a
summer and winter pruning. The former should begin
early in June, at winch period all irregular fore-right and
useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly afterwards,
those which remain are fastened to the wall to become
bearers. At the winter pruning, all w'orn-out branches,
and such as are not duly furnished with spurs and fruit-
buds, are removed, i he young bearers are moderately
pruned at the points, care, however, being taken to leave a
terminal shoot to each branch. The most common error
m the pruning of apricots, is laying in the bearing shoots
too thickly. B
The blossom comes early in spring, but is more hardy
than that of the peach ; the same means of protection Vr
when necessary, may be employed. The fruit often sets Ga!!
too numerously; and in this case it is thinned out in June'—v ^
and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being used
ror tarts, for which purpose they are excellent. In the
south of England, apricots are sometimes trained against
espalier-rails, and occasionally planted as dwarf standards •
and it is said that in good seasons the fruit from such trees
is more highly flavoured than that from walls. In general
however, the protection of a wall is necessary. An east
or west aspect is preferred in England, the full south heine
apt to induce mealiness of pulp. In Scotland, the late
varieties require the best aspect that can be afforded.
c- T]TeT?P!;UM'1Tree (Prunus domestica) is considered by
feir J. E. Smith as a native of England. Many of the best
cultivated varieties, however, have been introduced from
France. The Horticultural Society’s Catalogue enume¬
rates 274 sorts, though probably all of these are not well
ascertained. We shall first notice a few of the best dessert
plums, and then give a list of select kitchen sorts.
The Green Gage is the Reine Claude of the French.
Being a great favourite at Paris (as it is every where else)
during the ferment of the Revolution, when all allusions to
royalty were proscribed, it retained its popularity under
the title of Prune Citoyenne. It was introduced into
England by the Gage family, and the foreign name having
been lost, it obtained its present appellation. It is a fruit
of first-rate excellence, and exquisite flavour. The tree
deserves a place against an east or west wall, where the
fruit acquires a larger size, without materially falling off in
richness of flavour. Treated as a wall-tree, it seldom bears
well till it be old; and it is very impatient of exact training,
as indeed most plums are. In wrarm situations it may be
profitably grown on an espalier rail, or as a dwarf standard.
Dvap d Or. 1 his is a small yellow plum of high flavour,
ripening in the beginning of September. On a light soil
the tree is a tolerable bearer ; but on a heavy soil it seldom
succeeds. The fruit precedes the green gage in ripenin<%
and resembles it in quality.
, Coe’s Golden Drop. A fine large oval plum, excellent
either for the table, or for preserving. It keeps well; and
Mr Lindley informs us, that he has eaten it exceedingly
good twelve months after it had been gathered. It re¬
quires the best aspect of a wall; and will scarcely answer
in a bleak climate.
Precoce de Tours. An early sort; of a dark-blue colour,
with a violet bloom ; pulp yellow, and of a very pleasant
flavour. The tree succeeds as a standard.
Blue Imperatrice. A fine late plum; a good bearer,
but requiring an east or west wall.
Reine Claude violette, L. Hort. Cat. 232. Purple
Gage, Lind. p. 455. A very high flavoured variety, re¬
sembling, colour excepted, the green gage. It succeeds
on standards, but is improved by a wall. The tree is a
good bearer.
Washington, L. Hort. Cat. 266. ; Amer. Orchard, p. 268.
t ruit rather large, roundish oval, pale yellow on the shad¬
ed side, and of a fine glaucous light purple on the exposed
side; of excellent quality, scarcely inferior to the green
gage. 1 he tree is vigorous, and bears well against a wall,
ripening about the middle of August. Being an early
plum, it will, in favourable situations, succeed as a stand¬
ard. It is, as the name imports, of American origin. It
ought to be in every collection.
Coupler's Large Red. This is described by Mr Barnet
of the Experimental Garden, Edinburgh, as of large size,
oval; suture deeply cleft on one side; skin of a bluish-
glaucous purple on the exposed side, the other side dull red;
flesh firm, adhering to the stone; ripens in the beginning
of September on a south wall (in Scotland). Although
HORTICULTURE.
645
F t this is only a plum of the second quality, yet the tree well
G.r «• merits a place, on account of its great productiveness.
^ The following are also first-rate plums: D’Agen, Coe’s
Late Red, Downton Imperatrice, Kir Ice’s, Nectarine, Blue
Perdrigon, and White Perdrigon.
The Cheston, Fotheringham, Goliath, Orleans, Wilmot’s
New Orleans, La Royale, Sharpe’s Emperor, Morocco, and
some of the Damasks, though generally regarded as only
second-rate plums, deserve notice, and should always have
a place in large gardens. The Early Violet is an excellent
bearer, and strongly recommended by Lindley to be plant¬
ed in cottage gardens. Lucomb’s Nonsuch plum should not
be omitted; for when well ripened, it makes an approach
to the green gage in flavour.
As kitchen and preserving plums we may specify the
Damson, Shropshire Damson, Imperial Diadem, Isabella,
White Magnum Bonum, Red Magnum Bonum or Im-
periale; the Caledonia or Nectarine Plum, a large and
handsome fruit; the Mirabelle, St Catherine, Wine Sour,
and Bullace.
The finer dessert plums are propagated chiefly by bud¬
ding on Muscle or St Julian stocks. They are sometimes
grafted, but gum is apt to break out at the place of junc¬
tion. The damson, wine sour, and other varieties, planted
as standards, are generally increased by suckers, which the
old plants afford plentifully. For placing against walls,
trees which have been trained for two years in the nursery
are to be preferred.
Plum-trees require ample space. On common walls they
should be allowed from twenty to twenty-five feet of
breadth over which to extend themselves. The horizontal
mode of training is adopted by many. The fan form is
also very commonly followed, and undoubtedly where there
is room, it is the best. The shoots ought to be laid in at
full length. The fruit is produced on small spurs, on
branches at least two years old. The same spurs continue
fruitful for several years.
Standard plum-trees require only to have a portion of
their wood thinned out occasionally while they are young.
The hardy kinds grown in this way are very productive,
and in some places in the North of England, their produce
forms a considerable article of food for several weeks, and
also an article of commerce, particularly the wine sour,
which is in great request for preserves. It is matter of re¬
gret that this branch of fruit culture has not, as yet, met
with due attention in Scotland.
The Cherry-Tree {Prunus Cerasus), is said to have
been introduced into Europe from Pontus, by the celebrat¬
ed Lucullus, A. C. 73. From the “ London cries” of Lyd¬
gate, it appears that “ cherries in the ryse,” or in twigs,
were hawked in London at the beginning of the 15th cen¬
tury. Excellent sorts have at various times been intro¬
duced from the Continent, and, of late years, several first-
rate new varieties have been raised in England. Geans
included, the Horticultural Society’s Catalogue enumerates
no fewer than 219 varieties; the following may be account¬
ed some of the best.
The Early Purple Griotte may be first mentioned, as
being the earliest of all cherries, generally ripening in the
end of May. It was introduced from Geneva a few years
ago, and is not yet generally known in this country.
The May-Duke is one of the most common, and, at the
same time, one of the most valuable cherries. In fine sea¬
sons, and on a good aspect of wall, it begins to colour in
May; and in such situations it is generally ripe from the
middle to the end of June. The tree also bears well as a
dwarf standard, but against a wall the fruit gets larger, and
does not fall off in flavour.
The Late Duke is a rich sweet cherry, with most of the
qualities of a May-Duke. It has a very close affinity to
the variety called the Arch-Duke, if it be not absolutely Fruit
the same. On a standard it ripens in August. Garden.
Bigarreau or Graffion. This is an excellent fruit, ''-“"'y''-'
especially when it gets the protection of a wrall. In Ken¬
sington Gardens are trees of this sort a century old, which
still produce abundant crops. In the cherry orchards of
England, this sort is now pretty extensively cultivated, the
fruit meeting with a ready sale, and vast quantities being
required for the London market.
Harrison's Heart is nearly allied to the Bigarreau ; it is
rather of larger size and of fine appearance in the dessert,
but inferior in flavour. The fruit has this advantage, that
it is not liable to crack in w^et weather.
Belle de Choisy, an excellent cherry. The fruit come
in pairs, red, mottled with amber colour, tender and sweet.
The tree bears well as a standard.
Black Tartarian, or Ronalds’s Black Heart, L. Hort.
Cat. 198 ; Lind. p. 149. Fruit large, obtuse heart-shaped ;
flesh half tender. “ The quality is good, and in appear¬
ance it is one of the finest.” It is a good bearer, and wrell
adapted for forcing.
Waterloo. Raised by a daughter of Mr Knight, from
the Bigarreau and May-Duke. Fruit black, large, obtuse
heart-shaped, pulp tender. It ripens in July, and the tree
is a free bearer.
Elton. Raised by Mr Knight from the Bigarreau and
White Heart. Fruit large, heart-shaped, pale red, with a
sweet delicious juice. The tree is a good bearer and hardy ;
the fruit ripens shortly after the May-Duke.
Kentish Cherry. One of the oldest and most prevalent
cherries in England, abounding in the orchards of Kent.
When ripe, it is of a full red colour, and its subacid flavour
is very agreeable. It is commonly grown on standards,
and ripens in the end of July. The Hort. Cat. distin¬
guishes this from the Flemish or short-stalked, also a good
cherry, to which it is certainly closely allied.
The Morello. This is a well-known late cherry, much
in request for confectionery. The tree is a copious bearer,
and on a south wall the fruit acquires a peculiarly rich sub¬
acid flavour. It succeeds perfectly well on a north aspect,
where its fruit may be retarded to the end of October.
The Amber, or yellow Spanish, is a late fruit, and useful
in prolonging the cherry season till the beginning of Sep¬
tember. It requires a west wall.
Among other excellent varieties may be mentioned the
Black Eagle, Black Heart, Bowyer’s Early Heart, Carna¬
tion, Downton, Florence, Knight’s Early Black, and the
White Heart.
What are called geans or guignes, are cherries less re¬
moved from their natural state. They are usually grown
as standards, and bear abundantly, particularly when old.
The principal sorts are the Amber gean, a plentiful bearer,
with sweet tender fruit; and the Lundie gean, a small
black cherry of high flavour, which originated at the an¬
cient seat of the Erskines in Forfarshire, but is also some¬
times called the Polton gean, from a place near Lasswade
in Mid-Lothian.
It may be noticed that, in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris,
the black-fruited cherry-tree, or Guignier, is considered as
a variety of Prunus Cerasus. The forest cherry-tree, P.
avium, is named Merisier ; and, besides varieties with red
and with black fruit, there is a marked variety called Bi-
garotier.
The great quantities of pale-coloured cherries yearly
sold in the London market are chiefly of the kinds called
White Heart and Bigarreau. The dark coloured cherries
are chiefly the Courone, which is often passed upon buyers
for the Black Heart.
The stock preferred for cherries is the wild gean. Mr
Lindley recommends that dwarf cherry-trees should be
grafted, and two or three year-old stocks will do for them.
646
1* mit I" or standard trees the stocks should be at least four years
ar en. old, and they should be budded or grafted five or six feet
' fr°m the ground. High stemmed cherry-trees, or riders,
are often temporarily employed to fill up the vacant spaces
on newly planted south walls, till the dwarf trees make suf¬
ficient progress; for these, stocks six or seven feet high
are required.
Cherries are generally produced on small spurs which
appear on the wood of the second year, and these spurs
continue productive for an indefinite period. Any form of
training may therefore be adopted; but, as the fruit is alT
w^ays finest on young spurs, perhaps fan-training, which
admits of the frequent renovation of the bearing branches
is the most advantageous. A succession of young shoots
should be laid in every year. For the Morello, which is
of twiggy growth, and bears on the young wood, the fan
iorm is absolutely necessary. Whatever method be adopted
for general practice, care should be taken not to crowd the
branches : nothing is more injurious to the productiveness
of the trees than crowding of branches.
HORTICULTURE.
The Pear Tree (Pyrus communis) is considered by
botanists as a native of England. Many cultivated varie-
ties seem to have been introduced by the monks ; remains
ot perry orchards attached to monasteries of the 14th and
15th centuries being not uncommon even in Scotland;
an(^ ;;ery trees Of the finer dessert pears, such as
the Colmar and Longueville, occasionally occurring.
The list of cultivated pears amounts to more than 600
names; but the number of those truly desirable is not
large. We shall specify some of the best dessert fruit, fol¬
lowing the usual division of Early and Late; the former
class being in season in the months of August, September
and October, and the latter in November, December, and
January. It is to be premised, however, that even within
the limits of Britain, climate makes an important difference
in the culture and ripening of pears, of which a remark-
ab e and extreme example may be seen in the Chaumon-
telie, a fruit which is produced abundantly, and ripened
on standards in the west of England, and in the en¬
virons of London, while it requires a south wall near Edin¬
burgh.
I. Early.
Citrpn des Carmes, L. Hart. Cat. 190; Madaleine,
End. p. 344, in Scotland often called the Premature. This
is the earliest pear ; it ripens in July, acquiring a yellowish
green colour ; it is sweet, but without much flavour. One
tree, or at most two trees, may suffice. It requires a shel¬
tered situation.
The Green Chisel, called also the Hastings, and, in the
market, the Green Sugar. This is not a first-rate pear;
mat the tree is hardy and a great bearer. It ripens in
riie Summer Pose. A handsome round pear, of a rus-
sety red colour, much resembling an apple, flesh white,
rich, and sugary. This is an excellent variety, succeeds
on a standard, and ripens in August,
The Jargonelle of Britain is the Grosse Cuisse Madame
of t rench horticultural writers, and the Epargne and Beau-
present of French practical gardeners. This is the most
common and most esteemed of our early autumn pears.
Against a wall the fruit attains a large size and a beautiful
appearance ; but it is not of so high a flavour as from stand-
ards or espalier-rails. The fruit does not keep well, and
e tree should therefore he planted in various situations
to prolong its season, as it is rather difficult, when it dis¬
appears, immediately to supply its place. Beautiful dwarf
trees may be formed by grafting on the common white
thorn, which, however, are not very patient of transplant¬
ing. The French jargonelle is green on one side and red
on the other, and is a fruit of inferior quality.
'i he Ananas d Etc is scarcely noticed by our horticul¬
tural writers ; but it seems a good variety to succeed the
jargonelle. In the Experimental Garden at Edinburgh it
ripens on a standard in the second week of September.
Mr Barnet describes it as of middle size, about two and a
half inches broad, tapering a little towards the stalk, round
at the top, eye small, slightly sunk in a cavity ; red on the
exposed side, green and somewhat russety on the other-
flesh white, melting, with a pleasant sweet juice.
The Summer Francreal, or the Yat of Holland, may be
noticed as another pear to follow the jargonelle, as it ripens
about the middle of September. The tree proves in
general, a great bearer.
The Longueville. Some very ancient trees of this va,
riety exist at Jedburgh : and, in the garden of the Regent
Murray at Edinburgh, there are several which apparently
are coeval with the times of the Regency. Though the
name is now unknown in France, it is conjectured that the
tree was brought over from that country by the Douglas,
when Lord of Longueville, in the fifteenth century. The
fruit is large, of a thick conical shape, green) and of consid-
Ciable flavour. It ripens in September.
The Green Pear of Yair. This variety is of Scottish
origin. I he fruit is obovate, green, and of a middle size ;
flesh juicy and well-flavoured. It is sometimes placed on a
wall to succeed the jargonelle ; but it is always better from
standards. On old trees, in light soils, it sometimes ac¬
quires a lemon colour, with a high musky flavour. Ripens
in September and October.
I he Duhamel is a good autumn pear, with a delicate
flavour. It comes in immediately after the green yair, and
helps to fill up a gap in the pear season, especially in Scot-,
land,
The Sechle, of American origin, deserves a place; for
the tree is of dwarfish size, and suited for a border stands
aid, and it seldom fails to yield a crop. The fruit is small,
but melting and well-flavoured. It does not keep.
I he White Doyenne, This is an excellent sort, when
used at its perfection. In warm situations, it is well adapt-,
ed for dwarf standards. Ripens in September and October.
The Bed Doyenne, or, as it is sometimes called, Gray
Doyenne, is also an excellent autumn pear, doing best on
a quince stock.
The Elton. Capital as a standard, and strongly re¬
commended by Mr Knight. The tree produces healthy
wood, and the fruit ripens in September and October.
The Early Bergamot was introduced from France in
1820. It is one of the very best early pears, as the tree
bears freely on an open standard.
1 he Autumn Bergamot, or English Bergamot, has been
long known as one of the most highly flavoured pears. It
is not the Bergamotte d’Automne of the French, which is
liable to canker in this country, while the English berga¬
mot is not liable. In England the tree succeeds perfectly
w ell as a standard ; in Scotland it answers in good seasons,
but here it is deserving ot a w-est wall. The fruit is of a
depressed globular shape, not large ; the flesh juicy, sugary
and rich, a little gritty next the core. It ripens towards
the end of October, but does not keep.
fo the list of summer and early autumn pears might be
added the Musk Robine, Summer Bonchretien, and Wil¬
liams’s Bonchretien, requiring the protection of a wall; and
the Lammas Pear of Scotland, “ soon ripe, soon rotten,"
which succeeds perfectly well on open standards; Ambrosia,
Belle et Bonne, Beurre d’Amalis, Bishop’s Thumb, Caillot
Rosat, and the Hazel Pear.
II. Late,
I he Brown Beurre (Red and Grey Buerre of various
HORTIC
1 it authors). This is a first-rate melting pear. Against a wall
& en- with a good aspect, and with a fresh soil, the tree is an
abundant bearer. Ripens in October and November.
The Beurre de Capiaumont. This is one of the best
new Flemish varieties. The fruit is beautifid and well-
flavoured. It ripens in October and November. The tree
is a great bearer and hardy.
The Moorfowl Egg. There are two varieties, both of
Scottish origin, of which the Galston Moor-fowl Egg is the
best. The fruit is not attractive in appearance, but it is
of admirable quality. The tree is hardy, and should be
grown as a standard.
The Gansd’s Bergamot (sometimes called Brocas’ Ber¬
gamot). This noble pear, which has scarcely been rivalled,
certainly not surpassed, by any of the imported varieties,
is of English origin. Its blossoms are too tender to
enable the tree to succeed as a standard ; but it deserves a
wall, and it should be placed on various aspects to prolong
its season. The fruit ripens in November and December.
The Marie Louise. This excellent and large pear
was raised by the Abbe Duquesne, and named after the
Ex-Empress of France. “ It is,” says Mr Thompson, “ one
of the very finest, even as a standard, on which it bears
abundantly ; it succeeds also well on a north wall.” In
Scotland it is the better for an east or west aspect; but on
a standard in a sheltered garden at Luffhess, East Lothian,
the fruit has attained the weight of 15 ounces. It ripens
in October and November.
Beurre d’Aremberg. This most excellent pear was first
brought into notice and recommended by the Caledonian
Horticultural Society’s deputation in 1817 {Hort. Tour.
p. 321). It is perfectly melting and without grittiness, and
rich, sweet, and high-flavoured. The tree succeeds either
trained against an east or a west wall, or as a standard in
any sheltered situation.
Crasanne. An old French sort, of excellent quality,
with a tender and finely flavoured pulp. The tree deserves
an east or west aspect on the wall, and it succeeds also on
an espalier-rail. The fruit ripens in November and De¬
cember.
The Urbaniste is a very good variety, of a large size,
and ovoglobular shape ; skin of yellowish colour, with small
russety spots ; flesh white, melting, with a sweet well-fla¬
voured juice. In Scotland ripens against a south wall by
the beginning of November.
Colmar. This is a first rate pear, with a white flesh,
and of high flavour. In Scotland the tree requires a south
wall. From this the Poire d’Auch of the Continent seems
scarcely to differ. It keeps till February or March.
Passe Colmar. An admirable Flemish variety lately
introduced into this country ; of excellent flavour ; hardier,
and a more abundant bearer than the preceding, and more
easily ripened. It is in maturity in December and January.
Poire Neill was raised by M. Van Mons of Louvain,
about the time of the visit of the Caledonian Horticultural
Society’s deputation to Belgium (in 1817). It is a large
handsome fruit, with a very white pulp, mellow, and abound¬
ing with a saccharine and slightly musky juice. It is in
season during the month of October, and should be gather¬
ed a few days before it be ripe. The tree succeeds as a
standard at Edinburgh, and bears freely.
The Easter Beurre. Fruit large, obovate, green and
brown ; flesh whitish-yellow, buttery, and extremely high-
flavoured. “ It is,” says Mr Thompson, “ hardy and a good
bearer ; one of the most valuable Spring sorts, compared
with which the early pears of short duration deserve not a
wall; its extensive cultivation for a long and late supply is,
without hesitation, strongly recommended.” In season
from January to March. As the tree ripens its wood
readily, it succeeds as a standard, even in Scotland, and
yields fruit superior in flavour to that from the walls.
ULTURE. 647
Beurre Ranee. A Flemish variety raised by the late Fruit
M. Hardenpont; “ the best very late sort yet known,” Garden.
Hort. Cat. It ripens with difficulty in Scotland ; but wasn  
found to be the best pear produced in competition at the
meeting of the Caledonian Horticultural Society in the
month of March 1835.
The following, respecting which our limits will not per¬
mit us to go into detail, may be considered as highly valu¬
able sorts as late autumnal and winter pears:—Autumn
Colmar, Aston-town, Echassery, Delices d’Hardenpont,
Beurre Bose, Beurre Diel, Beurre Spence, Bezi Vaet,
Bezi de la Motte, Chaumontelle, Sylvange, Downton,
Glout Morceau, St Germain, Duchesse d’Angouleme, Louise
bonne, Hacon’s Incomparable, Winter Nelis, Black Au¬
chan, Swan Egg, Doyenne gris, Flemish Beauty, and Na¬
poleon.
Some excellent new varieties of dessert pears have, of
late years, been raised by Mr Taylor, gardener at Dun-
more Park, under the directions of the noble proprietor,
who is a scientific horticulturist. These have not yet been
described or published ; but the Dunmore Brown Beurre and
Taylor’s Seedling have been found to be of the first quality.
Of the Kitchen Sorts, or stewing pears, we may name
the Bellisime d’Hiver, Catillac, Uvedale’s St Germain, War¬
den or Black Worcester, and the Gilogil. These are
placed on inferior walls, or upon espalier-rails, or kept as dwarf
standards. The Uvedale’s St Germain fruit often attains a
large size, especially against a wall.
Pear-trees are grafted either on what are called free-
stocks or on dwarfing stocks: for the former, which are
intended for full-sized trees, the seeds of the wilding pear
should be sown ; but frequently the pips of the perry pears,
and sometimes of the common cultivated sorts, are used.
For dwarfing, the quince is preferred ; but the white-thorn,
as already mentioned, is occasionally employed. Where
the space is limited, or the ground is damp, the dwarfing
stocks are the more suitable. It is a favourite doctrine with
some, that by budding or grafting on quince or hawthorn,
pears of too melting and sugary a quality acquire firmness
and acidity ; to what extent this holds good has not been
correctly ascertained, but that the stock exerts a certain
degree of influence on the fruit is beyond dispute. Some
of the finer pears do not take readily on the quince. In
this case double working is resorted to. For example, the
Virgouleuse may be easily budded on the quince, and the
Beurre d’Aremberg will afterwards succeed freely on the
Virgouleuse. It may be mentioned in passing, that the an¬
cient horticulturists seem to have supposed that a fruit was
improved by double working ; and that the term reinette, a
name applied to a class of apples, is considered as having
been derived from the Latin renata, that is, a tree grafted
upon itself.
In selecting young pear-trees, some prefer maiden plants,
that is, plants one year grafted ; but if good trees, trained
for two or three years, can be procured, so much the bet¬
ter. It is important to ascertain that the stock and stem
be clean and healthy, and to take great care that no injury
be done by bruising or tearing the roots, in lifting and re¬
moving. The young trees may be planted at any time, in
mild weather, from the fall of the leaf to the beginning of
March. Wall-trees require from 25 to 30 feet of lineal
space when on free stocks, and from 15 to 20 feet when
dwarfed. Standards on free stocks in the orchard should
be allowed at least 30 feet every way, while for dwarfs 15
feet may suffice. Where the trees are trained en pgra-
mide or en quenouille, (see p. 637) they may stand within
eight feet of each other. It is very desirable that the pear
orchard should be in a warm situation, with a soil deep,
substantial, and well drained, or free from injurious latent
moisture. Without attention to these circumstances, pear-
trees seldom succeed.
HORTICULTURE.
648
Fruit The fruit is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots
Garden, more than one year old ; the object of the pruner, there-
'■—-v——^ fore, ought to be to procure a fair supply of these spurs.
The mode of training wall pear-trees most commonly
adopted is the horizontal; but each of the forms already
mentioned (p. 638), has its advantages, and is peculiarly
adapted to some particular habit of growth in the several
varieties. For the St Germain, and other twiggy sorts, we
should prefer the fan form ; for the Gansel’s Bergamot, and
other strong growers, the half-fan, or the horizontal. In the
latter forms the trees may often be found fifteen, twenty,
or even thirty years old, during which time they acquire an
undue projection from the wall, and become scraggy and
unmanageable. On the other hand, the finest fruit is pro¬
duced on young spurs, clearly indicating the necessity of a
frequent renovation of the spurs. This would lead us to
prefer the fan-form, not, indeed, that which is commonly
practised, and represented in fig. 5. p. 638, for in it the
spurs are as immovable as in any other arrangement; but
rather that recommended for peaches, in which there is a
continual renewal of the branches. Or if we did adopt the
horizontal form, which has certain advantages, it would be
that modification exhibited in the right side of fig. 4. a,
p. 638. This is the method followed by Harrison in treat¬
ing the Jargonelle.
The summer pruning of established wall or espalier-rail
trees, consists chiefly in the timely displacing or rubbing off
of the superfluous shoots, retaining only those which are
terminal, or well placed for lateral branches. Where spurs
are wanted on the older wood, about two inches of a fore¬
right shoot are left; and if this be done early, that is be¬
fore the shoot has become ligneous, it seldom fails to form
fruit-buds. In horizontal training, the winter pruning is
nothing more than adjusting the leading shoots, and thin¬
ning out the spurs, which should be kept close to the wall,
and allowed to retain only two, or at most three buds.
In fan-training, the subordinate branches must be regu¬
lated, the spurs thinned out, and the young laterals, which
were loosely nailed in, during summer, must be finally esta¬
blished in their places. No crowding of branches should
be permitted. Where horizontal trees have fallen into dis¬
order, they may be renovated in the manner represented
by fig. 466, left side, a procedure patronized by Mr Knight:
or all the branches may be cut back to within nine inches
of the vertical stem and branch, and trained in afresh, as re¬
commended by Mr Bindley.
When some of the finer pear-trees produce an abundance
of blossom, but do not set well, as not unfrequently hap¬
pens, artificial impregnation may be partially resorted to ;
that is, the blossom of some other kind of pear, plentifully
provided with pollen, is taken, and the farina is dusted over
the best looking blossoms of the unproductive tree.
Summer and autumn pears should be gathered before
they be fully ripe, otherwise they will not in general keep
more than a few days. The Jargonelle, as Forsyth rightly
advises, should be allowed to remain on the tree, and pulled
daily as wanted, the standard fruit thus succeeding the pro¬
duce of the wall trees. In reference to the Crasanne, Mr
Bindley recommends gathering the crop at three different
times, the first a fortnight or more before it be ripe, the
second a week or ten days after, and the third when fully
ripe. The first gathering will come into eating latest, and
thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged.
It is evident that the same method may be followed with
the Brown Beurre, Gansel’s Bergamot, and any other
which continue only a short time in a mature state.
more than two hundred years old. The finer, high-fla- fr
voured apples are prized for the dessert; the juicy and Gan
poignant sorts are in request for tarts and sauce; whilst''—J
those of a more austere nature are manufactured into cider.
In the second edition of the London Hort. Society’s Ca¬
talogue, no fewer than 1400 varieties are enumerated ;
many of them doubtless not well ascertained, but about
175 are pronounced to be first-rate sorts. With such a
multitude before us, it would be vain to attempt detailed
descriptions: we shall therefore do little more than give a
classified list of those most worthy of attention, referring
the reader for further information to the Catalogue itself, to
Mr Bindley’s Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden,
and to Mr Rogers’ Fruit Cultivator.
Table Apples.
The earliest of these are the following :—The Juneating,
or White Geniton, which begins to ripen in the end of
July, and, being sugary and slightly perfumed, forms a wel¬
come addition to the dessert. The Early Red Margaret
is often cultivated ; it is sometimes called Red Juneating,
and in Ireland Peach Apple. The Summer Crofton, or
White Crofton, is of Irish origin : the tree bears abundant¬
ly ; and if the fruit be scarcely equal to the Juneatings for
the dessert, it is very desirable for culinary purposes in
August. The Thorle, originating in the Carse of Gowrie,
is an early apple of considerable merit, although not
mentioned by Mr Bindley. The Oslin or Arbroath Pip¬
pin, and the Early Julien of Clydesdale, also deserve no¬
tice. The Summer Golden Pippin, the Red Quarenden of
Devonshire, and the Summer Calville, are likewise excel¬
lent early dessert apples.
To succeed these in the autumn we have many fine
sorts, such as the Early Nonpareil or Hick’s Fancy; the
Red Ingestrie and Yellow Ingestrie, raised by Mr Knight;
the Doonside, a capital Ayrshire production; Autumn
Pearmain or Royal Pearmain of the Bondon nurseries;
Shepherd’s Fame ; Baird’s Favourite ; Pomme de Niege ;
and Bourassa; Franklin’s Golden Pippin ; Old Golden
Pippin ; King of the Pippins or Hampshire Yellow ; Please
Bady; Kerry Pippin, one of the finest Irish apples; and
the Cole Apple or Scarlet Perfumed.
The winter dessert apples are very numerous, so that
only a few can be mentioned. The Ribston Pippin has
long maintained a pre-eminent character for its rich juici¬
ness and highly aromatic flavour. If the tree be trained to
a wall, the fruit is much improved in size and beauty ; but
Mr Rogers, in his Fruit Cultivator, is decidedly wrong in
thinking that it is heightened in flavour; for, on the con¬
trary, the flavour is deteriorated. The Ribston is an old
variety ; and there is reason to fear that, like the Grey
Beadington (formerly the boast of Scottish orchards), it is
verging to decay and extinction. Hubbard’s Pearmain is
a Norfolk apple of the very finest quality, and too little
known, especially in Scotland; the tree does not grow
large, is quite hardy, and an abundant bearer, either as a
standard, or when trained to an espalier-rail. The Dutch
Mignonne is another admirable dessert apple, too little
known or attended to. The Golden Harvey, or Brandy
Apple of Forsyth, is a beautiful fruit, and Mr Bindley cha¬
racterizes it as rich, juicy, spicy, and high-flavoured: the
tree is not a large grower, is very hardy, and a great and
constant bearer; and no garden, adds Mr Bindley, “ ca¬
pable of containing ten trees, ought to be without one ol
it.” The Downton Pippin, raised by Mr Knight from the
orange pippin of Herefordshire, dusted with the pollen ol
the old golden pippin, must not be omitted. The tree is a
great bearer; the fruit ripens in the end of October and
keeps till January; it has a brisk, subacid juice, which be¬
comes saccharine. The fruit should not be gathered until it
(Ihe AppLE-Tree (Pyrus Mains'), under the name of the
Crab, is a native of Britain. Most of the cultivated sorts,
however, are of foreign origin, and it does not seem pro¬
bable, that we possess at present any good variety which is
H OUT! CULT UR E. 649
Fr has acquired a bright yellow colour, and part freely from
Garh- the tree. To these may be added the Beachamwell Seed-
"""ling ; Borsdorffer ; Court of Wick Pippin ; Wood’s Trans¬
parent ; Margil; Newton Pippin ; Scarlet Crofton ; Gol¬
den Pearmain ; Scarlet Pearmain ; Gravenstein ; Paradise
Pippin ; Old Nonpareil; Boss Nonpareil; Scarlet Nonpa¬
reil ; Golden Rennet; Reinette de Canada; Sykehouse
Russet ; and the Sam Young, an excellent Irish apple,
brought into notice by Mr Robertson of Kilkenny.
Kitchen Apples.
These are very numerous, and the names of a few of the
best can only be given. We begin with the Scottish Haw-
thornden ; though the tree is liable to canker, yet it comes
early into bearing, and the fruit is excellent. The Codlins
may be next named, particularly the Spring Grove, the
Kentish or Fillbasket, the Keswick, the Dutch, and the
Manks. Dumelow’s Seedling, the Fulwood, the Green
Fulwood of Mr Mathew, the Nonsuch, Minshul Crab,
Hanwell Souring, Cat’s-head, Alexander, Brabant Belle-
fleur, Blenheim Pippin, Hunt-house of Yorkshire, Norfolk
Beaufin, and Forman’s Crewe, are all good. Among the
best long-keeping apples are the Scottish Gogar Pippin or
Stone Pippin ; and the Yorkshire Greening and Northern
Greening, particularly the latter ; Winter Strawberry Ap¬
ple ; Winter Lud; Cambusnethan Pippin ; Tower of
Glammis ; the Alderstone Pippin of East-Lothian, and the
Lady Wemyss of Fifeshire. An apple called the French
Crab (but which is of considerable size, notwithstanding
this name), keeps firm in pulp till the return of the apple
season ; and the subvariety of this, called Hambledon’s, is
described in Ronalds’ Pomona as still superior.
Some excellent new varieties of apples have of late years
been produced both in England and Scotland. Mr Hardy
of Bothkennar, by crossing the Court of Wick Pippin with
the Nonpareil, has raised seedlings partaking of the good
qualities of both parents, and these have received the
warmest approval of the Scottish Horticultural Society.
It may be mentioned, that information respecting the
fruits cultivated for the manufacture of cider and perry,
may be obtained in the Pomona Herefordiensis, published
by Mr Knight, and illustrated with engravings by the late
Mr W. Hooker. Cider is principally made in Hereford¬
shire and Gloucestershire, which are called the cider coun¬
ties ; but much is also produced in Devonshire. For the en¬
couragement of its manufacture in Scotland, premiums have
been offered by the Caledonian Horticultural Society, but
little good Scottish cider has hitherto appeared.
Several kinds of stocks are used for apple-trees. The
Dutch Paradise, propagated by layers, has long been
used as a stock for dwarf apple-trees, whether intended for
the wall or for standards. The Doucin of the French
seems closely allied to this, if not identical with it. The
bur-knot varieties increased by cuttings, or young codlin
plants procured from layers, furnish stocks for the trees
from which it is desired to raise new seedlings. For com¬
mon purposes, the stocks raised from the pips of crabs or
of cider apples are preferred. Stocks kept one or two
years in nursery lines are fit for grafting upon ; but if a
considerably tall stem is wished, they must remain three or
four years in the nursery, or till they attain five or six feet
of height. In the Dutch nurseries, where apple-trees are
trained for some years to the cup-shape, the table, the
pyramidal, or the round forms, before they are sold to the
public, the trees are repeatedly transplanted; but with us,
where such forms are less sought after, the utility of more
transplantations than from the seed-bed to the nursery
lines, and thence to the garden, may, in Mr Knight’s opi¬
nion, be questioned. Any common soil, provided the sub¬
soil be dry, suits the apple-tree. Shallow' planting should
in all cases be practised.
VOL. XI.
The fruit, as in the pear-tree, is produced on spurs, Fruit
which come out on the branchlets of two or more years Garden,
growth, and continue fertile for a series of years. There —y—-
is, therefore, no material difference in the pruning and
training of the pear and of the apple tree. On walls, the
horizontal mode of training is commonly followed, as best
calculated to repress the vigorous growth of the tree ; but
for the nonpareil, and other twiggy varieties, perhaps the
fan-form, or some modification of the fan-form, is preferable.
For standards, where the soil is rich and the growth rapid,
all that is necessary in pruning is to thin out the branches,
and to prevent their crossing each other. Where there is
little luxuriance, and in the case of all dwarfs, it is useful
to shorten the branches occasionally, and to remove useless
twigs. Dw'arfs on paradise stocks may be treated almost
like currant bushes, to the great advantage both of the size
and beauty of the fruit. The winter pruning may take
place any time from the beginning of November to the end
of March. Cankered or diseased wood, and all unfruitful
snags or rugged spurs, are then to be neatly cut out.
If the American blight, or woolly aphis (the Eriosoma
Mali of Leach) make its appearance on a tree, the utmost
care should be taken to clean every part of the bark with
a hard brush and some searching wash ; for, should the in¬
sect be left unmolested, it will speedily spread over all the
apple-trees in the neighbourhood. Indeed, the pest is so
grievous, that the sacrifice of two or three trees is a small
price to pay for its removal.
For the storing of Pears and Apples, there should be
attached to every considerable garden a commodious fruit-
room, well ventilated, furnished with fire-places or stoves
to exclude frost, and fitted up with a variety of shelves. A
northern aspect is the most suitable ; and it is also desirable
that there should be a dry, cool cellar under it, to be em¬
ployed in retarding the ripening of some of the fugitive
varieties. All the fruit intended for keeping should be
plucked w ith the hand, or w ith such an implement as the
fruit-gatherer invented by Mr Saul of Lancaster. The
finer dessert fruits should be laid on shelves made of hard
wood, not of fir, and covered with cartridge or w'riting
paper, to prevent their imbibing any taint from the wood.
The kitchen fruit may be kept in layers two or three deep,
but not in heaps, and should be occasionally examined,
when decaying fruit is to be removed. The sweating of
apples and pears, formerly much practised, is now abandon¬
ed, as being attended with no useful effects.
The Quince {Pyrm Cydonid), allied to the apple, is a
native of the south of Germany. It is but little cultivated
in Britain. The fruit, which is austere when raw, is used
to give flavour and poignancy to stewed or baked apples.
The two principal sorts are the Portugal Quince and the
Pear Quince, of which the latter is the most productive,
while it serves the usual culinary purposes equally well as
the other. Quinces may be propagated by layers or cut ■
tings, or by grafting. Two or three trees planted in the
slip or orchard, are in general sufficient. In Scotland, the
fruit seldom approaches maturity, unless favoured by a
wall.
The Medlar (Mespilus Germamca) is a native of the
south of Europe, but has been naturalized in some parts of
the south of England. The varieties worth notice are, the
Dutch Medlar, with broad leaves; and the Nottingham
Medlar, with narrow leaves : of these, the latter is consider¬
ed the best. The fruit is gathered in November, and kept
till it begin to decay, when it is served up in the dessert,
and highly relished by some. The treatment recommend¬
ed for the quince may be applied to the medlar.
The Service-tree {Pyrus domestica) is a native of the
4 N
650 H O R TIC
I ruit mountainous parts of Cornwall, and, though not much cul-
- 'tivatcc1’ may ^ere be noticed. The fruit has a peculiar
v acid flavour, and is used only when thoroughly mellowed
by keeping. There is a pear-shaped, and also an apple¬
shaped variety, both of which may be propagated by layers,
and still better on seedling plants of their own kind. Two
or three trees may have a place in the orchard, or perhaps
in a sheltered corner of the lawn. The tree is seldom pro¬
ductive till it have arrived at a goodly age. The fruit is
brought to Covent-Garden Market in winter; but it is
never seen at Edinburgh. Near Paris, the tree is a good
deal cultivated under the name of cormier ; and there are
a number of varieties of the service grown in the north of
Italy.
ULTURE.
tipped. In the early spring pruning, a supply of male ,,,
blossoms is left, and suckers are carefully eradicated. These Gkj
Kentish nut-plantations somewhat resemble large quarters''-13
of gooseberry bushes, few of their trees exceeding six feet
in height. The curious reader may be referred, for addi¬
tional information, to the paper, on this subject by the Rev.
Mr Williamson, in the 4th volume of the Transactions of
the London Horticultural Society.
The Walnut (Juglam regia) is a native of Persia, and
the south of the Caucasus, and the fruit therefore seldom
comes to complete maturity, except in the warmer districts
of Britain. Besides the common walnut, there are several
varieties cultivated, particularly the Large-fruited or Double
Walnut, the Tender-shelled, and the Highflyer, which last
is said {Land. Hart. Trans, iv. 517) to be “ by far the best
walnut grown.” The varieties can be propagated with cer¬
tainty only by inoculating ; but the operation is rather nice,
and not unfrequently fails. Mr Knight’s method is de¬
scribed in the London Transactions, vol. hi. p. 133. Plants
raised from the seed seldom become productive till they be
twenty years old. The fruit is produced at the extremities
of the shoots of the preceding year ; and therefore in gather¬
ing the crop, care should be taken not to injure the young
wood. In Kent, the trees are thrashed with rods or poles;
but this is a rough, and far from being a commendable,
mode of collecting the nuts.
The Chestnut {Castanea vesca), like the preceding,
has long been an inmate of our woods, in which it grows to
a great size ; but it seldom ripens its fruit in the northern
parts of the island. Several varieties, remarkable for their
productiveness and early bearing, have of late years risen
into notice ; particularly Knight’s Prolific, and the New
Prolific. These are propagated by grafting upon stocks
raised from nuts ; and when grafts are taken from bearing
wood, fruit may be produced in a couple of years. The
tree thrives best on a dry subsoil.
SMALL FRUITS.
The Mulberry {Morns nigra) is a native of Persia, and
in this country requires a warm sheltered situation. The
fruit is in request for the dessert during the months of
August and September, having a rich aromatic flavour, and
a fine subacid juice. Where it is abundant, wine is made
from it. In Devonshire, a little of the juice added to full-
bodied cider, produces a delicious beverage, called Mul¬
berry Cider, which retains its flavour for many months.
The mulberry is propagated from cuttings or layers, but,
to expedite the production of fruit, it is useful to inarch
small bearing branches on stocks prepared in flower-pots.
Mulberry standard trees succeed only in the southern coun¬
ties. These require no other training than an occasional
thinning out of the branches. They are generally planted
on grassy lawns, so that when ripe fruit falls from the
higher branches, it can be gathered without having sus¬
tained injury. In the middle districts, espalier-rails may
be employed, particularly under the reflection of a south
wall. In colder situations, the mulberry must be treated
as a wall-tree ; and it has been recommended that the bear¬
ing shoots should be trained perpendicularly downwards.
Mr Knight strongly advises the forcing of this fruit in
flower-pots, much in the same way as is done with figs.
The mulberry as a fruit is little known in Scotland ; but a
few aged trees exist in old gardens, and, in favourable sea¬
sons, afford their fruit.
The Hazel ( Corylus Avelland), one of our indigenous
fruits, is the original parent of the Filbert, Cob-nut, Cos-
ford-nut, Frizzled, and other improved varieties. These
succeed best on a rich, dry loam, carefully worked, and re¬
ceiving from time to time a slight manuring. They are
generally planted in the slips, but thrive best in a quarter
by themselves. The varieties are propagated by layers or
suckers ; but where there are stocks of the common hazel,
the other kinds may be grafted upon them. The Cosford
is generally preferred, being thin-shelled and having a kernel
of high flavour.
The neighbourhood of Maidstone in Kent has long been
celebrated for the culture of nuts for the London market;
and as the best Kentish practice is scarcely known in other
parts of Britain, we may enter a little into detail. The
young plants are almost always suckers from old bushes,
and are planted about ten or twelve feet apart. They are
suffered to grow without restraint for about three years,
and are then cut down to within a few inches of the ground.
They push out five or six shoots ; and these in their second
yeai ai e shortened one-third. A hoop is then placed with¬
in the branches, and the shoots are fastened to it at nearly
equal distances. In the spring of the fourth year, all the
laterals are cut off close by the principal stems, and from these
cut places short shoots proceed, on which fruit is expected
in the following year. Those which have borne fruit are
removed by the knife, and an annual supply of young
shoots is thus obtained. The leading shoots are always
shortened about two-thirds, and every bearing twig is
The Red, White, and Black Currant, the Gooseberry,
the Raspberry, the Strawberry, and Cranberry, are usually
cultivated in our gardens, under the title of Small Fruits.
Their economical uses in cookery, confectionary, and in the
manufacture of home-made wines, attach to them consider¬
able importance, and render a separate, however brief, ac¬
count of them desirable.
The Ribes rubrum, Lin. includes as its varieties our Red
and White Currants. The principal subvarieties are:
Common Red, Champagne,
Red Dutch, Common White,
Knight’s Sweet Red, Dutch White.
Red and white currants are readily propagated by cut¬
tings. They succeed in any sort of common garden soil;
but seem to thrive best in warm moist situations, where
they enjoy an abundance of air. A few plants are some¬
times placed against walls, on which they are trained per¬
pendicularly. Currants are sometimes planted in single
lines in the borders which separate the plots in the kitchen
garden; but it is generally better to confine them to com¬
partments by themselves. In these they are arranged in
quincunx order, at six feet between the lines, and six feet
in the line. They may be transplanted at any time between
the fall of the leaf and the first movement of the sap. They
are trained en buisson, from single stalks of about a foot in
height, care being taken to prevent the main branches
from crossing each other. In winter the young bearing
HORTICULTURE.
651
Fr wood on the sides of the branches is shortened down into
, gar i- spurs, from an inch to two inches in length. The leading
p ^shoots are left about six inches long. Some careful cul¬
tivators reduce the young shoots to about half their length
as soon as the fruit begins to colour, an operation which
is found to increase the size and improve the flavour of the
berries.
Of Ribes nigrum, Lin. or black currant, there are several
varieties, of which we need mention only the Common
Black, and the Black Naples. The latter is the preferable
sort. The black currant thrives in a moist, deep soil, and
shady situation. Its culture is much the same as that of
the other currants, but the young shoots are not spurred.
All the pruning necessary is to keep the branches free of
each other, and to promote a succession of young wood.
The Gooseberry—Botanists distinguish two species :
Ribes Grossularia, or rough-fruited gooseberry; and Ribes
uva crispi, or smooth-fruited gooseberry. The gooseberry
has always been a favourite fruit in Great Britain, and is
said to be produced, in the middle districts, in greater per¬
fection than in any other part of the world. Many very
large sorts have originated in Lancashire, where the culture
has been carried to a high degree of refinement; but it is
to be regretted that weight seems, absurdly enough, to be
regarded, in the prize competitions, as the sole criterion ot
excellence. Berries of twenty or even twenty-four penny¬
weights are boasted of; but such are always inferior in fla¬
vour. The following are some of those sorts recommended
in the catalogue of the Land. Hort. Society.
Red.—Red Champagne or Ironmonger, Crown Bob,
Small Red Globe, Keen’s Seedling, Lord of the Manor,
Miss Bold, Leigh’s Rifleman, Red Warrington, Welling¬
ton’s Glory.
Yellow.—Yellow Ashton, Yellow Ball, Yellow Cham¬
pagne, Golden Yellow, Smiling Beauty, Smooth Yellow,
Yellowsmith.
White—Bright Venus, White Champagne, Cheshire
Lass, Crystal, White Crystal, White Damson, White Ho¬
ney, Whitesmith.
Green.—Green Gascoigne, Pitmaston Green Gage,
Green Seedling, Langley Green, Late Green, Green Lau¬
rel, Gregory’s Perfection, Green Walnut.
Some admirable new varieties have of late years been
raised in Scotland, particularly in Perthshire: the Delvine
Porcupine and Delvine Ironmonger are not surpassed by
the finest of the English productions.
In forming his collection, the horticulturist should espe¬
cially select a few early and a few late sorts, and, by pro¬
perly disposing the bushes in various situations in his gar¬
den, he may prolong the fruit season by several weeks.
The same object may be further promoted by defending
the late sorts from the attacks of wasps, by surrounding the
bushes with bunting (the thin stuff of which ships’ flags are
often made), and by covering up the bushes with mats.
This contrivance, however, answers better with currants
than with gooseberries.
The gooseberry-bush affects a loose rich soil, which readi¬
ly imbibes, but does not retain much moisture. We have
seen it succeed perfectly well on little more than pure sand
which was free from gravel. It thrives in any common
garden soil. Gooseberries, like currants, may be grown in
lines or compartments. They are propagated by cuttings,
and are transplanted, in open weather, during any of the
winter months. They are trained with single stems, from
six inches to a foot high ; and all suckers, which are apt to
spring up from the roots, are carefully removed. Formerly
it was the practice in Scotland to spur all the annual wood;
but now the black currant system of pruning is more gene¬
rally and advantageously followed. The ground on which
the bushes stand is carefully digged once a-year; and ma¬
nure, when necessary, is at the same time added. Nothing Fruit
more is requisite than to keep down weeds, and to prevent Garden.
the attacks of caterpillars, by picking them off on their first' .—
appearance. Gooseberry plants are sometimes trained on
walls or espaliers, to accelerate the ripening, or increase
the size of the fruit.
The Raspberry (Rubus Idams) is, like the preceding
small fruits, a native of Great Britain. The principal va¬
rieties are:
Red Antwerp, Common Red,
Yellow Antwerp, Cornish,
Barnet, Williams’ Double-bearing.
Of these, the first two have never been surpassed, and are
generally sufficient for all common purposes. Raspberries
are propagated from suckers, which are planted in rows
five or six feet apart, and at three feet from each other in
the rows. The fruit is produced on small branches which
proceed from the shoots of the former year. Every year
they throw up a number of shoots from the root, which
bear fruit the subsequent year, and then die. In dressing
the plants in winter, all the decayed stalks are cut away,
and of the young shoots only three or four of the strongest
are left, which are shortened about a third. These, as
they are too weak to stand of themselves, are sometimes
connected together by the points in the manner of arches,
and sometimes they are attached to a stake. Perhaps the
best support is obtained by fastening the points of the
shoots to a slight horizontal rail or bar about four feet high,
and placed a foot and a half on the south side of the rows.
By this means the bearing shoots are deflected from the
perpendicular to the sunny side of the row, and are not
shaded by the annual wood. The ground between the
rows is well digged in winter, and kept clean. Fresh plan¬
tations of raspberries should be made every six or seven
years. The double-bearing varieties, which continue to
bear during autumn, require light soils and warm situations.
It may be mentioned that the crop of any of the varieties
may be retarded by breaking off the points of the bearing
shoots at an early period in spring; but, like all other fruits,
its flavour is highest when it is allowed to ripen at its natu¬
ral season.
The Strawberry {Fragarid) belongs to the same natu¬
ral family as the raspberry. Amongst the numerous kinds
cultivated in our gardens, botanists have distinguished se¬
veral species, but as these distinctions imply no difference
in culture, and as it is difficult to trace them amid the
“ sportings” of the hybrids, we shall not pretend to enume¬
rate them. Scarcely any plant more readily slides into se¬
minal varieties; and indeed, till lately, in consequence of
the irregular prevalence of local names, their whole nomen¬
clature was a chaos of confusion. At the instance of the
Horticultural Society of London, Mr Barnet, now of the
Experimental Garden, Edinburgh, undertook a revision of
the subject, and, with great acuteness and discrimination,
has removed much ambiguity, and, as we hope, has finally
settled the names of the existing varieties. His paper,
which is well worth the perusal of every student of horti¬
culture, is in the 6th volume of the London Transactions.
In the second edition of the Catalogue of the Lond. Horti¬
cultural Society no fewer than 112 varieties are enume¬
rated. But the following are sufficient, and an asterisk is
prefixed to those most worthy of cultivation in small gar¬
dens.
American Scarlet,
Coul Late Scarlet,
• Grove End Scarlet,
• Old Scarlet or Virginian,
• Roseberry,
Black Roseberrv,
Elton,
• Knevett’s,
Sweet Cone,
• Keen’s Seedling,
652
H ORTICULTUR E.
Fruit
Garden.
Taylor’s Incomparable,
* Old Pine or Carolina,
Wilmot’s Superb,
Black Hautbois,
' Large Flat Hautbois,
1 Prolific Hautbois.
1 Alpine, red and white,
Wood, red and white.
1 he strawberry plant is propagated from runners or from
seed. When runners are employed, they are sometimes
planted in autumn, or rather as soon as they have struck
root into the ground. Most commonly, however, they are
permitted to remain unseparated from the parent plants till
spring; a practice which debilitates the old plants, and
prevents the earth between the rows from being stirred.
As, upon the whole, spring planting seems preferable, it
would perhaps be well to adopt the practice of some gar¬
deners, who are at pains to prick out the offsets, as soon as
they are rooted, into beds of rich soil, from which they are
transplanted into their proper places early in the spring.
1 he desire of new varieties has encouraged the practice
of propagating by seed; and Keen, Knevett, and others,
have been extremely successful. Mr Knight having ob¬
served that the young runners of the alpine strawberry
flower and ripen fruit the first year, was led to adopt this
mode of reproduction, and has f ollowed it with the happiest
success. Early in spring he sow s the seed in flower-pots,
which are put into a hot-bed; and as soon as the plants
have attained a sufficient size, they are transplanted into
the open ground. They begin to blossom soon after mid¬
summer, and continue to produce fruit till they be inter¬
rupted by frost. Thus Mr Knight is inclined to treat
the alpine strawberry as an annual plant. The same prac¬
tice has been recommended in France by M. Morel de
Vinde (Cal. Hovt. Mem. vol. iii.), but he very properly
preserves his plants for three years, sowing every year a
successional crop. Mr Keen has applied this method of
culture to the wood strawberry, and we doubt not but it
might be extended with beneficial effects to the Old Scar¬
let and others of the less artificial varieties.
A clayey soil or strong loam is considered as best suited
to strawberries. On a sandy or very light soil they seldom
succeed; and in close situations, and over-manured ground,
most varieties produce little else than leaves. Before plant-
ing, the ground is manured and trenched or digged over
deeply, and when stiff and compact, is very carefully work¬
ed. Keen and others in the neighbourhood of London, grow
their strawberries in beds, three rows in each, with an alley
between them. The market gardeners of Edinburgh, w ho,
in the culture of this fruit, are perhaps not excelled by
any, plant in rows two feet asunder, and from a foot to
fifteen inches in the rows. When the w7eather is dry, the
young plants are watered till they be well established. As
little fruit is produced the first year, a line of carrots,
onions, or other vegetable, is often sown between the rows
for one season. In May the runners are cut off, with the
view of promoting the swelling of the fruit. During dry
weather, careful cultivators water their plants while in
flower, and particularly after the fruit is set, and occasion¬
ally till it begin to colour. The old practice, from which
the fruit derives its name, of putting straw between the
rows to prevent the soiling of the fruit, has been recently
revived; and where there are lawns, the short cut grass
may be employed for the same purpose. As soon as the
fruit season is over, the runners are again removed; the
->Lraw or grass is taken away, and the ground hoed and
i aked. In October the runners, the reclining, but not the
elect, leaves are cut away, and the surface of the earth is
stirred with a three-pronged fork, great care being taken
not to injure the roots. Strawberries may be raised from
the same ground for aa indefinite space of time, but the
plants should be renewed every third or fourth year. In
the garden they are generally put in a quarter by them-
selves, aiM it should be one fully exposed to the sun and
am I he alpine and wood varieties may be placed in situa¬
tions rather moist and shady, as edgings in the slips, or in ij
rows behind walls and hedges, in which situations they &
succeed perfectly well, and produce fruit late in the'"'
season.
Strawberries have always been a favourite dessert fruit.
They likewise form an excellent preserve ; and from their
freedom from excess of acid, seem well adapted to the
manufacture of native wine. To this purpose they have
been only partially employed; but the samples of straw¬
berry wine which we have tasted had more of the vinous
flavour, than any other of our home-made wines. The
culture of strawberries is the most lucrative part of the em¬
ployment of the market gardener, at least near large towns.
It is not uncommon for him to realize a clear profit of L.30
or L. 40, or even more, per acre, of strawberry ground.
The greater the diligence and assiduity of the cultivator,
the greater will be his returns. It is a common and just
remark, that too little labour is, in general, expended upon
strawberries, and by the ignorant and unskilful gardener
least of all.
Strawberries are easily forced. The Old Scarlet, Grove
End, and Keen’s Seedling, are most suitable for this pur¬
pose. They are potted in April, with rich soil, two or three
young plants being put into each pot eight or ten inches in
diameter. During summer they are kept in a warm situa¬
tion and encouraged to grow, the flowers and runners being
carefully picked off. In the beginning of winter they are
sheltered in cold frames, and are afterwards successively
placed into hot-beds or forcing-houses, so as to keep up a
succession. The air is kept moist, and they are plentifully
supplied with water. Where the means are abundant, a
moderate supply of fruit may be maintained during the late
winter and the spring months.
Cranberry. The culture of the American Cranberry
( Vaccinium macrocarpon) was introduced by the late Sir
Joseph Banks, and deserves particular notice, for it is al¬
together overlooked by Lindley and other horticultural
writers. The plant is distinguished by the smoothness of
its stems, and the largeness of its fruit. It grows freely,
and produces its fruit readily in any damp situation; but
where there is a pond, it may be cultivated with the great¬
est success. On the margin of the pond stakes are driven
in, a short way within the water line; boards are so placed
against these as to prevent the soil of the cranberry-bed
from falling into the water. A layer of small stones is de¬
posited in the bottom, and over these, peat or bog earth,
mixed with sand, to the extent of about three or four inches
above, and half a foot below the usual surface of the water.
Plants of the American cranberry placed on this bed, soon
cover the whole surface. There is a variety which is very
shy in yielding its fruit, and this should, of course, be
avoided. From a bed thirty or forty feet in length by five
or six in breadth, a quantity of berries may be procured,
sufficient for the supply of a family throughout the year.
The fruit is easily preserved in bottles. The native Cran¬
berry ( Vaccinium Oxycoccos) may be treated in the same
manner, and in some places is very successfully cultivated.
At Culzean Castle, the seat of the Earl of Cassilis, in Ayr¬
shire, the cranberry ground is surrounded by a ditch, the
w7ater from which is made to filter through among stones
and stakes to the interior, so as to keep the cranberry plants
constantly supplied with moisture. In the same garden a
second compartment is dedicated to small fruits of this
class, having in the centre a rock-work planted with Whor-
tle-berries ( Vaccinium vitis-idced), and around the rock-
work beds of American Cranberry, of Scottish Cranberry,
and of Crowberry {Empetrum nigrum), also native.
The following plants produce fruit, some of them abun¬
dantly in a wild state; others sparingly in our gardens, but
HORTICULTURE.
p0, ijr they can scarcely be said to come within the province of
Ga n. Horticulture: Berberis vulgaris, the Barberry ; Sambucus
nigra, the Elder; Prunus spinosa, the Sloe ; P. insititia,
the Bullace; and Rubus Chamcemarm, the Cloudberry.
THE FORCING GARDEN
Is only a department, but an important one, of the Fruit
Garden. The term forcing is strictly applicable only to
those artificial processes by which vegetation is in a con¬
siderable degree accelerated; but in common language it
has been applied to all those operations in which glazed
frames or houses are concerned, though they may be em¬
ployed merely in aiding the common progress of nature.
For the sake of convenience, we shall adopt the term in
its broadest acceptation. After some preliminary obser¬
vations we shall first speak of the structures, and then of
the fruits and vegetables which are cultivated in them.
The principal object of hot-houses, and other structures
of a similar nature, is to produce an artificial temperature
and humidity of the atmosphere, which shall resemble, as
nearly as possible, the climate in which the fruits or plants
naturally grow. A command of heat is obviously a pri¬
mary requisite. A regulated admission of air, and the pre¬
sence of a certain degree of moisture, are in the next place
necessary. Lastly, without the free access of light, plants be¬
come blanched or are destroyed by the moisture which they
generate. These, then, are the conditions which limit the
form of hot-houses; when these are attained, any form may
be adopted which invention can devise, or wealth execute ;
but every true lover of the art will aim at simplicity, and
will deprecate useless expenditure, so often exhibited in
this department, as injurious to the character as well as to
the progress of horticulture.
Artificial Heat. Forcing-houses are heated by means
offlues conveying smoke and heated air; by pipes conduct¬
ing steam or hot-water; by so constructing the glazed house
as to increase the action of the rays of the sun ; and some¬
times by the fermentation of vegetable substances.
Flues are generally constructed of common brick, though
occasionally fire-brick is employed in the neck, or that part
of the flue immediately adjoining the furnace. The bricks
in the side walls are placed on their edges, and the top
covering is of tile an inch and a half in thickness. In dis •
tricts where sandstone-flag abounds, the covers are often
formed of it. Horticultural writers have recommended
that flues should be about eighteen inches deep, and of nearly
equal breadth; but to obtain the greatest quantity of heat,
it clearly appears from the experiments of Mr Stevenson
(Cal. Hart. Mem. i. 143), that, where possible, the breadth-
should be nearly double the depth. It is advantageous to
detach flues as much as possible from the walls of the build¬
ing which incloses them, in order that the heat may be
communicated to the air only. Formerly they were often
built, sometimes one above another, with only one side ex¬
posed, a practice which, as it occasioned great waste of
heat from conduction, has been generally abandoned. When
it is necessary to lead one flue above another, or to make it
return upon itself, spaces should be left between them, to
allow' the free emission of caloric from every side.
With a view to economy of fuel, can-flues and cast-iron
cylinders have been proposed, and occasionally adopted,
but their use has not hitherto become general. The ar¬
rangement of flues depends upon the nature of the house;
it may, however, be remarked generally, that as heated air
has a tendency to ascend, they should be placed as near as
can be done with convenience to the front of the house,
where, of course, the sloping roof is lowest. It is likewise
useful to introduce a flue at that part of the structure which
is most exposed to any refrigerating influence.
The furnace is most properly situate behind the house,
653
and is generally covered by a shed. For the most part it Forcing
is constructed so that the upper part of its arch shall be Garden,
on a level with the top of the flue; but where a consider- s—-v'—-
able heat is required, as in pine stoves, it is found prefer¬
able to sink the furnace, in order to produce a neck or rise
of about a foot and a half in height, which moderates the
intensity of the heat on its first entrance, and, by increasing
the draught, causes the fire to burn freely. The size of
the furnace depends upon the kind of fuel employed.
Where coke or charcoal is used, it may be about eighteen
inches square ; but where small-coal, turf, or peat is to be
burned, it should be two feet or even two and a half square,
by two feet in height. A large furnace ensures the con¬
tinuance of the fire, a fact which in practice has received
too little attention. To resist the effects of heat, the in¬
terior should be lined with fire-brick. The roof should be
strongly arched. The door may be about a foot square,
and when it is double, as it ought always to be, the outer
half should be a little larger than the inner. The grate is
of the same breadth as the door, and may extend about
two-thirds of the length of the furnace. The ash-pit is
equally wide, and from fifteen to eighteen inches deep; it
is furnished with a ventilator in the door to regulate the
admission of air. In practice the furnace, and especially
the ash-pit, should be kept clear of ashes ; as by this means,
coals of an inferior quality may be burnt with ease. We
know an instance in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, where
a number of large furnaces were maintained for several
years by the mere refuse of a coal-yard attached to the
mansion of a considerable family.
In Plate CCXC. fig. 1 and 2, are given a longitudinal
section and plan of the common garden furnace. It is sur¬
rounded by a double wall to prevent the escape of heat.
Mr Witty has invented a new furnace, which is possess¬
ed of valuable qualities. A vertical section of it is given
in Plate CCXC. fig. 3. The fuel is supplied by the door
at a, and is pressed down the inclined plane towards the
grate c, by an apparatus placed at the head of it; but this
method being complicated, has given way to several modi¬
fications, in which the door a has been found the most use¬
ful, the fuel being pressed forward by the common tools
used for feeding furnaces: b is the door for regulating the
fuel on the grate c. In its progress, the whole surface of
the coal along the inclined plane is constantly kept in a state
of inflammation, the flame having naturally a tendency to
burn upwards. In this way the greater part of the fresh
coal is carbonised, that is, the gas is separated from it and
inflamed, leaving only coke. The strong combustion of
the coke at the grate produces heat enough to carbonise
the coal, and air enough to inflame the gas. This furnace,
therefore, not only consumes the smoke, but effects a con¬
siderable saving of fuel.
Steam. Of late years steam has been applied with suc¬
cess to the production of an artificial climate in glazed
houses. It is more genial than fire-heat from flues, being
less contaminated, and more equable and pliant in its distri¬
bution. In steam hot-houses the plants can scarcely ever
be liable to suffer from scorching heat; the air continues
pure and untainted, and persons visiting the house are
much less liable to be annoyed by the smell of smoke and
soot. It is neater in all its arrangements within doors, and
precluding, without, the necessity of more than one fur¬
nace, and one chimney top, in a great measure removes
the unseemliness of the heaps of coals and ashes with which
common furnaces are usually surrounded. In districts
where coals are dear, the saving of fuel is an object; and
it has been found that seven bushels of coals go as far in
keeping up steam heat, as ten bushels do in maintaining
an equal temperature in the ordinary way. By merely
opening a valve, the house may at any time be effectually
steamedf that is, filled with the steam or vapour, and the
654
Forcing warm moisture thus applied to the plants, is observed to con-
t harden, tribute remarkably to their health and vigour. To counter-
^ balance these advantages, we are not aware of any defects,
except such as may arise from the greater complexity of
the apparatus, or at least its liability to disrepair and ac¬
cident.
Steam is generated in a cast or wrought iron boiler, of
an oblong form, furnished with safety-valves, and heated
by a smoke-consuming furnace. As in the common steam-
engine, the boiler is supplied from a cistern above, and is
made to regulate itself by a simple contrivance. In the feed-
head is a valve, which is opened by the sinking of a float,
which descends in proportion as the water is dissipated in
steam ; and, being balanced by a weight, whenever a suffi¬
cient quantity of water is admitted, rises again, and shuts
the valve. As steam may be conveyed, without materially
impairing its calorific powers, to the distance of several
thousand feet, one boiler is sufficient for heating all the
glazed houses which are ever erected together; but a se¬
cond is generally kept in readmess, to act as an auxiliary
in case of accident, or in very severe weather. Steam is
conducted from the boiler in a single main pipe, or in two
parallel pipes, which, according to Mr Tredgold, may be
only one inch in bore. The divarications of the pipes into
particular houses are arranged somewhat in the manner of
flues, and, indeed, are sometimes placed within these, or on
them, when they already exist, as in Plate CCXCIII, fig.
3, below the passage d. These interior pipes are from
three to six inches in diameter, in order to afford a greater
radiating surface, and are supplied with sets of valves to
admit, regulate, and exclude the heated vapour, according
to circumstances.
'I'he most perfect and extensive examples of steam-ap-
paratus exist at Syon-House, the princely seat of the Duke
of Northumberland, near Brentford, and in the nursery-
garden of Messrs Loddiges at Hackney. At the latter
place, glazed houses, to the extent of almost a thousand
feet in length, and forming three sides of a square, are
heated solely by steam from one boiler. The boiler is of
an oblong shape, measuring eleven feet by four, and is
made of malleable iron. In certain narrow houses, intend¬
ed by Messrs Loddiges for greenhouse plants, a single
steam-pipe is found sufficient. In other houses of con¬
siderable height and breadth, or where a higher tempera¬
ture is required, as in the palm-house, the steam flue is
made to describe two or three turns.
Water, contained in large vessels or pipes, is sometimes
heated by steam, and so made the medium of conveying
t0 the atmosPhere of glazed houses. Fig. 13, Plate
LLXL., represents an instance of this arrangement. A
small steam-tube, one inch in diameter, enters a water-pipe
eight inches in diameter, and twenty-eight feet long, wholly
within the forcing-house ; it passes into the larger pipe at
the centre, and after traversing its \jliole length and re¬
turning, it issues out immediately below the point at which
it entered. It then forms a siphon, by which the condensed
water is conveyed away. A more detailed description may
be found in the Lond. Hort. Mem., vol. iii. Applications
rr‘lramg«Ven,i,fl>late,CCXCIL’ fi«- 6> ^ Plate
tig. 3, below the passage c.
Steam is sometimes employed to furnish bottom heat.
In the garden of Mr Sturge, near Bath, a shallow cistern
pdTn PlJ8 by a steam-pipe, in the manner exhibit-
a e CCXG., figs. 15, 16. The cistern is covered
with pavement, over which is a bed of small stones, then
to be plunged! lnt° WhiCh ^ P°tS COntaininS Pknts are
rrYpmflhasVaIS<? beer; employed to heat flues. Plate
•Vu ’’ n 14’ 18 a,side view and section of a flue filled
Tsmalfou St°n^S °r br°ken ,bricks’ and heated bY means of
small steam-pipe passing along the lower part of the flue.
HORTICULTURE.
Along the upper side of this pipe are a number of small vj
holes, becoming more frequent towards the farther end, to Ga B
allow the escape of steam : there are, besides, a few per-^-1
forations in the under side, to clear away condensed water
7 be flue has a slight inclination to that end of the house
from which the water can be most easily drained.
. Similar expedients were long ago employed, in the heat
mg of forcing pits, by Mr John Hay of Edinburgh, a gar-
<d Sreat jndgment and experience. Plate
GLXC., figs. 17, 18, represent a recent variety of this mode
ot supplying surface and bottom heat, by discharging steam
into flues and chambers filled with stones. The steam is
admitted by small pipes running along the central pit, in
channels about four inches deep, and of the same width.
1 hese channels are crossed by others at right-angles; and at
the points of intersection the steam is permitted to escape by
two small holes, one on each side of the pipe. The pits
must have a water-tight paved bottom, with a declivity of
one inch m ten feet. The sides and covers of the channels
are loosely jointed, and are permeable by the steam. Stop¬
cocks are attached to the pipes, so that the supply of vapour
can be adjusted. Another mode of adapting steam to the
production of bottom heat, may be seen in Mr Macmur-
trie s 1 ine-Pit, to be afterwards described.
Hot Water. More recently the circulation of hot water
in iron pipes or vessels has been successfully employed in
producing artificial warmth. The temperature derived
from this source has all the properties of steam-heat, with
these additional advantages, that it is more steady, not
being liable to interruption by the bursting of vessels, and
more lasting, as water does not cool so rapidly as aqueous
vapour.
The following explanation of the principle of the hot-
water apparatus is given by the late Mr Tredgold, in an
excellent paper in the Lond Hort. Trans, vol. vii. “ We
may select the simple case of two vessels placed on a hori¬
zontal plane, with two pipes to connect them ; the vessels
being open at top, and the one pipe connecting the lower
parts of the vessels, and the other the upper parts. If the
vessels and pipes (Plate CCXC., fig. 4) be filled with water,
and heat be applied to the vessel A, the effect of heat will
expand the water in the vessel A ; and its surface will, in
consequence, rise to a higher level a, a, the former general
level being b, b. The density of the fluid in the vessel A
will also decrease, in consequence of its expansion ; but as
soon as the column e, d, of fluid above the centre of the
upper pipe is of greater weight than the column/ e, above
that centre, motion will commence along the upper pipe
fiom A to B, and the change this motion produces in the
equilibrium of the fluid will cause a corresponding motion
in the lower pipe from B to A ; and, in short, the mo¬
tion will obviously continue till the temperature be nearly
the same in both vessels ; or if water be made to boil in A,
it may also be boiling hot in B, because ebullition in A will
assist the motion.”
The figure referred to in the preceding quotation, repre¬
senting the common tank boiler surrounded by a flue, with
a cistern at the extremity of the pipes, exhibits the form
m whlch the apparatus was first erected; but as in this
arrangement the process of heating was very slow, and many
e anges have been made, the cistern has generally been
abandoned, and boilers of various configurations have been
a opted. In fig. 5, Plate CCXC., a longitudinal section,
and in fig. 6, a transverse section, are given, of a flued tank
boiler, in which the surface exposed to the heat being in¬
creased, the effect required is accelerated, and at the same
time a considerable saving of fuel is effected. Fig. 7. re¬
presents a section of an oblong, close, semi-cylindrical boiler,
in which the action of the fire is still more increased. Fig.
8. is a section of a greenhouse boiler, constructed by the
ohotts roundry Company. The fire is placed entirely
HORTICULTURE.
f0i ig within the lower curved surface. This form is easily heat-
Gai n- ed ; but as there is no surrounding brick-work or masonry,
^ "“"it speedily cools. It is unnecessary to describe all the
numerous modifications of this apparatus; but it may be
proper to direct the attention of the reader to the close
boiler, fig. 9, in which is shewn how the circulation may
be conducted over a door or other obstacle. In this case
the upper pipe must not ascend and descend twice: air-
tubes ought also to be placed in a boiler, and on the high¬
est part of the pipes ; and the whole must be made con¬
siderably stronger than on common occasions. Fig. 12. is
an isometrical elevation of a hot-water apparatus, for a
vinery thirty feet long by eleven wide. A is the boiler, as
in figure 4 ; B the upper or delivering pipe; C the principal
part of the upper pipe, of a flat form, presenting a greater
radiating surface, in proportion to the quantity of heat; D
the descending limb; E the returning pipe, of a cylindrical
form.
Mr Fowler has employed the siphon as a part of the hot-
water apparatus ; and in his tract on the Thermosiphon, as
he calls it, has shewn how its various modifications may be
employed in warming hot walls, as well as in heating glazed
houses. The following statement of the principle is given
in the Gardener’s Magazine, vol. v. “ Any one may prove
that hot water will circulate in a siphon, by taking a piece
of lead pipe, say of half an inch bore, and four or five feet
long, bending it like a siphon, but with one leg a good deal
more bent than the other, in order to give the descending
water time and space for giving out its heat; and then, fill¬
ing this tube with water, and placing one hand on each end
to retain it full, immerse the extremities in a pot of water
over a fire, (Plate CCXC., fig. 11). Supposing the water of
an uniform temperature in both legs of the siphon, no cir¬
culation would take place ; but supposing it to cool sooner
in the long leg a than in the short leg b, then the equili¬
brium would be destroyed, and the water in the long leg a
would descend, and draw up water through the short leg
b; and this circulation would continue as long as the water
c was maintained at a temperature above that of the sur¬
rounding atmosphere.”
Mr Kewley’s adaptation of the siphon is one of the sim¬
plest and most efficient that has been proposed. In Plate
CCXC., fig. 10, a, c, e, are the two legs of a siphon, through
the upper of which the heated water ascends, and by the
lower descends. Immediately over the descending bend, a
pipe connected with an air- pump is inserted, in order to fill
the pipes, or remove the air which collects in the superior
limb. Instead of the air-pump, a funnel with air-tight
valves is sometimes employed. This mode of circulation
has been adopted in some of the principal nursery-gardens
near London.
Mr Charles M. J. Smith, in a communication to the Scot¬
tish Horticultural Society, has clearly shewn that the sys¬
tem of heating by the circulation of hot water in metallic
pipes, is easily applicable, not only to any glazed house
constructed with flues, but to any select portion of an exist¬
ing fruit-wall, although already clothed with peaches, vines,
or figs. In the last case, a small furnace and boiler are, of
course, placed at the back of the wall; the expanding wa¬
ter rises to a cistern near the top of the wall; horizontal
pipes, making three or four turns, are inserted into the
south front of the wall (which is an easy operation, as the
wall is usually faced with brick); and through these the
water circulates, to the great increase of the temperature
of the air surrounding the tree. The operation should be
accomplished late in the autumn ; the tree being carefully
unnailed, bent forward, and secured from breaking, and as
carefully replaced.
Mr A. Perkins has constructed an apparatus of small
tubes hermetically sealed, in which water circulates, of a
temperature varying from 300° to 400° Fahrenheit. The
655
contrivance is very ingenious, and has been pretty exten- Forcing
sively employed in the neighbourhood of London, in heat- Garden,
ing warerooms: but as the opinions of horticulturists re-
specting its merits, as applicable to the forcing garden, are
still divided, and as it has not as yet stood the test of much
experience, it may be sufficient to give it this cursory notice.
For further information, however, we may refer to the
Gardener’s Magazine, vols. viii. and ix.
To mention the rays of the sun amongst the sources of
artificial heat, may excite a smile; yet it happens that,
from the stagnation of air, the reflection of light from walls,
and other circumstances, they often produce a very consi¬
derable proportion of the increased temperature of a hot¬
house. This species of heat, however, is materially affect¬
ed by the admission of the air necessary to the growth
and healthy state of the plants. We are not aware of its
having been employed as a primary source of heat, except
in the case of Dr Anderson’s patent hot-house, in which
heated air was kept, bottled up as it were in separate
chambers; an arrangement too irregular and unmanage¬
able to be of much utility in our variable climate.
Vegetable substances in a state of fermentation evolve a
considerable quantity of caloric, and are much employed to
produce bottom heat, in hot-beds, pine or melon pits. In a
few instances they have been applied to warm the atmo¬
sphere of vineries and peach-houses, in which, however,
they have been found to be a poor substitute for the other
means already explained.
In the management of artificial heat, some degree of
caution is required. All the operations of nature are gra¬
dual ; and in forcing, it is well to follow these as the safest
examples. The judicious gardener will therefore apply his
heat very gradually at first; he will increase it by degrees for
several weeks, and, in particular, he will guard against any
sudden decrease of warmth, as nothing is more necessary to
success than that the course of vegetation be continued un¬
interruptedly through foliation, inflorescence, and fructifi¬
cation. He wrill cause the temperature to increase by day
and decrease by night, to rise in summer and fall in winter.
He will, in short, imitate as much as possible the natural
and varying influence of the sun.
The admission of Air The deteriorating influence
which all living plants are supposed to exert on the atmo¬
sphere, must operate with tenfold force in a glazed house,
where the proportion of air to vegetable substance is infi¬
nitely smaller than under the open sky, and where the cor¬
rective agitations of the wind, and the changes of tempera¬
ture, are much less perceptibly felt. The respiration of
plants, and the exhalations of putrescent vegetables, require a
constant circulation of the aerial fluid, and this is maintained
by means of moveable sashes, and ventilators in the roof
of the house. Of these, sashes seem preferable, as less apt
to produce cold currents of air, which are always injurious
to vegetation. It is, indeed, a disadvantage that, by slid¬
ing down over one another, they diminish the influx of
light. In winter, however, when light, from its scarcity in
our high latitude, is most valuable, they are seldom drawn
down to any extent; and by having all the sashes move-
able, the gardener, with a little attention, may correct, in a
great measure, any inequality in this respect. Sliding
sashes require a depth of rafter which greatly augments the
shade in oblique sunshine, an evil which cannot easily be
obviated. With fixed roofs, and more especially those
which are curvilinear (to be immediately described), nume¬
rous ventilators are the only means by which a proper cir¬
culation of air can be obtained. Some very intelligent
gardeners prefer having all the sloping sashes fixed, and
ventilate chiefly by means of large windows at each end of
the house, aided by small ventilators in front.
The quantity of air to be admitted from time to time,
must vary with the season, the temperature required to be
HORTICULTURE.
656
Forcing kept up, and the kind of plants cultivated. It should be
Garden, given and withdrawn by degrees, particularly in the colder
'-'r v-r«_' portions of the year. The sashes or ventilators, for in¬
stance, may be partially open by eight a. m., top air being
given before front air ; full air may be allowed about ten ;
a reduction should take place before three p. m., and the
whole closed between four and five in the afternoon. In
summer less caution is necessary, as in many cases the ex¬
ternal air differs little in temperature from that within the
house. Most commonly air is given only during the day,
and is excluded at night, with perhaps an increase of fire
heat. Judicious horticulturists will sometimes reverse this
process. Knowing, for example, that in the West Indies
chilly and cold nights usually succeed the hottest days,
they will imitate nature, by shutting up the house by day,
and throwing it open at night. This practice, however,
supported as it is by analogy, is subject to many limita¬
tions, and can only be followed in our climate during the
summer and autumn months. It is useful, notwithstanding,
to remember the principle, though it admits only of partial
application.
The admission of Light In addition to the heat with
which natural light is always accompanied, there seems to
be another property necessary to vegetation which, from
some cause hitherto unexplained, is partly deranged by its
transmission through glass. The fact, however, is evident,
from the circumstance that plants thrive better near glass
than at a distance from it, though the intensity of light is
apparently undiminished. Hence gardeners have been
anxious to distribute their finer plants in situations as close
as possible to the roofs of hot-houses.
Connected with the admission of light, is the determina¬
tion of the pitch or angle of elevation of the roofs of glazed
houses. It is evidently of advantage that the rays of light
should fall upon glass perpendicularly, as loss by reflection
is then a minimum, or indeed little or nothing.1 The an¬
gle necessary to obtain this result is easily deducible from
the sun’s place in the ecliptic. At the equinoxes, the sun’s
meridional height above the horizon, - at any point of the
earth’s surface, is equal to the complement of the latitude of
that place ; and hence, in order that the sun’s rays may be
perpendicular at that period, it is only necessary to make the
elevation of the roof of the hot-house equal to the latitude of
the place. The angle for any other season may be obtained
by subtracting, from the latitude, the declination of the sun,
if at that time to the north of the equator, or by adding it,
if to the south. These periods are of course selected in
accordance with the time at which the direct rays are
most required. Mr Knight proposes a general elevation of
34° for the latitude of London, an angle which corresponds
to the 20th of May and the 21st of July. This would af¬
ford four months, from the 20th of April to the 21st of Au¬
gust, during which the angle of incidence at mid-day would
not at any time amount to 9°, while the deviation at the win¬
ter’s solstice would be 43°, and the loss of light from re¬
flection would be little more than The Rev. Mr Wil¬
kinson recommends 45°, a pitch extremely suitable for early
vineries and pine-stoves. In this case the midsummer de¬
viation would be 19°, and the loss and the midwinter
deviation 30°, while the loss is nearly the same. From
these statements, however, and from an inspection of the
table already referred to, it is manifest that much greater
exactness has been required in this matter than is at all
necessary. The reduction of the opacity of the roof, aris¬
ing from tire breadth and depth of rafters and astragals, is For
of much greater consequence. Accordingly, in some glazed Gar [
houses, particularly those constructed of metallic substances, ^
rafters have been omitted altogether; but this kind of
structure leads to considerable difficulties in the admission
of air.
We have taken it for granted that the frame-work is
composed of wood; and if prime Baltic timber be procur¬
ed, it will endure for nearly half a century. But in some
cases rafters and sashes made entirely of metal, general¬
ly either malleable or cast iron, have been employed; and
in others, a middle course has been steered, by adopting
wooden mortices and metallic tenons. The great objec¬
tions to the use of metal for rafters and sashes is, that it is
too rapid a conductor of caloric, and too liable to contrac¬
tion and expansion for the alternations of heat and cold;
the expansion tending to render the sashes immoveable,
and even to loosen the walls; and the contraction being
apt to fracture the glass, and to produce openings between
the sashes at which hoarfrost may enter.
In order to secure the greatest possible influx of light,
scientific horticulturists have proposed hot-houses with
curvilinear roofs. It was remarked by Sir George Mac¬
kenzie, to whom the merit of the proposal is primarily due,
that if we could find a form for a glass roof, such that the
sun’s rays should be perpendicular to some part of it, not on
two days, but during the whole year, that form would be the
best. Such a figure is the sphere, and he therefore pro¬
poses a quarter segment of a globe or semidome, the radius
of which is about fifteen feet. The frame for the glass-
work is formed of equal ribs of hammered iron, fastened
into an iron plate in the parapet wall, and fixed at top into
an iron ring connected with the back wall. There are no
rafters or sliding sashes, but air is admitted by ventilators
io the parapet and back walls.
This form of hot-house roofs has been warmly patronised
by Mr Knight, who, however, is of opinion, that the house
proposed by Sir George Mackenzie is too high in propor¬
tion to its length and breadth, and therefore recommends
a smaller section of a sphere with a greater radius. His
dimensions are forty feet long, fourteen wide in the centre,
and, including the front parapet, twelve feet high. Mr
Loudon, who, it is understood, was the first that actually
erected hot-houses on this principle, has proposed, and in
part executed, many other forms. He describes fEncyc. of
Gard.) with great exuberance of invention, the acuminated
semidome, the acuminated semiglobe, the semiellipse, and
the parallelogram with curved roof and ends. With Mr
Loudon we should certainly prefer the last mentioned. A
considerable number of curvilinear houses have been erect¬
ed in the southern part of the island, particularly as reposi¬
tories for ornamental plants, such as in Messrs Loddiges’
nursery-gardens at Hackney, the London Horticultural So¬
ciety’s garden, the Manchester Botanic Garden, and in
various private gardens.
As far as we are aware, no extensive experimental inves¬
tigation of the comparative merits of curvilinear houses has
hitherto been made. A writer in the Gardener’s Magazine
(vol. ii.) found it necessary, during the summer months,
to shade his pines growing in such a house, from nine, ten,
or eleven o’clock in the morning, to three, four, or five in
the afternoon, in order to prevent the plants from assum¬
ing a rusty tinge and unhealthy appearance. Another
practical gardener complains (vol. v.) that “ the circular
1 The following is part of Bouguer’s Table of Reflexions—Of 1000 incidence rays, when the
Angle of incidence is 75° 299 ravs are reflected. Angle of incidence is 40°
70 222 ’ 30
65 157 20
60 112 10
50 57 1
34 rays are reflected.
27
25
25
25
HORTIC
F0 iig roof concentrated the sun’s rays so immoderately, that the
Ga In- tops of the vines were actually scorched, even when the
doors and ventilators at the back were all open. This was
always the case in summer; and in winter, it was with the
greatest difficulty, and only with the assistance of mats, that
they could keep out frost; the thermometer frequently in¬
dicating only 40° when strong fires were burning.” A con¬
siderable portion of the superior lightness of the curvilinear
houses is due to the absence of rafters, and as these may
also be dispensed in plain roofs, the effect of these ought to
be deducted in making a comparison. Perhaps, when every
thing else is rightly arranged, there is enough of light in
common houses. Scarcely any species of fruit, when cul¬
tivated in the open air, is exposed during the whole day
to the action of the solar rays, but must unavoidably be
shaded at times by leaves and branches. It is difficult to
suppose that, in respect to illumination, there is any re^-
markable deficiency in pits and glazed houses, in which
have been ripened pine-apples and clusters of grapes, at
least rivalling, if not surpassing, the produce of the most
favoured of their native climes. In the admission of air,
in the quantity and convenience of trellises, and in other
interior accommodations, it cannot be disputed that the old
forms have the advantage.
It has already been said, that hot-house roofs of the com¬
mon kind, are sometimes constructed without rafters or
moveable sashes. A considerable increase of light is thus
obtained; but this benefit is attended with an almost insu¬
perable defect, namely, the difficulty of producing a free and
equable circulation of air. It is indeed probable that the
common or plain roofed hot-house will always continue the
favourite form with gardeners. In it the rafters are ar¬
ranged at equal distances, and are made of a deep and nar¬
row form, with their under edges rounded off. Nicol re¬
commends that they should be made two and one-fourth
inches broad, by ten inches deep. Perhaps they might be
a little broader and shallower with advantage. The size
of the sashes depends on the magnitude of the house ; their
breadth, however, ranges from three and a half to four feet.
Except in very large houses, sashes are always disposed in
two tiers, the upper row sliding down over the under one.
Where there are ventilators in the front wall or upright
glass, the sashes in the upper tier alone require to be move-
able, and, for the sake of convenience, they may be made
considerably shorter than the others. They are furnished
with cords, pulleys, rollers, and weights, though the last,
with no very prudent regard to economy, are sometimes
omitted. Formerly all hot-houses were constructed with
upright sashes in front. One of the most eminent garden
architects of the present day (Mr Atkinson), has discon¬
tinued the practice ; and, except in ornamental structures,
it is hard to say why it should not be laid aside altogether.
Such sashes serve only to weaken the fabric, and increase
its expense.
Formerly the panes of glass employed were of large size ;
but small panes are found to be more economical, being
less liable to break, and more easily replaced. It is be¬
lieved that a pane seven inches in breadth by six in length,
is the cheapest form in which glass can be obtained. In
glazing, it is important to keep the overlaps of the panes of
small dimensions, perhaps from one-fourth to one-eighth inch
in breadth. This diminishes the breakage which arises from
the expansion, in freezing, of the water detained between
the laps by capillary attraction. As a further preventive,
the interstices are sometimes filled with putty, and occa¬
sionally with laps of lead or copper. This effects a consi¬
derable saving of glass and of heat, but imposes on the
gardener the duty of increased attention in preventing the
stagnation of air. The frame-work of houses should be
well coated with oil-paint; the colour is usually white.
In closing these preliminary remarks, it is proper to ob-
VOL. XI.
ULTURE. 65^
serve, that although the construction of a forcing-house is Forcing
always a matter of considerable importance, it is not the Garden.
j nor even the most important condition necessary tos 1 v '■
ensure success. Much care in management, skill in prun¬
ing, and knowledge in physiology, must be possessed and
applied, in order to obtain abundant and regular crops of
fine fruit. 1
The more minute details respecting the structure of
glazed houses, we shall notice along with the peculiar cul¬
ture required in each; and we shall take them in the fol- .
lowing order: The Vinery or Grape-house, the Peach-
house, the Cherry-house, the Fig-house, the Pinery, the
Orangery, and the Melonry. The greenhouse and other
botanical structures, will come more appropriately under
review in treating of the Flower Garden.
The Vinery. Structure—The vinery is susceptible of
a great variety of form ; and, indeed, in this respect, seems
more pliable than any other forcing-house. That form,
how’ever, which has been most commonly used, is the plane
roof with sliding sashes; and such is the success with
which it has been employed, and such its convenience
for every purpose, that it is not probable it will soon be
generally supplanted. The section of the Peach-house,
Pi. CCXCI. fig. 4, will give an idea of the usual configu¬
ration of the vinery. Fig. 3. of the same plate is a section,
and fig. 6. a ground plan of a curvilinear vinery, heated by
hot-water. A vinery, with flues and two furnaces, is generally
fifty feet long, twelve or fourteen wide within, the height
of the back wall being ten or twelve feet. Where there is
only one furnace, or where a hot-v-ater apparatus is em¬
ployed, the length of the house should not exceed thirty-
five or forty feet. Small divisions are to be preferred; for
where there is a considerable extent of glass, the cultivator,
by applying his fires to the different divisions in succession,
can prolong the crop from May to December. The para¬
pet wall in front is commonly arched or built on lintels,
supported by stone pillars; so that the vines, which are
planted inside the house, close by the parapet, may send
abroad their roots in search of nutriment. Sometimes the
vines are planted without^ and introduced into the house
by slanting apertures in the front wall; but the former
method, where possible, is the more eligible. The trellis
used for training, is generally formed of wires drawn across
the rafters, at the distance of a foot from each other. Of
late the trellis has been divided into portions of a moderate
breadth, which are placed vertically under the rafter. This
form, exhibited in fig. 1, Plate CCXCI., is called the hang¬
ing trellis, and is described at length in the Lond. Ilortic.
Trans, vol. vi. It leaves the middle of the sash open to
the sun’s rays, and allows the back wall to be covered with
bearing wood, a thing which, in other circumstances, can
scarcely be done with any beneficial effect. It must, how¬
ever, be admitted, that, according to the’ experience of
some, this arrangement is inferior to the common trellis.
It is of importance that the included soil and front bor¬
der of a vinery should be fresh and rich, and of a consider¬
able depth. Mr Griffin (in Lond. Hortic. Traits.) recom¬
mends as a compost, “ one-half of good loamy soil with its
turf, one quarter of rich old dung, and one quarter of brick
and lime rubbish; the turf well rotted, and the whole well
incorporated.” Plants raised from cuttings, and prepared
for two or three years in pots, are preferred for the fur¬
nishing of a vinery; and when planted inside the house,
there should not be fewer than two plants to each sash.
It is scarcely necessary to enumerate the particular va¬
rieties of the grape-vine, as adapted for a vinery, for every
good variety deserves a place where there is room, and all
those which have'been already mentioned are occasionally
planted. It may be remarked, however, that the kinds
should be assorted according to the order of their ripening.
4 o
658 HORTICULTURE.
Forcing The early grapes, such as the Muscadines, should be plant-
Garden. etl in a house by themselves ; those of a medium character,
the Frotignacs, for example, may occupy a second ; while
the late Tokay, the Muscat of Alexandria, Nice, Syrian,
and others, would be fit inmates for a third. This would
produce a regular succession, and admit a uniformity of
treatment in each house. Where there is not a suite of
vineries, but only one large house, the late varieties should
be planted near the entrance of the flues.
Pruning and Training. Very numerous have been the
directions given in reference to these particulars ; but we
cannot here go into such details, nor is it necessary. The
great object is the reproduction of bearing, that is, annual
wood, over the whole surface of the house. When this is
accomplished, the next matter to be determined is the
number of eyes or buds to be left on each shoot, that is,
whether we shall adopt the short or the long system of
pruning. The former is most allied to the practice of
foreign vineyards, and has been most successfully employed
in this country. According to this method, all the lateral
shoots are cut down to single eyes, as described in Lond.
Hortic. Trans, iv. 104. For a particular description of the
long system, we refer to the same vol. p. 246, or to Lou¬
don’s Encyclopaedia of Gardening, second edition, p. 548.
To these references, we add a few general remarks. (1.)
In this country, it ought to be the great aim of the gar¬
dener to make his vines grow- as luxuriantly as possible ;
for the quality of the grapes, when properly ripened, is
generally commensurate with the size of the berries. The
borders should therefore be made rich ; but they ought to
be rather wide than deep, deep planting being adverse to
the ripening of the fruit. (2.) In order to secure a proper
degree of vigour, vines should be limited in extent, and
pruned rather severely than otherwise. To enable us to
circumscribe the plants, it would be well to introduce as
many separate plants into the vinery as can be done with¬
out confusion. For an illustration of this principle, we may
refer to the practice of the vignerons of Fontainebleau, as
described in the Pomone Frangaise, or in the Lond. Hortic.
Trans, vol. vii. (3.) From the peculiar mode of growth in
the grape-vine, the bearing branches have a tendency to
recede from the centre to the extremities, and are often
found in abundance only at the top of the trellis. Every
young shoot near the front of the house should therefore
be carefully husbanded, and cut back by way of reserve.
Old wood ought to be removed as frequently as possible ;
and the skilful pruner will look at least two years before
him. Nothing contributes more to regularity in the suc¬
cession of bearing wood, than simplicity in pruning and
training; and therefore all bending, and twisting, and tra¬
versing of branches should be avoided.
The summer pruning consists in removing with the
fingers the useless lateral shoots, and pinching off the ten¬
der points of the bearing branches. The extent to which
these bearing branches are allowed to run will depend on
their vigour, and the position which they hold in the plant.
Sometimes it may be needful to leave them ten or twelve
. feet long, but, in general, two or three feet will be suffi¬
cient. The shorter the better. They seldom or never fail
to send out secondary laterals from their points : these and
the others which succeed them are stopped at the second
or even first eye, and the operation is continued until ve¬
getation ceases. When the young grapes begin to swell,
the bunches are thinned out, that is, berries are removed
wherever they are too much crowded together ; and the
shoulders or sides of the bunches are supported by slender
threads ol bass-mat. The quality and weight of bunches
should be regarded rather than their number. Nothing
seems more contemptible than numbers of small and ill-
ripened bunches of grapes, smeared, as they frequently are,
with dust and honey-dew. Avarice not unffequently cheats
itself in this matter ; and it generally happens in the vinery, p0]
as elsewhere, that not he who desires most has most. The Gai f
ripening, colour, and flavour of grapes on the tree are pro-"— ^
moted by removing a portion of the foliage ; this is to be
done, however, only after the fruit has attained full size.
The forcing of the earliest vinery may commence in
January. At first the temperature may vary from 50° to
55° Fahrenheit in the mornings and evenings. When the
buds have burst, it may be raised to 70°, and in the flower¬
ing season it may be kept at 75°. At this season it is ne¬
cessary that the air should be preserved moist by frequent
steamings. Upon the appearance of colour in the fruit,
the waterings cease, and air is copiously admitted. In the
early vineries, it is necessary to continue the fire-heat with¬
out intermission: in the later houses this is not required,
but it must be used occasionally, even in warm weather, to
obviate the effects of damp.
The Peach-house.—A peach-house, intended to be
commanded by one furnace, is generally about forty feet
long, ten or twelve feet wide, and fourteen feet high; but
these dimensions may be varied considerably, according to
the time at which the crop is desired to come into season.
For early forcing, perhaps twenty-five or thirty feet in
length, and seven or eight in breadth, are sufficient; while
a house, in which the operations of nature are only to be
slightly accelerated, may be extended to fifty feet. As in
the vinery, the front wall is arched, to permit the egress of
the roots. Upon this is usually placed a range of upright
sashes, which are surmounted by the sloping rafters of the
roof. A common form of a peach-house is represented in
Plate CCXCI., in which fig. 4. is a vertical section, and fig. 5.
is the ground plan ; a, a, are the flues, h is the table trellis, c
the trellis on the back wall; along with which, a hanging
trellis, as in fig. 1, is sometimes employed, although this
is not approved of by many. The flue, which is built on pil¬
lars, and returns on itself, occupies the centre of the house.
The trees are trained to the two trellises b and c, and to
the hanging trellis, if such be in use. Against the back
wall three or four dwarf trees are planted, with interme¬
diate riders, the latter being taken out at the end of four
or five yqars at furthest. These, with three for the front
trellis, make in all nine or ten trees for each house.
Plate CCXCII. fig. 1, represents another form of the
peach-house, not so generally used as the former, but of
equal if not superior merit. We have supposed it heated
by a water apparatus a, a, but that is not an essential mat¬
ter, as a common flue is equally admissible. There is no
front glass, nor any trellis on the back wall, the trees being
planted in front, and trained on a wire trellis b, attached
to the rafters, and covering the whole surface of the roof.
As the peach-tree is not found to extend much more than
twelve or thirteen feet on the open wall, the length of the
rafter, inside measure, need not do more than approach to
fourteen feet. It is obvious that in such a house the trees
must enjoy an equable, and, from their proximity to the
glass, an advantageous degree of light. Besides being
planted close to the front wall, they are not exposed to have
their roots stunted in passing under flues, and through the
interior soil of the house, which, in spite of every assiduity
in watering and manuring, becomes hard and impoverish¬
ed. Further, it has been estimated, that as far as roof and
glass are concerned, four or even five such houses may be
erected, at the same expense as three of the common
form.
In Holland, peaches are forced in pits resembling the
common hot-bed or melon-pit. The trees are trained on
a trellis-work near the glass, and the air is heated by the
fermentation of dung-linings. The method has been par¬
tially adopted in this country, with, however, the use of
hot water. W hen garden-architects shall cease to be anxious
HORTIC
for, rr about making all forcing houses ornamental structures, this
Gar i- will probably be the general form in which early and tender
^ peaches will be cultivated.
The pruning and training of peach-trees in the peach-
house does not differ materially from the practice out of
doors. Fire-heat is commonly applied about the beginning
or middle of February; but where there is a large suite of
houses, and an extended succession is wanted, forcing, as
it then truly becomes, may begin a month sooner. At first
the temperature is kept about 45°, but it is afterwards gra¬
dually increased to 50° or 55° Fahrenheit. While the
trees are in flower, and till the fruit be set, the house is
occasionally steamed, either by sprinkling water on the
warm flues, or by admitting the vapour from the pipes,
where steam is employed for heating. After this period,
the foliage is washed, from time to time, with the garden-
engine. When the fruit has stoned, or the kernels have
been formed, the temperature is raised to about 60°.
Water is now copiously supplied to the border ; the fruit
is thinned out; the various operations of disbudding and
tying are performed, and air is admitted in abundance.
After the end of April, little fire-heat is required for the
peach-house. The trees often suffer from mildew: the
best preventives consist in keeping the borders of the peach-
house clear, and in good condition as to fresh soil, and in
observing that nothing be permitted to obstruct the free
circulation of air and full admission of sun.
It may here be remarked, that by curious cultivators
several uncommon kinds of exotic fruits are occasionally
grown with success in conservatories, vineries, hot-houses,
or other glazed structures, along with the more regular or
usual inmates. Among these may be mentioned the Lo-
quat, Eriobotrya japonica ; the Jamrosade Eugenia jam-
bos ; the Purple Granadilla, Passiflora edulis ; the Gra-
nadilla vine, P. quadrangularis ; the May-apple, P. in-
carnata ; the Water-lemon, P. laurifolia ; and the* Sweet
Calabash, P. maliformis; the Papaw, Carica Papaya ;
and the Banana, Musa sapientum. The Leechee, Nephe-
lium Litchi, has ripened in our stoves ; the Long-yen,
Euphoria longana, has yielded its fruit at Syon-House ;
and the Mango, Mangifera indica, at the garden of Earl
Powis. The China Guava, Psidium cattleianum, fruits
freely in the vinery of the Experimental Garden at Edin¬
burgh : the fruit is round, about the size of a small plum;
of a fine claret colour; the pulp soft, only a little firmer
than that of a strawberry, and of a delightful subacid fla¬
vour, making a most desirable preserve. The Carambola,
Averrhoa Carambola, of the East Indies, has of late been
added to our exotic fruits, by Mr Bateman of Knypersley,
near Congleton : the fruit is of the size and shape of a
duck’s egg, but with longitudinal ribs on the sides ; either
in tarts or as a preserve, the flavour is described as exqui¬
site. It may be noticed, that, both from the descriptions of
intelligent travellers, and from the preserved fruit being
sent to Britain, we know that numerous species of exotic
fruit-trees exist, which have not yet reached us in a living
state ; and the introduction of these might form an object
of innocent, pleasing, and commendable ambition to enter¬
prising and wealthy horticulturists.
The Cherry-house, in its general arrangements, re¬
sembles the peach-house, with the exception of the front
trellis, the place of which is commonly occupied by a stage
for pots of early strawberries or kidney beans. The cherry-
trees are trained against the back wall: the house should
therefore be narrow, and the roof steep. The operation of
forcing generally commences early in January, with a very
moderate temperature. Air is admitted freely till the
flowers begin to expand, when great caution becomes ne¬
cessary. When the fruit is setting, the temperature is
[J LTURE.
kept as steadily as possible at 50°: after it is set, abun- F
dance of water is applied to the roots and foliage of the
trees. When the fruit is colouring, water is almost en¬
tirely withheld, and air is now freely admitted. During
the whole process of forcing cherries, any excessive heat
from the sun’s rays must be carefully guarded against, by
shading or by admitting of air. The kind of cherry usually
preferred for forcing is the Common May-duke. A cherry-
house ought to form a part of every large garden establish¬
ment ; for nothing better distinguishes the tables of the
opulent, in March and April, than ripe cherries and straw¬
berries appearing in the dessert at that season of the year.
The Fig-house scarcely differs in form and management
from the Cherry-house, the trees being trained to a back
trellis, with the addition, however, of dwarf standard trees
in front. At Kew there is a fig-house fifty feet long.
Here the second crop is often the most productive. In
1810, we are told the royal tables were supplied with more
than 200 baskets of figs, 50 of which were from the first
crop, and 150 from the second. It is seldom, however,
that a separate house is erected for this fruit. The fig
succeeds very well as a dwarf standard between the front
flues of a vinery, provided the roof be not too closely cover¬
ed with the foliage of the vines. Of late, small standard
figs have very commonly been grown in large pots, fourteen
or fifteen inches in diameter, and placed in any of the
forcing houses. In this way considerable crops of fruit
have been raised. The Figue blanche and the Marseilles
are the sorts best adapted for forcing.
The Orange Tribe (Citrus) are cultivated in Britain,
.rather as objects of curiosity and beauty, than for the pur¬
pose of affording a supply of fruit. Commerce with Por¬
tugal, Spain, Italy, and China, has brought this class of
fruits within the reach of every one ; and the copious im¬
portations which annually take place, have no doubt dis¬
couraged the cultivation of the plants. A few orange trees
are nevertheless to be met with in most collections, and
in large and sumptuous gardens, it is not uncommon to
meet with glazed houses set specially apart for their re¬
ception.
The following brief notices of some of the cultivated
species of the genus Citrus are derived principally from Mr
G. Don’s General System of Botany and Gardening, a
work evincing singular accuracy and unwearied research,
and from M. Risso’s excellent paper in the Annales du
Museum, vol. xx.
C. Medica, the Citron, the Cedrate of the Italians, is a
small evergreen tree. The fruit is large, of an oval form,
and covered with a rough skin or rind, which is charged
with a highly fragrant oil. The citron is generally used in
confections. It is supposed to be a native of Media, and
will scarcely ripen without protection in Britain. Three
subvarieties of citron are described by Risso.
C. Limetta, the Sweet Lime. This is rather a tall tree,
with diverging branches. The flower is of a fine white
colour, composed of five oblong petals. The fruit is glo¬
bose, with a black nipple-like protuberance at the apex,
having a firm rind, and sweet pulp. The colour is pale
yellow. It is a native of Asia, but cultivated in Italy.
Seven varieties have been described.
C. Limonum, the Lemon. The petioles of the leaves
somewhat winged; fruit oblong, with a thin rind adhering
closely to the very acid pulp. This, like the preceding, is
a native of Asia, but is cultivated in the south of Europe.
There are numerous varieties.
C. Aurantium, Sweet Orange. The petioles almost
naked; fruit globose, with a thin rind, and sweet pulp.
Risso has enumerated nineteen varieties; of which the
principal are, the China, the Portugal, and the Maltese.
660
HORTICULTURE.
Forcing
Garden.
The last has a blood-coloured pulp, with rich juice, and is
now in much request.
C. vulgaris, Seville or Bitter Orange. The petioles
winged; fruit globose, with a thin rind, and bitter juice.
This sort is employed in making marmalade, and is also
used in medicine. Twelve varieties have been described.
C. Decumana, the Shaddock. The petioles broad, with
cordate wings; fruit large, weighing from ten to fourteen
pounds, with a thick rind. This fruit was carried by Cap¬
tain Shaddock from China to the British West Indies,
where it first acquired the name which it now bears. It is
now cultivated not only in the West India Islands, but ex¬
tensively in South America. Four sorts are enumerated.
Of all the Citrus tribe, this has the most beautiful foliage,
and it is therefore not improperly selected for filling the
back wall of a vinery.
The orangery, in this country, seldom differs in form,
even where it is a separate structure, from that of the
greenhouse. Most commonly the few orange plants which
are kept, are grown in pots or boxes, and occupy a place
with other exotics on the greenhouse shelves. At some
places the orange trees are planted in conservatories
erected for the purpose. In the neighbourhood of Paris,
the orangeries are little better than dark sheds, in which
the trees are kept protected during the winter months,
light and air being given when the weather permits. At
Woodhall, in Lanarkshire, they are trained against trellisses,
under glass, and in this way produce abundant crops of
fine fruit. We have there seen a single plant of the St
Michael’s orange, twenty-four feet wide and eighteen feet
high, clothed with fruit.
Middle-sized plants are frequently imported from the
Italian nursery-gardens, and this is the readiest way of pro¬
curing large specimens at a cheap rate. The plants are
closely packed in boxes, with some grass or moss around the
roots. Upon their arrival they are in a withered and dead-
like state, and require considerable care and management to
recover them from the effects of the voyage. When pro¬
pagated in this country, they are budded on citron or Se¬
ville orange stocks; the former recommended by Miller as
preferable. The seeds of the stocks are sown in pots, and
the growth of the seedlings is aided, during the first and
second summer, by the application of a slight bottom heat
in a hot-bed frame. These are usually budded in August.
The late Mr Henderson, gardener at Woodhall, used to
graft his trees, employing scions formed of the wood of the
second year. He also propagated by cuttings, considering
this the quickest mode of obtaining plants. We may add,
that this most successful cultivator of the orange tribe
made it a rule to keep his trees rather cool, and with plenty
of air in mild weather, till the fruit was fairly set; after
which he found that he could apply more heat without the
risk of the fruit failing.
The orange tree prospers in a rich, fresh, and rather
strong soil; and in this country it is the practice to mix
with it a considerable portion of well rotted dung. When
grown in pots or boxes, the plant should be shifted, and the
earth partly renewed every spring. In summer, copious
waterings are given, and the leaves are syringed once or
twice a-week. The heads are kept thin, and the branches
which inconveniently cross each other are removed. When
planted against trellisses, they are trained in the fan form;
and in laying in the shoots, allowance is to be made for the
size of the leaves in the different species.
The Pine-apple {liromeha Ananas) is comparatively
of recent introduction into Britain. It was nearly unknown
to our horticulturists in the beginning of the eighteenth
century; for f horesby, the antiquary, kept a leaf of the
pine-apple in his museum as a curiosity. It is now largely
and successfully cultivated in all the principal gardens in
this co untr. Its culture requires all the ingenuity, judc- v
ment, and watchfulness of the skilful and diligent horticul- Ga
turist. We shall, therefore, treat of it at considerable ^ J
length. It derives its name from the general resemblance
of its fruit to a large cone of a pine-tree. The fruit is a
kind of pulpy strobilus, formed of coadunate berries, and
crowned at top with a tuft of fine green pointed leaves. The
flavour of the pulp is of the most exquisite kind. The
plant is herbaceous, and the fruit-stem, which generally
appears in the second or third year, is surrounded with long
serrated leaves, resembling those of some species of aloe.
The fruit grown in Britain is considered equal in all good
qualities, and generally superior in size, to that reared in
tropical countries. The Lond. Hortic. Catalogue enume¬
rates 56 varieties: of these the following may be deemed
most worthy of notice.
The Queen Pine is very generally cultivated. Its fruit
is of a cylindrical or tankard shape, of a yellowish colout
inclining to orange, and sometimes weighs three pounds
it is, at the same time, of excellent flavour. This kind pro¬
duces with greater certainty than most others, and the
fruit may be easily ripened in fifteen or eighteen months,
from the planting of the crown or offset. It is, therefore,
the most useful of all the pines. A subvariety called Itiy-
ley’s Queen is also excellent.
The Black Antigua has leaves armed with large spines;
the flowers are purple; the fruit cylindrical, averaging five
pounds weight. It should be cut a little before it be quite
ripe.
The Black Jamaica, or Old Jamaica. In this variety
the spines on the leaves are small; the flowers purple; the
fruit oblong, averaging about four pounds. This is an ex¬
cellent kind, and is considered the best sort for fruiting
during the winter months.
The New Jamaica is rather an inferior kind, but is pret¬
ty good when ripened in the summer time.
I he^Brown-leaved Sugar-loaf is a capital black variety;
and the Enville a large, shewy, and useful pine.
The St Vincent's, or, as it is sometimes called, the Green
Olive, has middle-sized spines, purple flowers, and pyrami¬
dal fruit, which average about two pounds and a half. It
succeeds well to come in as a winter fruit.
The White Providence has small spines, dark purple
flowers, and oblong fruit of a large size, averaging, when
well grown, seven pounds weight, and sometimes exceeding
twelve pounds. The colour of the fruit is at first brownish-
grey, but at ripening it becomes of a pale yellow. The
pulp is yellow, melting, and abounds with quick lively juice,
but is not equal in flavour to some of the other kinds.
The Trinidad is remarkable for the great size of its
fruit, which are said to attain sometimes to the weight of
twenty-six pounds. Its average is stated in the Hort. Cat.
to be twelve pounds, The spines are middle-sized, the
flowers lilac, and the fruit pyramidal. Apart from its mag¬
nitude, it is, like the preceding, only a secondary fruit.
I he following may also be named as first-rate sorts:
Bagot’s Seedling, Russian Globe, Green King with smooth
leaves, Striped Queen, Sierra Leone, Brown Sugar-loaf
and Orange Sugar-loaf. And three or four more, though
of inferior quality, may be noticed for their beauty, or cu¬
riosity, viz. the Blood-red, Otaheite, Scarlet, Welbeck Seed¬
ling, and the Havannah, the fruit of which last keeps long,
and has sometimes been imported into this country from
Cuba.
Structures for growing Pine-apples. The ananas plant
has generally been found to require cultivation for two or
three years before it perfects its fruit: its culture has, in
consequence, been divided into three periods,—propaga¬
tion, successional preparation, and fruiting; and each of
these periods has its corresponding structure, viz. the nurs-
ing-pit, the succession-house or pit, and the fruiting-house.
H O R TIC
ng The nursing-pit has occasionally assumed a great variety
n. of forms, respecting which, however, it is not necessary to
’ go into minute detail. For summer use, a large glazed
frame, placed upon a hot-bed of stable litter and tanners’
hark, is perhaps the best hitherto devised. The Alderston
Melon-pit, and Atkinson’s Melon-pit, described under the
head Melonry, are likewise very suitable for this purpose.
In winter, it is desirable to have the assistance of fire heat,
either from flues, or, what is better, from hot water;
though this fire heat is not indispensable.
The succession-pit performs the same functions as the
nursing-pit, but at a more advanced stage of the growth of
the plant, and consequently requires an increase of size.
With this difference, Atkinson’s Melon-pit does very well
for summer use. In colder seasons, we should prefer a pit
similar to that represented Plate CCXCII, figs. 2 and 3, in
which a hot-water apparatus on the siphon principle is em¬
ployed. The plants are plunged in a (fig. 2), being a bed
of sand or fine gravel; b is the boiler; c pipes for supply¬
ing the bottom heat; d exposed pipes for warming the in¬
cluded air. If the common bark-bed is preferred, the pipes
c may be omitted. This pit may be fifty feet long, and
seven wide. The sashes are raised from without, as in the
common hot-bed. This plan is from the pencil of Mr
Charles H. J. Smith, a young but very promising garden-
architect, of whose assistance the writer of this article has
had much satisfaction in availing himself in the designing
of the plates. Mr Smith also proposes another form of a
succession pit, exhibited in Plate CCXCII, fig. 11, entire¬
ly heated by hot-water. The surface heat is supplied by
pipes in front; the bottom heat is kept up by small pipes
from the boiler, passing through cisterns of water extending
the whole length of the pit. In this case it w ould be ne¬
cessary to apply the heat only during the day. The old
succession-house, or that generally in use till within the
last fifteen years, does not differ materially from the com¬
mon pine-stove; but, owing to its great waste of heat, it
either is or ought to be entirely laid aside.
In the fruiting-house^ more room, greater height, and a
more powerful temperature, are requisite; and to attain
these objects, many varieties of structure have been de¬
vised : we shall notice those only which are most worthy
of attention. Fig. 4, Plate CCXCII. is a section of Bald¬
win’s Fruiting-pit. The roof is unequally ridged, the north
or shorter side being slated and furnished with ventilators,
to admit air. The sashes are immovable, and the laps of
the panes are closely puttied. There is a path within, and
a single turn of a flue behind. We should prefer the form
exhibited by fig. 5. of the same plate, in which there are
also ventilators a a, and a hot-water apparatus surround¬
ing the whole pit. The dimensions of this may be fifty feet
long, and nine feet w ide; the glass being two feet and a
half from the curb of the bark-pit in front, and five feet be¬
hind. Fig. G. is a section of a pine-pit with a curvilinear
roof, in which the astragals are parallel. A segment of an
elliptical arch somewhat less than a quadrant, the origin of
the curve being on the front wall, seems better adapted for
a pit than any portion of a circle. This pit is supposed to
be heated by a small steam-pipe passing through a large
iron tank or cistern a, filled with water, on the same princi¬
ple as exhibited in Plate CCXC, fig. 13. A section of the
old-fashioned pine-stove is given in Plate CCXCII, fig. 7.
This is a lofty structure, in the vinery form, with front sash¬
es. It used to be forty or fifty feet long,* and twelve or
fourteen feet broad, and was commanded by two flues. In
addition to the pine plants in the pit, the roof is also partly
covered with vines, a practice justly condemned by Nicol.
We are also disposed to agree with that experienced writer
regarding the disuse of the pine-stove itself. Besides other
grievous faults, a single house affords too little room; and it is
a matter of experience, that where the stock of pine plants
U L T U R E.
is not extensive, certain and abundant crops or rruit cannot
be expected. Instead, therefore, of a succession and fruit-
ing-house of the old form, with two fires each, it would be
better to have four pits with single fires. There might be
two succession-pits of the form of fig. 2. or fig. 11, Plate
CCXCII, and two fruiting-pits similar to fig. 5. or fig. 6.
These would contain a much greater number of plants than
two pine-stoves, would be little more expensive in erection,
and, as the number of fires is the same, would not consume
much more fuel.
Bottom Heat. As a substitute for the warmth absorbed
by the earth, from the powerful rays of the sun in tropical
countries, the pots of pine-plants are generally plunged in
a bed of tanners’ bark, decaying leaves, or other fermenting
substances. Tanners’ bark is most commonly used. Speech-
ly and Nicol prefer leaves shed by hard-wood trees in
autumn. Others form the under and greater part of the
bed with stable-litter. Whatever substance is employ¬
ed, it should not be put into the bed until the first vio¬
lent heat of fermentation has passed; or if circumstances
impose a necessity of using it in a recent state, it should
be largely mixed with old materials of the same kind. A
layer of exhausted bark, ten or twelve inches thick, should
be laid on the surface of the bed. In pine stoves, the curb
of the bark-pit is usually elevated about three feet above the
common level of the house, and has a gentle slope towards
the front; in pine-pits, however, it approaches more closely
to the glass. The bark is commonly five or six feet deep ;
but it may be questioned whether this depth is not excessive
and unnecessary. A bed about three and a half feet deep
would probably be more convenient, and afford a heat suffi¬
cient both in intensity and duration for any useful purpose.
We have already shewn how a system of tubes transmit¬
ting steam or hot-water may be made available to the pro¬
duction of bottom heat. There is another method worthy of
at least a cursory notice, which is all that we can afford it.
Its invention is due to Mr M‘Murtrie, and the apparatus is
described at length in ,the Land. Hort. Trans, vol. vi.
His contrivance wall be understood by an inspection of his
pine-pit, of which a section and plan are given in Plate
CCXCII. figs. 8 and 9- A shallow bark bed, about two
feet deep, rests upon an arched chamber of single brick.
1 is the fire-place; 2 a fire-flue running along the whole
length of the chamber 4, which is also kept full of steam
by means of the boiler and pipe 3; the apertures 5 admit
steam and heat into the air of the pit, and of these there is
one, both in back and front, under each sash, capable of
being stopped at pleasure. The waste-pipe 6 allows the
steam to escape, when the apertures marked 5 are shut.
By the return of the flue 2, the atmosphere of the house is
heated; and by the joint action of the inclosed part of the
flue, and of the steam in the chamber, an abundant and sa¬
lubrious bottom heat is easily maintained.
The proper management of bottom heat is a matter of
some difficulty, and in this there have been more failures
than in any other part of the pine-apple culture. The heat
arising from violent fermentation, is greater than the ten
der roots can bear, and if all watchfulness be not employ¬
ed, the labour of many months may be blasted in a single
day. Mr Knight has discarded bottom heat altogether;
but he has not succeeded in convincing others that pine
apples can be grown equally well without it. Bottom heat
is, however, almost universally kept too high. Perhaps the
upper limit of its temperature may be fixed at blood-heat,
or at most 100°, while the under or winter limit may be
brought down to 70° or 75°. Gardeners are accustomed
to judge of the heat of the bed, by means of long sticks
pushed into it; these are occasionally drawn out and felt by
the hand, and a rough guess at the temperature is thus ob
tained. A far preferable method is to employ a slow ther
mometer slightly cased in wire.
661
Forcing
Garden.
G62
HORTICULTURE.
1 orcing Soil. "V arious nice and minute directions have been
Gaiden. given respecting composts for ananas plants. Any com¬
post, however, will be found suitable, which is at once
rich, fresh, and simple. Perhaps a mixture of the top-spit,
including the turf, of an old pasture, and about a half of
good, well-rotted dung, combines these qualities as com¬
pletely as possible. When it is necessary to lighten these
materials, a compost of decayed leaves, and a little sand,
may be added. It is of importance that the compost, what¬
ever it may be, should be prepared a considerable time be¬
forehand, and frequently turned over. It should be broken
with the spade, but not screened; and when used, it
should not be too moist. Pine-apple plants are found to
shew fruit more readily in a rich light soil, than in strong
loam, but do not produce large fruit. In selecting his com¬
post, the cultivator must make his selection between these
advantages. At all events the soil must be rich; it can
scarcely be too rich. “ The pine,” says an intelligent
writer in the Gardener’s Magazine, vol. ix. “ is a gross
feeder, and will thrive in vegetable manure, however rich
and fresh.” Liquid manures have been applied ; but these,
however useful when recent, prove deleterious in a ferment¬
ed state.
Propagation. The ananas is propagated by planting
the ciowns or tufts which grow on the fruit, or the suckers
which appear at the base of the stem. These, when re¬
moved from the fruit or the stem, are laid aside for a few
days, till the scar at the place of separation have dried or
healed, a precaution to prevent their rotting; after which
they are potted immediately. Sometimes late in the season,
they are merely thrust into exhausted tan, without pots,
where they remain till the following spring. In general
the offsets should be as large as possible. Speechly did not
bi eak off his suckers before they were twelve or fourteen
inches long, and he reserved only the largest crowns.
These large suckers and crowns grow with greater rapidity,
and come sooner into fruit, than those of smaller size : and
in this, in truth, consists the principal secret of what has
been called the short method of culture, by which fruit is
obtained in a much briefer space of time than usual. The
sod employed in propagation is rather lighter than that af¬
terwards applied. The pots may be from three to six
inches in diameter, and, to promote draining, should con¬
tain at bottom a layer of shivers or clean gravel. For some
time the plants are shaded from the rays of the sun, and in
about eight or ten days they receive a little water. As al¬
ready stated, the older and more common routine of pine¬
apple culture embraces a period ot three years ; but recent
improvements have reduced these to two years, or even to
eighteen months. I his has given rise to two modes of
preparatory management, which we shall notice separately,
premising that the treatment in the fruiting-house is the
same in both.
Triennial Course. The plants which were potted in
autumn, are kept in the nursing-pit during winter, with a
mild temperature, a slight bottom heat, and a sparing allow¬
ance of water. About the beginning of April they are trans-
lerred into larger pots, and are commonly shifted into hot¬
beds or pits heated with stable dung, in which they are found
to prosper exceedingly. Air is given every day, and is co¬
piously admitted, as soon as the sun’s rays have acquired con¬
siderable power. During summer the average morning tem¬
perature may be from 70° to 75° Fahrenheit, but in sunshine
it may be allowed to rise to 85°, 90°, or even more. The
icat is maintained by adding occasional linings of stable lit¬
ter, and, when it is exhausted, the plants are transferred into
other beds or pits, more recently made up, and in which fer¬
mentation is going on. In flued nursing-pits the manage-
Precisely the same. The bottom heat is aided by fresh
additions of tan. As nothing is to be dreaded from damp
where there is a command of fire-heat, more copious wa¬
terings may be given, and the plants may be syringed over
head, or slightly steamed, by throwing water on the flues
It is not very common to shift the plants in the nursery
during summer; but it is a good rule to have recourse to
that operation as often as the roots begin to mat on the
sides of the pot. Before the end of autumn, the youn"
plants become vigorous. The lower part of the stalk should
then be thick, the centre or funnel formed by the leaves
should be upright, open, and rather short, and the leaves
themselves not long nor very numerous, but broad, stiff,
succulent, and free from contortion and deformity. To¬
wards the end of autumn, the plants are taken into the suc¬
cession-pit, which, in fact, is only a nursing-pit on a large
scale. The temperature for winter should be about 60°.
About the middle of March, they are shifted into pots nine
or ten inches in diameter. At this period, it is not uncom¬
mon, in compliance with the recommendation of Abercrom¬
bie and the other older authorities, to cut away the whole of
the roots, and to re-pot the plant somewhat in the capacity
of a sucker. The reasons alleged for this extraordinary
practice are, that the pine-apple plant is continually push¬
ing out roots at the surface, while those below are rapidly
dying; that the soil, in the course of three years, becomes
completely exhausted; and lastly, that this treatment pre¬
vents premature starting in the course of the second year.
This last reason is very questionable, and it assumes that
ananas plants must be treated for three years before thev
produce fruit. There is some force in the other reasons,
but they do not prove the absolute necessity of the prac¬
tice. Roots may be pruned without being removed alto¬
gether. The earth may be shaken almost entirely away,
and replaced by fresh compost, at the expense of only a
few fibres. Again, if, at every shifting, a small portion of
the earth be taken from below, as florists treat auriculas in
pots, at the end of two years scarcely any portion of the
original soil wall remain. The grand objection to the opera¬
tion is, the great and unnecessary check to vegetation,
and the consequent stuntedness of habit, which, in succu¬
lent plants of such an age, is scarcely remediable. That
it is possible to grow ananas without cutting away the roots,
is consistent with our own observation, and is borne out by
the testimony and practice of Griffin, Appleby, and other
distinguished cultivators. When the roots are removed,
the plants must be shaded for some time, and be watered
sparingly, till they begin to grow freely. The summer
temperature should be comparatively warm, the range being
from 65° to 70° of fire-heat, or during night, and from 70°
to 85° solar heat. Abundance of air is admitted, and the
plants are set widely, that they may have room to swell be¬
low, and become stout and bushy.
Biennial Course. The method of culture which we
have denominated the biennial course, was first brought
into notice by Abercrombie, and more recently has been
strenuously recommended by Baldwin. Its chief feature
is the acceleration of the growth of the plants by the appli¬
cation of higher temperatures than it was formerly supposed
they could bear. They are, in fact, made to attain the
growth of two summers in one.
About the beginning of March, the most forward of the
plants potted over winter, or the suckers kept in tan, are
taken out, the earth or tan shaken away, and the roots
shortened. They are then put into pots about five inches
in diameter, which are plunged into frames or pits heated
with tan or stable litter. They are shaded as usual, and
after they begin to grow, receive moderate waterings.
\\ hen the roots appear around the balls of soil, which will
be about the middle of June, the plants are again shifted
into larger pots, from six to seven inches in diameter, and,
if the heat be declining, are removed into other pits or
beds. In the beginning of August they are transferred
into larger pots, in which, unless they are intended for
HORTICULTURE.
fc ng early spring forcing, they stand during the winter; and in
Go February they are finally shifted into pots twelve or four-
"^teen inches in diameter. For spring forcing, the last shift¬
ing takes place in October, and the pots may be two inches
narrower. At every shifting the ball of earth is preserved
entire. From March the temperature is gradually in¬
creased ; little air is admitted, even in strong sunshine, and
a lively bottom heat is kept up by means of repeated lin¬
ings. When there is danger of burning the roots, the
pots are partially drawn up, or even set upon the surface of
the tan. The following table will give an idea of the tem¬
perature (Fahrenheit’s thermometer) and its progressive
increase:
663
During Night.
March 60° to 70°
April 70 — 75
May 75 — 80
June 80 — 85
During Day.
70° to 80°
80 — 85
90 _ 100
100 — 120
After the beginning of July, the heat is allowed to de¬
cline by degrees, until it arrive at the winter temperature
of 60°. It is to be understood, however, that these tem¬
peratures regard only stable dung or tan heat; and that too
applied to crowns, as the larger suckers seldom require more
than 100°. Where fire-heat is used, and it should always
be through the medium of hot-water, the nocturnal tem¬
perature should only approach towards 80°; and there should
be some expedient for the s/o?v immission of steam into the
atmosphere of the pit. During the whole summer care is
employed to prevent the plants from being drawn, and for
this purpose they are allowed much space, and are placed
as near the glass as possible. In August and September
abundance of air, and more copious supplies of water, are
given. In winter the chief care is to preserve the roots
from damping off, and for this reason, though it is not the
common practice, we should prefer winter pits having at
least the command of fire-heat.
This mode of driving, as it has been significantly called,
is applicable only to the varieties called the Queen, and
Ripley’s New Queen. The large growing sorts require a
longer period. For this reason it is desirable that both
courses of culture should be carried on at one time. The
large varieties might be consigned to the triennial course,
while the vacancies in either might be made up from the
other. That this is practicable, at least in gardens where
there are two fruiting houses, may be seen from the tabular
compendium of culture given below.
Fruiting-House—About the beginning of August, the
plants, now two years old, are shifted for the last time.
The pots are from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter,
and the balls are preserved entire. About eight or ten
days previously, the bark-pit of the fruiting-house has been
cleared out, the old tan screened, if necessary, and fresh
material supplied. The pots are then plunged into the
bark as deeply as can be done with safety, and the plants
are so treated as to keep them in a growing state during
the whole of autumn. In winter, the nocturnal tempera¬
ture is kept at 60° ; but towards the end of January it is
gradually raised to 70°. This rise, howrever, should fol¬
low, and not precede or be a cause of, the vernal growth of
the plants. About the middle of February, the second
fruiting-house may be prepared, for the reception of the
plants in the biennial succession pit. These are existing
in a mild temperature, and start during the general pro¬
gress of the season.
That period at which pine-apple plants first shew their
fruit-stalks, or, as it is technically termed, start, is the
west critical in their whole culture. It is generally de¬
sirable that this should happen at a certain age, and at a
particular season ; but these are circumstances over which
the cultivator can scarcely be said to have a direct control,
and accordingly, while the most successful can hardly deem Forcing
themselves beyond the reach of failure, the less skilful are Garden.
almost sure to err. We are not aware that the rationale  
of starting has been investigated on the principles of vege¬
table physiology ; and it is certain that the most absurd
practices have been resorted to, in order to force the plants
into fruit. We pretend not to give a theory : but a few
practical remarks may be of advantage. It is evident,
then, that the plant must be of a certain age, or at least of
a certain magnitude, before it will start freely or to good
purpose. Suckers of the first year are wholly taken up
with the production of roots and foliage ; and if any of them
happen to start, they exhibit little more than a tuft of leaves
where the fruit should be. In the second year a Queen
pine is capable of producing a perfect fruit; and in the
third year the New Providence and other large varieties
arrive at puberty. The solid part of the stem is then ob¬
served to have increased in bulk, and to have ascended
considerably above the soil. It is of more practical im¬
portance, however, to remark, that the fruit-stalks do not
appear until the pot is filled with roots. Apparent excep¬
tions there may be to this principle, but in every case where
it does not hold good, the plant will be found to be dis¬
eased, or the roots to have been violently destroyed. The
grower should therefore take care that the roots shall have
nearly occupied all the new soil before the end of autumn,
and that in the course of the winter the tender fibres be
not exsiccated by drought, or retted by excessive moisture.
Again, it is probable that at starting there is a peculiar
check in the growth of the plant, Avhich causes it to divert
the sap from the formation of leaves, and, like most other
vegetables in straitened circumstances, to provide the means
of reproduction, by throwing out flower-buds. This diver¬
sion of the sap is influenced by the quantity of vigorous
fibres, for it is observed that when, from some accident,
plants not well furnished in this respect, do shew fruit, they
bestow the greater part of the sap upon the leaves. Fur¬
ther, it is not a mere suspension of vegetation, otherwise
fruit would be produced by every plant which has had the
roots cut from it in the manner noticed above. Lastly, it
is probable that the proper check consists in a transition
from growth, however slight, to a temporary suspension of
vegetation, which again is followed by a copious flow of the
sap, circumstances which, as might be easily shewn, occur
both in the winter and summer starting. If these imper¬
fect observations be correct, it follows that starting is a na¬
tural process, requiring certain conditions in the state of the
plant, and therefore not to be forced by violent treatment,
or any sudden changes in temperature and watering.
After the plants have shewn fruit, they are never shift¬
ed ; but the surface soil may be removed, and replaced by
a little fresh and rich compost. Water is supplied from
time to time as necessity requires; but it is impossible to
give any definite rule on this subject. The observant gar¬
dener will soon, from experience, discover the proper mea¬
sure. Water should never be given in a colder state than
the average temperature of the house ; when, therefore,
there is no tank within the house, the watering-pots should
be filled, and left in the house for some time before the
water be applied. Fire-heat is kept up either continuously
or at intervals, during the greater part of the season. It
should always be moderate, never exceeding, by itself, 70°.
During sunshine, the temperature may range from 70° to
100°. The greater proportion there is of the latter the
better. Whilst the fruit is swelling, care must be taken to
carry on the growth of the plant with equability and mo¬
deration. Violent checks are pernicious: they debilitate
the stalk, and cause a stringiness in the fruit. As the
fruit approaches maturity, water is gradually withheld, lest
the flavour should be injured. Pine-apples should be cut
a short time before they attain complete maturity. The
664
HORTICULTURE.
Forcing larger varieties will keep only a day or two ; the smaller
Garden, varieties a week or more.
/ The following tabular compendium is from Abercrombie,
altered, however, in some of its details, to suit the idea of
two crops a-year. To execute this plan, two fruiting-
houses or pits, and one succession-pit, would be required,
together with a variety of hot-beds, or pits for the nursing
department. It is necessary to premise, that crowns and
suckers are usually potted soon after they are taken off, and
that August 15. may be considered the date at which the
whole operations of potting should be finished. When there
is only a biennial course, it commences from about Fe¬
bruary 14.
COMPENDIUM OF THE CULTURE OF ANANAS.
TRIENNIAL COURSE.
Nursing Pit.
1833.
Aug. 15. Crowns and suckers of
the New Providence
and other large va¬
rieties planted: also
small crowns and
suckers ofthe Queen
pine.
1834.
Feb. 14. Small off-sets of the
Queen pine dibbled
into the tan.
April 1. The above potted,
or re-potted ; the
balls of earth pre¬
served entire,
f The intermediate
July J shifting: time de-
Aug. 1 termined by expe-
( diency.
Succession Pit.
1835.
Mar. 1. The plants from the
nursing house are
shifted into larger
pots: the greater
part of the earth is
renewed, and the
roots pruned.
June 1. Second intermediate
shifting.
Fruiting House.
1835.
Aug. 15. Between this period
and September 15,
the plants, after hav¬
ing been shifted into
full-sized pots, are
introduced from the
succession-pit.
1836.
March.
1836.
June j"
Aug. I
The surface of the
pots are top-dressed.
Fruit ripens, and the
course concludes.
BIENNIAL COURSE.
Nursing Pit.
1833.
Aug. 15. Large crowns and
suckers ofthe Queen
pine planted.
1834.
Feb. 14.1 arge off-sets of the
Queen pine dibbled
into the tan.
Mar. 15. The above potted, or
re-potted; the earth
or tan is shaken
away, and the roots
pruned: the pots
transferred into hot¬
beds or pits.
June 15. First intermediate
shifting.
Aug. 1. Second intermediate
shifting.
1834.
Oct.
Succession Pit.
1. Plants introduced
from the nursing
pit; but not shifted
unless intended for
early springforcing.
Fruiting House.
1835.
Feb. 15. Plants shifted for the
last time, and intro-
duced from the suc¬
cession-pit.
1835.
Sept,
Dec.
/ Fruit ripens, and the
( course concludes.
I lie Melonry—a department deriving its name from
the melon, the principal plant cultivated in it—is an im¬
portant appendage of the forcing garden. After noticing
some of the most necessary apparatus employed in it, we
shall treat of the melon, cucumber, &c., and their culture
respectively.
I he common hot-bed frame is most usually employed,
and is so well known, as scarcely to require description!
It is a rectangular box, with sliding sashes, which are
single, in pairs, or in threes. The length of the sash is
five or six feet, and its breadth about three feet and a half.
The back of the frame is about double the height of the
front, and the slope is set towards the south. When used,
it is placed on a bed of fermenting stable litter, from three
to six feet in thickness, according to the purpose to which
it is to be applied, or the severity of the season.
The Alderston Melon Pit, of which fig. 6, Plate CCXCIII.
is a section, is partly above and partly below ground. The
front and back walls a, a, are ot brick, supported on piers
or stone pillars : b, b, are spaces inclosed within outer walls,
and covered with boards to contain linings, which com¬
municate, without any object intervening, with the fer¬
menting substances in the interior of the pit. These spaces
may be two feet wide: the interior pit should seldom be
more than six feet in breadth. A principal quality of this
structure is its neatness and cleanliness. Caled. Hortic.
Mem. vol. ii. p. 217.
West’s Melon and Cucumber Pit is also built of brick.
It has, Plate CCXCIII. fig. 7, a chamber a to contain
dung; b a square opening by which the dung is intro¬
duced ; c rafters of wood or cast iron, sustaining the inte¬
rior soil; d, d, openings to permit the ascent of steam.
The walls are nine inches thick, and the pit mav be seven
feet wide inside measure. Lond. Hort. Trans, vol. iv.
p. 220.
Atkinson’s Melon Pit, Plate CCXCII. fig. 10, is a brick
structure. The back wall a and the end walls are four
inches thick, built in the pigeon-hole fashion, that is, with
square interstices between the bricks. The front wall b is
double. the interior portion is brick in bed, the exterior
brick on edge, with piers under each rafter. The included
space communicates with the inside of the bed c. The pit
d is filled with fermenting litter or tanners’ bark : e, e, are
spaces for linings. This pit, according to the experience
of the Horticultural Society of London, has been found
“ for superior to any other yet constructed.” Trans, vol. vi.
p. 373. The w-hole is sometimes formed of wood, or some¬
times only the part above ground.
Besides these, pits constructed on the principles exhibit¬
ed in Plate CCXCII. figs. 2 and 11, may also be em¬
ployed.
The extent of the melonry must depend upon the size
of the garden, and the amount of the demand. Where there
is a large family, and especially w here pine-apples are cul¬
tivated (to the forwarding of which some portion of the
melonry may frequently be auxiliary), sixty or seventy
sashes may be considered as a moderate complement.
The Melon (Cucumis Meld) has long been cultivated
in Britain, but the period of its introduction and its native
country are not well ascertained. The plant is a tender
annual, requiring considerable care and skill to rear it in
perfection ; but it repays the labours of the horticulturist
by affording a large, and to most persons a highly palatable
fruit. The varieties are numerous, and, from "their ten¬
dency to sport or vary, are rather fugitive in their dura¬
tion. Many of the old favourites have disappeared, and
those at present in vogue wall doubtless take the same
course, or will at least assume new forms, while they retain
their old names. In these circumstances, it is deemed un¬
necessary to enter into minute description, or to do more
than give a list ol the sorts at present deserving of cultiva¬
tion. It may be premised, that they all belong to the spe¬
cies usually called the Musk-Melon. The Water melon
For,
Gar ;
HORTICULTURE.
665
For ? (Cucurbit a Citrullus) appertains to another genus, and is
Gaijfi* seldom reared in this country except as a curiosity.
Early Cantaloupe,
Scarlet-fleshed Cantaloupe,
Early Polignac,
Smooth Scarlet-fleshed,
Golden Rock,
Silver Rock,
Cephalonian,
Des Carmes,
Green-fleshed Egyptian.
Green-fleshed Italian,
Daree Persian,
Green Hoosainee Persian.
Keiseng Persian,
Sweet Melon of Ispahan.
It is important that none but such seeds as have been
procured from approved genuine specimens of the several
sorts should be sown. In general, the fresher or more re¬
cent that garden seeds are, the better ; but the case is dif¬
ferent with the melon. Here it is desirable that the seeds
should have been kept in a dry state for some years : it is
found that plants produced from recent seeds push too
vigorously, sending their shoots to a great length before
they shew a single fruit; while those from old seeds are
less luxuriant in growth, but more fruitful.
The melon succeeds best in a strong, rich soil. A com¬
post, formed of two-thirds of rotted turf, and one-third of
old cow-dung, will be found very suitable. This should be
prepared for a year or two before it be employed in the
melon frame.
There are generally several, perhaps three, successive
crops of melons raised in large gardens. It is seldom expe¬
dient to sow before the middle or end of January, and some¬
times it is soon enough a month later. A seed-bed capable
of receiving a frame with a single sash is previously prepared.
This bed, composed of fermenting stable litter, should be of
considerable thickness, perhaps about five feet. Immediately
upon its formation, the frame and sash are placed on it, and
they are kept close till the heat begin to rise, when the hot
vapour is permitted to escape. Three or four days after the
bed has been formed, it is covered over to the depth of
three inches with earth prepared beforehand. Rich, light,
dry earth, is best adapted for this purpose ; and that it
may be dry enough, it is proper to use such as may have
been protected from rain during winter. A few small
flower-pots are filled with the same earth, and kept in the
hot-bed, that the soil in them may acquire a suitable tem¬
perature. The seeds are then sown in the flower-pots, and
covered half an inch deep; after which the pots are plunged
a little way into the earth of the bed.
When hot vapour rises copiously, fresh air i-s admitted
by raising the sash a little. The frame is covered every even¬
ing by sunset with mats, and is again exposed in the morn¬
ing about nine o’clock, sooner or later according to the state
of the weather. A single mat is sufficient at first, as the heat
in the bed is generally strong. In two or three days after
the seed has been sown, the plants appear, when the glasses
are raised a little, to admit fresh air, and permit the escape
of vapour. Unless this be done, the plants are apt either
to damp off or become yellow and sickly. To guard against
the casualties of the season, and the chance of miscarriage,
it is proper to make tw o other sowings at short intervals,
so that, if any accident befall the first plants, the others
may supply their place. Two or three days after the plants
have come up, they are transplanted into other small pots,
only two or three being put in each pot. If the earth be
very dry, it is now moistened with a little tepid water. The
pots are then plunged into the earth, and much care and
watchfulness are employed to prevent the roots from being
scorched. When the transplanted seedlings begin to grow,
they are watered occasionally in the warmest part of the
day. As the heat of the hot-bed declines, it is sup¬
ported by linings, applied from time to time, around its
outer surface. The lining should not exceed fifteen or
eighteen inches in thickness, and should rise above the
level of the bed, upon the sides of the frame.
About a month after the seeds have been sown, hot-beds
VOL. XI.
or pits are prepared for the reception of the young plants. Forcing
For the first crop, it is generally found that hot-beds are Garden.
preferable. These are formed about three feet and a lialf " 
thick, and of such extent as to receive several frames of
two or three lights each. The same precautions with re¬
spect to vapour, and other matters connected with the fer¬
mentation, are observed as in the seed-bed. When the
violence of the heat has begun to subside, the surface of the
bed is covered, to the depth of two inches, with dry, light
earth ; and under the centre of each sash, a conical heap of
the same soil is raised to the height of ten inches. By the
following day, the earth generally acquires a sufficient
warmth, and the bed is ready for the reception of the plants.
The pots containing the young plants should be well wa¬
tered the day previous to their being ridged out, to make
the ball adhere together, and come out of the pot entire.
After the tops of the hillocks of earth have been flattened
a little, in the centre of each a hole is made capable of con¬
taining one of the balls of earth which is to be turned out
of the pots. Some of the pots containing the strongest
plants are selected, and the young melon-plants are plunged
out, with balls entire, into the ridges or hillocks already
mentioned. After this operation has been performed, they
receive a gentle watering. The sashes are replaced, and
for some time, unless the vapour be strong, little air is
given. Care is taken to prevent the tender fibres from
being scorched. W’hen the roots begin to show themselves
through the surfiice of the hillocks, a quantity of fresh earth
is applied all around them, and in a week or fortnight after,
the whole surface of the bed is covered nearly as high as
the top of the hills.
When the plants have got two or three rough leaves,
the top of the stalklet, which now begins to elongate, is
pinched off, and from the axillae of the leaves lateral shoots
are soon shot forth. These are fastened down with pegs, and
are so disposed as regularly to cover the surface of the bed.
These laterals will sometimes show flowers at the second or
third joints; if they do not, they are topped in their turn,
and afford laterals, which seldom fail to be fruitful. As these
runners advance, they are trained along the surface, and
all weak useless shoots are removed. This should be done
frequently, as it is found injurious to cut out a great quan¬
tity of shoots and foliage at one time. No plant, as has
been shown by Mr Knight {Hortic. Trans, vol. i.), is more
beholden to its leaves, both as respects health and flavour
of fruit, than the melon.
It is seldom proper to leave more than one fruit on each
shoot, and in the large kinds perhaps not more than four or
five fruit should be left on one plant. When the fruit be¬
gins to swell, a slate or piece of tile is laid under each, to
separate it from the damp soil of the bed. During the pro¬
cess of growth, the fruit is usually turned about once a-week,
to expose all sides to the rays of the sun; but, in turning,
care must be taken not to twist the foot-stalk, as this would
destroy the fruit altogether. At this period water is given
with moderation, and abundance of air is admitted. The
fruit should be gathered before it be quite ripe. Its ap¬
proaching maturity is known by the appearance of a num¬
ber of cracks near the footstalk, and by the emission of a
rich odour. It is cut in the morning, and is kept in a cool
place till served up; if this precaution be not attended to,
there will be a considerable deficiency of flavour.
The average heat required for the successfid growth of
melons is about 70° Fahrenheit. In the common hot-bed,
this is maintained by defending the bed during the night, and
by applying linings from time to time. In pits heated by
hot-water circulation, this is easily effected at any season;
and were it not that the included air is apt to become too dry,
especially in winter, when much heat is required, such pits
would doubtless supersede the hot-bed frame altogether.
At present the old methods, partly it may be from custom,
4 p
666
HORTICULTURE.
Forcing are still principally employed. It is unnecessary to give
Garden, minute directions respecting the management of melons in
Y pits; as, in these, the mode of procedure recommended for
hot-beds, with some trifling variations, will also prove suc¬
cessful.
The Cucumber (Cucumis sativus), like the melon, is a
tender annual, requiring the assistance of artificial heat. It
properly belongs to the class of culinary vegetables, being
used in salads and pickles, and has long been cultivated in
this country. Its culture, however, requires the closest at¬
tention of the gardener. The sorts commonly grown are,
The Early Frame, Green Turkey,
Long Prickly, White Turkey,
Short Prickly, White Spined.
Of these, the long and short prickly are well suited for
ridges in the open air.
The culture of early cucumbers so much resembles that
of the melon, that it would be useless repetition to enter
into minute details. The cucumber, indeed, is somewhat
the hardier, and therefore in summer requires less heat;
but in every other respect the management of the plants
is precisely the same. The first crop of cucumbers is
generally sown in the end of December, or the begin¬
ning of January; a second in March, and a third in June.
In summer, cucumber plants, after they have been fair¬
ly established, require scarcely any other attention than
to thin them out occasionally, and to supply them with
water.
Cucumbers, particularly the prickly sorts, are often raised
in the warmer months under hand glasses. A cavity is
made in a border in front of a wall or other warm place,
and is filled with hot dung. This dung is covered with
earth, and two or three plants are put into it, and sheltered
with a hand-glass. They are watered and dressed from
time to time ; and by this means a sufficient supply of small
cucumbers, or girkens, is obtained for pickling.
In the southern counties of England, pickling cucumbers
are easily raised without any artificial heat, being sown in
drills in the open ground. The earth is made fine and
level, and shallow circular hollows are formed with the
hand, a foot wide, and half an inch deep in the middle.
The distance between each hollow is three feet and a half,
and the distance between the rows five or six feet. Eight
or ten seeds are deposited in each cavity. This is done in
the beginning of June. When the plants appear, they are
thinned out to three or four, the weakest or least healthy
being rejected. They are watered occasionally, according
to the state of the weather. The cucumbers are gathered
chiefly from the middle to the end of August. Vast quan¬
tities of these open ground girkens are taken to the Lon¬
don market. The village of Sandy, in Bedfordshire, has
been known to furnish 10,000 bushels of drilled cucumbers
in one week.
Gourds, species or varieties of the species of the genus
Cucurbita, may be grown like drilled cucumbers, or trained
against walls or on pales. Though occasionally used as
esculents, they are regarded chiefly as curiosities. The
buccada, or vegetable marrow, is a very useful sort, and in
request for the table, being eaten stewed with sauce or
mashed like turnips. It may be raised in an exhausted
melon-frame or pit; or it may be sown under a hand-glass,
and afterwards transplanted into a good aspect, and trained
against a wall or trellis.
The Mushroom {Agaricus campestris), though not
properly an inmate of the melonry, may appropriately
enough, from the nature of its culture, be taken along
with the plants grown in this department of the garden. It
is a well-known fungus, a general favourite, and esteemed
a delicacy during winter and the spring months.
Mushrooms used to be grown in ridges or prepared beds,
in sheds, or covered with litter in the open air. Of late
years, the Russian form of the mushroom-house has been
introduced into Britain by Mr Isaac Oldacre, and is now
in very general use. Its arrangement may be seen by in¬
specting the back part of the vinery fig. 3, Plate CCXCI.
1 wo tiers of boxes, three in each tier, and supported by a
strong frame-work, are constructed round the whole house,
with the exception of the spaces occupied by a door and
two windows. The boxes may be from two feet and a half
to three feet and a half broad, and about a foot deep. The
house is supposed to be heated by hot-water circulation.
In the centre is a narrow pit, by which the house may
be worked by means of fermenting'litter instead of the hot-
water, or in which rhubarb stalks, &c. may be forced. The
windows are furnished with shutters to regulate the admis¬
sion of light, and are moveable, to permit the ingress of air.
Mushrooms are propagated from what is technically call¬
ed spawn, which is a collection of vegetable threads per¬
vading dried dung or other similar substance, having the
smell ot mushrooms, and apparently the fungus in its un¬
developed state. It may be obtained from old pastures,
decayed mushroom beds, or purchased from nurserymen in
the form of bricks charged with spawn. When once ob¬
tained, it may, like leaven, be indefinitely preserved. If not
otherwise procured, it may be produced, or in a manner
generated, by placing quantities of horse-dung and rich
earth in alternate layers, and covering the whole with
straw, to exclude the rain and air. Mushroom spawn com¬
monly appears in the heap in about two months after the
dung and earth have been laid together. The droppings
of stall-fed horses, or of such as have been kept on dry
food, are found preferable for this purpose.
The old method of growing mushrooms has been refer¬
red to above ; and, as it has some conveniences, particular¬
ly for those who have not extensive apparatus, it may be
proper to give some account of it. The beds are formed
of horse-droppings which have been laid out for some time
without having fermented, and may be made two or three
feet broad, and of any length. A layer of dung about eight
or ten inches thick is first deposited, and covered with light
dryish earth to the depth of two or three inches ; then an¬
other layer of dung of the same thickness, covered like the
former; and lastly a third layer, with its covering. The
whole should grow narrower as it advances in height.
When the bed is finished, it is covered with straw to pro¬
tect it from rain, and from the parching influences of the
sun and wind. In ten days the bed will be ready for plant¬
ing or spawning. Pieces of spawn bricks are inserted in
the sloping sides of the bed, about four or five inches asun¬
der. A layer of fine earth is then placed over the bed, and
the whole is covered with a thick coat of straw. When
the weather is temperate, mushrooms will appear in about
a month after the bed has been made; but at other times,
a much longer period may elapse. The principal things to
be attended to are to preserve a moderate state of mois¬
ture, and a proper degree of warmth ; and the treatment at
different seasons must vary accordingly.
Of the many other methods of raising mushrooms, Mr
Oldacre’s, already referred to, may deserve to be particu¬
larised. In forming the compost, he procures fresh short
dung from a stable, or from the path of a horse-mill. To
this is added about a fifth part of sheep-droppings, or of
the cleanings of a cowhouse, or of a mixture of both. The
whole ingredients are thoroughly mixed and incorporated.
A stratum of the prepared mixture, about three inches
thick, being deposited in the boxes already described, is
beat together with a flat wooden mallet. Another layer is
added, and beat as before; and this is repeated till the beds
Fo
Ga
HORTICULTURE.
Kit in be rather more than half a foot thick, and very compact.
Ga n. The boxes are then placed in the mushroom-house, or any
out-house where a slightly increased temperature can be
commanded. A degree of fermentation generally takes
place; but if heat be not soon perceptible, another layer
must still be added, till sufficient action be excited. When
the beds are milk-warm, or between 80° and 9Q° Fahren¬
heit, some holes are dibbled in the mass to receive the
spawn. The holes are left open for some time; and when
the heat is on the decline, but before it be quite gone, a
piece of spawn-brick is thrust into each opening, and the
holes are closed with a little compost. A week afterwards
the boxes are covered with a smooth coating, an inch and
half thick, of rich mould mixed with about a fifth part of
horse-droppings. The apartment is now kept as nearly and
equably at 55° Fahrenheit as circumstances will allow.
When the boxes become dry, a little soft water may be
sprinkled over them, but sparingly and with circumspec¬
tion. The more that free air can be admitted, the flavour
of the mushrooms is the better; but the exclusion of frost
is indispensable. If a number of boxes have been prepared
at first, a few only at a time may be covered with mould
and brought into bearing, the rest being covered and crop¬
ped in succession, as mushrooms may be in demand.
Mr Edward Callow, in a tract on the artificial growth
of mushrooms, describes a method in which the pits are
wrought by means of dung heat. His structure somewhat
resembles Atkinson’s melon-pit, only the roof is covered
with thatch, and a suite of air-flues is formed within the
interior of the pit, with branches crossing the principal bed
which occupies the floor. Linings of fermenting litter are
applied on the exterior of the house at the back and front.
The atmosphere of the pit, in the earlier stage, is kept at
55° to 65° Fahrenheit, and when the bed is in full bearing,
about 70°. The other details of this method scarcely dif¬
fer from those of Mr Oldacre’s.
KITCHEN GARDEN.
In this department those plants are cultivated which,
after being subjected to various culinary processes, are used
as articles of food. They may be enumerated in the order
of their importance, each, for the sake of precision, being
accompanied by its botanical name.
Cabbage Tribe.
The Brassica oleracea, Lin. is a plant indigenous to
our rocky shores ; but no one, seeing it waving in its native
habitat, could possibly anticipate that it would ever appear
in our gardens, disguised as the ponderous drumhead or
sugar-loaf cabbage, or on our tables as the delicate cauli¬
flower and broccoli. The cultivated varieties are nume¬
rous ; but the following are the most important.
Common White Cabbage. The economical uses of this
vegetable are well known. Its principal subvarieties are
the following:
Small Early Dwarf, East Ham,
Early May, Large Sugar-loaf,
Dwarf Vanack, Drumhead,
Early York, Scotch,
Chinese, Tronchuda.
The first three are adapted for early crops; the next three
for use in the end of summer and autumn, and the others
for winter. The leaf-stalks of the Tronchuda are used like
sea-cale.
The Cabbage is propagated from seed, which may be
sown in beds four feet wide, and covered over with a thin
layer of earth. The proper seasons for this operation are
the middle of August, the beginning of March, and Mid-
667
summer. By observing these times, and employing differ- Kitchen
ent sorts, the succession may be kept up through the year. Harden.
For the early spring crops, the late sown plants are in's-*“v~—
October transferred from the seed-bed to some open and
well manured ground, where they are arranged in rows two
feet asunder. The principal supply may be put out in
February, affording the larger sorts more width between
the rows. The crops sown in spring are planted out in
May and June. For subsequent culture, all that is neces¬
sary is, to keep the ground clear of weeds, and to draw up
the soil about the stems. In some situations watering in
summer is beneficial.
The cabbages grown late in autumn and in beginning of
winter are denominated Coleworts, from a kindred vege¬
table no longer cultivated. The object is to have them with
open or slightly closed hearts. Two sowings are made, in
the middle of June and in July, and the seedlings, when
they acquire sufficient strength, are planted out in lines, a
foot or fifteen inches asunder, and eight or ten inches in
the rows.
The Red Cabbage, of which the large or Dutch red is
the common variety, is much used for pickling. It is sown
along with the white varieties in August and in spring, and
the culture is in every respect the same.
The Savoy. This variety, like the preceding, forms
into a close head, but is distinguished by the wrinkling of
its leaves. It is a very useful vegetable during the winter
months. The principal subvarieties are the Early Green,
the Yellow, and the Winter, of each of which there are
various forms. The seed is sown in autumn and in the
end of spring, and two plantings may take place, in April,
and in June or July.
Brussels Sprouts. This vegetable is allied to the fore¬
going, but does not close or cabbage. From the axillae of the
stem-leaves proceed little rosettes or sprouts, which resemble
savoy cabbages in miniature. The seed should be sown
in spring, and the seedlings planted out before midsummer,
during showery weather. In October the plants should
have additional earth drawn to their roots, to firm them,
and save them from being destroyed by frost. The earliest
sprouts become fit for use in November, and they continue
good, or even improving in quality, till the month of March
following. Mr Van Mons of Brussels mentions {London
Hortic. Mem.xol. iii.), that by successive sowings the sprouts
are there obtained for the greater part of the year. In spring,
when the plants have a tendency to run to flower, their
growth is checked by lifting them, and replanting them in
a slanting direction, in a cool shady situation.
Open Kale. The principal subvarieties are:
German Greens, or Curlies, Buda Kale,
Scotch Kale, or Green Borecole, Jerusalem Kale,
Purple, or Brown Kale, Woburn Kale.
Delaware Greens,
Of these the three first are considered the most valuable,
and are the sorts chiefly cultivated in this country. The
seed is sown at various times from February to May, and
the seedlings are planted out in moist weather during sum¬
mer, in rows two feet asunder. The Buda Kale is sown
in May, planted out in September, and being hardy, affords
a supply in the following spring.
Of the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, or Kohl-rube, there
are two varieties, one swelling above ground, the other in
it. There is nothing peculiar in the culture, unless that,
in the case of the first mentioned, the earth should not be
drawn so high as to cover the globular part of the stem,
which is the part used. The seed may be sown in the be¬
ginning of June, and the seedlings transplanted in July;
they are thus fit for use at the approach of winter.
Cauliflower. This variety is cultivated for the sake
of the flower-buds, which form a large dense cluster or
head, and afford one of the most delicate products of the
668
HORTICULTURE.
Kitchen kitchen-garden. There are three subvarieties, the Early,
Garden, the Late, and the Reddish-stalked; but these seem to pre-
' ^ sent scarcely any well-marked distinction.
The sowing, for the first or spring crop, is made in the
latter half of the month of August; and, in the neighbour¬
hood of London, the growers adhere as nearly as possible
to the 21st day. A second sowing takes place in Febru¬
ary on a slight hot-bed, and a third in April or May.
The cauliflower being tender, the young plants require
protection in winter. For this purpose they are sometimes
pricked out in a warm situation at the foot of a wall with a
southern exposure, where, in severe weather, they are also
covered with hoops and mats. A better method is to plant
them thickly in the ground under a common hot-bed frame,
and to secure them from cold by coverings, and from damp,
by giving air in mild weather. For a very early supply, it
is useful to be at the pains of potting a few scores of plants ;
these are to be kept under glass during winter, and plun¬
ged out in spring, defending them with a hand-glass, and
watering them when needful. Sometimes, as in market-
gardens, patches of three or four plants are sheltered by
hand-glasses throughout the winter in the open border.
It is advantageous to prick out the spring-sown plants into
some sheltered place, before they be finally transplanted
and committed to the open ground in May. The later
crop, the transplantation of which may take place at various
times, is treated like early cabbages. Cauliflower succeeds
best in a rich soil and a warm situation. After planting,
all that is necessary is to hoe the ground, and draw up the
soil about the roots.
It is found that this vegetable, being induced to form its
large and crowded clusters of flower-buds in the autumn,
may be kept in perfection over winter. Cauliflowers which
have been planted out in July, will be nearly ready for use
in October. Towards the end of that month, the most
compact and best shaped are selected and lifted carefully
with the spade, keeping a ball of earth attached to the
roots. Some of the large outside leaves are removed, in
order that the plants may occupy less room, and at the same
time, any points of leaves that immediately overhang the
flower are cut off. Where there are peach-houses or
vineries the plants may be arranged in the borders of these,
together, but without touching. Or they may be placed in
the same manner in hot-bed frames : In mild dry weather the
glass frames are drawn off, but they are kept close in rain;
and in severe frost they are thickly covered with mats. In
this way cauliflower may be kept in an excellent state for
several months.
Broccoli has a close affinity to cauliflower, being, like
it, of Italian origin, and differing chiefly in the greater
hardiness of its constitution. The subvarieties are nume¬
rous, and exceedingly diversified. The following are those
which are in most repute at present. The first five pro¬
duce their buds in autumn, the others in spring :
Purple Cape, Cream-coloured,
Green Cape, Sulphur-coloured,
Grange’s Early, Spring White,
Early Purple, Late Purple,
Early White, Late Danish.
Ot the autumnal sorts there should be two sowings, one in
the middle of April, and one in the middle of May. As the
plants acquire strength they are shifted into the open ground,
where they are placed in lines two feet apart. The Cape
varieties are of great excellence, being of a delicious flavour
when dressed; but on account of the plants being apt to
start into flower, their cultivation has in many places been
neglected. With proper management, however, this ten¬
dency may be overruled. The first sowing may be made
on any border of light soil, scattering the seed very spar-
higly* In about a month the plants may be transferred
directly into a quarter consisting of sandy loam, well en¬
riched with rotten dung. The greater part of the second m
crop should be planted in pots likewise directly from the Ga j31
seed-bed. These pots are to be sunk in the open grounds J
till the heads be formed; and in the end of November
they are to be placed under a glass frame, where very fine
broccoli may be produced during the severest weather of
winter. Mr Ronalds of Brentford recommends (London
Hortic. Tram. vol. iii.) that the Early White, which is also
a very fine sort, should be sown on a hot-bed, and treated
like the secondary crop of cauliflower.
The spring varieties are extremely valuable, as they
come at a season when the finer vegetables are scarce.
They are sown in the middle of March or the beginning of
April, and afford a supply from March to May inclusive of
the following year.
To obtain seed of the Brassica tribe, true specimens of
the different varieties should be selected, in such a state of
advancement as that they will flower as early as possible in
spring. They should be planted in an open situation, and
kept as far apart from other kinds of the same tribe as may
be. As they are very liable to cross or hybridize, it is per¬
haps better, except in the case of some favourite variety,
to procure supplies from a respectable seedsman, from
whom they are almost uniformly to be had genuine, the
extensive seed-growers being at great pains to prevent in¬
termixture of crops.
Leguminous Plants.
Of the Pea (Pisum sativum), there are two principal
varieties, the Field or gray hog pea, and the Garden Pea.
The latter alone requires our attention here. Its chief
subvarieties are:
Early Frame,
Early Charlton,
Bishop’s Dwarf,
Dwarf Marrowfat,
Tall Marrowfat,
Imperial,
Knight’s Tall Marrowfat,
Dwarf Marrowfat,
Prussian Blue,
Prussian Green,
Leadman’s Dwarf,
Sugar.
The first three are suitable for early crops, and the others
for successional supplies. In the sugar pea, of which there
are two sorts, the tall and dwTarf, the inner filmy lining of
the pod is absent, and the young legumes are used like
kidney-beans,
1 he first crop of pease is sown about the beginning of
November, in front of a south wTall; and these, after they
have appeared above ground, are defended by spruce-fir
branches, or other spray, throughout the winter. In Ja¬
nuary and February other sowings are made, and some¬
times the seed is put into flowrer-pots and boxes, and the
young plants afterwards plunged out in spring. From the
end of February moderate sow ings should be made twice
a month till the middle of August, thus ensuring a supply
of successive crops of delicate green pease. For the latest
crops the early frame and the Charlton are the best.
Pease are sowm in rows from three to five feet asunder, ac¬
cording to the height which the different sorts are known
usually to attain. As they grow up the earth is drawn up
to the roots, and the stems are supported with stakes, a
practice which, in a well kept garden, is always advisable,
although it is said that the early varieties, when recumbent,
arrive sooner at maturity.
The early crops come into use in May and June, and
by repeated sowings, the supplies are prolonged to No¬
vember. Pease grov/n late in autumn are subject to mil¬
dew, to obviate which, Mr Knight has proposed the fol¬
lowing method. The ground is dug over in the usual way,
and the spaces to be occupied by the future rows of pease
are well soaked with water. The mould on each side is
then collected, so as to form ridges seven or eight inches
high, and these ridges are well watered. On these the
HORTICULTURE.
669
Kit ;n seed is sown in single rows. If dry weather at any time
Ga n< set in, water is supplied profusely once a-week. In this
^ way the plants continue green and vigorous resisting mil¬
dew, and not yielding till subdued by frost.
Of the Garden-bean {Faba vulgaris), amongst many
varieties may be mentioned:
The Early Mazagan,
Early Lisbon,
Dwarf Fan or Cluster,
Long Pod,
Green Genoa,
Windsor,
Green Windsor,
White-blossomed.
The Mazagan and Lisbon are sown in November, and are
defended during winter in the same manner as early pease,
but they are more difficult to preserve. The same sorts
should be sown again in January and February. In March
the Dwarf Cluster and Long-pod may be put in the ground
for a general crop, and subsequently the Windsor and
White-blossomed. The latter is a variety of considerable
merit, and when the pods are taken at an early stage, they
have little of the peculiar bean flavour, or only enough to
render them pleasant. During the growth of the bean
crop, all the culture that is necessary is, that the earth be
drawn up about the roots. Topping the plants is usually
practised, being found to promote the filling of the pods.
Kidney-bean. Under this general title are included
the common kidney-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Lin.) of
many varieties ; and also the Scarlet Runner {P. multiflo-
rus, Willd.) Kidney-beans are the haricots of the French,
who enumerate upwards of 200 varieties. The sorts usually
cultivated in this country are,
Early Yellow,
Early Red Speckled,
Early Black,
Early White,
White Battersea,
White Canterbury,
Black Speckled,
Brown Speckled,
Scarlet Runner,
Dutch White.
The first four are the earliest; the others are more produc¬
tive, and better fitted for a general crop. As the plant is
of tropical origin, our climate is scarcely sufficient for the
extensive cultivation of the ripe beans, which are the prin¬
cipal object in France and Italy. The immature legumes
are chiefly used in this country.
It is seldom advantageous to sow kidney-beans in the
open ground before the middle or end of April; after which
period successive sowings may be made every fourteen days
to the end of July. The plants are grown in rows two
feet apart, and the earth is carefully drawn to the roots.
Kidney-beans are well adapted for forcing, in hot-beds, or
in hot-houses; the climate of the peach-house, when it can
be obtained, being considered the best. The sowings may
begin in January; they are made in pots, and a supply
may be thus obtained in the months of March, April, and
May. The dwarf speckled is commonly used in hot-houses,
and the early white in hot-beds.
Esculent Roots.
The Potato {Solarium tuberosum). This well-known
plant is a native of the elevated regions of equatorial Ame¬
rica. It wTas introduced into Europe about the middle of
the 16th century, but remained little known or regarded
till within the last hundred years: it is now so generally
cultivated, as to have effected almost an economical revo¬
lution in this country. Most of the original British sorts
were derived from Ireland. Its multitudinous varieties
now set enumeration at defiance, and many are indeed ap¬
pearing and disappearing every year. The culture of the
late sorts properly belongs to the farm, and when the gar¬
dener has to take them under his care, he will find it best
to adopt such as are common in the agriculture of the dis¬
trict. Of the early kinds, most of which are supposed to
have originated in Lancashire, the following may be esteem- Kitchen
ed the best: Garden.
Early Royal Dwarf, Early Frame,
American Early, Early Kidney,
Early Ash-leaved, Walnut-leaved Kidney.
Potatoes are commonly propagated by dividing the tubers,
leaving to each segment one or two eyes or buds. The
sets are then planted by the aid of the dibble or spade, in
rows at a distance varying from fifteen inches to two feet.
It has been suggested by Mr Knight {London Hortic. Trans.
vol. vii.), and his views have been amply confirmed by ex¬
periment, that by planting whole tubers, and at greater
distances, a larger produce will be obtained. Mr Knight
proposed to leave four feet between the rows, a distance
which, except with the larger varieties, w as found to be too
great. An experienced horticulturist in Scotland states,
that by planting whole tubers, and by leaving in the case
of dwarfs two feet, and in the tall varieties two feet and a
half, between the rows, a return from one-third to one-half
more was obtained than could be had from the old method.
Of course a greater quantity of tubers are required for plant¬
ing, but these bear no proportion to the great increase
which results ; and besides, early potatoes at the planting
season being unfit for eating, there is little economy in
sparing them.
The earliest crops should, if possible, be placed in a light
soil and in a warm situation, and are planted about the
middle of March. Sometimes the eyes of the tubers are
made to spring or vegetate on a hot-bed, and the plants are
put out as soon as the leaves can bear the open air. Per¬
haps it is better, as recommended by Mr Saul of Lancaster
( Gardener’s Mag. vol. ii.), to promote incipient vegetation
in some warm place, as a house or greenhouse, by laying a
woollen cloth or some other covering over them. When
the sprouts are about two inches long, he plants them out
towards the end of March, and thus procures young pota¬
toes in seven or eight weeks. A secondary planting of
tubers should be made before the middle of April. When
the stems are a few inches above ground, the earth should
be drawn to them ; an operation, however, which, while it
improves the crop, delays its maturity for two or three
wreeks. Mr Knight recommends removing the flowers as
they appear, and states that by this means the produce is
increased by a ton per acre. The fine early varieties, how ¬
ever, scarcely produce any flowers.
An important fact in the cultivation of the potato was
observed about the year 1806, by the late Mr Thomas
Dickson of Edinburgh, viz. that the most healthy and pro¬
ductive plants were to be obtained, by employing as seed-
stock unripe tubers, or even by planting only the wet or
least-ripened ends of long-shaped potatoes; and he pro¬
posed this as a preventive of the well-known disease called
the Curl. This view has been confirmed by Mr Knight.
An intelligent wniter in the Gardener’s Magazine (vol. ii.
p. 171) states a method by which sprouting of the eyes is
accelerated. He takes up the seed potatoes a considerable
time before they are ripe, and exposes them for some weeks
to the influence of a scorching sun. The resulting crop is
at least a fortnight earlier; but it is not said how this prac¬
tice affects the curl.
The forcing of early potatoes on hot-beds has long been
practised ; but it is attended with considerable trouble and
expense. Small supplies of young waxy tubers are now
often produced during winter, in boxes placed in a mush¬
room-house, or in a common cellar, if free from frost. In
October, old potatoes are placed in layers, alternating with
a mixture of tree leaves and light mould. Vegetation soon
proceeds ; and there being no opportunity for the unfold¬
ing of stems and leaves, the energies of the plants are ex
pended in the production of. young tubers. Before mid-
670
HORTICULTURE.
Kitchen winter these often attain the size and appearance of early
Garden, potatoes ; but they are much inferior, being watery and of
" little flavour.
Jerusalem Artichoke {Helianthus tuberosus\ or tube¬
rous-rooted sunflower. This plant, which is a native of
Brazil, derives its epithet Jerusalem from a corruption of
the Italian Girasole, a sunflower, and Artichoke from the
resemblance, in flavour, which its tubers bear to the floral
receptacles or bottoms of the artichoke. It is propagated
by means of its tubers in the manner of potatoes. In
March they are planted out in rows three or four feet asun¬
der, and in autumn the new tubers are fit for use. For
the sake of convenience, it is advantageous to store them,
though the roots are hardy enough to bear the winter frosts.
Some, indeed, allow them to remain in the ground, and
dig them up when required. In this way a sufficient num¬
ber of sets are generally left in the ground, and the stalks
are thinned into rows in summer; but this is a slovenly
mode of treatment, and seldom produces well-flavoured
crops.
The Turnip (Brassica Rapa), like the potato, has, to a
great extent, migrated into the fields, and become the care
of the husbandman more than of the gardener. The fol¬
lowing are the most esteemed garden sorts:
Early White Dutch,
Early Stone,
Green-topped White,
Long White,
Early Yellow Maltese,
Dutch Yellow,
Aberdeen Yellow,
Long Yellow.
Besides these, the Navet of the French (Brassica Najms v.
esculenta) is occasionally cultivated, and more frequently
the Swedish Turnip (Brassica campestris v. Napo-bras-
sica, L.), which is a most excellent winter sort, though it
belongs more properly to the farm. For early crops, the
white Dutch is the principal variety ; the other white sorts,
and the beautiful yellow Maltese, are useful in summer and
in the beginning of autumn. The yellow Dutch being capa¬
ble of enduring any degree of frost, affords the best winter
supplies.
I urnips succeed best in a rich, well-worked soil, of a
light or medium quality. The first sowing is made about
the end of March, in a warm situation ; and it is usual to
put in additional sowings, once a fortnight or three weeks,
till the end of August. The early crops are sown broad¬
cast, and the later in drills. After the plants have shewn
a rough leaf or two, they are thinned out, being left at the
distance of eight or ten inches in the drill; and the ground
is hoed and kept free from weeds. As turnips which have
stood the winter throw up their seed-stalks early in spring,
after which their roots become stringy, and are much de¬
teriorated, it is useful to store the turnips in winter, keep¬
ing them in a close place, and covering them with straw.
The young plants, while in the seed-leaf, are often de¬
stroyed by a small beetle called the turnip-fly (Haltica
nemorum). Many remedies have been proposed: it has
been found beneficial to dust the rows with quicklime ; but
perhaps the best precaution is to sow thick, and thus in¬
sure a sufficient supply both for the insect and the crop.
I he Carrot (Daucus Carota) is one of our native
Umbelliferae, but has been much transformed by cultiva¬
tion. The best varieties are the Early Horn and the
Orange Carrot, the former for early, the latter for general
cultivation. The carrot loves a light, deep, fresh soil, in
which it may be at liberty to push down its long spindle-
shaped roots. A few Early Horn carrots may be sown in
February on a moderate hot-bed. In the beginning of
March, the same sort may be sown in the open air. In
April, the orange variety may follow as a general crop : it
succeeds best in drills. In many old gardens the early Kit’
plants are liable to the attacks of a small grub, the larva of Gar.'
some insect; it is therefore a useful precaution to sow a''—-, j
moderate crop of the Early Horn variety in July. After
sowing, it is only necessary to thin the plants and keep
them clear of weeds. The roots are stored in winter in
the manner of turnips.
The Parsnep (Pastinaca sativa) is now less cultivated
than it was in Catholic times, when it was a favourite ac¬
companiment to dried fish in Lent. To some its flavour
is not agreeable ; but it is a very nutritious vegetable, and
of easy digestion. Like the carrot, its root is long and
tapering, differing chiefly in being of a whitish colour. Its
culture is also very much the same.
Red Beet (Beta vulgaris') is a biennial plant, a native
of the shores of the south of Europe. The boiled root is
eaten cold, either by itself or as a salad: it is also often
used as a pickle. The varieties are numerous, but the
most common are the Long-rooted, the Short or Turnip-
rooted, the Bassano, and the Green-topped. There is a
fine French variety called Castelnaudary, from a town in
Languedoc; but as yet it is little known in this country.
Red beet prospers in a rich, deep soil, not recently ma¬
nured, and which has been well pulverized by the spade.
During April the seeds may be sown in drills, fifteen inches
asunder, and the plants are afterwards to be thinned to
eight inches from each other in the lines. In the northern
parts of the island, the roots are stored in winter, care being
taken not to break them or cut off the leaves too closely,
as they bleed when injured.
Skirret (Sium Sisarum) is a native of China, now sel¬
dom seen in our gardens. Its tubers are used like parsneps.
It is a perennial, and may be propagated by separating the
roots in spring ; but it succeeds better by annual sowings,
which may be made in April.
Scorzonera (ScorzoneraHispanica) and Salsify ( Tra-
gopogon porrifolius) are generally associated together in
gardens, and are now less cultivated than they deserve.
1 he roots are used in soups, and sometimes as dressed side
dishes. They are sown in lines, and treated like the crops
of red beet or parsnep.
The Radish (Raphanus sativus) is a native of China.
There are two principal varieties, the spindle-rooted and
the turnip-rooted radish ; and of these the subvarieties are
numerous. The following may be mentioned :
Early Frame Scarlet, White Turnip,
Short-topped Scarlet, Yellow Turnip,
Scarlet Salmon, White Spanish,
Long White, Black Spanish.
The first two and the white turnip radish are best suited
for early crops ; the scarlet salmon for summer, the yellow
turnip for autumn, and the white and black Spanish for
winter.
Some cultivators sow their earliest crop in November, in
a warm situation, at the foot of a wall or in front of a
pinery, and continue sowing once a-month, if weather per¬
mit, during winter. Others grow their first radishes under
frames, aiding vegetation by a slight bottom heat. As the
season advances, successional supplies are sown once a
fortnight. From the middle of July to the middle of Sep¬
tember, the turnip-radishes are sown from time to time;
and on the approach of frost they may be stored up in sand
like carrots, and kept throughout winter.
Oxalis Roots (Oxalis crenata, Jacq. ; O. arracacha,
G. Don) have of late years been cultivated for the table in
HORTICULTURE.
p, ,n this country. The plant produces tubers at the root, some-
gai[n. what in the manner of the potato ; but they are of small
^ size, seldom exceeding that of a walnut. By cultivation,
however, by manuring, laying down, earthing up, water¬
ing, and other helps known to horticulturists, considerable
increase of size in the tubers may be effected. From the
mode of culture adopted by the most intelligent gardeners,
we conclude that a rich light soil is the most proper (al¬
though some cultivators have recommended a poor soil) ;
that it is useful to forward the plants in a hot-bed, in the
way practised with early pease, so as to have them ready
to transplant by the middle or end of May ; that in plant¬
ing out, they should be inserted in a sloping position, so that
a considerable portion of the stem may be covered by the
soil; that earthing up, or drawing up additional soil to the
stems in June and July is important; and that laying down
the stems horizontally in August, and covering them slight¬
ly (to the depth perhaps of two inches) with mould, tends
greatly to promote the productiveness. It should be ob¬
served that the tubers continue to swell in size till Novem¬
ber, or till stopped by frost. It is believed that the largest
tubers, having full eyes or buds, yield the strongest plants;
and therefore a portion of the largest should always be re¬
served for seed-stock. Cut sets of these large tubers are,
by some cultivators, preferred to whole tubers. The rest,
from the size of a filbert to a walnut, go to the cook. We
may remark, that till the plant become more common, the
very smallest tubers should not be thrown away, but should
be carefully preserved, for increasing the extent of the
oxalis bed the following season. The mode of dressing for
table is simple. The tubers, after being cleaned, are boil¬
ed for about ten minutes, or till they be slightly softened ;
and they are then served up with white sauce. Some per¬
sons merely put them into boiling water for a few minutes ;
then, pouring oft' the water, transfer them to a covered
saucepan ; and place the pan upon hot cinders, drawing
some of these near to the lid: in this way the tubers are
rendered more dry or mealy. They are of excellent qua¬
lity and pleasant flavour; somewhat resembling a new
potato, with the additional zest of a nut or kernel. The
oxalis comes from the same country that afforded us the
invaluable potato, and has been extolled as likely to rival it;
but this it will never do : a dish of oxalis will form an agree¬
able variety and adjunct, but no more ; bearing to the po¬
tato such relation as sea-cale does to asparagus. It may be
added, however, that the oxalis crenata is, in other respects,
a useful vegetable. The leaves may be used as salad, and
form, indeed, the principal salad at Lima. The shoots and
young branches are found to make a pleasant puree, hav¬
ing the wood-sorrel flavour; and the larger stems have
been used in tarts, in the manner of rhubarb-stalks, and
been found more tender.
Alliaceous Plants.
The Onion {Allium Cepd) is too well known to require
description: it has been cultivated in this country from
time immemorial. Among the varieties may be enume¬
rated :
Strasburgh, Silver-skinned,
Deptford, White Portugal,
Globe, Blood Red,
James’s Keeping, Potato Onion.
Besides these, the Welsh Onion or Ciboule {Allium fistu-
losum, L.), a native of Siberia, is sometimes grown for
scallions. For a general crop, the Strasburgh and Dept¬
ford varieties may be esteemed the best. The White Por-
tugal grows to a large size, but does not keep well. The
silver-skinned is chiefly used for pickling.
The onion affects a light, rich, well worked soil, which
has not been recently manured The principal crop may
671
be sown in the course of the month of March, according to Kitchen
the state of the weather and the dryness of the ground. Garden.
Onions are grown in beds, four or five feet in width, andv—^
are regularly thinned, hoed, and kept free from weeds.
About the beginning of September the crop is ripe, which
is known by the withering of the leaves; the roots are
taken up, and, after being well dried, are stored in a garret
or loft, where they may be perfectly secured from damp.
Towards the end of August a secondary crop is sown, to
afford a supply of young onions or scallions, as they are
called, in the spring months. The Strasburgh and White
Portugal may be used for this purpose. Those which are
not required for the kitchen being allowed to stand, if the
flower-bud is picked out on its first appearance, and the
earth is stirred about them, frequently produce bulbs equal
in size and quality to the large ones that are imported from
the Continent.
Some eminent horticulturists have strongly recommend¬
ed the transplanting of onions. Mr Knight sows the White
Portugal onion in spring under the shade of a tree, where
they remain of a diminutive size. They are kept over
winter, and are planted out in the succeeding spring. Mr
Brown collects all the minute bulbs of the ordinary crop,
and uses them in the same way. Mr Macdonald, Dalkeith
Park, confines his operations to one summer. He sows in
February on a slight hot-bed, or sometimes merely under
a glass frame. In the first or second week of April, ac¬
cording to the state of the weather, he transplants the
young seedlings in rows, eight inches asunder, and at the
distance of four or five inches in the row. Previously to
planting, the roots of the seedlings are dipped in a puddle
of one part of soot to three parts of earth, an expedient
which is found to secure the transplanted onions from the
wire-worm. Onions thus treated attain a large size. We
have seen autumn-sown onions submitted to a similar
management with great success.
The Potato Onion is propagated by the lateral bulbs,
which it throws out, under ground, in considerable num¬
bers. It is planted about mid-winter, and ripens in sum¬
mer. Its flavour is strong, and not unpleasant; but the
plant being rather delicate and troublesome in cultivation,
is not likely to supersede the common onion.
The Pearl Onion, of recent introduction, and hitherto
little known, produces clusters of small bulbs at the root.
These little bulbs are of a fine white colour, like the sil¬
ver-skinned onion, and very fit for pickling.
The Leek {Allium Porrum) is a native of Switzerland,
but has probably been cultivated in this island for many
centuries. The varieties are the narrow-leaved or Flan¬
ders leek, the Scotch or flag leek, and the broad-leaved or
tall London leek. Of these the Scotch leek is considered
as the most hardy.
Leeks are sown in beds in spring ; and in June or July
are planted out in rows fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and
six inches asunder between the rows. The tips of the
fibrous roots are trimmed before planting. When the
weather is moist, it is found beneficial merely to lay the
plant into the hole made by the dibble, without closing the
earth upon it, the stem being by this means encouraged to
swell out and fill the hole.
Shallot {Allium ascalonicum) is a native of Palestine.
It is much used in cookery for high-flavoured soups and
gravies, and is sometimes put into pickles. It is propagated
by off-sets, which are commonly planted in September or
October. Some recommend the mixing of soot with the
manure as a protection against ma'ggots, by which this plant
is greatly infested. Autumn planting, however, is found
the best expedient, as the bulbs are ripe before the larvae
commence their depredations.
HORTICULTURE.
672
Kitchen Garlic (Allium sativum) and Rocambole (Allium Sco-
Garden. rodoprasum), though common ingredients in continental
' cookery, are comparatively seldom used in this country.
A few rows will generally be found sufficient. They are
propagated by offsets from the roots, or by the bulbils
which grow on the flower-stem. The Chive or Give (Al¬
lium Schoenoprasum), a pleasant little native plant, is used
occasionally as salad and alliaceous seasoning. A single
row may be planted as an edging to an onion bed, and it is
easily increased by parting the roots in spring and autumn.
by Willdenow, that, in Germany, “ semina sub dio non sem- Kit
per perficit.” There are two varieties, the common white- Gai
seeded or green quinoa, and the dark-seeded or red quinoa,"—
the former seemingly the more hardy, or at least germi¬
nating most freely.
Garden Orache (Atriplex hortensis), Wild Spinach
(Chenopodium Bonus Henricus), and Garden Patience
(Rumex Patientid), are sometimes used in place of common
spinach; but as, in this country at least, they are deemed
rather curious than useful, it may be sufficient to indicate
their names.
Asparaginous Plants.
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) is a perennial plant,
a native of the shores of Britain, where it occurs sparingly,
and of the steppes in the east of Europe. Though some¬
what unpromising while in a state of nature, it affords, in
cultivation, an esculent of considerable value, and is there¬
fore grown extensively both in private and in sale gardens.
The principal varieties are the red-topped and the green-
topped, of which the latter, while it is less succulent, is con¬
sidered the better flavoured. There are numerous subva¬
rieties, such as the Battersea, Gravesend, Giant, &c., which
differ only slightly or not at all from those already men¬
tioned.
Asparagus, growing naturally on loose sand, loves a light
deep soil, through which it may be able to shoot its long
stringy roots. Two feet and a half is considered a desira¬
ble depth, but in France the ground is sometimes prepared,
by sifting, to the double of that depth. A considerable
portion of well-rotted dung or of recent sea-weed is laid
in the bottom of the trench, which may be from two to
three feet deep ; and another top-dressing of manure should
be digged in preparatory to planting or sowing. The older
horticulturists used to grow their asparagus in beds four or
five feet wide, with intervening alleys of about eighteen
inches in breadth. At present, in Scotland, it is customary
to sow or plant in rows from three to four feet asunder; a
method which, in every way, is found to be most conve¬
nient. Except where the garden is new, when, of course,
it is advantageous to procure a supply of ready grown plants,
it is thought preferable to keep up the stock of asparagus
by sowing.
The sowing is made in March, in slight drills ; and, as a
portion of the seed often fails to germinate, it is a good
precaution to employ about double the quantity of seed
that may be ultimately necessary. If the plants come up
too thickly, they may be thinned out towards the end of
the first summer, to the distance of about six inches in the
rows. The ground is hoed, and kept clear of weeds. It
is a common practice to take slight crops of onions, lettuce,
cauliflower, or turnip, between the lines of asparagus du¬
ring the first, and, if the rows be wide, also in the second
year. The young heads or stalks, the part used, should
not be cut before the third spring, and they are not in per¬
fection till the fourth or fifth.
The asparagus quarter can scarcely be over manured.
The proper time to perform this operation is in the end of
autumn, when the annual flower-stalks are removed, pre¬
paratory for winter. When beds are employed, their sur¬
face should be stirred with a fork ; a layer of well-rotted
hot-bed dung is then laid on, and the whole covered with
a sprinkling of earth from the alleys. If the plants are
grown in rows, the manure is simply dug in by means of a
three-pronged fork, care being taken not to injure the
roots. This operation is repeated annually. No other cul¬
ture is required; but it is necessary to observe a due mo¬
deration in reaping the crop, as the shoots, when much cut,
become progressively smaller and less valuable. Hence a
considerable quantity of ground is required for the culti-
Spinaceous Plants.
Spinach (Spinacia oleraced) is an annual plant, and is
a native of Western Asia. It has long been cultivated for
the sake of its succulent leaves, which, when properly dress¬
ed, form a pleasant and nutritious article of food. There
are two varieties ; the round-leaved or smooth-seeded, and
the angular-leaved or prickly-seeded. The latter, as being
the most hardy, is used for the winter crop.
The first sowing is made in August, in some sheltered
situation ; the plants, as they advance, are thinned, and the
ground is hoed. In the beginning of winter the outer
leaves become fit for use ; in mild weather, successive ga¬
therings are obtained, and, with proper management, the
crop may be prolonged to the beginning of May.
To afford a succession crop, the seeds of the round¬
leaved variety should be sown in the end of January, and
again in February and March. From this period it is pro¬
per to sow small quantities once a fortnight, summer spi¬
nach lasting only a very short time. The open spaces be¬
tween the lines of cauliflower, and others of the cabbage
tribe, will generally afford enough of room for these tran¬
sient crops. They are generally sown in shallow drills, and
are thinned out and weeded as may be required.
White Beet (Beta Cicld) is cultivated for the leaves,
which are used as spinach. The midribs and stalks of the
great white beet, when separated from the leaves, are stew¬
ed and eaten as asparagus, under the name of Swiss Chard.
The culture does not differ materially from that of the red
beet.
New Zealand Spinach is a half-
hardy annual, a native of New Zealand, from which it was
brought by the late Sir Joseph Banks. It is an excellent sub¬
stitute for spinach; and if well watered, it will continue to
afford large quantities of succulent leaves during the hottest
weather. It is sown in a pot placed in a melon-frame in
March: the seedlings are transplanted into small pots, and
kept under cover till the beginning of June, when they are
plunged out at two or three feet apart, and treated some¬
what like gourds. In gathering the leaves, care must be
taken not to injure the leading shoots.
Quinoa Spinach (Chenopodium Quinoai). This vege¬
table is a native not only of Chile, but of the table land of
Mexico. It is described and figured by Ruiz and Pavon,
and Humboldt informs us, that in Mexico the leaves are
universally used as spinach or greens, and the seeds in
soups, or like rice, so that quinoa there vies in utility with
the potato itself. Although the plant had been known in
Britain for a number of years, it was only during the au¬
tumn of 1834 that any considerable portion of seed was
ripened or saved in this country. This was accomplished
at Boyton in Wiltshire, by Mr Aylmer Bourke Lambert,
the well known patron of botany and horticulture. Con¬
sidering the elevated region in America in which the qui¬
noa is successfully cultivated, there can be no doubt that
its herbage will be freely produced in this country; but it
seems probable that, in order to secure the ripening of
seeds, it may be requisite to place some plants close by a
wall having a south or south-west aspect, as is practised
with seeding onions; more especially since we are warned
file,
3an
'hv
HORTICULTURE.
i vation of this vegetable, and it is a general rule never to
■ gather it after pease have come into season.
'' Asparagus readily admits of being forced. The most
common method is to prepare, early in the year, a mode¬
rate hot-bed of stable litter, and to cover it with a common
frame. After the heat of fermentation has somewhat sub¬
sided, the surface of the bed is lined with turf, to prevent
the escape of vapour; a layer of light earth or exhausted
tan-bark is put over the turf, and in this the roots of plants
five or six years old are closely placed. The crowns of the
roots are then covered with two or three inches of soil. A
common three-light frame may hold 500 or 600 plants, and
will afford a supply for several weeks. After planting,
linings are applied when necessary, and air is occasionally
admitted. Care must be taken not to scorch the roots.
Where there are pits for the culture of late melons or suc¬
cession pine plants, such as the Alderston pit, or the suc¬
cession pit with the hot-water circulation, they may advan¬
tageously be applied to this purpose.
It has been recommended {Lond. Hortic. Trails, vol.'v.)
to force asparagus on the ground on which it grows. Per¬
haps the best method is that suggested by Mr Spiers in
vol. iv. of the Gardener’s Magazine. The seed is sown in
beds four feet eight inches wide, and there are four rows of
plants, eleven inches asunder in the bed. The beds are
lined by a pigeon-hole brickwork two feet deep, an opera¬
tion which we presume need not be performed till imme¬
diately before forcing, that is, when the plants are at least
four years old. In October, when the stalks are cleared
away, the surface is covered with littery straw. When
forcing is commenced, the brick-lined trenches are filled
with hot stable-dung, well beaten, to about eighteen inches
above the surface of the ground. The bed is also covered
with prepared dung. In about twelve days, when the buds
have begun to appear, the latter covering is removed,
glazed frames are placed upon the brick-work, a little
fine soil is sifted over the plants, the linings in the
trenches are raised higher, and the whole treated like a
common hot-bed. In this way, we are informed, excellent
supplies may be obtained, and the plants may be forced
every year.
Before leaving this subject, it may be mentioned, that
about Bath, the young flower-spikes of Ornithogalum py-
renaicum, found native in that neighbourhood, are used
like asparagus, under the name of Prussian grass.
Sea-kale ( Crambe maritimd) is a perennial plant, grow¬
ing spontaneously on the shores of the southern parts of
the island. The roots are spreading, the leaves wTaved,
glaucous, and covered with a fine mealy bloom, and the
stalks rise to about two feet high, bearing white flowers
which smell of honey, followed by seed-pods, each contain¬
ing a single seed.
The country people in the west of England have long
been accustomed to use in spring the young shoots, which,
by passing through the sand and gravel on which they grow,
are somewhat blanched and rendered tender. In confor¬
mity with this practice, the cultivation formerly recom¬
mended consisted merely in covering the beds on the ap¬
proach of spring with a little dry earth or sand, in order to
the blanching or intenerating of the shoots. These were
cut as they appeared in March and April. Now, however,
the blanching is not only much more completely effected, but
simple means have been devised for supplying the table for
half the year, including all the winter months. It has,
within these few years, become a vegetable of common ocr
currence in the markets both of London and Edinburgh.
Sea-kale seems partial to a light dry soil. If manure be
added, it should consist of sea-weed or leaves of trees. The
plants may be propagated by offsets, or small pieces of the
roots having buds or eyes attached to them; but the most
VOL. XI.
673
eligible method is by seed. We have seen very tolerable Kitchen
blanched stalks produced by plants only nine months old Garden,
from the seed, and after two summers, seedling plants will'
have acquired sufficient strength for general cropping. The
sowing is made in March, the seeds being deposited in
patches of three or four together, the patches being ar¬
ranged in lines three feet apart, and two feet in the line.
In order to secure a succession, and to obviate the bad ef¬
fects of forcing, it is proper to sow a few lines of sea-kale
every year.
Various modes of blanching the shoots have been re¬
sorted to. In the first volume of the Memoirs of the Ca¬
ledonian Horticultural Society, Sir George Mackenzie de¬
scribes a very convenient method. The sea-kale bed is
merely covered, early in spring, with clean and dry oat-
straw, which is removed as often as it becomes dry and
musty. The shoots rise through the straw, and are at the
same time pretty well blanched. Others employ dried tree-
leaves for this purpose. Another method practised by many
gardeners consists in placing over each plant a flower-pot
of the largest size inverted; but convenient blanching-pots,
with moveable lids, have been constructed for the express
purpose. It may be proper to provide from thirty to sixty
such pots; and it may be expected that each pot will, on
an average, furnish a dish and a half of shoots during the
season.
With the aid of these pots, sea-kale is forced in the
open border in the way now to be described. In the lat¬
ter end of autumn a bed of vigorous sea-kale plants is
dressed, that is, the stalks are cut over, and the decayed
leaves are removed. The ground is, at the same time,
loosened about the eyes, and a thin stratum of gravel or
sifted coal-ashes is laid on the surface to keep down earth-
wTorms. A pot with a moveable cover is placed over each
plant or each patch of plants. Stable-litter is then closely
packed all round the pots, and raised up to about a foot
above them; the whole thus assuming the form and ap¬
pearance of a large hot-bed. When fermentation com¬
mences, a thermometer should be occasionally introduced
into a few of the pots, to ascertain that the temperature
within does not exceed 60° Fahrenheit, and the depth of
the litter is to be regulated accordingly. The vegetation
of the included plants is speedily promoted ; so that, in the
space of a month or six weeks, the shoots will be ready for
cutting, which, being thus excluded from the light, are
most effectually blanched, and are exceedingly tender and
crisp. By means of the moveable lids, the plants are exa¬
mined and the shoots gathered without materially disturb¬
ing the litter. By commencing at various times, a supply
for the table can be readily furnished from the middle of
November till the middle of May.
The Artichoke {Cynara Scolymus') is a perennial plant,
a native of the south of Europe, and is a w ell known inha¬
bitant of our gardens. It resembles a thistle on a large
scale. In France, the entire head or whole leaves of the
involucre of the artichoke are eaten, when in a young and
tender state, en poivrade, or with pepper, salt, and vinegar;
but in this country the only parts used are the base of the
leaves of the involucre, and the immature floral receptacle,
or phoranthium, commonly called the bottom, freed from
the bristly seed-down which has been called the choke.
The varieties are the conical or French, the globe or red
artichoke, and the dwarf globe. Of these the first is the
highest flavoured, the second is well adapted for a general
crop, and the third is prolific, and occupies little room.
The artichoke loves a deep cool dry soil. It is propa¬
gated by parting the roots in April, the sets being planted
in rows four or five feet asunder, and two feet apart in the
rows. The young plants generally afford a crop which
succeeds that of old plants ; and for this reason a new plan-
4 Q
674
HORTICULTURE.
Kitchen tation is made in some gardens every year. During sum-
tiurden. mer tjie plants are kept clear of weeds, but require little
other attention. In November the decayed stems and
leaves are removed, and the ground cleared. In some gar¬
dens the earth is ridged slightly around the roots, in order
to defend the stools from the frost. This, however, is done
more effectually by a litter of straw, or of the refuse of the
stable-yard, of the depth of a foot, drawn close round the
base of the leaves. In April this litter is taken away, the
stocks are examined, and two or three only of the strongest
shoots are permitted to remain. The offsets, which are
carefully removed, afford materials for a young plantation.
The ground between the rows is digged over. At this
time manure may be applied; well-rotted hot-bed dung,
and above all sea-weed, being considered preferable.
The Cardoon (Cynara Cardunculus) is a perennial
plant, a native of the south of France and Spain. It has a
close resemblance to the artichoke, but surpasses it in size.
The edible part, or chard, as it is called, is composed of the
blanched and crisp stalks of the inner leaves. Besides the
common sort there is a prickly variety, known in France
by the name of the Cardoon of Tours. The common arti¬
choke is also used for the production of chard. Cardoons
are found to prosper on light deep soil. The seed is sown
annually about the middle of May, in shallow trenches, like
those for celery, and the plants are thinned out to ten or
twelve inches from each other in the lines. In dry weather
water is copiously supplied, not only to increase the succu¬
lence of the leaves, but to prevent the formation of flower-
stalks, which render the plant useless. In autumn the leaves
are applied close to each other, and wrapped round with bands
of hay or straw, the points of the leaves only being left
free. Earth is then drawn up around the leaf-stems to the
height of fifteen or eighteen inches. Sometimes cardoons
are blanched by a more thorough earthing up, in the man¬
ner of celery, but in this case the operation must be carried
on from the end of summer. During severe frost the tops
of the leaves should be defended with straw or litter.
The Rampfon {Campanula Rapunculus) is an English
native biennial, the roots of which, under the name of
ramps, are used as a salad, or boiled like asparagus. It is
but little cultivated in this country. The seed is sown
broadcast, about the beginning of June, in a cool situation,
and the young plants are merely to be thinned and kept
clear of weeds. On the approach of frost, the roots, which
somewhat resemble small radishes, are stored in sand, and
will keep fresh and firm till spring.
Salads, Sec.
Lettuce {Lactuca sativa) is a hardy annual, but’of what
country it is a native is unknown. Some suppose it to be
a seminal variety of the native L. virosa, a poisonous
plant, “ which,” says Professor Lindley, “ would not be
more remarkable than the fact, that the indigenous celery
is one of our strongest poisons.” Besides its well known
uses, it may be mentioned that the late Dr Duncan senior,
of Edinburgh, prepared from its milky juice, a medicine
denominated Lactucarium, similar in its action to opium,
but capable of being administered in cases where that pow¬
erful drug is inadmissible. There are two principal varie¬
ties, the Cos or upright, and the Cabbage-lettuce. The
subvarieties are numerous ; we may mention the following:
Early Forcing Cos, White Cabbage,
Green Cos, Brown Dutch Cabbage,
VV bite Cos, Imperial Cabbage,
Cilicia, Grand Admiral.
By proper care fresh lettuce may be had throughout the
whole year. Ihe first sowing is made in January, in some
sheltered situation, or under hand-glasses, or in I ebruary fL
on a gentle hot-bed. The seedlings are transplanted as Cfc
soon as the weather will permit. A second sowing may be^ -
made in the beginning of March, and another in April.
Besides the ordinary compartments, the seedlings may be
planted on celery ridges, between rows of slight crops of
other vegetables, and, in short, in any odd corner which
may occur. To obtain a winter supply, a sowing is made
in August or September, and the plants are pricked out in
October, along the bottom of walls, or under glazed frames.
Endive (Cichorium Endivia) is an annual plant, a na¬
tive of China, from which it was introduced in 1548. It is
the lettuce of winter, the blanched hearts being used for
salads and in soups. The varieties are, the Broad-leaved
Batavian, the Green Curled-leaved, and the White Curled-
leaved. A sowing may be made in the beginning of June,
and another in July, the seeds being scattered very sparse¬
ly, that the plants may not come up in clusters. The seed¬
lings are transplanted into a rich soil, and are arranged in
rows twelve or fifteen inches asunder, and at the distance
of ten inches in the row. Sometimes they are planted in
drills to facilitate the operation of blanching. The later
crop should be placed in a sheltered situation, where it may
be able to withstand the winter. When the plants have
reached their maturity, the leaves are gathered up, and
tied together an inch or two below the tips, and afterwards
about the middle of the plant. In two or three weeks they
are found sufficiently blanched for use. In winter it is ne¬
cessary to draw the earth quite up about the leaves. At
that season, too, the plants may be inserted into a sloping
bank of earth, or blanched in boxes in the mushroom-
house, or in a cellar.
Succory {Cichorium Intyhus) is an indigenous plant,
the cultivation of which may be said to have been intro¬
duced by the foreign refugees during the French revolu¬
tionary war. By the French it is much esteemed as a win¬
ter salad, and, when blanched, is known by the name of
Barhe du Capucin. When intended for winter use, the
seed is sown in May or June, commonly in drills, and the
plants are thinned out to four inches apart. If the first
set of leaves grow very strong, owing to wet weather, they
are cut off perhaps in the middle of August, about an inch
from the ground, so as to promote the production of new
leaves, and check the formation of flower-stems. About
the beginning of October the plants are raised from the
border; all the large leaves are cut off; the roots are also
shortened. They are then planted pretty closely together
in boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when
needful. When frost comes on, the boxes are protected
by any kind of haulm. As the salad is wanted, they are
removed into some place having a moderately increased
temperature, but with little light, such as a mushroom-
house or cellar off the kitchen. Each box affords two crops
of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for cutting
when about six inches long. The roots of this plant, it
may be added, have been employed as a substitute for
coffee-beans, and in Flanders, and some parts of France,
a portion of them is very often mixed with coffee.
Parsley {Apium Petroselinum) is a biennial plant, of
well-known use in cookery. It is said to be a native
of Sardinia, but it now grows spontaneously in various
parts of Britain. The varieties are the Common, the Curled¬
leaved, and the Hamburg, the last of which is cultivated
for the sake of its tuberous roots. Parsley loves a light
rich soil. It is sown in drills about the beginning of March,
and the seed lies some weeks in the ground before the
plants appear As they grow up they are thinned out, and
they are defended by branches or other coverings from hard
HORTICULTURE. 675
n weather in winter. The Hamburg variety being culti-
i. vated for its roots, is sown about the same time in a well
-'Trenched soil, in drills a foot apart, and it is thinned to
about nine inches in the rows. In the beginning of No¬
vember the roots are taken up and stored in sand.
Celery (Apium graveolens) is a native biennial, an in¬
habitant of the sides of ditches near the sea. In its wild
state it is of an acrid nature, and of a coarse, rank flavour;
but by cultivation it is improved into one of the most
agreeable salads. There are two principal varieties ; celery
properly so called, with upright stalks and fibrous or slightly
tuberous roots; and celeriac with large turnip-shaped roots.
Of the former, the principal subvarieties are, the Italian,
the Red Solid, and the White Solid, of which the second
and third are the best.
Celery is usually sown at three different times : on a hot¬
bed in the beginning of March, and in the open ground in
March, and again in April. The seedlings, when about
two inches high, are pricked into rich soil, in which they
are allowed to stand till they are four or five inches high.
The first crop is defended by frames or hand-glasses, and
is planted wide to admit of being lifted with balls of earth
adhering to the roots. Towards the end of May trenches
for blanching the celery are prepared. These trenches are
three and a half or four feet apart, fifteen inches wide at
the bottom, and about a foot below the natural level of the
surface. The soil at the bottom of the trench is carefully
digged and manured, and a single row of plants is placed
in each trench. Sometimes where a large supply is re¬
quired, the trenches are made six feet wide, and after a
similar preparation, rows fifteen or eighteen inches apart
are planted across the trenches. the plants advance in
growth, earth is laid up about the stalks of the leaves, an
operation which is repeated at the end of every ten or fif¬
teen days, care being taken not to choke the plants. As
the celery approaches maturity, scarcely any thing but the
tips of the leaves appear above the ridges, and, when lifted,
the stalks are found to be completely blanched. Succes-
sional crops should then be planted out. Celery loves a
rich light soil and an abundance of moisture.
Celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery, is treated at first like
the early crop of common celery. In the beginning or
middle of June it is planted out in a flat bed, in drills fif¬
teen inches apart. A single earthing afterwards suffices.
Its large round roots are used in soups, and are much re¬
lished by some. It is, however, more attended to in France
and the Low Countries than in Britain.
Garden Cress (Lepidium sativum), and White Mus¬
tard (Sinapis alba), are generally associated in their use
as salads, and in their culture in the garden. They are
annual plants, and are eaten only when very young. In
winter they may be raised on a slight hot-bed, in spring
under hand-glasses, or in drills near a south wall, and in
summer, when they should be sown once a fortnight, in
drills, in any cool shady situation. Table mustard, which
is made from Sinapis nigra L., belongs rather to the de¬
partment of agriculture. Durham mustard, which is dis¬
tinguished for its poignancy, though not remarkable for
fine colour, is said to be made principally from the seeds of
the common yellow field mustard or charlock, Sinapis ar~
vensis L.
Of Rhubarb {Rheum) several species and many varieties
are cultivated for the purpose of supplying materials for
tarts, the foot-stalks of the leaves being well adapted for
that purpose, and coming into use at a most convenient
season. R. rhaponticum and palmatum were the species
first employed, and are still occasionally used ; but the sorts
now preferred are seminal varieties, mostly allied to R. hy~
bridum and R. undulatum. The following are the most Kitchen
worthy of notice : Garden.
Wilmot’s, El ford,
Gigantic, Buck’s.
Of these, the talented editor of the Horticultural Register
decidedly prefers the first two, the former as being excel¬
lently suited for forcing, the latter as growing to a great
size, without rankness. They may be multiplied by divid¬
ing the roots, and this is the common practice; but they
thrive much better when grown from seed. Mr Paxton
recommends sowing on a slight hot-bed in spring, and
transplanting out in rows in the month of May. No stalks
are gathered from them for the first two years, but in the
third season they are fit for use. A portion of the crop is
allowed to come on under the general influence of the sea¬
son ; but much also is forced, which may be done in a va¬
riety of ways. Some treat it like sea-kale, covering the
root allowed to remain in the ground with a large pot or
box, and wrapping it round with litter. Others take up
the roots in autumn, pot them, and force them in vineries
or hot-beds. Perhaps the best method is to procure long
narrow boxes of a moderate depth, and to place them,
packed full of roots, in a mushroom-house or cellar, where
there is a considerable temperature. The rhubarb soon
throws up its stalks, and these being partially etiolated, possess
a delicacy and flavour superior to those grown in the open
air. It is easy, by varying the time of subjecting the boxes
to the increased temperature, to keep up a succession of
rhubarb stalks, from the period at which kitchen apples be¬
come scarce or begin to lose their flavour, till green goose¬
berries come into season.
The following annual plants are occasionally used in
cookery, or as salads: Chervil, Scandix cerefolia; Purs¬
lane, Portulaca oleracea ; Lamb's-Lettuce, Fedia olitoria;
Indian Cress, Tropaeolum majus; Marigold, Calendula
officinalis ; Borage, Borago officinalis. These may be sown
in spring, or in the beginning of summer, in any fresh
light soils. In general a small quantity will suffice.
The Common Sorrel, Rumex acetosa; and the French
Sorrel, Rumex scutatus; and the Horse-radish, Coch-
learia Armoracia, are perennials, and are increased by
parting their roots. They thrive in any cool shady situa¬
tion.
The Capsicum or Chili, Capsicum annuum, and the
Love-Apple, Solanum Lycopersicum, are tender annuals
from tropical climates. Both are sown in hot-beds in spring,
and after being transplanted and nursed in separate pots,
are planted out, the former in a warm border, and the latter
against a wall. In Scotland the Capsicum will scarcely
mature its fruit without the aid of glass.
Dill, Anethum graveolens, and Angelica, Angelica arch¬
angelica, are umbelliferous biennials, which have been for
a long period, though not extensively, cultivated in our
gardens. They are easily raised from seed. With these
may be associated the beautiful perennial, Fennel, Ane¬
thum Fceniculum, used in salads and sauces. It may be
propagated either by parting the roots, or by seeds, which
should be sown in autumn, soon after they are ripe.
In every garden there is a small department set apart for
the culture of Sweet Herbs and Medicinal Plants. We
need not here enter into details respecting their uses or
culture, but shall merely give classified lists.
Shrubby Plants increased by parting the roots, or by
cuttings:—Thyme, Thymus vulgaris; Sage, Salvia offi¬
cinalis; Winter Savory, Satureja montana; Rosemary,
Rosmarinus officinalis ; Lavender, Lavandula Spica; Hys¬
sop, Hyssopus officinalis.; and Rue, Ruta graveolens.
Perennial Herbaceous Plants, increased by parting the
roots;—Spearmint, Mentha viridis ; Peppermint, M, pipe-
676 HORTICULTURE.
Flower rita; Pennyroyal, M. pulegium ; Balm, Melissa officinalis ;
Garden. Tarragon, Artemisia Dracunculus; Tansy, Tanacetum
^vulgare ; Costmary, Balsamita vulgaris; Chamomile, An-
themis nobilis.
Biennial or Annual Plants, increased by sowing the
seeds:—Clary, Salvia Sclarea; Coriander, Coriandrum
sativum; Caraway, Carum Carui; Sweet Marjoram, Ori¬
ganum majorana; Summer Savory, Satureja hortensis;
Sweet Basil, Ocimum basilicum; and Bush Basil, O.
minimum. These last, the basils, which are natives of the
East, and in much request for their delicate flavour, are
raised on hot-beds in spring, and transplanted with balls,
into some warm situation. In Scotland, they are mostly
treated as tender annuals, and are grown, under glazed
frames, in flowerpots.
There are besides a few others, which, in each of the
classes, more properly belong to the Dietetics, and the
Materia Medica. The young green leaves of Primus Lauro-
cerasus (under the name of laurel), may properly enough
be employed in garnishing; but they ought never to be
used, as they too often are, for giving a nutty flavour, or
for greening other articles; hydrocyanic acid being given
out, and proving injurious, even in small quantities.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.
The cultivation of flowers, if not the most useful, is at
least one of the most pleasing occupations of the horticul¬
turist, and has generally shared largely in his attention. It
is probable, that at first, flowers, as objects of curiosity,
were confined to a few patches or borders in the garden,
as is still the case in many old places; but in the pro¬
gress of the art, and the diffusion of taste, separate de¬
partments were allotted to them under the name of Flower
Gardens. After some general remarks on style and situa¬
tion, we shall treat of the component parts of flower gar¬
dens, their various decorations, and of floriculture.
I he designing of flower gardens unquestionably belongs
to the fine arts, involving in it, the exercise of invention,
taste, and foresight. Its principles are more vague and
evanescent than those of any of the sister arts. The hand
of the designer is not here guided by the imitation of Nature,
for his work is wholly artificial in its arrangements and ap¬
pliances ; neither does utility come in, as in architecture,
to supply a form and frame-work, which it is the artist’s
part to adorn. “ As flower gardens,” says Mr Loudon,
the best authority on this topic, “ are objects of pleasure,
the principle which must serve as a guide in laying them
out, must be taste. Now, in flower-gardens, as in other
objects, there are different kinds of tastes ; these embodied
are called styles or characters; and the great art of the
designer is, having fixed on a style, to follow it out unmixed
with other styles, or with any deviation which would inter¬
fere with the kind of taste or impression which that style
is calculated to produce. Style, therefore, is the leading
principle in laying out flower gardens, as utility is in laying
out the culinary garden. As objects of fancy and taste,
the styles of flower gardens are various. The modern
style is a collection of irregular groups and masses, plac¬
ed about the house as a medium, uniting it with the
open lawn. The ancient geometric style, in place of ir¬
regular groups, employed symmetrical forms; in France,
adding statues and fountains; in Holland, cut trees and
grassy slopes; and in Italy, stone walls, walled terraces,
and flights of steps. In some situations these characteris¬
tics of parterres may, with propriety, be added to, or used
instead of the modern sort, especially in flat situations ; such
as are inclosed by high wralls; in towns, or where the prin-
cipal building or object is in a style of architecture which
will not render these appendages incongruous. There are
other characters of gardens, such as the Chinese, which are Pi ,
not widely different from the modern; the Indian, which Gan
consists chiefly of walks under shade, in squares of grass;" 1
the Turkish, which abounds in shady retreats, boudoirs 0f
roses and aromatic herbs; and the Spanish, which is dis¬
tinguished by trellis work and fountains ; but these gardens
are not generally adapted to this climate, though, from con¬
templating and selecting what is beautiful or suitable in
each, a style of decoration for the immediate vicinity of
mansions, might be composed preferable to any thing now
in use.” It may, however, be remarked, that the flower
garden properly so called, has generally been too much go¬
verned by the laws of landscape gardening, and these often
ill-understood, and misapplied. In the days of “ clipped
hedges and pleached alleys;” the parterres and flower-beds
were of a description the most grotesque and intricate ima¬
ginable. At a subsequent period, when the natural and die
picturesque became the objects of imitation in the park,
there appeared the most extravagant attempts at wildness
in the garden. The result has been unfortunate. It is
not meant that when there are merely a few patches of
flowers by way of foreground to the lawn, they should not
be subordinated to the principles which regulate the more
distant and bolder scenery; but wherever there is a flower
garden of considerable magnitude, and in a separate situa¬
tion, it should be constructed on principles of its own. In
such a spot, the great object must be to exhibit to advan¬
tage the graceful forms and glorious hues of flowering
plants and shrubs; and it is but seldom that mere elegan¬
cies in the forms of compartments, and other trickeries of
human invention, can bear any comparison with these na¬
tural beauties. To express the peculiar nature of garden
scenery, as distinct from the picturesque in landscape, Mr
Loudon has invented the term gardenesque ; and, whatever
may be thought of the term itself, it is Very desirable that
the distinction should be preserved.
Two varieties of flower gardens have chiefly prevailed
in Britain; one, in which the ground is turf, and the pat¬
tern, so to speak, is composed of a variety of figures cut
out of the turf, and planted with flowers and shrubs; and
another, when the flower-beds are separated by gravel walks,
without being interspersed with grass at all. The choice of
one or other of these varieties ought greatly to depend
upon the situation. When the flower garden is to be seen
from the windows, or any other elevated point of view,
from which the whole or the greater part of the design may
be perceived at once, perhaps the former should be prefer¬
red. Where the surface is irregular, and the situation
more remote, and especially where the beauty of flowers is
the chief object of contemplation, the choice should pro¬
bably fall on the latter. This variety, too, seems prefer¬
able, on the principle of contrast, where there are large
lawns in the outer grounds, in order that kept (or smoothly
mown) grass may net be found every where.
Respecting the situation of the flower garden, no very
precise directions can be given, as it must be influenced
by the nature of the lawns, and of the site of the mansion
to which it is attached. Generally speaking, it should not
be at any great distance from the house; and in places
where there is no distant view of importance, it may be
constructed under the windows. In retired scenes, it is
delightful to step out of the drawing-room into compart¬
ments of flowers, in the vicinity of a greenhouse or conser¬
vatory. On the other hand, when the park is spacious,
and the prospects extensive and picturesque, it is perhaps
better that the flower garden should be at some distance,
say not more than a quarter of a mile, and out of sight of
the house, but with an easy access in any sort of wea¬
ther ; an arrangement which would give an agreeable
termination to a short walk, a desirable matter in most
cases, for it has been often remarked that many parts of
HORTICULTURE. 677
pi er extensive grounds remain unvisited, because they afford no
Gi -n* remarkable object to attract the attention.
The particular form of a flower garden is equally beyond
the inculcation of specific rules. Indeed, it may be of any
shape, and, except where the dimensions are extremely
limited, the boundaries should not be continuously visible.
The taste of the proprietor or designer, and the capabilities
of the situation, must determine not only the external con¬
figuration, but also the arrangement of the interior parts.
By judicious management, it may be made to pass through
shrubbery, gradually assuming a more woodland character,
and groups of trees, into the park on the one hand, and into
the kitchen garden or orchard on the other. In most cases,
even when it is in the vicinity of the mansion-house, the flower
garden should be encircled with some sort of fence, in order
to convey the idea of protection, as well as to furnish securi¬
ty to the vegetable inmates of the parterres, it being impos¬
sible to carry on floriculture to any great extent in open
places which are accessible to hares and rabbits. In de¬
tached localities, the fences may be made sufficiently strong
to preclude the intrusion of every species of vagrant; and
these it is not difficult to mask with shrubs and trees. A
north wall of moderate extent and moderate elevation, is
often desirable, as affording space for ornamental climbers,
and half-acclimatized exotics, and as forming a point d’ap-
pui for the conservatory and other botanical structures,
Such a wall may be surmounted with urns and other archi¬
tectural ornaments, and screened at some little distance
behind by trees. The other fences may be of wire-work,
generally called invisible, or of wooden rails, or of holly
hedges with rails.
Formerly the flower-beds were made either circular,
straight, or in curves, and were turned into knots, scrolls,
volutes, and other compartments; and this taste prevailed,
perhaps, in some measure from a desire on the part of the
contrivers, to compensate by their ingenuity for the pau¬
city of the ornamental plants which they then cultivated.
Now that the riches of Flora have poured into our gardens,
a simpler taste has obtained. Of the figures in fashion at
present in the lawn-flower-garden, perhaps the kidney-
shape and its varieties occur too frequently. It is needless
as well as impossible to specify the numerous configurations
of flower-plots, for they abound in kaleidoscopical variety.
Good taste will suggest that those only should be associated
which harmonize well together; and it is better to incur
the hazard of an apparent monotony, than to excite wonder
by incongruous combination. When the figures are sepa¬
rated by turf, it is necessary that the little lawns or glades
should have a certain degree of breadth, as nothing has a
worse effect than over-crowding. A multitude of little
figures should also be avoided, as they produce what Mr
Gilpin calls spottiness, and which, as he has correctly point¬
ed out, is a grievous deformity. In this sort of flower gar¬
den, it is desirable that a gravel walk should skirt along
at least one side of the principal figures; in our humid cli¬
mate, the grass would otherwise render them inaccessible
with comfort during a great part of the year. In those
gardens in which turf is wholly or partly excluded, the
compartments should be of a larger and more massive cha¬
racter. Narrow borders, bounded by parallel straight lines
and concentric curves, should be avoided. The centres of
the figures should be filled with tall-growing shrubs, and
even with an occasional low evergreen tree, such as a yew
or a holly. The walks, arranged in long concave curves,
may communicate here and there with one another. A
dial, a few seats and arbours, with an urn or two or a vase,
may be introduced with good effect. It is to be regretted
that few good specimens of this species of flower garden
have hitherto been executed in Britain.
Amongst the accompaniments of the flower garden may
be mentioned the Rock-work. This consists of variously
grouped masses of large stones, generally such as are remark- 1 Flower
able for being figured by water-wearing, or for containing Garden,
petrifactions or impressions; and into the cavities between
the stones, filled with earth, alpine or trailing plants are
inserted. In proper situations, a small piece of water may
be introduced, for the culture of aquatic plants. One of
the walks is sometimes arched over with wire-work, and
covered with ornamental climbing shrubs, forming a de¬
lightful promenade in the glowing days of summer. A
separate compartment, generally of a regular figure, is set
apart for roses, under the name of the Rosary. A moist or
rather a shady border, with bog earth, is devoted to that
class of shrubs, commonly, but not very accurately, de¬
signated “ American plants.” In extensive places, a sepa¬
rate “ American Garden” is often formed, in a locality
which, if not damp, has at least the command of water,
occupying generally some warm corner of the park.
Some writers have advocated the formation of Winter
and Spring Gardens in separate localities; but we are not
aware that their ideas have ever been embodied to any
great extent. It is proposed that in the winter garden
should be assembled all the most beautiful evergreen shrubs
and plants, together with the few flowers that bloom during
the winter months. The situation, it is recommended,
should be well sheltered, and open only to the warm rays
of the sun, which are peculiarly grateful in our cold winter
seasons. However attractive this scheme may be in theo¬
ry, it seems doubtful whether it would be very successful
in execution. Masses of evergreens have a sombre and
monotonous effect, even in winter, unless occasionally bro¬
ken and varied by deciduous trees. The contrast of their
leafless neighbours relieves the intenseness of their gloom,
and sets off their brilliancy. Though a winter garden, the
very name of which is chilling, is perhaps not very desira¬
ble by itself, the object to be attained in it should be kept
in view in the formation of the park or flower garden. We
can easily suppose a particular section of the latter to con¬
tain a predominance of evergreens, and to possess the prin¬
cipal characters of a Winter Garden, without the formality
of its name and purpose. In the immense variety of situa¬
tions, it is not difficult to imagine a sloping bank, for in¬
stance, facing the sun, with a long walk skirting its base,
the lower side of which might be adorned with a border or
narrow parterre planted with arbutus and periwinkle, whilst
the slope is covered with the higher evergreens, and the
summit of the acclivity is crowned with groups of decidu¬
ous trees, interrupted by a few straggling firs, through
which the wind, unfelt below, might sigh its melancholy
music. Again, the Spring Garden, which need not be of very
great extent, may take refuge in the vicinity of the green¬
house or conservatory, with which it is naturally allied.
Soil.—A variety of soils is required in the flower garden,
to suit the very different kinds of plants that fall to be cul¬
tivated. To florists’ flowers particular compounds are as¬
signed, and these shall be mentioned when treating of the
flowers themselves. American plants require a peaty earth,
varying from boggy peat to almost pure sand. Alluvial
peat, that is, boggy earth which has been washed away and
incorporated with white sand, is to be preferred: peat, cut
from its natural bed and only partially decomposed, is of
no value at all, or is positively prejudicial to plants. In
collecting soil from the surface of a muir, it is proper to
take no more than the upper turf or sod, with the peat ad¬
hering to it, and only from the driest parts of the muir,
where, besides the common heath, fescue-grasses occur.
Where this cannot be procured, a good substitute is found
in vegetable mould, that is, decayed leaves swept from
lawns or woods, and allowed to lie in heaps for a few years.
For the general purposes of the flower garden, a light loamy
soil is advantageous; and where the natural covering is
thin, or requires making \ip, recourse should be had to the
678 HORTIC
Flower surface-earth of old pastures, which, especially when in-
Garden. cumbent on trap-rocks, is found to be excellent. It is ex-
-—‘"v'"'-'' pedient to have a large mass of this material in the com¬
post yard. The turf, and the surface-soil adhering to it,
should be laid up in a rough state, in which way it is con¬
tinually ameliorating by the decomposition of the vegetable
matters, and the action of the air.
Garden Walks.—During the prevalence of the Dutch
taste, grass-walks were common in our gardens; but, ow¬
ing to their frequent humidity in our climate, they have in
a great measure disappeared. Their disuse is perhaps to
be regretted, as in some situations, particularly behind
lengthened screens of trees, or in gardens from which grass
has been in a great measure excluded, an example or two
of them would be agreeable. It is justly observed by Sir
William Temple, that “ two things peculiar to us, and
which contribute much to the beauty and elegance of our
gardens, are the gravel of our walks, and the fineness and
almost perpetual greenness of our turf;” and therefore no
trouble should be spared in securing excellence in these
respects. In old times grass walks were formed with much
care. After the space which they were to occupy had
been digged and levelled that it might subside equally, a
thin layer of sand or poor earth was laid upon the surface,
and over this a similar layer of good soil. This arrangement
was to prevent excessive luxuriance in the grass. In se¬
lecting the seed, all annual, wiry, and coarse sorts of grass
should be avoided. Perhaps a mixture of Roughish Mea¬
dow-grass (Poa trivialis), Sheep’s Fescue-grass (Festuca
duriuscula and Festuca ovina), and Crested Dogstail grass
(Cynosurus cristatus), is about the best that could be select¬
ed. Poa nemoralis is well adapted for shaded situations.
Gravel-walks, in this department, are formed precisely
in the same manner as those in the kitchen garden. It
may, however, be remarked, that a multitude of gravel-
walks, particularly when narrow, have a puny effect. All
the principal lines should be broad enough to allow at least
three persons to walk abreast; the others may be narrower.
Much of the neatness of walks depends upon the material
of which they are made. Gravel from an inland pit is to
be preferred; though occasionally very excellent varieties
are found upon the sea-coast. The gravel of Kensington
and Blackheath has attained considerable celebrity; and is
frequently employed in remote parts of the kingdom, the
expense being lessened by its being conveyed to different
sea-ports as ballast for ships. In summer a gravel-walk
requires hoeing and raking from time to time, to clear it
from weeds and tufts of grass. After this opei'ation, or
even after a simple sweeping, it is rolled down with a hand-
roller; and this is repeated as often as the surface is ruffled.
Nothing contributes more than frequent rolling to the ele¬
gance and convenience of garden walks.
Edgings—Walks are generally separated from the bor¬
ders and parterres by a variety of plants planted closely in
line. By far the best edging is afforded by the Dwarf
Dutch Box (Buxus sempervirens var). It is extremely
neat, and, when annually clipped, will remain in good order
for many years. It may be planted at any season, except
when in full growth or in mid-winter. Excellent edg¬
ings are also formed by Sea Pink (Statice armeria) and
Double Daisy (Beilis perennis). Dwarf Gentian (Gen-
tiana acaulis) and London Pride (Saxifraga umbrosa) are
also sometimes used. Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous
plant, susceptible of minute division, is fitted for an edging.
Among the great variety occasionally employed for this
purpose may be mentioned, the Pansy (Viola tricolor), the
Dwarf Bell-flower (Campanula pumila), the Cowslip, Poly¬
anthus, Auricula, Plepatica, Veronica fruticulosa, and Erica
carnea. Edgings may also be formed of spars of wood,
narrow pieces of sandstone flag, or even of slight bars of
cast iron. In shrubberies and large flower-plots, verges
ULTURE.
of grass-turf, about a foot in breadth, make a very hand- Flo?
some border to walks. These should not be allowed to Card
rise high above the gravel: an inch and a half may be —
assigned as the limit they should not exceed. The grass
is kept short by repeated mowings, and the edges are
defined by clipping with shears, or cutting with a paring
iron. °
Shrubs—Much of the beauty of the pleasure garden de¬
pends upon the proper selection and disposition of orna¬
mental trees and shrubs ; and it is to be regretted that this
department of the art has often been greatly neglected. In
many gardens we still find only a few evergreens, and a
parcel of rugged deciduous species, introduced probably
before the age of Miller. No wonder is it, therefore, that
we sometimes hear of the insipid scenes of the shrubbery.
Nevertheless, shrubs are highly elegant in themselves, and
they afford a most efficient means of diversifying garden
scenery. Of the many beautiful species now to be had in
Britain, and affording the materials of exquisite decoration,
we can mention only a few. For extensive lists and for
much general information, we may once more refer to the
work of Mr Loudon.
Of Evergreens, besides the Common Laurel (Prunus
Laurocerasus) and the Portugal Laurel (P. Lusitanica), we
may notice the American Arborvitse (Thuja occidentalis),
as adapted to large masses of shrubs ; and the Chinese Ar¬
bor vitae (T. orientalis), whose size and mode of growth fit
it for smaller compartments. The different varieties of
Rhamnus Alaternus, and the species of Phillyreaand Juni-
perus, have long and deservedly been favourite evergreens.
The Sweet Bay (Laurus nobilis), in favourable situations,
rises into a handsome shrub or low tree, and may convey
to the student of the classics an idea of the Delphic laurel.
The Strawberry tree (Arbutus Unedo), a native of Ireland
as well as of the south of Europe, will always find a place
as one of the most elegant of plants, equally beautiful as
regards foliage, flower, and fruit: nor should its country¬
man, the Irish Yew, ascending like the pillared cypress, be
forgotten. The Cypress itself, though rather a denizen of
the park, may be sparingly introduced. The Laurustinus
(Viburnum Tinus), with blossoms approaching the snow in
whiteness, enlivens the winter season, when nothing else
is in flower in the shrubbery. The Swedish and Irish
Junipers deserve a place. Different species of Daphne
will not be forgotten ; it may be sufficient to enumerate
pontica, collina, Cneorum, and hybrida. As extremely
low evergreens, we may mention Gualtheria procumbens
and Shallon, Polygala Chamsebuxus, and Astragalus Tra-
gacantha; but these would probably be better placed among
what are popularly called American plants. Of the more
tender evergreens, we should name the Andrachne (Arbu¬
tus Andrachne), a beautiful shrub, but liable to be injured
by severe frosts. The Broad-leaved Myrtle (Myrtus Ro-
mana), in warm places, and with the aid of a covering in
the depth of winter, may be made to clothe the walls with
its brilliant verdure for eight months in the year, and with
its white flowers for some weeks in the end of summer.
Aucuba Japonica, and Buxus Balearicus, are handsome
shrubs, of a somewhat stronger constitution : the former is
very ornamental in dull shady places, where no other shrub
will grow. The beautiful tribes of Cistus and Helianthe-
mum, some of which are quite hardy, are admirable for
adorning sloping banks.
Amongst the shrubs that require a peaty soil, or at least a
damp and shady situation, the splendid genus Rhododen¬
dron holds the principal place. Of the larger species may
be mentioned R. Ponticum, Catawbiense, and maximum,
with their many beautiful varieties. In early spring, R.
Dauricum expands its blossoms among the first of flower¬
ing shrubs. Nor should we overlook R. punctatum, hir-
sutum, ferrugineum, and Chammcistus, of humbler growth,
HORTICULTURE.
arer but not inferior in beauty. With these the closely cognate
len. genus of Azalea, with its multitudinous species and varie-
ties, disputes the palm of elegance. The pale and droop¬
ing Andromedas are scarcely of inferior interest. The
hardy Heaths, particularly Erica carnea, tetralix, and stricta,
Menziesia polifolia and coerulea, and the Canadian Rho-
dora, combine to bring up the rear of this department of
Flora’s train.
The deciduous flowering shrubs are too much neglected
in many gardens. They are seldom well managed, either
in point of arrangement or in the evolution, by pruning, of
picturesque effect. Very often they are huddled together
promiscuously, and grow up into the shape of huge sheaves
of rushes. With judicious management, there is not a
finer object in the vegetable kingdom than the common
Lilac (Syringa vulgaris), or the hybrid Varin (S. Rathoma-
gensis). Even the old Guelder-Rose (Viburnum Opulus)
is worthy of the poet’s eulogy ; the “ scentless rose,” which
he describes as “ tall,”
<e And throwing up into the darkest gloom.
Of neighbouring cypress, or more sable yew,
Her silver globes, light as the foamy surf
That the wind severs from the broken wave.”
It would lead us into disproportioned detail to specify a
tithe of those shewy shrubs which should be dear to every
floriculturist. Suffice it to name Ribes sanguineum, Daphne
mezereum, Spartium of many species, Cytisus, Amygdalus,
and Pyrus. The Ribes speciosum, or Fuchsia-flowered
gooseberry, seems to require the protection of a wall, but
deserves it. The fine suffruticose plant Paeonia Moutan,
requires the most sheltered position in the shrubbery, where,
in May and June, its flowers excel all others in magnifi¬
cence. From such a list as that published by Mr Loudon,
any one might form such a collection as, when properly
arranged, would produce all the variety and beauty expect¬
ed from the shrubbery.
There are many fine climbing shrubs, such as the species
of Clematis, and of Lonicera or Honeysuckle. Others,
though not precisely of this class, are much beholden to the
shelter of a wall, such as the beautiful Magnolia conspicua,
and Edwardsia tetraptera and microphylla. Among those of
recent introduction, may be noticed Glycine Sinensis and
Eccremocarpus scaber. The numerous species or varieties
of Fuchsia, when planted against a wall, or even in the
open ground, and shaded with an occasional covering in
winter, convey to us a better idea of the riches of Chilian
vegetation, than when they are confined to the shelves of
the greenhouse. Many roses are also well adapted for
walls, such as the varieties of Noisette, Boursault, and the
different species from China.
A separate compartment, called the Rosary, is generally
devoted to the cultivation of roses. It is often of an oval
form, with concentric beds, and narrow intervening walks
of grass or gravel, but it may assume any configuration
which is suited to display this favourite plant. Of the
thousand varieties of roses which exist in the nurseries, we
pretend not to give any selection. It may, however, be
remarked, that in planting the Rosary, care should be taken
to classify the sorts according to the sizes and affinities,
otherwise the effect will be much impaired. The climbing
sorts may be advantageously introduced, being trained to
pillar-like trellises. When the rosary is extensive, it is
judicious to intersperse some of the most showy hollyhocks;
for thus the beauty of the quarter is maintained in the later
months of autumn, when the roses are chiefly past. Of
late years, quantities of standard roses have been imported
from the Continent. These are the finer sorts, budded on
tall stocks of the wild species, such as R. villosa and canina.
They are well adapted to stand singly on the little lawns
in flower-gardens, or to break the uniformity of low flower
borders.
679
All shrubs nearly may be propagated by layers, some by Flower
budding or grafting, many by separating the roots. In Garden,
planting, shrubs may be arranged either singly or in masses:
the latter method is perhaps the most efficient in the pro¬
duction of effect, but it should not be very servilely adhered
to, as it is apt to beget monotony. Some kinds should
never appear in masses: The white Portugal broom, for
instance, when so arranged, gives a limy tint to a garden.
Perhaps it is better that groups should contain a predomi¬
nance of one shrub, set off by a few others of a contrasting
figure or colour, than that they should be entirely homo¬
geneous.
Herbaceous Plants.—Common perennial flowers, whe¬
ther strictly herbaceous or bulbous, afford the principal
materials for floral decoration. Botany supplies, as it were,
the colours for the picture, and gardening grinds and pre¬
pares them for use. The painting is continually varying,
and new shades are arriving and departing in succession.
The least consideration of the subject will suggest the rule,
that in planting flowers they should be arranged according
to their stature, otherwise many of the most beautiful little
flowers would be lost among their taller compeers. The
lowest plants should therefore stand next the margin of the
border or parterre, and they should increase in height as
they go back. To produce a full shew, a profusion, just
not amounting to crowding, is requisite. The flower-plots
should present a regular bank of foliage and blossom, rising
gradually from the front; but as this might convey an idea
of too great precision, a few staring plants, on the same
principle as those employed in greenhouses, should be
thinly scattered over the surface. These may be shrubs,
or any tall showy plant, such as Bocconia cordata, Papaver
bracteatum, Gladiolus Byzantinus, or Lilium candidum.
The management of colour is more difficult. When the
length of the flowering season is considered, it will be ob¬
vious that it is impossible to keep up the show of a single
border or plot for six months together, and consequently
that much of the labour employed in mixing colours is mis¬
spent, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come
dropping into flower one after another ; and even where a
certain number are in bloom at the same time, they neces¬
sarily stand apart, and so the effects of contrast, which can
be perceived only among adjacent objects, are entwely lost.
To obviate this defect, it has been recommended that orna¬
mental plants should be formed into four or five separate
suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden. Not
to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain
the flora of May ; the second that of June ; the third that
of July ; and the fourth the tribes of August and the fol¬
lowing months. These plants should be kept in separate
compartrhents, arranged either singly or in masses; but
the compartments themselves should be so intermingled, as
that no particular class should be entirely absent from anv
one quarter of the garden. The May parterres should,
however, chiefly occur in the vicinity of the greenhouse or
conservatory, or, when these are absent, in a warm sunny
situation. The flowerings of June and July, as being
highly shewy, should occupy the most conspicuous parts of
the garden. The autumnal perennials, not being so im¬
posing, may retire into the more secluded situations, as
they are supplanted by the superior brilliancy of the an¬
nuals, which fill the vacant beds of florists’ flowers, or are
scattered over the faded clumps of May and June,
Before attempting to plant, the floriculturist would do
well to construct tables or lists of flowers, specifying their
respective times of flowering, their colours, and altitudes.
These tables, when skilfully used, would prevent mistakes,
produce a greater facility of execution, and put the colours
nearly as much under control as they are on the painter’s
pallet. To diversify properly and mingle well together
the reds, whites, purples, yellows, and blues, with all their
680 H O R TIC
Flower intervening shades, requires considerable taste and powers
Garden, of conception ; but if success is not attained in the first
''-'"'y'-"-'' attempt, inaccuracies should be noted, and rectified at the
proper time next season. Certain series of colours have
been given, but these it is needless to mention, as it is
quite immaterial whether the first flower in a row be red
or white. The principal object is to preserve an agreeable
contrast; and as at particular seasons a monotony of tint
prevails, it is useful at such times to be in possession of
some strong glaring colours. White, for instance, should
be much employed in July, to break the duller blues and
purples which then preponderate. The orange lily, too,
is very effective at that season. On the other hand, yel¬
lows are superabundant in autumn, and therefore reds and
blues should then be sought for.
Besides mere vividness of colour and elegance of form,
there are other qualities which render plants desirable in
the flower-garden. Whoever has visited a botanic garden,
must have been sensible of an interest excited by the cu¬
rious structure or by the scarcity of some plants. Even
quaintness of form is deserving of attention. The writer
of this article has seen Allium fistulosum (the common
Welsh onion) making a conspicuous figure in a flower-gar¬
den ; and he remembers well a plant of sea-kale (Crambe
maritima), which the good taste of the owner had intro¬
duced into the parterre, to the great disturbance of the
ideas of the gardener. At the same time, it must be ad¬
mitted that such expedients should be employed with re¬
serve. No handsome plant should be rejected because it
is common, nor any inconspicuous weed preserved merely
because it is scarce. The flower-gardener should have a
small nursery for the propagation of finer plants, to be
transferred into the borders as often as is required.
We shall enumerate merely the names of a few of the
most shewy flowers, adapted to the British flower-gar¬
den.
Vernal Herbaceous Plants—Helleborus niger, lividus ;
Erianthus hyemalis ; Hepatica triloba var.; Primula vul¬
garis van, veris, elatior, marginata, helvetica, nivalis, vis-
cosa, integrifolia, cortusoides ; Cortusa Matthioli; Soldanel-
la alpina, Clusii; Viola odorata, tricolor, biflora, altaica;
Dodecatheon Meadia vars.; Orobus vernus ; Adonis verna-
lis ; Omphalodes verna; Corydalis lutea, longiflora; San-
guinaria canadensis ; Iris pumila ; Anemone apennina, Hal-
leri, pulsatilla.
Vernal Bulbous Plants—Galanthus nivalis ; Leucoium
vernum ; Crocus, species ; Cyclamen coum, vernum ; Co¬
rydalis bulbosa; Erythronium Dens canis; Narcissus
Pseudo-narcissus, moschatus, odorus, Jonquilla, &c. ; Fri-
tillaria imperialis, meleagris, persica ; Gagea lutea ; Tulipa
sylvestris ; Iris persica ; Trillium grandiflorum, &c.; Scilla
verna, prgecox, bifolia, sibirica.
Herbaceous Plants flowering in May. Anemone nar-
cissiflora, sylvestris, dichotoma; Primula farinosa, scotica ;
Convallaria majalis; Uvularia grandiflora, perfoliata; Phlox
divaricata, subulata, setacea, &c.; Asphodelus luteus, ra-
mosus; Draba Aizoides; Viola cornuta, obliqua; Gentiana
verna, acaulis ; Lupinus polyphyllus ; Gaillardia bicolor;
Iris florentina, cristata, &c.—Bulbs: Leucoium aestivum,
Scilla non-scripta, italica, &c. Hyacinthus monstrosus;
Muscari moschatum, botryoides, comosum; Narcissus Bul-
bocodium, poeticus, he.
June—Herbaceous Plants. Paeonia officinalis, albiflora,
corallina, Humii, &c.; Dianthus, species; Geranium san-
guineum, Lancastriense, Wallichianum, striatum, he.; Mo-
narda didyma, Kalmiana; Papaver bracteatum ; Saxiffaga,
species; Spiraea, species; Mimulusluteus, moschatus; Trol-
lius Americanus, europaeus; Lysimachia verticillata ; Ve¬
ronica latifolia, &c.; Geum coccineum ; Aconitum napel-
lus, &c.; Potentilla nepalensis, he.—Bulbs: Allium Moly,
Gladiolus byzantinus, communis; Lilium Pomponium, bul-
ULTURE.
biferum, aurantiacum, monadelphum, penduliflorum, con- Flo*
color, he.; Iris Xiphium, Xiphioides, he. Card
July—Herbaceous Plants : Phlox intermedia, and many N—y •
other species of that fine genus; Pentstemon, numerous
species; Gmothera, various species; Campanula persici-
folia, he.; Asclepias amoena, syriaca; Iris fulva, pallida,
variegata; Gentiana lutea, asclepiadea, cruciata, septemfida,
he.; Chelone obliqua, barbata, Lyoni Bulbs: Lilium
martagon, canadense, tigrinum, superbum, he.; Gladiolus
cardinalis, Tigridia pavonia, Commelina ccelestis, Cyclamen
hederaefolium.
Autumnal Herbaceous Plants: Phlox decussata, pyra-
midalis, tardiflora, he.; Lobelia cardinalis, fulgens, splen-
dens, &c.; Aster sibiricus, amellus, pulcher, he.; Esch-
scholtzia californica; Solidago, several species; Aconitumja-
ponicum, volubile, variegatum ; Gentiana Saponaria; Pent¬
stemon, several species.—Bulbs: Colchicum autumnale;
Crocus nudiflorus, serotinus; Tritona pallida, media.
It is with regret that we thus confine ourselves to a dry
list of border flowers ; but to do them any thing like justice,
would require many pages. Within the last few years
great accessions have been made to our stores. The Lu¬
pines and Pentstemons from the Columbia River, the Ver¬
benas and Calceolarias from South America, and the Po-
tentillas and Geraniums from Nepal, have in a great mea¬
sure changed the face of our flower gardens. While our
riches have increased, the difficulty, as well as the neces¬
sity, of making a selection have increased also.
Most herbaceous perennial plants are propagated by
parting the roots, or by cuttings; but some most conve¬
niently by the sowing of seed.
Biennial Plants. Plants whose existence is limited to
two years, in the latter of which they flower and then de¬
cay, are called biennials. Many of them possess consider¬
able beauty; and by their easy propagation, and rapid
growth, they afford a ready means of decorating borders.
The following may be considered most worthy of notice :
Agrostemma coronaria; Antirrhinum majus; Hedysarum
coronarium ; Lunaria biennis ; Campanula media; Gino-
thera sinuata, biennis; Verbascum formosum, Hesperis
matronalis, Scabiosa atropurpurea, Mathiola simplicicaulis.
When a very desirable variety is procured, such as the
striped Antirrhinum majus, attention should be paid to the
striking of cuttings during the summer, as the only means
of continuance.
Biennials are sown in beds in the end of spring, and are
generally transplanted in the course of the autumn, into
the places where they are intended to stand, that they may
be confirmed before winter, and shoot up readily into
flower in the following summer.
Annual Plants—Many of the annuals species, though
of fugitive duration, are possessed of much beauty of hue
and elegance of form. They are further valuable from
their pliability, so to speak, and the promptitude with which
they may be used. They are besides of easy culture, many
requiring nothing more than to have the seeds sown in the
spot where they are to grow. Annuals may be divided
into three classes, the hardy, the half-hardy, and the ten¬
der. The first class, as stated above, are sown at once in
the ground which they are to occupy; the half-hardy suc¬
ceed best when aided at first by a slight hot-bed, and then
transplanted into the open air ; the tender are kept in pots,
and treated as greenhouse or stove-plants, to which de¬
partments they properly belong. It is scarcely necessary
to remark that the hardy and half hardy sorts may be
grown either in patches or in beds, and are subjected to all
the rules which regulate the disposition of common border
flowers.
Hardy Annuals.—Adonis autumnalis ; Iberis umbellata;
Knautia orientalis; Alyssum, several species ; Linaria, va¬
rious species; Delphinium Ajacis, consolida; Silene Ar-
HORTIC
>wer meria ; Campanula speculum, Lorii; Lavatera trimestris ;
( den. Malope trifida; Hibiscus trionum, bifrons ; Nolana, various
- species; Papaver somniferum, numerous varieties; P.
Ilhceas, varieties ; Gilia capitata, tricolor ; Collinsia gran di¬
flora ; Kaulfussia amelloides; Clarkia pulchella, elegans ;
CEnotbera rosea, rosea-alba, tenella, Lindleyana, Roman-
zovii; Rudbeckiaamplexicaulis; Senecio elegans; Mathiola
annua; Lupinus, several species.
Half-hardy Annuals—Callistemma hortense ; Lopezia
racemosa, Tagetes patula, erecta, racemosa, &c. ; Zinnia
elegans, pauciflora; Xeranthemum annuum, Helichrysum
fulgidum, Chrysanthemum carinatum ; Amaranthus cauda-
tus; Schizanthus pinnatus, porrigens, Grahami, Hookeri;
Salpiglossis atro-purpurea, straminea; Petunia nyctagini-
flora; Mirabilis Jalapa.
Tender Impatiens Balsamina, Browallia elata,
Celosia cristata, Gomphrama globosa; Solanum melongena;
Mesembryanthemum crystallinum.
We have been able to enumerate only a small selection
of species, out of a multitude which is continually receiv¬
ing accessions. Many of the sorts mentioned above have
been introduced during the last ten or fifteen years ; and
we doubt not that, in an equal period from the present,
many more will come into notice.
Before leaving this part of the subject, it may be proper
to mention, that it is now the practice of some florists to
grow and treat as annuals, or rather as biennials, great
quantities of the more hardy Pelargonia, Verbena;, Saiviae,
Fuschue, Hemimeris, and other genera. Mr James Smith
at Hopetoun House, every season propagates, by cuttings
or seeds, several hundreds of these plants. Grown in
moderate-sized pots, they are kept in frames or cold vineries
during winter. About the end of May, or as soon as there
is no longer any apprehension of injury from frost, the
plants are taken out of the pots and plunged into the open
ground, in any warm sunny spot or clump in the flower
garden. If the stems are long or naked, they are pegged
to the earth. Towards the middle of July they begin to
grow vigorously, and in August or September present, in
luxuriance, at least, if not in magnitude, a better repre¬
sentation of their native vegetation than we see elsewhere
in our gardens. Upon the approach of frost, they are, with
the exception of the Fuschias, left to their fate, as it is
easier to propagate new ones than to preserve the old.
These plants, with the fine new annuals, and the gorgeous
Dahlias, give a splendour to the autumnal flower garden
which in former times it did not possess.
Florists’ Flowers.—This technical appellation has
been restricted to certain flowers, which have been especial
favourites with florists, and have consequently received a
large share of their attention. Though possessed of great
individual beauty, few of them are calculated to make a
shew at a distance, and the arrangements requisite for their
culture do not harmonize well with the general disposition
of a flower garden. It is, therefore, desirable, particularly
when considerable refinement is aimed at, that a separate
garden, or a separate section of the garden, should be set
apart for their culture. The more robust or less valuable
varieties, however, which are often as shewy as the most
esteemed, may be introduced into the general parterres.
We shall notice the most considerable, in the order in which
they naturally attract attention.
The Hyacinth, Hyacinthus orientalis, one of the most
beautiful and fragrant of the spring flowers, is a native of
the Levant, where it occurs abundantly, in form not unlike
our common harebell. It has long been a favourite in the
East: but has been brought to its present artificial perfec¬
tion in Holland, chiefly since the beginning of last century.
Many years ago it was successfully grown in the vicinity of
Edinburgh, by Justice, one of the most ingenious horticul¬
turists of his time: but it must be confessed that, in the
VOL. XI.
ULTURE. 681
culture of this flower, the British florists have never attained Flower
to the eminence of the Dutch, principally, however, as is Garden.
alleged by some, from want of attention and pains-taking.v   /
According to Miller, the catalogues of the Haarlem florists
used to enumerate 2000 sorts, some of which sold as high
as L. 200 a bulb: they are now less numerous, and much
less expensive.
Hyacinths are either single, semidouble or double, and
exhibit a great variety of tint. In a fine flower the stalk
should be tall, strong, and upright; the blossoms numerous,
large, and suspended in a horizontal direction ; the whole
flower having a compact pyramidal form, with the upper¬
most blossom quite erect; the plain colour should be clear
and bright; and strong colours are preferable to pale;
when colours are mixed they should blend with elegance.
The hyacinth delights in a rich light sandy soil; and it
is chiefly owing to the want of these qualities in his com¬
posts, that the British florist fails in the growth of this beau¬
tiful plant. The Dutch compost, as given by the Hon.
and Rev. Mr Herbert in the London Hortic. Transactions
vol. iv., is the following: One-third coarse sea or river
sand; one-third rotten cow-dung without litter ; and one-
third leaf mould. The natural soil is removed at least two
feet deep, and the vacant space filled up with compost, pre¬
viously prepared and well mixed. These materials retain
their qualities for six or seven years, but the Dutch do not
plant hyacinths upon the same place for two years succes¬
sively. In the alternate years they plant it with narcissus
or crocus. We may mention that, in the finest bed of
hyacinths which we have seen in Scotland, a considerable
portion of the soil was composed of sketch, a sort of sandy
and marly deposition from the ooze on the shores of the
Forth.
According to Mr Main (Villa and Cottage Florists’
Directory,y. 84.) St Crispin’s day, the 25th of October, is
the best time to plant the bulbs. They are arranged in
rows, eight inches asunder, there being four rows in each
bed; or, if more convenient, they may be placed in rows
across the bed. 1 he bulbs are sunk about three or four
inches deep, and it is recommended to put a small quan¬
tity of clean sand below and all around them. As the roots
are liable to be injured by frost, it is usual to cover the
beds with decayed tan-bark, with litter or with awnings.
I he first may be considered the neatest during winter, but
an awning is nearly indispensable in spring when the linger¬
ing colds prove exceedingly hurtful to the young flower-
stems. The awning may be made of coarse sheeting or
duck. As the flower-stems appear, they are tied to little
rods, to keep them upright and preserve them from accident.
In order to perfect the colours, the rays of the sun are ad¬
mitted in the morning or in the evening, but the glare of
mid-day and the cold of the night, are both excluded.
When the season of blossom is over the awning is removed,
or only replaced to keep off' heavy rains. Much of the suc¬
cess, in the culture of this flower, depends on the subsequent
management of the bulbs. It is the practice in Holland,
about a month after the bloom, or when the tips of the
leaves assume a withered appearance, to take up the roots,
and, cutting off the stem and the foliage within half an
inch of the bulb, but leaving the fibres, to lay the bulbs
sideways on the ground, covering them with half an inch
of dry earth. After three weeks, they are again taken up,
cleaned, and removed to the store-room. In this country
it is more common to allow them to stand till the leaves
be withered, and then to take them up at once. In the
store-room the roots should be kept dry, well-aired, and
apart from each other.
Where forcing is practised, a few hyacinths may be forced
in deep flower-pots filled with light earth, and, when coming
into flower, transferred to the greenhouse, which they en¬
liven at the deadest season of the year. In chambers, they
4 u
682
HORTICULTURE.
Flower
Garden.
are grown in water-glasses made for the purpose; or, with
still greater advantage, in boxes filled with damp hypnum
moss.
New varieties of hyacinths are procured by sowing the
seed ; but this is a tedious process, and seldom followed in
this country. The established sorts are propagated by oft-
sets or small bulbs, which form at the base of the parent
bulb. Almost all the hyacinths cultivated in this country
are imported from Holland, and the quantity of roots an¬
nually introduced must be very considerable.
The Tulip, Tulipa Gesneriana, is a native of the East,
whence it was introduced in Europe about the middle of the
16th century. Gaudy as it is, it has no proper corolla, but
only a calyx of six coloured sepals. About the year 1635
the culture of the tulip was very engrossing ; and, indeed, the
rage for possessing rare sorts had become so great in Hol¬
land, as to give rise to a strange species of gambling, known
to the collectors of literary and scientific anecdotes by the
name of Tulipo-mania, which has tended to bring unmerited
discredit on this fine flower. At present the finer tulips
are mostly of moderate price, and, though not to be met
with in every garden, have yet some ardent cultivators.
There are some varieties, such as the early Due Van
Thol, the Clarimond, the Parrots, and the Double Tulips,
which belong, properly speaking, to the general cultivator.
In this country, the florists’ tulips are arranged under four
classes. 1. The Bizarres, which have a yellow ground
marked with purple or scarlet. 2. The Bybloemens, with a
white ground marked with violet or purple. 3. The Roses,
with a white ground marked with rose-colour. 4. The Self
or Plain~eoloured tulips, which are of one uniform colour,
and are chiefly valued as breeders. The Bybii^nen class
includes most of those tulips wThich are held in highest es*
teem in this country.
The properties of a fine late tulip, as specified by Mr
Hogg, are the following, somewhat abridged. The stem
should be strong, erect, thirty inches high : the flower large,
of six petals (sepals), which should proceed almost horizon¬
tally at first, and, turning up, should form an almost per¬
fect cup, with a round bottom, rather v/idest at top. The
three exterior petals should be rather larger than the three
interior ones : the limbs of the petals should be rounded,
and freed from every species of) serrature. The ground
colour of the flower at the bottom should be clear white or
yellow; and the various rich-coloured stripes, which are
the principal ornament of a fine tulip, should be regular,
bold, and distinct at the margin, and terminate in fine
broken points, elegantly feathered or pencilled. There are
other refinements upon which florists are not quite agreed:
and it must be confessed, that their standard of excellence
is somewhat factitious ; for, to an uninstructed eye, though
practised in the contemplation of other sorts of beauty, a
tulip, which by them is looked upon as worthless, will often
appear as fine as the choicest variety in the select bed.
Tulips prosper in a light sandy soil, richly manured with
w^H rotted cow dung. Twenty inches depth of soil should
be removed, and the vacant space filled up with compost.
Some put alternate layers of light soil and cow dung. The
bed should be filled up with compost about the middle of
October, and in a fortnight, when the soil has subsided, the
bulbs are planted in rows, distant eight or nine inches, and
at the depth of about three inches. A little clean sand
may be put around the bulbs. After planting, the bed
may be covered over with tan, or with a hooped awning, as
in the case of hyacinths. In spring, it is necessary to shield
the leaves and flower-stalks from frost, and also from heavy .
rains ; and, when in bloom, the flowers must be sheltered
from the sun’s rays, by which they are speedily injured.
After the sepals have fallen, the seed-vessels are broken off
close by the stem, to prevent the plant from exhausting
itself in perfecting seed, and to direct its energies to the
forming of the new bulb. When the leaves have wither- Fi0lf
ed, the bulbs are taken up, dried, and stored until the Gan
planting season come round.
Tulips are readily propagated by offsets, which are taken
off from the parent bulbs, and nursed in separate beds till
they be full grown. New varieties are raised from seed;
they are from five to seven years old before they flower,
and, if raised from promiscuous seed, they often turn out
worthless. Early in the 18th century, the distinguished
Scottish cultivator, Sir James Justice (already mentioned
as a most successful cultivator of hyacinths), was eminently
successful in raising fine seedling tulips ; and some skilful
florists of our own day, such as Mr Strong of Brook Green,
and Mr Oliver of Edinburgh, succeed in breaking their
seedlings into colours equal to the finest bybloemens of
Holland. They save the seeds from the first-rate sorts,
the stigma of the intended parent flower having been fer¬
tilized with the pollen of some other fine variety. Seed¬
ling tulips, it may be remarked, present this anomaly for
the first two or three years, that they form their new bulbs
several inches below the old ones, so that an inexperienced
cultivator is sometimes apt to miss them at the time of
lifting.
The Ranunculus (R. Asiaticus) is, like many of the other
florist’s flowers, a native of the Levant, where it is a fa¬
vourite of the Turks. It has sported into innumerable
varieties, and those now in cultivation in this country are
mostly of British origin. The plant is of small stature,
furnished with decomposite leaves, and rising from a root
formed by a bundle of little tubers. . •<
According to the canons of floral criticism, the proper¬
ties of a fine double ranunculus are the following: The
stem should be strong, straight, and from eight to ten inches
high, supporting a large well-formed blossom at least two
inches in diameter, consisting of numerous petals, the largest
at the outside, and gradually diminishing in size as they
approach the centre of the flower, which should be well
filled up with them. The blossom should be of a hemis¬
pherical form ; its component petals imbricated neither too
closely nor too much separated, and having rather a per¬
pendicular than a horizontal direction. The petals should
be broad, and have perfectly entire well-rounded edges;
their colours should be dark, clear, rich or brilliant, either
consisting of one colour throughout, or be otherwise va¬
riously diversified on an ash, white, sulphur or fire-coloured
ground, or regularly striped, spotted, or mottled in an ele¬
gant manner.
The ranunculus requires a stronger and moisten soil than
most other flowers. Maddock prefers a fresh, strong, rich
loam. Hogg recommends a fresh loam, with a considera¬
ble portion of rotted cow or horse dung. The Rev. Mr
Williamson (Hort. Trans, vol. iv.) uses a stiff clay loam,
with a fourth of rotten dung. “ The bed should be dug
from eighteen inches to two feet deep, and not raised more
than four inches above the level of the walks, to preserve
the moisture more effectually : at about five inches below
the surface should be placed a stratum of two-year-old
rotten cow dung, mixed with earth, six or eight inches
thick; but the earth above this stratum, where the roots
are to be placed, should be perfectly free from dung, which
would prove injurious if nearer. The fibres will draw suf¬
ficient nourishment at the depth above mentioned ; but it
the dung were placed deeper, it would not receive so much
advantage from the action of the air.” Other florists have
recommended to put the manure at least two feet and a
half below the surface of the earth. The principal object,
however, is to maintain throughout the bed a genial mois¬
ture ; and this is to be done by avoiding all hot gravelly
earths, and particularly soils that are apt to cake. The
tubers are planted late in autumn or early in spring, in rows
five or six inches apart, and three or four inches separate
H O R TIC
1 wsr in the rows. They should be so close that the foliage shall
C den. COver the surface of the bed, for in this way a salutary de-
^ gree of shade and moisture is preserved. The autumn
planted roots must be sheltered from frost by old tan or
hooped mattings. When in flower, the plants are covered
with an awning. When the leaves wither, the roots are
taken up, dried, and stored.
Scarcely any florists’ flower is more readily propagated
from seed, or sooner repays the care of the cultivator. The
seed is obtained from semi-double sorts, which are often of
themselves very beautiful flowers. It is generally sown in
boxes in autumn or spring. We have often seen it com¬
mitted with success to the open ground. The young plants
thus raised flower, often in the second, and always in the
third year.
The Anemone of the flower garden includes two species,
Anemone coronaria, a native of the Levant, and A. hor-
tensis, a native of Italy. These have long shared the at¬
tention of the florist, and in his arrangements have gene¬
rally been associated with the ranunculus, resembling it in
its natural affinities and mode of culture. The single and
semi-double flowers are considered nearly as fine as the
double ones. The sorts are numerous, but at present are
seldom distinguished by names. In a fine double ane¬
mone, the stem should be strong, erect, and not less than
nine inches high. The flower should be at least two and
a half inches in diameter, consisting of an exterior row of
large well rounded petals, in the form of a broad shallow
cup, the interior part of which should contain a number of
small petals, mixed with stamens, imbricating each other.
The colours should be clear and distinct, when diversified
in the same flower, or striking and brilliant, when there is
only one tint.
The soil and culture are so nearly the same as in the
ranunculus, that it is needless to specify them. The plant
continues longer in flower, and the leaves often remain so
loril5 green, that it is difficult to find a period of inaction in
which to take up the roots. It has been recommended,
that as soon as the bloom is over, the bed should be screen¬
ed from rain by mattings until the leaves wither. As the
roots are rather brittle, they require considerable care in
handling. Anemones are easily raised from the seed. A
bed of single anemones, it may be remarked, is a valuable
addition to a flower garden, as it affords, in a warm situa¬
tion, an abundance of handsome and often brilliant spring
flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or crocus.
The Narcissus is an extensive genus, including a great
many interesting species and varieties. It belongs, how¬
ever, rather to the botanico-florist than to the florist pro¬
per ; but as it contains many plants of great elegance, it
ought to receive more general attention. The Polyanthus
Narcissus (N. Tazetta) affords the varieties which are
chiefly cultivated by florists. These prosper in a rich light
soil, containing a little dung. The roots should not be stirred
more frequently than once in three years ; and this remark
applies also to Narcissus Jonquilla and odorus, the small
and large jonquil, of which fragrant plants there should be
beds in every flower garden. N. Tazetta, like the hyacinth,
may also be grown either in pots or in water-glasses.
Iris. The species which peculiarly appertain to the
florist are, I. Xiphium and Xiphioides, of both of which
there are many beautiful varieties. They are of easy cul¬
ture, succeeding in almost any kind of soil, and requiring
to be moved only once in three or four years. The roots
are not improved by being kept out of the ground ; and
perhaps the best method is, upon taking them up and free¬
ing them from their shaggy skins, to replant them imme¬
diately.
Besides these, may be mentioned the Persian Iris (I. Per-
sica), a low bulbous-rooted plant, with delicate blue or
violet coloured flowers, and a high degree of fragrance. It
ULTURE. f)8;
has long been cultivated by the Dutch, from whom bulbs Flower
are annually procured. It is grown in water, or in pots of Garden,
nearly pure sand. When planted out, it requires to be
guarded from frosts and rain. The Snake’s-head Iris
(I. tuberosa, Bot. Mag.) is also a fragrant species, and is
more hardy than the preceding. Mr Denson, who has been
very successful in the culture of this plant, recommends, in
Gard. Mag. vol. viii., that it should be allowed to stand
two or three years in succession on the same spot; when,
“ in July* take it up and divide the tubers, planting them
soon as dug up, six inches deep in a compost formed of
half friable mould, and half leaf mould, or old hot-bed dung,
rotted to the consistence of soil. Let the situation be"a
dry bed or border, at the base of a wall, with a southern
aspect, and plant the tubers close to the wall, or only a
few inches from it. dhe Chalcedonian Iris (I. susiana),
is the most magnificent species of the genus, and is well
worth the labour of the cultivator. Its little stalk, a few
inches high, is surmounted by a splendid corolla, the petals
of which aie nearly as broad as the hand, and are of a purple
or black ground, striped with white. It loves a loamy soil,
and a sunny exposure, and must be guarded from moisture
and frosts in winter. For these three species Mr Loudon
recommends the protection of a frame.
There are many other species which are worthy of a
place in a select flower garden, and when well grouped in
a peaty earth, form an agreeable appendage to a parterre.
Of these wre may mention the low creeping I. cristata and
pumila, the more aspiring prismatica, flexuosa, virginica,
sordida, variegata and Swertii, the taller Sibirica, triflora and
ochroleuca, the broad leaved Florentina, Germanica and
sambucingpand the stately pallida, which, for simple ele¬
gance, is not outshone by any of its compeers. This
beautiful family is much beholden to David Falconer, Esq.
of Carlowrie, who has introduced some of its most interest¬
ing members to the horticultural world in Scotland.
The Lilg. Of the genus Lilium there are many species,
some of which have not been exhibited to the extent of
their capabilities in the flower garden. The old white Lily
(L. candidum, L.) after supplying the poets with so much
imagery, has retired into the modest station of a common
border flower. The flaunting Orange-Lily (L. bulbiferum)
may be allowed, if it pleases, to follow its example. L. mar-
tagon may occupy the same place. The scarlet Turk’s
Cap (L. Chalcedonicum) is worthy of more care, as being
more beautiful and more tender. It does not relish being
disturbed, and it dislikes peat. On the contrary, the splen¬
did Tiger Lily (L. tigrinum), which propagates rapidly by
axillary bulbs, succeeds best in peaty soil. The same re¬
mark applies to the rarer L. canadense, and superbum
(magnificent species) as well as to L. concolor, Pennsyl-
vanicum and others, which ought to be more common in
our gardens. L. Japonicum and longiflorum, in which the
genus attains its greatest magnificence, unfortunately re¬
quire a finer climate than ours, and must therefore be grown
in pots under glass.
Omitting Crocus, Fritillaria, and some other bulbous
genera, which are sometimes treated as florists’ flowers, we
proceed to one of the prime ornaments of the autumnal
flower garden, the Dahlia, or Georgina, as it is called by
some writers.
The Dahlia, of which there are two species (D. variabilis
and D. coccinea), is a native of Mexico, from which it
was introduced in 1789, but afterwards lost by our culti¬
vators. It was reintroduced in 1804 ; but it was not till
ten years later that it was generally known in our gardens.
1 he first plants were single, of ^ pale purple colour, and
though interesting, as affording a new form of floral orna¬
ment, they by no means held forth a promise of the in¬
finite diversity of tint and figure exhibited by their succes¬
sors. At present the varieties are endless, each district
684
Flower
Garden.
HORTICULTURE.
of the country possessing suites of its own, and cultivators
occasionally raising at one sowing a dozen or two of sorts,
^ which they think worthy of preservation. The results have
been most propitious to the flower garden, from which, in¬
deed, the Dahlia could nearly as ill be spared, as the potato
from the kitchen garden.
The varieties of Dahlia may be classed under the follow¬
ing heads: 1. The Common or Rose-shaped form, under
which the double sorts first appeared. This is by far the
most numerous class, and perhaps the most beautiful. The
dwarf sorts are in most repute. 2. The Anemone-Flower¬
ed, having a radius of large petals, and a central disk of
smaller ones, somewhat like the double anemone. 3. Globe-
flowered, having small globular flowers, which are extreme¬
ly double. They possess great intensity of colour, and, rising
for the most part above the leaves, make generally as strik¬
ing an appearance as those of a more massive efflorescence.
In a fine Dahlia the flowers should be fully double, al¬
ways filling the centre; the florets should be entire or
nearly so, regular in their disposition, each series overlap¬
ping the other backwards; they may be either plain or
quilled, but never distorted : if, instead of being reflexed,
the florets are recurved, the flower will be more symme¬
trical. The peduncles ought to be strong enough to keep
the blossoms erect, and long enough to shew the flowers
above the leaves. Bright and deep velvety colours are
most admired.
New varieties are, of course, procured from seed. If sown
in flower-pots, and aided by a little heat, the seedlings,
Speedily planted out, will flower the first season. Established
■varieties are propagated by dividing the large tuberous roots,
but in doing so, care must be taken to have an eye to each
portion of tuber, otherwise it will not grow. Sometimes
shoots of rare varieties are grafted on the roots of others.
A good method is to take cuttings close from the roots of
the plants, as soon as they shoot up in the beginning of
summer, and to strike them in small flower-pots. These
will generally flower during the current season.
Dahlias succeed best in an open situation, and in rich
loam ; but there is scarcely any garden soil in which they
will not thrive, with manure. They are, however, injured
by being repeatedly planted on the same spot. They may
stand singly like common border flowers; but have the
most imposing appearance when seen in masses arranged
according to their stature. Old roots often throw up a
multitude of stems, which render thinning necessary. As
the plants increase in height, they are furnished with strong
stakes, to secure them from high winds. Dahlias generally
flower till they are interrupted by frost in autumn. The
roots are then taken up, dried, and stored in a cellar, or
some other place, where they may be secured from frost
and moisture.
The Auricula (Primula Auricula) is a native of the Alps
and the Caucasus. It has long been an inmate of our gar¬
dens ; and has generally been a favourite with those florists
whose means and appliances are of a limited kind. Some
of.the most successful cultivators at present are among the
operatives in the vicinity of Manchester and Paisley.
Besides the double varieties which have never been in
much repute, Auriculas are classed under two divisions :
the Selfs or plain-coloured, and the variegated or painted
sorts. Professed florists confine their attention to the
latter: it must, however, be confessed, that their criteria
of fine flowers are often arbitrary, and that although many
of their favourites are examples of undoubted beauty, the
eye of the uninitiated would generally prefer the simpler
hues of the self-coloured flowers.
The auricula, though now almost wholly an artificial
plant, and strangely transformed from its original appear¬
ance, still loves a moist soil and shady situation. The flo¬
rists vaiieties are grown in rich composts, for the prepara¬
tion of which numberless receipts have been given. We Flow
quote that of Mr Hogg, an experienced grower, as stated Garde
in his Supplement, p. 166. “ One barrow of rich yellow
loam, or fresh earth from some meadow or pasture land or
common, with the turf well rotten; one barrow of leaf
mould, one ditto of cow-dung, two years old at least; and
one peck of river, not sea sand. For strong plants intend¬
ed for exhibition, add to the same composition, as a stimu¬
lant, a barrowful of well decayed night soil, with the appli¬
cation of liquid manure before the top-dressing in February,
and twice more, but not oftener, in March. A portion of
light, sandy, peat-earth may be added, as a safe and useful
ingredient, particularly for plants kept in low damp situa¬
tions.”
Auriculas may be propagated from seed. It is to be
sown in January or February in boxes, which are kept un¬
der cover, and exposed only to the rays of the morning
sun. W hen seed has been saved from the finer sorts, the
operation is one of considerable nicety, as it not unfre-
quently happens that the best seedlings are at first exceed-
ingly weak. 1 hey generally flower in the second or third
year; and the florist is fortunate who obtains three or four
good sorts out of a large sowing. The established varie¬
ties are increased by dividing the roots, an operation which
is performed in July or in the beginning of August.
Fine auriculas are grown in pots about six inches in dia¬
meter. These are kept in frames, or stages constructed
for the purpose. For winter use, perhaps there is nothing
better than a common hot-bed frame, as this admits of an
exact adjustment of air and temperature, things to which
attention is absolutely necessary as the plants approach the
flowering season. After the bloom is over, the pots may
be placed on stages slightly elevated, and facing the north.
Though not absolutely necessary, it is useful to have the
power of sheltering them from long continued rains. It is
usual every year to shift the plants, shortening the roots,
and giving them a large portion of new soil, soon after the
flowers have decayed. For more detailed information on
this subject, we may refer to the well-known treatises of
Maddock and Hogg.
The Polyanthus is supposed to be a seminal variety of
Primula vulgaris; and is much cultivated by some florists.
Like the auricula, it has sported into many hundred varie¬
ties. It is not necessary to give a detailed account of its
culture, as it scarcely differs from that of the auricula. The
polyanthus, however, is the hardier of the two, and seldom
perishes from cold. It may be mentioned that there are
several beautiful double varieties of the common primrose,
which are deserving of a place in every garden.
The whole genus Primula merits the attention of the
curious cultivator. P. helvetica and nivalis adorn the
flower borders in spring with their abundant trusses of
blossom. P. marginata, when planted in a shady situation,
is equally lavish of its pale and delicately beautiful flowers.
P. viscosa and integrifolia, with their intense colours, are
the ornaments of the alpine frame; or, with P. longifolia,
farinosa, and Scotica, may be plunged into the margin of
the American border. A supply, however, should be kept
in pots. Besides these we might name P. cortusoides, Pal-
lasii, Palinuri, and others. The curious P. verticillata, and
the splendid P. Sinensis, are inmates of the greenhouse.
The florist of simple tastes will love them all.
The Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) has long been
a favourite flower, not only for the beauty but for the de¬
lightful fragrance of its blossoms. It is a native of Germa¬
ny, and it is occasionally found in an apparently wild state
in England. The cultivation of it, however, is by no
means easy, and calls forth all the resources of the florist.
The varieties, which are very numerous, have been ar¬
ranged under three heads: Flakes, having two colours,
with their stripes running quite through and along the
HORTICULTURE.
)wer petals; Bizarre*, irregularly spotted, and striped with not
l -den. few er than three colours; Picotees, spotted, with serrated
- v^~^or fringed petals. Mr Hogg, who has written a treatise
expressly on this flower, has given a catalogue of nearly
350 sorts.
Carnations are propagated by layers or pipings: the for¬
mer method is most practised, but with some sorts piping,
it is said, should be preferred. Layering is performed
when the plant is in full bloom. Proper shoots are selected;
a few of the lower leaves are then removed; an incision is
made a little below a suitable joint passing up through it,
and the shoot is then pegged down and covered with some
fresh soil, the tip being left above ground. Layers are
generally found to be rooted in about a month after the
operation has been performed. Pipings are little cuttings,
separated at a joint, and planted thickly under bell-glasses
on a slight hot-bed. They require great attention, and are
precarious in their success, but form excellent plants.
Numerous directions have been given respecting com¬
posts for carnations. We abridge those of Hogg, who is
principal authority in this matter. Take three barrows of
loam, one and a half of garden mould, ten of horse-dung,
and one of coarse sand; let these be mixed, and thrown
into a heap, and turned over two or three times in the win¬
ter, particularly in frosty weather. Towards the end of
November a barrow-load of lime is added while hot, to aid
in the decomposition of the soil, and destroy worms. For
the varieties which are liable to sport, he recommends a
poorer compost.
The more robust carnations are planted out in beds or
singly in the flower garden; but the finer and tenderer
sorts are grown in pots of about a foot in diameter. The
time of potting is about the end of March. When the
flower-stems shew themselves, they are furnished with rods,
to which they are tied as they lengthen, to prevent their
being broken by the wind or other accident. When the
plants begin to expand their blossoms, they are removed
to a stage calculated to exhibit their beauties. Some flo¬
rists attach ligatures of matting to the flower-buds, in order
to prevent irregular bursting, and even arrange the petals,
by removing distortions with scissars.
New varieties are raised from seed. The seed of the
hardier double or semidouble sorts often affords a very
beautiful bed of flowers, and should not be neglected by
those who have the command of extensive flower gardens.
The Pink is considered by botanists as merely a va¬
riety of the preceding. It is, however, very distinct in its
character, and constant in its habits. It is one of the me¬
chanics’ flowers, and is cultivated most extensively in the
neighbourhood of some of the manufacturing towns. Its
simple elegance does credit to the taste of those who select
it for their favourite ; and it deserves a place in the garden
of the highest as well as of the lowest in the land. Pinks
are numerous, the growers at Paisley enumerating about
three hundred varieties. Those are preferred which have
the limb of the petals nearly entire, and are well marked
in the centre with bright crimson or dark purple.
Pinks are mostly propagated by pipings in slight hot¬
beds or under-hand glasses ; and when proper attention is
given to the due admission of air, they generally succeed.
Occasionally rare sorts, which are scantily furnished with
grass, are propagated by layers. This flower does not re¬
quire such elaborate composts as some others, but it likes
fresh light soils, well manured with decayed cow dung.
Not more than two years of blooms should be taken from
the same bed, and it is the practice of most florists to have
a new bed every year. The flower stalks are supported by
small sticks. As in the carnation, ligatures of matting, or
collars of card, are sometimes applied to the calyces of the
flowers : but this practice, however it may be followed by
those who judge according to the technical “ criteria of a
685
fine flower,” will scarcely be adopted by any who have an Flower
eye for natural beauty. Garden.
The genus Lobelia may now be regarded as affording
a group of florists’ flowers. L. Cardinalis, the cardinal
flower, has long been a valued but somewhat rare plant.
It is propagated by seed or by off-sets. L, fulgens is a
more shewy species, which, when potted and treated as a
tender annual, forms a magnificent plant. It also succeeds
perfectly well in the open borders. Being a semi-aquatic,
it may be preserved during winter in springs or cisterns.
We have seen quantities kept most successfully at the
mouth of an Artesian spring at Hopetoun House. L.
splendens is also worthy of notice. Besides the quaint L.
tupa, there are many other species, particularly the blue
and yellow procumbent sorts, which merit a place in every
collection of fine flowers.
It would lead us too much into detail to speak minutely
of Calceolaria, Phlox, Chelone, Pentstemon, CEnothera, and
other genera, which approach the character of florists’
flowers. To have them in perfection, they should be kept
in beds by themselves : and we are persuaded that, were a
moiety of the care bestowed upon some of the preceding
flowers, which are conventionally supposed to belong pe¬
culiarly to the florist, expended on them, they would amply
repay the labour of the cultivator.
The Chinese Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum sinense),
from the peculiar culture which it now undergoes, may be
considered to belong to this department of flowers. It is a
native of China, and though introduced many years ago,
its ornamental capabilities have only recently been brought
into notice. Flowering in November and December, it
fills up, with its many coloured blossoms, the blank of a
most dreary season, and affords the means of decorating
greenhouses, conservatories, and dwelling-houses, when
almost all other means of embellishment fail. Forty va¬
rieties have been enumerated by Mr Sabine in the London
Horticultural Memoirs, but it is believed that there are
many others not yet introduced from China. The Chry¬
santhemum is hardy enough to live in the open air, but it
requires the shelter of a wall, and from the lateness of its
flowering, it is only the eaidy varieties that, even in fine
seasons, are permitted to unfold their blossoms. It is seen
in its beauty only when grown in pots. Yearly plants are
preferred. In the beginning of April, cuttings of the last
year’s shoots, about three inches long, are put singly into
small pots, filled with soil composed of one half bog earth
O ’ leaf mould, and one half pure sand. Their growth is
expedited at first by gentle heat. In about a month they
are rooted and are put into a cold frame, in which they are
kept till the beginning of June, when they are put into
larger pots, and set out in some airy situation. About this
time the tops of the plants are pinched off to make them
bushy, but no more side shoots are allowed to remain for
flowering than the plants are likely to be able to support.
In August they are again shifted into larger pots, filled
with strong rich soil, During the whole season, the pots
are frequently moved to prevent the roots from striking
through, and they are never plunged. Mr Monro of the
Lond. Hortic, Garden, whose method of culture we have
been describing, recommends liquid manure to be applied
from time to time in summer and autumn. Other culti¬
vators, in order to have a greater succession of flowers, and
a variety in the stature of the plants, strike cuttings at two
seasons, in March and in May, and propagate by layers in
August. In the beginning of winter the plants are put
into a cold frame or vinery, and they are brought into a
milder temperature as they are wanted. To produce large
shewy plants, a few of the chrysanthemums of the former
year may be selected, and, being freed from suckers, and
having the mould shaken from their roots, may be repotted
and shifted repeatedly during the summer and autumn.
666
HORTICULTURE.
Flower
Garden.
BOTANICAL STRUCTURES.
Glazed houses, for the reception and culture of exotic
plants, though sometimes placed in connection with similar
structures in the forcing department, are now almost uni¬
versally regarded as appendages of the flower' garden. In
the hands of architects they have assumed a great variety
of forms. We shall confine ourselves to the exhibition of
the principle of the most important of these, and shall limit
our remarks to the Greenhouse, the Conservatory, and the
Stove.
The Greenhouse is intended to afford a winter and partly
a summer shelter to the less tender classes of exotic plants
grown in pots. Fig. 5, Plate CCXCIII., exhibits the old
lean-to greenhouse. The general form of the house is that
of a vinery with pretty lofty front glass. The main part
of the area is occupied by a stage rising in steps to receive
the potted plants. At some height above the front flue is
placed a narrow horizontal bench of trellis work to receive
small plants which require to be near the light. The in¬
terior air is warmed by one or two flues, or other heating
apparatus, according to its volume ; but a temperature of
45° Fahr. during winter is sufficient. Sometimes green¬
houses are constructed with span-roofs and a double stage.
They may indeed assume any form which taste can suggest,
provided there be a sufficiency of light, and the plants be
not too far from the glass. The heath-house does not es¬
sentially differ from the greenhouse, but for it a span roof
is certainly preferable.
In the Conservatory the chief plants grow in beds of
earth sunk in the floor. Fig. 3, Plate CCXCIII. shews
the principle of this species of house. The beds marked
h b are filled with a light soil calculated for the plants
which are to inhabit them. Fig. 4. represents the front
elevation of the roof. Numerous varieties of this struc¬
ture also have appeared, and some most sumptuous exam¬
ples have been erected in the gardens of the nobility. With
similar restrictions as in the greenhouse, the conservatory
may be said to be capable of assuming any form.
The Plant Stove may be either a dry stove or a bark
stove, or both combined, and is applied to the cultivation of
tropical plants which require an elevated temperature.
The dry stove may be considered as a greenhouse with a
larger than usual apparatus for the production of heat.
The bark stove is furnished somewhat in the manner of a
pine stove, with a receptacle to contain a bed of fermenting
tanners’ bark into which the pots are plunged. In this
country, stoves are regarded as belonging rather to the
botanic than to the flower garden ; they are extremely
useful, however, in the latter, for, besides presenting the
florist with many unusual forms of vegetation, they afford
in summer a variety of beautiful plants, which, when in
flower, may be introduced into the greenhouse.
Sometimes the various botanical structures are combined
into one imposing assemblage, as that exhibited in Plate
CCXCIII. Fig. 1, the ground-plan of which is given in
Fig. 2 of the same plate ; a being a palm-house; b for
New Holland plants ; c large greenhouse ; and the inter¬
mediate spaces being occupied by dry stove, heath-house,
and greenhouses. This mode is, of course, suited only for
places of the first order, where splendour is the object,
where every thing is on a great scale, and expense little
regarded. In a vast proportion of cases economy must be
studied; and in villa gardens the ornamental plant-house is
very often attached to the library or the drawing-room. A
good plan for such a glazed house may be found in the Gar¬
dener’s Magazine, vol. vi. p. 664.
t Greenhouse Plants.—1 his beautiful class of plants have
become so numerous, that, in a sketch like the present, it
is impossible to give the names of even a limited selection. How
We may once more refer to Mr Loudon’s tables in his Card
Encyclopedia of Horticulture, or to his still more copious ^—v
lists in the Hortus Britannicus, in both of which works
much valuable information may be obtained. The recent
increase of species makes the work of selection at once
more necessary and more difficult; a work which it must
be confessed is often negligently performed. Many of the
finer sorts of woody plants are propagated with difficulty,
and consequently, being high priced in the nurseries, are
possessed in requisite abundance only where there is con¬
siderable liberality on the part of the proprietor. On the
other hand, the species which strike easily are circulated
by gardeners themselves, many of whom, by their own in¬
terest and resources, more than half fill their greenhouses
without calling for the aid of their employers. To this
cause may be ascribed the perpetuation of many mean
looking plants, which, if hardy, would scarcely be tolerated
in well-kept shrubberies, and certainly ought not to en¬
cumber the greenhouse.
Light mould produced by the rotting of turf from pas¬
tures, and reduced with sand if necessary, or enriched with
leaf-mould, is well adapted for most greenhouse plants.
Some require a mixture of peat earth : others thrive only
in pure sandy peat. If more specific directions be wished,
we would recommend the reader to have recourse to Cush¬
ing's Exotic Gardener, or to the more recent work by
Sweet, entitled The Botanical Cultivator. The common
means of propagation is by cuttings, inserted in earth or
sand, and covered, if necessary, with bell-glasses. A few
sorts are increased by grafting or layers. Nearly all may
be raised from seed, large quantities of which are annually
imported from abroad ; and, it may be added, many green¬
house plants ripen their seed in this country.
Many of these plants require shifting and fresh earth
twice a year ; all of them should be repotted once a year at
least. It is the common practice to examine their roots in
spring or the early part of summer, and, removing the mat¬
ted fibres, to put them into larger pots if necessary. As
room is extremely valuable in limited greenhouses, it is de¬
sirable that the plants should be kept of a moderate size;
and they are, therefore, rather to be under-potted than
otherwise. Many of the free-growing plants require to be
shifted again in August; at which period of the year, it is
considered preferable to repot those which require to be
disturbed only once a year. During the summer months, a
great proportion of the inmates of the greenhouse are placed
in the open air, on a spot paved or laid with ashes, to pre¬
vent the entrance of earth-worms into the pots, and not too
much exposed to winds. Meanwhile, their place in the
greenhouse is occupied by balsams and other tender an¬
nuals of a showy character. On the approach of winter
the plants are again placed under cover. All that is ne¬
cessary in the management of the greenhouse in winter, is
to keep up a steady but very moderate temperature, to
preclude the access of damp by regular airing in mild dry
weather, and to attend to moderate watering where it may
be needed.
Of late years, particular genera of plants have come
greatly into vogue, and it would be an omission not to no¬
tice some of them. Among the foremost may be men¬
tioned Pelargonium, with its affinities. This beautiful tribe
has varied nearly as rapidly as the Dahlia; to the discom¬
posure of some botanists, whose scientific logic has been
brought into jeopardy. Pelargoniums are of easy culture,
propagating readily by cuttings, and requiring only to be
shifted from time to time. Equal to these in point of
beauty of colour, and certainly superior in elegance of form,
is the family of Cape heaths, the Ericce of botanists. Of
this genus there is said to be 600 species, considerably more
than the half of which exist in our collections. Many heaths
HORTICULTURE. 687
T rer may be raised from seed, which occasionally ripens in this
G ^a- country : the most common mode of propagation, however,
'*< is by cuttings, and this in some species is attended with
difficulty. Heaths require a peaty soil, and attention in
watering. For further information, we may refer to the
excellent little treatise of Mr M‘Nab of the Botanic Gar¬
den, Edinburgh, whose success in this department is quite
unrivalled, and in whose hands heaths attain a splendour
which, we believe, they never reach in the environs of
Table Mountain itself. The superb genus Camellia is the
only other that particularly claims our attention. To the
elegance of the finest evergreen it unites the beauty of the
fairest rose. The Camellia, though a native of Japan, is
not particularly tender, but from some peculiarities in its
constitution, its culture requires a considerable degree of
attention and care. Cuttings of the single red variety strike
freely, and upon these as stocks, the finer sorts are grafted
by inarching or side-grafting. The soil generally em¬
ployed is a mixture of peat and light loam. Care must be
taken not to allow the roots to become matted in the pots.
The young plants should be shifted at least once a year;
when old, and in large tubs, once in two years will be suf¬
ficient. It is found beneficial to apply a certain degree
of heat while the plants are growing, and till they form
flower-buds for the following season. To have Camellias
in perfection, a house with a span roof should be appro¬
priated for their reception. There are some splendid col¬
lections of this noble plant in the nursery-gardens in the
neighbourhood of London, particularly at Hackney, Yaux-
hall, and Clapton.
Conservatory Plants These are composed of a selec¬
tion from the numerous inmates of the greenhouse. They
should be naturally of an elegant form, capable in general
of sustaining themselves, and somewhat hardy in their con¬
stitution. Many of the Australian plants, particularly the
Acacias and Banksias, are well adapted for this purpose.
The ascending Proteas of the Cape, Clethra arborea of
Madeira, and many others of a similar habit, may likewise
take their place in this department. To these may be
added a few of the hardier Heaths and Camellias, together
with a Myrtle or two, double flowering Pomegranate, Cam¬
phor-laurel, Tea-tree, and some of the varieties of the mag¬
nificent and consecrated Rhododendron arboreum. Any
wall in the interior of the house may be furnished with a
trellis, and covered with such climbing plants as Lonicera
Japonica, Cobbea scandens, Maurandia semperflorens and
Barclayana, and the trailing Pelargoniums. In the manage¬
ment of the conservatory, abundant air should be admitted,
and care should be taken not to draw the plants; that is,
not to cause them to become too tall and spindle-formed by
over-crowding. They should be so pruned as to keep them
comparatively short and bushy ; but after all pains have
been taken, the sorrowful time at length arrives, when they
either disfigure themselves by pressing against the glass, or
must submit to the no less distorting process of a violent
amputation. To meet such exigencies, it is recommended
that, wherever there is also a greenhouse, a few plants
should be kept in training for the conservatory, and sub¬
stituted in the room of any that become unmanageable.
After all, the fourth, fifth, and sixth, summers of the con¬
servatory will always be the finest: and when a longer se¬
ries of years have gone by, and the plants have outgrown
the space allotted to them, perhaps the best thing that can
be done is to change the whole interior of the house, plants,
earth and all. If this operation be anticipated, and for a
year or two prepared for, sufficiently large plants may be
had in readiness, and the appearance of a well-furnished
house be attained in one or two seasons. It is scarcely
needful to add, that the neatness which is so desirable
everywhere in the flower-garden is absolutely indispensable
in the conservatory.
Stove Plants There are many beautiful plants, natives Flower
of tropical regions, which are cultivated in our stoves, but Garden,
which, from the elevated temperature they require, can be ^ ~
only occasionally visited with pleasure. This may account
for the fact that stoves are seldom found but in first-rate
gardens, even where the price of fuel is inconsiderable.
It is unnecessary to be minute respecting dry stove plants:
their culture is precisely that of greenhouse plants, differ¬
ing only in the degree of heat. Many dry stove plants are
succulent, such as Cactus, Aloe and Mesembryanthemum,
and of course require an arid soil, composed of a little light
loam mixed with lime-rubbish or shivers. One of the most
successful growers of the cacti w as the late Mr Walter Hen¬
derson at Woodhall. The compost which he employed con¬
sisted of 1 part rotted dung, 1 rotted leaves, 1 heath mould,
11 loam, and 1 coarse sand, all vrell mixed together; and
the pot w7as nearly one-third filled writh shreds, so as to form
an effectual drain. Some of the species, such as Cactus
speciosus and Cereus flagelliformis, are improved, and made
to flower more freely, by being kept growing vigorously in
the greenhouse during summer. The bark stove plants
thrive best in the tepid vapour peculiar to the equatorial
climes. In order to furnish bottom heat, a bark pit is pre¬
pared, into which the pots or tubs are sunk; and the at¬
mosphere is heated by flues, by steam, or, what is better,
by a circulation of hot-water. Along the front glass, and
on the back wall, are shelves on which pots may be ar¬
ranged, according to the necessities of light and shade.
On the front shelves are occasionally placed shallow troughs,
filled with old tan, leaves, or decayed wood, for the recep¬
tion of the air-plants and other epiphytes. Small cisterns
too are introduced to contain tender aquatics. Along the
rafters some of the more elegant species of Passiflora, such
as P. quadrangularis, may be trained; and through the
branches of some of the woody plants, Cuscuta, Tropaeolum,
and other tender climbers, may be allowed to twine them¬
selves. In the pit may be plunged some of the Palms,
those princes of plants. In short, there is no end of those
numerous tribes, “ the potent sons of moisture and of heat,”
with which the teeming regions of the equator are filled;
and no suite of stoves in this country, however extensive,
can come up to the wishes of the botanist. The manage¬
ment of this department of floriculture is laborious and try¬
ing to the constitution. A strong heat, both in the bark
bed and in the atmosphere, must be maintained; the air
must be kept charged with vapour, and the plants require
frequent shifting and repotting. For more detailed in¬
formation as to the management of particular stove plants,
we may again refer to Cushing, who, in his Exotic Gar¬
dener, has treated this subject with a skill and fulness that
have not been surpassed, perhaps not eoualled, by any of
his successors.
CALENDAR.
January.
Kitchen Garden.—Sow early frame and Charlton pease
in the beginning of the month, and dwarf marrowfats about
the end of the month ; early mazagan and longpod beans
during the first and last weeks ; onions, on very light soils ;
as also parsley, if not done in August, on a warm border ;
short-topped radish in two or three sowings-, at a week’s
interval, in the same situation. In the last fortnight sow
hardy green and brow n Dutch lettuce.
Plant fruit trees, in general, in open weather, mulching
the trees to protect them from the drought which may oc¬
cur in spring. Plant shallot.
Prune all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather or in mode¬
rate frosts, nailing only in fine weather; wash those trees
688
HORTICULTURE.
Calendar, infested with insects, with soap-suds, flowers of sulphur,
^—y " and tobacco liquor.1
Forcing Department—Prepare for making up hot-beds
for early cucumbers and melons, at least where a pit heat¬
ed with hot water is not in use. Sow salads, carrots, and
kidney-beans on slight hot-beds. Sow pease in cold frames
for transplanting. Force asparagus, sea-kale, and rhubarb,
in hot-beds, in pits, in the mushroom-house, or in the open
garden by covers surrounded with litter. Give air in fine
weather, and water sparingly, to the pinery and cucumber-
pit; and to other forcing houses, according to the pro¬
gress of the trees. Attend to the forced kidney-beans and
strawberries. Give abundance of air to the greenhouse,
conservatory, and alpine frame, but little water. Begin to
force roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &c., and hardy flowers
and bulbs.
Flower Garden.—Plant dried tubers and bulbs of bor¬
der flowers, if not done in autumn; but roots of the finer
florists’ flowers ought to be deferred till next month.
Transplant herbaceous plants and evergreen shrubs in
light soils, if not done in autumn; also deciduous trees,
shrubs, and hedges. Lay edgings in fine weather.
Sow mignonette, stocks, &c., in pots; sow pease, and a
few hardy annuals, on a warm border. Give stage auri¬
culas and carnations abundance of air; but keep them
rather dry, to prevent damping off.
February.
Kitchen Garden..—Sow beans and pease in the begin¬
ning and end of the month ; a few early cabbages, to re¬
place the last sowing in August; red cabbages and savoys
in the last week. Sow also early horn carrot; Dutch tur¬
nip ; onions for a full crop in light soils, with a few leeks.
Sow chervil and fennel, and lettuce for succession, with
radishes and round-leaved spinach, twice in the course of the
month ; small salads every fortnight.
Plant Jerusalem artichokes, garlic, horse-radish, and early
potatoes. All sorts of fruit trees may still be planted.
Strawberries may be planted about the end of the month.
T. ransplant for seed, if not done before, all the brassica tribe,
including cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, &c.; also carrots,
onions, beet, celery, endive, leeks, and parsneps. Trans¬
plant to the bottom of a south wall a few of the pease
sown in November for the first crop.
Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines, and plums, before
the buds be much swelled; also apples, pears, cherries,
gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, before the end of
the month. Finish the dressing of vines, keep the fruit-
room free from spoiled fruit, and shut it close.
Forcing Department.—Plant out melons and cucumbers
on hot-beds and in pits, sowing more for succession. Sow
carrots, turnips, and early celery; cauliflower, to be after¬
wards planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hot-beds.
Continue the forcing of asparagus, rhubarb, and sea-kale.
Pine-apple plants require little air or water at this season,
except young plants in dung-frames, which ought to be
kept free from damp. Shift fruiting plants by the middle
of the month, if not done in August. Continue the for¬
cing of all sorts of fruits. Those who have not commenced
sooner will find this one of the best seasons to begin. Be
careful to protect the stems of vines that are outside of
the forcing houses.
Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty of air
in mild weather. Put in an extra quantity, if not done in
autumn, of cuttings of Pelargoniums, Fuschsia, Salpiglossis,
Calceolarias, Heliotropium, and Salvia splendens, for the
flower garden. Sow stocks, a few tender annuals, and
dahlia seed, on a slight hot-bed, or in pots.
Flower Garden—In good weather plant dried roots, in¬
cluding most of the finer florists’ flowers; continue the
transplanting of hardy biennial flowers, and herbaceous
plants, shrubs, and deciduous trees.
Sow in the last week mignonette, and hardy annuals, in
a warm border, for subsequent transplanting.
March.
Kitchen Garden.—Sow main crops of pease, beans,
cabbages, onions, leeks, carrots, parsneps, Brussels sprouts'
borecoles, lettuces, and spinach. In the beginning, and also
in the end of the month, sow turnips and savoys. In the
last fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower, sea-kale, cardoons,
celery, and most of the culinary aromatics, as dill, fennel,
parsley. Small salads should be sown every ten days.
Plant early potatoes in the first wreek, and a main crop
during the last fortnight. Jerusalem artichokes, sea-kale,
asparagus, and pease raised in frames, may now be planted.
Full crops of cabbages should now be planted out, and
cauliflowers under hand-glasses. Propagate by slips the
various pot-herbs, as mint, sage, savory, tansy, &c.
Fruit Garden—Finish the planting and pruning of fruit
trees before the middle of the month. Protect those coming
into blossom. Begin grafting in the third week ; dig and
dress between the rows of gooseberries, currants, and other
fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps when they first
appear, for the death of every individual now is equal to
the destruction of a colony in autumn.
Forcing Garden—Proceed with the forcing of melons
and cucumbers, giving air, and applying linings to main¬
tain the proper temperatures. Examine pine-suckers and
crowns, potting those that are kept in tan during the
winter; repotting those that require large pots, and dress¬
ing the roots of such as are sickly; about the middle of
the month, shift to the succession pit, and give a top-dress¬
ing to the fruiting plants ; turn the tan, and add new bark
to the pits, to keep up bottom heat. In the vinery and
peach-house, attend to the keeping down of insects by-
watering ; and promote the growth of the young shoots, by
steaming in the evenings. Sow the seeds of capsicum and
tomato.
Greenhouse—More water may be given than formerly.
Sow seeds of greenhouse and hot-house plants; also the
different sorts of tender annuals; pot off those sown last
month ; shift greenhouse and stove plants ; plant tuberoses
in pots for forcing. Begin to propagate greenhouse plants
by cuttings.
Floiver Garden and Shrubbery In the last week, sow
hardy annuals in the borders, with biennials that flower the
first season; as also perennials. Plant anemone and ranun¬
culus roots. Transplant from the nursery to their final sites
annuals sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants
Propagate perennials from root-slips and offsets. Proteci
tulips, hyacinths, and choice flowers, from severe weather.
In the last week put into heat the finer sorts of dahlias, so
as to spring them, and prepare them for propagation by
We have not deemed it. necessary to treat separately, or at length, of the means of destrosung insects; many of the nostrums
wan™niitnt^eer°3ieVnrpf neffiCKnt' u wash here mentioned is perhaps the best and simplest for the stenfs and branches o
Si Lrdlnpr, nnft k P f • I1 the consistence of paint, and laying it on with a brush. One advice we would tender to
ofteSn u bf.anx^us to klU tthe smaller kinds of the feathered songsters, the soft-billed warblers of the garden, which are
house^the^keentnwihTthe'wall^and1 the/ T °ff cat-PiHars or aphides, their favourite food. In hot-
rp^fn f , d frame-work clean, by frequent white-washing and painting, is very important; and much benefit
results from occasionally filling them with the smoke of tobacco-paper, and then thoroughly sy ringing. 1 a ‘ ’ ana mUCn DeneM
HORTICULTURE. 689
ir. cuttings and by division of the roots. In the first week
-^finish the planting of hardy deciduous tr^es and shrubs;
evergreens by the middle ; but some of the hardier sorts
may still be planted towards the end of the month. Like¬
wise finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges
as soon as possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies,
laying of turf-edgings, and to the state of gravel walks.
April.
Kitchen Garden.—Sow asparagus, sea-kale, beet, salsify,
scorzonera, skirret, carrots, and onions on heavy soils ; also
pease, beans, turnips, spinach, celery, cabbages, savoys, and
German greens, for succession. Sow broccoli and kidney
beans both in the second and in the last week; and small
salads should be sown twice or thrice during the month;
also all sweet herbs, if not done last month.
Plant cauliflower, cabbages, sea-kale, lettuce ; and finish
the planting of the main crops of potatoes. Propagate
all sorts of pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and thin¬
ning of spinach, onions, turnips, &c. Earth up cabbages,
cauliflower, pease, beans, and early potatoes. Stake up
pease; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb in the open air, by
covering with straw or leaves.
Fruit Trees.—No pruning ought to be left undone till
this period ; stone fruits, in particular, are much injured by
spring pruning. If vines have been neglected, rubbing off
the buds that are not wanted is safer than pruning. Pro¬
tect the finer sorts of fruit-trees on the walls.
Forcing.—Continue the preparation of succession beds
and pits for cucumbers and melons. Sow gourds and ba¬
sil. Pot love-apples and capsicums. Attend to the rou¬
tine culture of the pinery, giving water and air when ne¬
cessary. Keep up the bottom heat with linings and additions
of new tan. In the forcing houses, from the variable state
of the weather considerable vigilance is required in giving
air. Keep down red spider (acarus) in the more advanced
houses by frequent waterings. Continue the usual opera¬
tions of disbudding and thinning of fruit, and take care to
keep up the proper temperatures.
Greenhouse.—Still sow all sorts of tender annuals. Pro¬
ceed with all necessary shillings. Propagate rare and fine
plants by cuttings or grafting. Pot off tender annuals,
and cuttings of half-hardy greenhouse, plants put in in
February for the use of the flower garden.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery—Sow main or succes¬
sion crops of annuals of all sorts; half hardy annuals in
warm borders, or on slight hot-beds. Biennials and per¬
ennials should be sown before the middle of the month.
Plant Tigridia pavonia and fine stocks. Finish the trans¬
planting of herbaceous plants by the end of the first week.
Protect stage auriculas and hyacinths from extremes of
every description of weather; and tulips from hoarfrosts
and heavy rains. Plant out tender deciduous trees and
shrubs raised in pots. Remove part of the coverings of
all tender shrubs and plants in the first week, and the
remainder at the end of the month. Form and repair lawns
and grass walks, by laying turf and sowing perennial grass-
seeds.
May.
Kitchen Garden.—Sow small salads every week; radishes
and lettuces thrice ; spinach once a fortnight; carrots and
onions for late drawing; kidney-beans in the first week and
last fortnight. Pease and beans, cauliflowTers, cabbages,
Brussels sprouts, bore-cale, broccoli, savoys, and German
greens, for late crops. Sow pumpkins and cucumbers on a
warm border in the last week. Continue the various ope¬
rations of hoeing and earthing up the different crops.
Fruit Trees.—Disbud peaches, nectarines, and other
VOL. XI.
early trees against the walls; also attend to the thinning Calendar,
of fruit. Give occasional washings with the engine to keep—v—^
down insects. Pick caterpillars from gooseberries and
wall trees on their first appearance. Mulch, if not done
before, all newly planted fruit trees, watering abundantly
in dry weather. Remove from raspberries and strawberries
all suckers and runners that are not wanted.
Forcing.—Plant melons, and cucumbers, and some ba¬
sil, on the hot-beds prepared for vegetables in February,
and now free. Plant out pumpkins on dung-ridges, under
hand-glasses. Sow late crops of cucumbers and melons;
attend to the various particulars in their culture, heat, air,
water, shade, and insects. Go on with the usual culture
of the pinery ; give abundance of heat and water, keeping
down all manner of insects.
Greenhouse. Turn out all hardy plants about the middle,
and the more tender at the latter end of the month. Sowr
tender annuals for succession ; potting and shifting all those
sown at an earlier period. Pot off, likewise, all rooted cut¬
tings. Put in cuttings of the different desirable species
which are now fit for that purpose. Sow a few hardy an¬
nuals and ten-week stock, &c. for late crops.
Flower Garden.—Sow annuals for succession ; biennials
in the last week, in the nursery compartment, for next
year. Propagate by cuttings, dahlias, pansies, double wall¬
flowers, rockets, scarlet lychnis, and lobelias, by dividing
the roots. Plant out, during the first week, dahlias, hardy
pelargoniums, stocks, and calceolarias, protecting the dahlias
from slight frosts. By the middle and end of the month,
masses of the following plants may be formed with safety:
pelargonium, heliotropium, fuschsia, salpiglossis, nierem-
bergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia, erica, and lobelia. Pro¬
tect tulips, ranunculuses, and anemones, from the mid-day
sun, from rains, and winds. Remove the coverings from
all tender plants in the open air.
Shrubbery Planting out of tender evergreens from
pots may be continued, but any other kind of transplanting
will be carried on at considerable risk, except in very moist
and cloudy weather. Proceed with the laying down of
lawns and gravel-walks.
June.
Kitchen Garden.—Sow pease and beans for late crops.
The kinds used for early crops are likewise best for this
purpose. Sow salading every ten days; also carrots and
onions for drawing young. In the beginning of the month
sow endive for an early crop. In the first week sow tur¬
nips for succession; and in the third week for a full au¬
tumn crop. Scarlet and white runners for a late crop;
cabbages for coleworts.
Plant full crops of broccoli, Brussels sprouts, savoys,
German greens, and leeks ; ridge out early celery, succes-
sional crops of cabbage and cauliflower. In the first fort¬
night of the month, plant cucumbers for pickling, in a
warm border, placing hand-glasses over them. Pull and
store winter onions.
Fruit- Trees.—Train and prune the summer shoots of all
descriptions of wall and trellis trees. Standards do not re¬
quire this, except those are trained en pyramids or en quc-
nouille. Mulch and water fruit-trees and strawberries in
dry weather, desisting from watering as soon as the fruit
begins to ripen. Net over cherry-trees, to protect the
fruit from birds. Destroy insects by frequent washings,
and directing tobacco-smoke against them, or by strewing
snuff (or the fine powder of tobacco) over them. In the
first week, plant out love-apples in vacant spaces along
the bottom of a south wall.
Forcing and Greenhouse Department. Hot-beds and
Pits.—Proceed with planting melons and cucumbers raised
from seeds and cuttings, for late crops. Keep up, by
4 s
HORTICULTURE.
690
Calendar, linings, the necessary temperatures for ripening of the
fruits. Continue the cultivation of the pinery stated for
last month ; but, if you wish very large-sized fruit, and do
not care about preserving suckers, remove the whole suck¬
ers from the stem and roots, and apply heat and water in
abundance. Shift suckers and succession plants in the be¬
ginning and middle of the month, as the state of the plants
may require.
Forcing-houses may have the same treatment as stated
last month. Little water and a good deal of air must be
given to those houses where the fruit is beginning to ripen.
Those in which the fruit is past, ought to be constantly
under a system of thorough ventilation.
The Greenhouse will now be occupied with tender green¬
house plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from
the stove, for here they will remain longer in flower. Shift,
re-pot, and propagate all plants, fine perennials, biennials,
or annuals, and cuttings of all sorts that are desirable. Sow
fragrant or showy annuals, to flower in pots during winter.
Flower Garden—Take up bulbs and tuberous roots,
and dry them in the shade before you remove them to the
store-room. Fill up with annuals‘and greenhouse plants
those beds from which the bulbs and roots have been raised.
After this season, keep always a reserve of annuals in pots,
or planted on beds of thin layers of well-rotted hot-bed
dung, from which they are easily removed with balls, to
fill up any blanks which may occur in the border or par¬
terre. Sow perennials, if neglected last month, to be plant¬
ed out in the spring. Lay and pipe carnations and pinks
in the end of the month.
carnations and pinks; attend to the staking and tying up Calf4
of dahlias and strong herbaceous plants. wl *
AUGUST.
In the Kitchen Garden, sow winter and spring spinach
in the beginning and about the end of the month ; parsley
and winter onions, for a full crop, in the first week ; cab¬
bages, cauliflower, savoys, and German greens, about the
middle of the month, for planting out in spring; lettuce in
the first and last week ; small salads occasionally; black,
Spanish, red and white queen radish, for winter crops.
Plant and earth up celery and endive. A few coleworts
may still be planted.
In the Fruit Garden, proceed in the training and regu¬
lation of summer shoots of all fruit trees as directed for the
three last months. Mat up, in dry weather, gooseberry
and currant bushes, to preserve the fruit till late in the au¬
tumn. Every exertion must now be used by the gardener
to preserve the ripening fruits on the walls from insects,
and to destroy wasp nests.
Forcing—The same routine of cultivation in hot-beds
and pits may be proceeded in as stated for last month.
Sow, and propagate by cuttings, in the beginning of the
month, cucumbers, to be afterwards grown in hot water
pits, or in boxes in the front of the pine-stove, for a winter
crop. In the pinery most of the fruit will be cut by the
middle of the month, when a general shifting of succession
plants will take place; as also a potting of suckers; but
these will be strengthened by being allowed to remain on
the old plants until the end of this month. In the forcing-
houses where the crops are past, part of the sashes may be
removed, so as to permit thorough ventilation.
Greenhouse.—Attend to the propagation of all sorts of
greenhouse plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the
greenhouse and stoves the more tender species, by the end
of the month in ordinary seasons, but in wet weather in the
second week. Sow half-hardy annuals, as Clarkia, Schizan-
thus, Coreopsis, &c., to flower during winter.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery—Sow in the second and
the last week, on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with
an east aspect, for planting in spring, Clarkia pulchella and
elegans, Coreopsis tinctorea, Oenothera Lindleyana, and ro-
sea-alba, Collinsia grandiflora, Schizanthus pinnatus, &c.
Auricula and Primula seeds in pots and boxes. Propagate
all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted slips ; lay chrysan¬
themums ; take off layers of carnations, pinks, and pansies.
Transplant evergreens in moist weather, about the end of
the month ; and propagate them by layers and cuttings.
September.
Garden—Sow a few small salads for late crops; lettuce
and spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant
endive and lettuce. If broccoli be too strong or tall to
withstand the winter, lift them and lay them nearly up to
the neck in the earth. Lift onions, and lay them out to
win on a dry border or gravel walk. Lift potatoes and
store them.
Fruit Trees, Sec.—Finish the summer pruning and train¬
ing. Assist the maturing of the fruit, and, what is equally
important, the ripening of the young wood for next year, of
peaches and nectarines on hot walls, with fires during the
day. Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the
autumnal sorts of apples and pears. Plant strawberries
for a main crop.
Forcing.—Take care that late crops of melons and cu
cumbers be not injured by damping, from getting too much
water and too little air. In the pinery the usual routine of
cultivation may be carried on; in the first week take off
and pot all strong suckers, if not done in the middle of last
July.
Kitchen Garden.—In the first week, sow pease for the
last crop of the season. In the last week, sow yellow tur¬
nip for a full winter crop, and spinach for an early winter
crop. Endive, for autumn and winter crops, in the begin¬
ning and end of the month; also successional crops of let¬
tuce and small salads.
Plant full crops of celery, celeriac, endive, about the
middle and end of the month; late crops of broccoli, cau¬
liflower, and coleworts, in the last week. Gather and dry
medical and pot herbs; also propagate such by slips and
cuttings.
Fruit-trees—Continue the summer pruning and training
of all wall and espalier-rail trees, with the destruction of
insects. Plant strawberries in pots, for forcing next winter.
Propagate different sorts of fine fruit-trees, by budding on
other trees, or on prepared stocks.
Forcing—Attend to the pruning of melons and cucum¬
bers, giving air and water, renewing linings, Sec. Go on
with the usual cultivation of the pinery, but withhold
water from the plants when the fruit begins to ripen. Have
the old plants with suckers on them put into a brisk bot¬
tom-heat, giving proper supplies of water; this will increase
their size very much, and materially shorten the period of
their coming into fruit. The forcing-houses ought to have
the same treatment as stated for last month.
In the Greenhouse, little alteration will take place in the
culture and management from that given for last month;
necessary attention being paid to potting, shifting, and put¬
ting in cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the pot¬
ted plants, both in the house and out of doors.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery.—Take up the remain-
der of tuberous roots, such as anemone, ranunculus, Sec.,
finishing by the end of the first week; fill up their places,
and any vacancies that may have occurred, with annuals
fiom the reserve ground. Propagate herbaceous and other
plants that have gone out of flower, by means of cuttings
and slips; also roses and American shrubs, by laying, bud-
ding, or cuttings.- Go on with the laying and piping of
HORTICULTURE. 691
jir month; the remainder may be taken off at the end of
,u > the month, and planted in old tan in a frame or pit pre-
ared for that purpose. In this way they will be found to
eep much better over the winter, and to be better sup¬
plied with roots, than if they had been potted, which ought
never to be done after this season. Expel damp, and as¬
sist the ripening of late crops of grapes and peaches, with
fires during the day. Prune early vines and peaches.
Flower Garden, &c.—Sow in the beginning of this month
all half-hardy annuals stated for last month, if not done
at that time. Sow also the different species of primula; and
the seeds of all such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom come
up the same season, but if sown in September and Octo¬
ber vegetate readily the succeeding spring. Continue the
propagation of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of
carnations, pinks, pansies, and chrysanthemums, by the end
of the month. Plant evergreens ; lay and put in cuttings
of most of the hard-wooded sorts of shrubby plants.
October.
Kitchen Garden.—Sow small salads and radishes in the
first week; Mazagan beans and early frame pease in the
last week. If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat
earlier than those sown next month or in January.
Plant cabbages in beds or close rows till wanted in spring.
Cauliflowers in the last week, to receive the protection of
frames, or, at any rate, at the bottom of a high wall or
hedge in a sheltered situation.
Store potatoes, beet, salsify, scorzonera, skirret, carrots,
parsneps, by the end of the month.
Fruit Garden.—Such fruit trees as have dropped their
leaves, may be transplanted. Protect fig-trees, if the
weather prove frosty, as soon as they have cast their leaves.
Cover late crops of grapes on hot walls with woollen nets
or mats, to prevent injury from frost. Store and lay up
very carefully during the month all sorts of apples and
pears, the longest keeping sorts not before the end of the
month, if the weather be mild. A part of them may be
placed in a close cellar.
Forcing Assist hot-beds and pits with fresh linings, to
keep up the declining heat of such beds as have not ripened
off their crops. Give abundance of air in good weather.
Gradually lower the heat of the pinery.
Dress vines and peaches; clean and repair the forcing
houses and their flues.
Greenhouse.—Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants.
Fill the pits with pots of stocks, mignonette, and hardy
annuals for planting out in spring, along with many of the
more hardy sorts of greenhouse plants. The whole ought
to be thoroughly ventilated, except in frosty weather. Be¬
gin to force roses, hyacinths, and a few other bulbs, for
winter and early spring decoration.
Flower Garden Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a
frame, or on a sheltered border, for spring use, as directed
for August.
Plant the greater part of the common border bulbs about
the end of the month, with a few anemonies for early
flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials and peren¬
nials to their final situations.
Protect alpine plants, stage auricules, and carnations
with glass frames; half-hardy greenhouse plants, such as
fuschsias, &c. about the end of the month, with coverings
of broom or spruce-fir, preferring the latter. Take up, dry,
and store dahlias and tigridia tubers in the end of the
month ; pot lobelias from the open borders.
Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, Calendar,
especially in dry soils, giving abundance of water. Put in'
cuttings of all sorts of evergreens, &c.
November.
Kitchen Garden—Sow eai'ly from pease and mazagan
beans, in the second week, for an early crop. Protect en¬
dive, celery, artichoke, seakale, with stable-litter or ferns;
mulch asparagus with hot-bed dung; take up endive, late
cauliflower, early broccoli, and lettuces, and lay them in an
open shed, or in old cucumber and melon pits, which will
protect them from frost, and afford a supply during winter.
Force rhubarb and seakale in the open border, under boxes
or cases, surrounded and covered with well-fermented
stable dung. Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather,
giving an abundant supply of water to settle the earth about
the roots. Commence and carry on the various operations
of pruning and nailing when the weather may permit.
Take off such late sorts of apples and pears as may remain
on the trees, and lay them carefully past in the fruit-room;
which place will require frequent examination, and the re¬
moval of all decayed fruit.
Forcing and Greenhouse—In hot-beds and pits keep
up the requisite degree of heat by frequent additions to the
linings. Cucumbers and pines, on hot-beds, will require
more than ordinary attention, to prevent them damping off
from too much moisture. Where a circulation of hot water in
pipes is employed for heating, the necessary temperature and
dryness are much more under the control of the gardener.
Force asparagus, rhubarb, and seakale, in the mushroom-
house or pits.
In the forcing-houses, prune and train the trees; dig and
dress the borders of such houses as have not been already
done. Continue the forcing of roses, hyacinths, &c. The
directions for the greenhouse and conservatory in January
apply also to this month generally.
Flower Garden, fyc.—Plant dried tubers of border
flowers, but the finer sorts had better be deferred till spring.
Protect such half-hardy plants as were not sheltered last
month. Plant deciduous trees and shrubs as long as the
weather continues favourable. Dig and dress such flower
borders and shrubberies as may now be cleared of annuals
and the stems of herbaceous plants.
December.
Kitchen and Fruit Garden.—Sow a few pease and beans,
as in November. Very few operations can be carried on
during this month, with the exception of trenching and
digging in dry weather.
Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather. Proceed
with pruning and nailing wall-trees, whenever an oppor¬
tunity occurs. Examine the fruit-room every week, re¬
moving the fruit found in a state of decay.
Forciyig, fyc.—The same degree of attention to hot-beds
and pits will be necessary as in the last month. Continue
the forcing of asparagus, rhubarb, and sea-kale, in pits and
in the mushroom house.
Proceed with the usual routine of culture commenced
last month, making the necessary preparations to begin
forcing by the last week of this, or the first of next month.
Flower Garden, fyc.—The directions for last month will
be found equally applicable to this. Rake and sweep leaves
from lawns and gravel-walks, repairing the latter as occa¬
sion may require.
692
nos
Hosanna HOSANNA, in the Hebrew ceremonies, a prayer which
II. was rehearsed on the several days of the feast of taber-
_ospita^^ nacles. It was so called, because in it was frequently re¬
peated the word joyaonr, serva nunc, or serva precor, save
us now; or, save us, we pray. There were different ho¬
sannas, called by the Jews hoschannoth, that is, the hosan¬
nas. Some were rehearsed on the first day, others on the
second, and so on, and they were called hosanna of the
first day, hosanna of the second day, and so of the others.
Hosanna Rabba, or Grand Hosanna, is a name given
to the feast of tabernacles, which lasted eight days, du¬
ring the course of which they frequently invoked the as¬
sistance of God, the forgiveness of their sins, and his bless¬
ing on the new year, and for this purpose made great use
of the hoschannoth, or prayers above mentioned. The
Jews also applied the term hosanna rabba, in a more pe¬
culiar manner, to the seventh day of the feast of taber¬
nacles, because on that day they in an especial manner in¬
voked the divine blessing.
HOSEA, the first in number of the minor Hebrew pro¬
phets, as arranged in the Hebrew and Greek Bibles, al¬
though probably the third in chronological order. He
was the son of Beeri; but it is uncertain to what tribe he
belonged. He prophesied in the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the time of
Jeroboam, king of Israel. If he uttered predictions du¬
ring sixty-six years, that is, between 790 and 724 before
Christ, then he discharged the office of a sacred seer eight
years during the reign of Jeroboam II. thirty-three in that
of Uzziah, during the entire reigns of Jotham and Ahaz,
and three years under the reign of Hezekiah ; but he could
not have survived the taking of Samaria. He reproved
the vices of kings as well as their subjects, mixing threat-
enings of divine vengeance with promises of pardon in
case of repentance. His style is concise and sententious,
and his comparisons are short and lively. He is sometimes
distinguished by great force of expression, has many beau¬
tiful passages, and in some parts is truly sublime. Dr New-
come was of opinion that the chief difficulty in understand¬
ing this prophet is owing to the corrupt readings which
disfigure the printed text; and these he freely corrected
from the collations of Dr Kennicott. On the other hand,
Dr Horsley protests earnestly against Dr Newcome’s opi¬
nion, declaring that the corruptions can be no cause of ob¬
scurity ; but we must leave it to our readers to determine
which of these great men is in the right, from an attentive
perusal of their own works, assured that they will decide
in favour of him who furnishes the best helps for under¬
standing the prophet.
HOSPINIAN, Rodolphus, one of the greatest writers
that Switzerland has given birth to. He was born in 1547,
at Altort; near Zurich, obtained the freedom of Zurich, and
was made provisor of the abbey-school. Notwithstanding
this employment, he undertook a work of vast extent, being
a History of the Errors of Popery. Though he could not
complete this work according to the plan which he had form¬
ed, he published a considerable part of it; whilst his trea¬
tise on the Eucharist, and another work called Concordia
Discors, exceedingly exasperated the Lutherans. He did
not reply to them j but turning his arms against the Je¬
suits, published Historia Jesuitica. These writings gained
him preferment; he was appointed archdeacon of Caroline
church, and then minister of the abbey-church. He died
in 1626 ; and an edition of his works was published at
Geneva, 1681, in seven volumes folio.
HOSPITAL, popularly Spittal, a place or building
erected, out of charity, for the reception and support of
the poor, aged, infirm, sick, and otherwise helpless. The
word is formed from the Latin hospes, host, stranger. See
Host.
In the early ages of the church, the bishop had the im-
H O S
mediate charge of all the poor, both healthy and diseased, Hfip 1
as also of widows, orphans, strangers, and others. When , J
the churches came to have fixed revenues allotted to them,
it was decreed that at least one fourth part of these should
go to the relief of the poor ; and to provide for them the
more commodiously, houses of charity were built, which
were afterwards denominated hospitals. They were go¬
verned wholly by the priests and deacons, under the in¬
spection of the bishop. But in course of time, separate re¬
venues were assigned for the hospitals; and particular per¬
sons, from motives of piety and charity, gave lands and
money for erecting hospitals. When the church disci¬
pline began to relax, the priests, who till then had been
the administrators of hospitals, converted them into a sort
of benefices, which they held at pleasure, without account¬
ing to any body, reserving the greater part of the income
to their own use, so that the intentions of the founders
were in a great measure frustrated. To remove this abuse,
the council of Vienne expressly prohibited the giving any
hospital to secular priests in the way of a benefice; and
directed the administration of these establishments to be
committed to sufficient and responsible laymen, who should
take an oath, like that of tutors, for the faithful discharge of
its duties, and be accountable to the ordinaries. This de¬
cree was executed and confirmed by the council of Trent.
In Britain hospitals are buildings properly endowed, or
otherwise supported by charitable contributions, for the
reception and support of the poor, aged, infirm, sick, or
helpless.
HOSPITAL, or Hopital, Michel de l’, chancellor
of France, and one of the most illustrious magistrates of
modern times, was born at Aigueperse, in Auvergne, in the
year 1505. His father, John de I’Hopital, who was at once
physician and counsellor to the Constable of Bourbon,
sent him to study law, first at Toulouse, and afterwards at
Padua, the legal school of which then enjoyed great cele¬
brity. In that age jurisprudence was the principal science
cultivated, and no one could aspire to any employment
without having studied it profoundly. L’Hopital, although
he had already acquired the elements of this science in
France, spent six years at Padua in improving himself
therein ; he also applied himself to the study of the belles-
lettres, in which he made rapid advances, and at the same
time cultivated the Greek and the Latin languages, with
which he rendered himself perfectly familiar. Having
completed his studies, and finding his prospects clouded
by the death of the Cardinal de Grammont, who had in¬
duced him to return to France, and upon whose credit and
influence he had founded his hopes of preferment, he en¬
tered himself of the bar at Paris. In this profession, his
merit and virtue were soon appreciated. At the end of
three years, John Morin, criminal lieutenant, a person fa¬
mous in the martyrology of the Protestants, on account
of the severity with which he enforced the laws enacted
against them, gave L’Hopital his daughter in marriage,
and at the same time conferred upon him the office of
counsellor to the parliament of Paris as her dowry.
In this situation, which he held during twelve years,
the toleration he displayed formed a remarkable contrast
to the unrelenting severity by which his father-in-law had
rendered himself but too celebrated. When L’Hopital en¬
tered the parliament, that once illustrious body had much
degenerated, owing to the venality which the misfortunes
of the time had forced Francis I. to introduce, or at least
to overlook. A witness of this corruption, L’Hopital deplor¬
ed its consequences, and, in concert with some old magis¬
trates who still remained, endeavoured to set an example
of assiduity and application, to a crowd of inexperienced
young men, who, by venality, had obtained admission into
the parliament, and who had no other title to that honour
but the money they had paid for it. L’Hopital was long
H O S
H O S
693
H.ital. cited as a model in the magistracy. He made it a rule to
listen with patience, to interrupt no one, to express himself
as concisely as possible, and to oppose all unnecessary
delays ; he was also punctual in his attendance in court,
where he generally remained until the business of the day
had been regularly gone through, and always rose with re¬
luctance, however late, if any portion of it remained un¬
attended to. In short, he was a laborious and conscien¬
tious judge, who to great talents united the most steady
and persevering industry. The vacations made no mate¬
rial change in his way of life ; his pursuits were indeed
different, but his application was the same; the perusal
of the great writers of antiquity, the study of French his¬
tory, and the reading of the Holy Scriptures, each in its
turn formed the occupation of his leisure time. “ There
is nothing frivolous in my amusements,” says he, in one of
his letters; “ sometimes Xenophon is the companion of
my walks; sometimes the divine Plato regales me with
the discourses of Socrates. History and poetry have their
turns ; but my chief delight is in the sacred writings.”
The next appointment which L’Hopital received was
that conferred upon him by Henri II. of envoy or ambas¬
sador to the council of Trent, which was then sitting at
Bologna. But having soon grown tired of the inactivity to
which he found himself reduced, he was, at his own desire,
recalled, and, upon his return, experienced some coldness
on the part of the court, which did not altogether relish his
evident disinclination to assist in the proceedings of that fa¬
mous council. This obscuration, however, proved only tem¬
porary, for ere long he was restored to the royal favour, and
appointed master of the requests. Nor did his promotion
stop here. In the beginning of 1554, he was constituted
director and superintendent of the royal finances in the
chamber of accounts. At this time the finances required
a guardian at once vigilant and faithful. Enormous abuses
prevailed in the whole fiscal administration. On the one
hand there existed profusion without limits, and on the
other malversation without shame. Scarcely a third, or
even a fourth part of the sums collected, ever reached
the royal treasury; the people were exposed to the most
grinding exactions, yet the revenue was in a state of gra¬
dual decline. To put an end to these disorders, L’Ho¬
pital revived the ancient laws which had fallen into desue¬
tude ; he struck terror into defaulters by some examples
of wholesome severity; he refused to sanction any ex¬
penditure except for the immediate purposes of the state ;
he defied the enmity of that numerous and vindictive
class whose dishonest gains he had destroyed; and he
acted with so much personal disinterestedness, that, after
having been five years in office, he was unable to give a
portion to his daughter, and the deficiency was supplied
by the liberality of the sovereign.
After the fatal accident which, in 1559, put an end to the
life of the king, the Cardinal de Lorraine, then at the head
of affairs, introduced L’Hopital into the council of state;
but as one of the articles of the treaty of Chateau-Cambre-
sis had provided that the Duchess of Bern’, his benefac¬
tress, should espouse Emanuel-Philibert, Duke of Savoy,
he was appointed to conduct that princess into Piedmont,
whither he attended her in the capacity of chancellor.
The distracted situation of France, however, soon made it
necessary to recall a man of such undaunted firmness and
inflexible integrity. In the midst of faction, turbulence,
and confusion, when the passions of men appeared, like
the evil spirits, to have been for a season unchained, he
was advanced to the office of chancellor of France, and
in this elevated station conducted himself like a philoso¬
pher and a hero, superior alike to weakness and to fear.
At this period the destruction of the Protestants had been
determined on; it was resolved to leave them no alter¬
native but abjuration or death; and it was even in con-
templation to establish in France the redoubtable tribu- Hdpital.
nal of the inquisition. The new chancellor durst not at-
tack this project in front, without compromising himself
with the governing party; but he sought indirectly to
defeat the odious design, and by the edict of Romorantin,
which declared the crime of heresy to be cognisable only
by the ecclesiastical judge, he ultimately accomplished
his beneficent design, and thus decided the clergy to
abandon all idea of establishing the inquisition, which,
they knew, would be powerless when deprived of the aid
of the secular arm. Upon all occasions, indeed, he was the
advocate of mercy and reconciliation, and a declared ene¬
my to persecution on account of religion ; and hence the
more bigoted Romanists, offended at his wisdom and mo¬
deration, accused him of being a concealed Protestant,
forgetting that by such suspicions and accusations they
paid the highest compliments to the spirit of that faith
which they were so desirous to eradicate. With a man
of such character, ability, and firmness at the head of
affairs, it was hopeless to attempt to carry through the
violent measures which were already contemplated; yet
when the question of giving him a successor came to be
seriously agitated, Catherine of Medicis found herself in¬
volved in very great perplexity. The ancient relations of
L’Hopital with the House of Lorraine; the estimation in
which he was universally held, his known love of his coun¬
try, which, in his mind, absorbed all other affections; and
the difficulty of finding any one to fill his place, who
would not sink into insignificance or contempt in compa¬
rison with this truly great man—were serious obstacles to
his removal: but as nothing could induce him to abandon
or change the pacific character of his measures, all other
considerations were at length disregarded, and the queen
excluded him from the council of war, upon which he im¬
mediately withdrew to his country-house at Vignay, near
Estampes.
His exclusion from the council was accompanied with
insult. The Constable of Montmorency told him that a
man of his profession, a civilian, ought not to intermeddle
in what related to war. “ That is a subject,” said the
constable, “ on which you are not qualified to give ad¬
vice.” “ True,” replied the chancellor, “ I do not know
how to make war, but I know when it is necessary.” Se¬
veral days after his retirement from office, when the seals
were demanded of him, he resigned them without regret,
observing that the affairs of the world were too corrupt
for him to meddle with them. He spent his time in let¬
tered ease, amusing himself with writing Latin poetry,
and enjoying the society of some select friends, until his
peace was broken by the bloody tragedy of St Bartholo¬
mew, which, with Ins usual sagacity, he had foreseen.
Of this barbarous and inexpiable massacre the judgment
he pronounced has been ratified by posterity. He was
himself near becoming one of its victims. The inhabi¬
tants of the country had risen, and were devastating the
fields, and dragging the farmers in chains towards the city.
But the queen, anxious about his fate, sent a detachment
of cavalry for his protection. The sudden apparition of
this troop, whose destination was unknown, produced
great consternation in his house, which was open on all
sides. He was asked by the inmates if they would close
the gates. “ No, no,” said he ; “ if the small gate will not
admit them, throw open the large one.” When inform¬
ed that the persons who prepared the lists of proscrip¬
tion had pardoned him the opposition which he had al¬
ways given to their projects; “ I did not know,” replied
he coldly, “ that I had done any thing to deserve either
pardon or death.” But what most deeply affected L’Ho¬
pital on this mournful occasion, was the danger to which
his daughter, who happened to be in Paris, was in conse¬
quence exposed. She was saved by the interference oi
694 H O S
Hospital Anne d’Este, duchess of Guise, whom L’Hopital thanked
II. for this signal service, in an epistle overflowing with the
Hospita- warme8t feelings of paternal gratitude. These cruel events,
however, deeply affected his health and spirits, and he
1 died at Vignay, on the 13th of March 1573, at the age
of sixty-eight, and less than one year after the massacre.
“ L’Hopital,” says Brantome, “ was the greatest, wor¬
thiest, and most learned chancellor that was ever known
in France. His large white beard, pale countenance, and
austere manner, made all who saw him think they beheld
a true portrait of St Jerome, and, in fact, he was called
St Jerome by the courtiers. All orders of men feared
him, particularly the members of the courts of justice;
and when he examined them on their lives, their discharge
of their duties, their capacities or their knowledge, and
particularly when he examined candidates for offices, and
found them deficient, he made them feel it. He was pro¬
foundly versed in polite learning, very eloquent, and an
excellent poet. His severity was never ill natured; he
made due allowance for the imperfections of human na¬
ture ; he was always equal and firm. After his death,
his very enemies acknowledged that he was the greatest
magistrate whom France had known, and that they did
not expect to see such another.” The productions of
L’Hopital are, 1. Latin Poems; 2. Speeches delivered at
the Meeting of the States at Orleans ; 3. Memoires, con-
tenant plusieurs 7raites de Paix, &c., from 1551 to 1560,
Cologne, 1672, in 12mo. A work which he had under¬
taken on law is lost; and it is said that he had also pro¬
jected a history of his own time, on the model of the an¬
cient historians ; but of this no part appears to have been
executed. In 1807, M. Bernardi published his Essai sur
la Vie, les Ecrits, et les Loix de Michel de VHopital, in one
volume 8vo, from which and other documents Mr Charles
Butler published his Essay on the Life of L’Hopital, prin¬
cipally with the view of exhibiting him as a friend of to¬
leration. (a.)
Hospital, William-Francis-Antony, Marquis of, an
eminent French mathematician, was born of an ancient fa¬
mily in 1661. He was a geometrician almost from his in¬
fancy ; for one day being at the Duke of Rohan’s, where
some able mathematicians were speaking of a problem of
Pascal’s which appeared to them extremely difficult, he
ventured to say that he believed he could solve it. They
were amazed at such presumption in a boy of fifteen, for
he was then no more; nevertheless, in a few days he sent
them the solution. He entered early into the army, and
rose to be a captain of horse; but being extremely short¬
sighted, and exposed on that account to perpetual inconve¬
niences and errors, he at length quitted the army, and ap¬
plied himself entirely to his favourite pursuit. He contract¬
ed a friendship for Malebranche, whose opinion he followed
upon all occasions. In 1693 he was received as an hono¬
rary member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris ; and he
published a work upon Sir Isaac Newton’s calculations, en¬
titled EAnalyse des Injinimens Petits. He was the first
in France who wrote upon this subject, and on this ac¬
count was regarded almost as a prodigy. He engaged af¬
terwards in another work of the mathematical kind, in
which he included Les Sections Coniques, les Lieux Geo-
metriques, la Construction des Equations, et Une Theorie
des Courbes Mecaniques ; but a little before he had finish¬
ed it, he was seized with a fever, of which he died on the
2d of February 1704, at the age of forty-three. It was
published after his death.
HOSPITALITY, the practice of entertaining stran¬
gers. Dr Robertson, speaking of the middle ages, says,
“ Among people whose manners are simple, and who are
seldom visited by strangers, hospitality is a virtue of the
first rank. This duty of hospitality was so necessary in
that state of society which took place during the middle
H O S
ages, that it was not considered as one of those virtues Hosp
which men may practise or not, according to the temper of lit;
their minds and the generosity of their hearts. Hospitali- ^—’Y
ty was enforced by statutes, and those who neglected the
duty were liable to punishment. The laws of the Salvi or¬
dained that the moveables of an inhospitable person should
be confiscated, and his house burnt. They were even so
solicitous for the entertainment of strangers, that they per¬
mitted the landlord to steal for the support of his guest.”
The hospitality of our British ancestors, particularly of
the great and opulent barons, has been much admired, and
considered as a certain proof of nobleness and generosity
of spirit. The fact indeed is well attested. The castles of
the powerful barons were capacious palaces, daily crowd¬
ed with numerous retainers, who were always welcome to
plentiful tables. They had their privy councillors, their
treasurers, marshals, constables, stewards, secretaries, chap¬
lains, heralds, pursuivants, pages, henchmen or guards,
trumpeters, minstrels, and, in a word, all the officers of a
royal court. The etiquette of their families was an exact
copy of that of the royal household ; and some of them
lived in a degree of pomp and splendour little inferior to
that of the greatest kings. Richard Neville, earl of War¬
wick, we are told, “ was ever had in great favour of the
commons of the land, because of the exceeding household
which he daily kept in all countries wherever he sojourned
or lay; and when he came to London, he held such an
house, that six oxen were eaten at a breakfast, and every
tavern was full of his meat.” The Earls of Douglas in
Scotland, before the fall of that great family, rivalled or
rather exceeded their sovereigns in pomp and profuse hos¬
pitality. But it is highly probable these great chieftains
were prompted to indulge this style of living by a desire
of increasing the number and attachment of their retainers,
on which, in those turbulent times, their dignity, and even
their safety, depended, as much as to the innate genero¬
sity of their tempers. Those retainers did not constantly
reside in the families of their lords; but they wore their
liveries and badges, frequently feasted in their halls, swel¬
led their retinues on all great solemnities, attended them
in their journeys, and followed them into the field of battle.
Some powerful chieftains had constantly at their command
so great a number of these retainers, that, setting the laws
at defiance, they became formidable to their sovereigns,
and terrible to their fellow-subjects ; and several laws were
made against giving and receiving liveries. But these
laws produced little effect at this period.
Hospitality was not confined to the great and opulent,
but was practised rather more than it is at present by per¬
sons in the middle and lower ranks of life. But this was
owing to necessity, arising from the scarcity of inns, which
obliged travellers and strangers to apply to private persons
for lodging and entertainment; and those who received
them hospitably acquired a right to a similar reception.
This was evidently the case in Scotland in the first part of
this period. In the year 1424, James I. procured the fol¬
lowing act of parliament:—“ It is ordanit, That in all bur¬
row townis, and throuchfairis quhair commoun passages ar,
that thair be ordanit hostillaries and resettis, havand stables
and chalmers; and that men find with thame bread and
aill, and all uther fude, alsweil for horse as men, for reson-
able price.” But travellers had been so long accustomed
to lodge in private houses, that these public inns were
quite neglected ; and those who kept them presented a pe¬
tition to parliament, complaining, “ That the liegis tra-
velland in the realme, quhen they cum to burrowis and
throuchfairis, herbreis thame not in hostillaries, bot with
thair acquaintance and freindis.” This produced an act
prohibiting travellers to lodge in private houses where
there were hostelries, under the penalty of forty shillings,
and subjecting those who lodged them to the same penalty*
H O S
Ho: al- The inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland and the
1' Western Isles were anciently remarkable for their hospi-
tality to strangers, and still happily retain, in no inconsider-
^ ^ able degree, the same kindly disposition.
HOSPITALLERS, Hospitalarii, an order of religious
knights, who built at Jerusalem an hospital, in which pil¬
grims were received. To these Pope Clement V. trans¬
ferred the effects and revenues of the Templars, whom, by
a council held at Vienne, he suppressed for their numerous
and flagrant misdemeanours. These hospitallers, other¬
wise called knights of St John of Jerusalem, are the same
with those who were latterly called knights of Malta.
HOSPITIUM, a term used in old writers either for an
inn or a monastery, built for the reception of strangers and
travellers.
HOSPODAR, a title borne by the princes of Moldavia
and Wallachia, who used to receive the investiture of their
principalities from the grand seignior. He gave them a
vest and standard ; they were under his protection, and
obliged to serve him ; and he even sometimes deposed
them; but in other respects they were absolute sovereigns
within their own dominions. But since the treaty of Adri-
anople, concluded between Russia and Turkey in 1829, the
former power has acquired an ascendency in these princi¬
palities, and obtained a complete control over the nomina¬
tion of the hospodars.
HOSSEEPOOR, a town of Hindustan, province of Ba-
har, eighty-two miles north-west from Patna. Long. 84.
17. E. Lat. 26. 25. N.
HOSSEIN-ABDAUL, a town of Hindustan , province of
Lahore, situated thirty miles east of the Indus. It is the
frontier town of the Afghans, and has been a frequent ob¬
ject of contention between them and the Sikhs. Long. 71.
43. E. Lat. 33. N.
HOSSOBETTA, a town in the south of Hindustan, and
province of North Canara. The principal inhabitants con¬
sist of Concanies, or the descendants of the natives of the
Concan, who, according to the account of Dr Buchanan, fled
thither from the Portuguese settlement of Goa, in order to
avoid the persecutions of the Portuguese Catholics, who
were desirous to convert them to the Christian faith.
Long. 75. E. Lat. 12. 42. N.
HOSSO-DURGA, a small town of Hindustan, in the
province of South Canara. It possesses a fort and a tem¬
ple, which is served by a few Puttar Brahmins, the chief
inhabitants of the place. The fort is large and well built,
with round bastions, which render it more defensible than
the forts in India with square bastions generally are. The
surrounding country is overgrown with wood, and but thin¬
ly inhabited, consisting, like the rest of Malabar, of low
hills and narrow valleys alternately.
HOST, Hospes, a term of mutual relation, applied both to
a person who lodges and entertains another, and to the per¬
son thus lodged. It is formed from the Latin hospes, which
according to some, was thus called quasi hostium or ostium
petens, ostium having anciently been written with an aspirate.
Thus the innkeeper says, he has a good host, in speaking of
the traveller who lodges with him ; and the traveller, again,
says he has a kind host, in speaking of his landlord.
It must be observed, however, that it was the custom
amongst the ancients, when any stranger asked lodging,
for the master of the house, and the stranger, each of them
to set a foot on their own side of the threshhold, and swear
they would neither of them do any harm to the other. It
was this ceremony which raised so much horror against
those who violated the law or right of hospitality on either
side, inasmuch as they were looked upon as perjured.
Instead of hospes, the ancient Latins called it hostis, as
Cicero himself informs us; though, in course of time, hostis
came to signify an enemy, so much had the notion of hos¬
pitality degenerated.
HOT 695
Host is also used by way of abbreviation for hostia, a Host
victim or sacrifice oftered to the Deity. In this sense, host II
is more immediately understood of the person of the Word Hettinger.
Incarnate, who was offered up an host or hostia to the Fa-
ther on the cross for the sins of mankind.
Host, in the church of Rome, a name given to the ele¬
ments used in the eucharist, or rather to the consecrated
wafer, which they pretend to offer up every day as a new
host or sacrifice for the sins of mankind.
HOSTAGE, a person given up to an enemy as a secu¬
rity for the performance of the articles of a treaty.
HOSTIA, Host, in Antiquity, a victim offered in sa¬
crifice to a deity.
The word is formed from hostis, enemy, it being the cus¬
tom to offer up a sacrifice before they joined battle, to ren¬
der the gods propitious, or, after the battle was over, to re¬
turn them thanks. Some choose to derive the word from
hostio, the same as ferio, I strike. Isidore remarks on this
word, that the name hostioe was given to those sacrifices
which they offered before they marched to attack an ene¬
my (antiquam ad hostem pergerent); in contradistinction
to victimce, which were properly those offered after the vic¬
tory.
Hostia also signified the lesser sorts of sacrifice, and vie-
tima the larger. Aulus Gellius says, that every priest, in¬
differently, might sacrifice the hostia, but that the victima
could be offered by none but the conqueror himself. Af¬
ter all, however, we find these two words promiscuously
used, one for the other, by ancient writers. We read of
many kinds of hostice, as hostice puree, which were pigs or
lambs ten days old; hostice prcecidanece, sacrifices offered
the day before a solemn feast; hostice bidentes, sacrifices of
sheep or other animals of two years old; hostice eximice, a
sacrifice of the flower of the flock; hostice succedanece, sa¬
crifices offered after others which had exhibited some ill
omen; hostice ambarvales, victims sacrificed after having
been solemnly led round the fields at the ambarvalia;
hostice amburbiales, victims slain after the amburbium;
hostice caneares or caviares, victims sacrificed every fifth
year by the college of pontiffs, in which they offered the
part of the tail called caviar ; hostice prodigice, sacrifices in
which the fire consumed all, and left nothing for the priests ;
hostice piaculares, expiatory sacrifices; hostice ambegnee or
ambiegnee, sacrifices of cows or sheep that had brought
forth twins; hostice harugee, victims offered to predict fu¬
ture events from; hostice mediates, black victims offered at
noon.
HOSTILITY, the action of an enemy, or a state of
warfare. The word is low Latin, hostilitas, formed from
the primitive word hostis, which signifies enemy, and which
anciently signified stranger, hospes.
HOT-Beds, in Gardening, beds made with fresh horse-
dung or tanners’ bark, and covered with glasses to defend
them from cold winds. See Horticulture.
HOT-House. See Horticulture.
HOTEL, a French term, anciently signifying a house or
dwelling-place. It was afterwards used to signify the pa¬
laces or houses of the king, princes, and great lords.
Hotel likewise means a large inn, or a large lodging-
house ready furnished.
HOTTENTOTS, the original inhabitants of Cape Co¬
lony, and other places in the southern angle of Africa.
They are divided into several tribes, but their mental and
physical characteristics are the same in all. They have
been already fully described in the articles Africa and
Good Hope, Cape of, which see.
HOTTINGER, John Henry, one of the most learned
and eminent of the Protestant divines of Switzerland, was
born at Zurich in the year 1620. At an early age he dis¬
covered an invincible propensity to learning, and acquired
with astonishing facility the knowledge of languages.
696 HOT
ITottinger. The trustees of the schools had their attention attracted
towards Hottinger by his amazing progress in the know¬
ledge of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and they deter¬
mined to send him to foreign universities at the public
expense. In 1638 he studied for a short time at Geneva
under the celebrated Frederick Spanheim, and went af¬
terwards to France. He next visited Holland and Flan¬
ders, and became a student in the university of Groningen,
where he attended the theological lectures of Francis Go-
mar and Professor Alting, and studied the Arabic lan¬
guage under Professor Pasor. Being anxious, however,
to enjoy still greater advantages than this situation afford¬
ed, he went to Leyden, where he became tutor to the
children of Professor Golius, whose knowledge of oriental
languages was at that time unrivalled. By his instruc¬
tions and those of a Turk then at Leyden, Hottinger ac¬
quired an extensive knowledge of the Arabic, and Golius
permitted him to copy many of the Arabic manuscripts
which he had in his possession. In 1641 he was chosen
chaplain to the embassy of the states-general to Constan¬
tinople ; but the magistrates of Zurich would not suffer him
to accept of if, resolving that his talents should be exerted
for the glory and the benefit of their own public schools.
They permitted him to visit England prior to his return
home, where he contracted habits of intimacy with some
of the most distinguished literary characters. As soon as
he returned to Zurich, he was appointed professor of
church history, when not more than twenty-two years of
age; and when twenty-three, he was chosen professor of
catechetical divinity and oriental languages. About this
period he married, and began his career as an author, in
which he persevered for twenty years with the most as¬
tonishing industry. In 1653 he was appointed professor
of rhetoric, and professor extraordinary of the divinity of
the Old Testament, and of controversial theology.
About this time Hottinger became so justly celebrated
as a man of uncommon erudition, that his aid was earnest¬
ly requested by the elector palatine to restore the fame of
the university of Heidelberg. The magistrates of Zurich
consented to lend him for three years. At Heidelberg he
was named professor of divinity, principal, ecclesiastical
counsellor, and rector; and he wrote in favour of the re¬
union of Lutherans and Calvinists ; but he had no better
success than his predecessors who had made the same at¬
tempt. He continued at Heidelberg, by permission of the
magistrates of Zurich, till the year 1661. On his return
home he was chosen president of the commissioners who
were appointed to revise the German translation of the
Bible. Though requested to accept of professorships
from the magistrates of Deventer, the landgrave of Hesse,
and the magistrates of Amsterdam and Bremen, the love
of his country induced him to reject all these offers. He
was offered the divinity chair at Leyden in 1667 ; but the
magistrates would not part with him. This made the
Dutch request him as a loan, to which the magistrates
agreed, from their respect for the states of Holland; but
whilst making preparations for his departure, he was un¬
fortunately drowned in the river which runs through Zu¬
rich, when on his way to an estate of his own, about six
miles from that city.
Dr Hottinger was a man of extraordinary abilities, both
natural and acquired, having few equals in his knowledge
of oriental languages and the antiquities of the church.
He had a most retentive memory, and his literary indus¬
try was almost unexampled. His life was comparatively
short, being only forty-seven when he found a watery
grave; yet he was the author of no fewer than forty vo¬
lumes on different subjects. He is frequently inaccurate,
owing to the astonishing rapidity with which he wrote.
His principal works are, 1. Exercitationes Anti-Morinianse
de Pentateucho Samaritano, Zurich, 1644, in 4to ; 2. Ero-
H o T
tematum Linguae Sanctae libri duo, cum Apendice Apho-Houbral
rismorum, ibid. 1647 ; 3. Thesaurus Philologicus, sen Cla- ||
vis Scripturae qua quidquid fere Orientalium, Hebraeorum
maxime et Arabum habent monumentade Religione ejus- ^
que variis speciebus, Juda'ismo, Samaritanismo, Muhamed-
ismo, Gentilismo, &c. ibid. 1649; 4. Historia Ecclesiasti-
ca Novi Testamenti, in nine parts, 1651-1667; 5. Histo¬
ria Orientalis ex variis Monumentis Collecta, ibid. 1651,
in 4to; 6. Grammaticae Chaldaeo-Syriacae libri duo, ibid.
1652; 7. Analecta Historico-Theologica, octo Disserta-
tionibus proposita; 8. Dissertationum miscellanearum
Pentas, ibid. 1654, in 8vo; 9. Dissertatio de Subsidiis
Analyseos Sacrae, ubi prolixe de Sensu Verborum Insti-
tutionis Ccenae Dominicte, ibid. 1654, in 8vo; 10. Juris
Hebrseorum leges 261, juxta Legis Mosa’icae ordinem ac
seriem depromptae ; 11. Smegma Orientale sordibus bar-
barismi contemptui praesertim Linguarum Orientalium ap-
positum, Heidelberg, 1657, in 4to ; 12. Grammatica Ling.
Hebr. Chald. Syr. et Arabicae Harmonica, ibid. 1657 ; 13.
Cippi Hebra'/ci, ibid. 1659, in 8vo; 14. Primitiae Heidel-
bergenses, ibid. 1659; 15. Dissert. Theolog. Philolog.
fasciculus, ibid. 1660; 16. Etymologicon Orientale, sive
Lexicon Plarmonicon Heptaglotton, 1661, in 4to; 17.
Epitome utriusque Juris Judaici, Aphorismis Maimonides
exhibita, ibid. 1661 ; 18. Compendium Theologiae Chris-
tianae Ecclesiarum Orientalium, Syrorum cum primis,
TEthiopum, Arabum, et TEgyptiorum; 19. Compendium
Theatri Ismaelitici sive Saracenici, ibid. 1662, in 8vo; 20.
Bibliothecarius tripartitus, Zurich, 1664, in 4to.
HOUBRAKEN, Jacob, an eminent engraver, was the
son of Arnold Houbraken, a native of Holland, and born
on the 25th of December 1698. By whom he was instruct¬
ed in engraving we are not informed, but he is supposed
to have been initiated in the principles of the art by his
father, and to have studied the portraits of Edelink, espe¬
cially that of Lebrun, which is usually prefixed to the en¬
gravings of Gerard Audran from the battles of Alexan¬
der. For some time he worked in obscurity without ob¬
taining either profit or fame, and he had attained the
meridian of life before he engaged in the undertaking by
which he is best known; a work founded on a plan of
George Vertue, who proposed to give sets or classes of
eminent men, though the design was afterwards adopted
by others, and thus taken out of the hands of the projec¬
tor. The persons who undertook and brought to a con¬
clusion this great national work were the Knaptons, book¬
sellers, who, encouraged by the success of Rapin’s His¬
tory of England, employed both Vertue and Houbraken,
but chiefly the latter. Some of Houbraken’s heads were
carelessly executed, especially those of the moderns ; but
others display a wonderful union of softness and freedom,
with good drawing and a masterly determination of the
features, such as we observe in the works of Nanteuil,
Edelink, and Drevet. From his solicitude to avoid the ap¬
pearance of an outline, he frequently neglected the little
sharpnesses of light and shadow which appear in nature,
and, like the accidental semitones in music, excite a pleas¬
ing sensation in the mind, in proportion as the variation is
judiciously managed. For want of attention to this essen¬
tial beauty, many of his productions have a hazy appear¬
ance, and do not strike the eye with the force which
might be expected from the excellence of the engraving.
Houbraken lived to a good old age, and died at Amster¬
dam in 1780. (a.)
HOUGHTON le Spring, a town of the ward of’Eas-
ington, in the county of Durham, 266 miles from London,
and seven from Durham. There is a well-endowed clas¬
sical school, founded by a former rector ; and the livery is
a very valuable one, in the gift of the bishop. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1801 to 996, in 1811 to 1356, in 1821
to 2905, and in 1831 to 3917.
697
HOUND.
,und. From the combination of various causes, the history of
no animal is more interesting than that of the dog. First,
his intimate association with man, not only as his valua¬
ble servant and protector, but as his constant and faith¬
ful companion throughout all the vicissitudes of life. Se¬
condly, from his natural endowments, not consisting solely
in the exquisite delicacy of one individual sense, that fine¬
ness of olfactory nerve by which the earth and air send
forth showers of perfumes; not merely combining memory
with reflection that soars above instinctive preservation or
self-enjoyment; but qualities of the mind that absolutely
stagger us in the contemplation of them, and which we
can alone account for in the gradation existing in that
wonderful system which (by different links of one vast
chain, extending from the first to the last of all things, till
it forms a perfect whole) is placed, as Professor Harwood
elegantly expresses it, “ in the doubtful confines of the
material and spiritual worlds.” It might have been in¬
stinct that enabled Ulysses’s dog to recognize him on his
re-landing in Ithaca, after an absence which must have set
the powers of memory at defiance ; and he recognized him
with all the acuteness and affection which instinct boasts ;
but what caused him to expire at his feet on the sudden dawn
of unexpected happiness ? The heart of man could go no
further than this ; and although perhaps the poet’s fiction is
only present to us in this instance, by what name can we
call those tender affections, those sincere attachments, those
personal considerations, which we ourselves have witnessed
in these faithful creatures towards human kind ? Virtue
alone is too cold a term, as almost every good quality to be
found in animated nature is to be found here ; and when
we reflect upon the miserable existence so often the lot of
this kind-hearted animal in this world, and the more than
uncertainty that, as Byron says, he will be
“ Denied in heaven the soul he held on earth,”
we cannot but feel regret that he should be without his
reward. But yet this is a point not exactly decided upon
by man ; at least it has been considered as a fit subject
for speculation by deep and able thinkers. Mr Locke, for
example, doubted whether brutes survive the grave, be¬
cause ithere is no hint given of it in revelation ; but Dr
Priestley thought, if the resurrection of the dead be within
the proper course of nature, and there be something re¬
maining of every organized body that death does not de¬
stroy, there will be reason to conclude that they will be
benefited by it as well as ourselves. “ The misery,” says
this forcible writer, and great moral philosopher, “ some
animals are exposed to in this life, may induce us to think
that a merciful and just God will make them some recom¬
pense for it hereafter.”
But no animal has met with more variety of respect
shown towards him than the dog has. By the law of Moses
he was declared unclean, and was held in great contempt
by the Jews, as also by the Turks, and kept by both mere¬
ly for the purposes of scavenging their streets. In every
part of the sacred writings, as also in those of Greece
and Rome, not only are images introduced from the works
of nature, and metaphors drawn from the manners and
economy of animals, but the names of them are applied to
persons supposed to possess any of their respective quali¬
ties. Thus our Saviour, adopting this concise method, ap¬
plies the word “ dog” to men of odious character and vio¬
lent temper; and, as with us at present, the term of re¬
proach, “ he was a son of a dog,” was in common use among
the Jews. The wife Abigail (1 Samuel, xxv. 3) “ was a
. VOL. XI.
woman of good understanding, and of a beautiful counte- Hound,
nance; but the man (^abal) was churlish and evil in his
doings, and was of the house of Caleb” But this last, says
an able expounder of the Scriptures, is not a proper name.
Literally it is, “ he was the son of a dog.” On the other
hand, the idolatrous Egyptians held the dog sacred, and
worshipped him in their god Anubis, representing the form
of a man with a dog’s head, which Juvenal complains of in
his fifteenth satire:
“ Oppida tota canem venerantur, nemo Dianam.”
Anubis, says Strabo, is also the city of dogs, the capital of
the Cynopolitan prefecture. “ Those animals,” says he,
“ are fed there on sacred aliments, and religion has decreed
them a worship.” This absurd adoration is confirmed by
Diodorus biculus and Herodotus ; and Rome having adopt¬
ed the ceremonies of Egypt, the Emperor Commodus, when
celebrating the Isiac feasts, shaved his head, and himself
carried the dog Anubis.
But to proceed to their origin and history. It has been
justly remarked, that “all dogs whatsoever, even from the
terrible Boar-dog to little Flora, were all one in the first
creation; and every virtue and faculty, size and shape,
which we find or improve in every dog upon earth, were
originally comprehended in the first parents of the spe¬
cies, nothing having remained constant but their natu¬
ral conformation ; and all the variety which we now be¬
hold in them is either the product of climate or the acci¬
dental effect of soil, food, or situation, and very frequently
the issue alone of human care, curiosity, or caprice. This
we take to be the case with other departments of the
creation. For example, we only acknowledge two sorts
of pigeons, the wild and the tame. Of the first there is
but one, the cenas, or vinago of Ray. Of the last, the va¬
rieties are innumerable. The tame and the wild goose
are likewise originally of the same species, the influence
of domestication alone having caused the tame ones to
differ from the parent stock. Notwithstanding, however,
the efforts and effects of human industry and skill, there
is fortunately a ne plus ultra in nature which cannot be
passed; and as there is a distinct specific difference in
all living creatures, a pigeon is still a pigeon, a goose a
goose, and a dog remains a dog. Still, although no human
device can add one new species to the works of the crea¬
tion, and nature is still uniform in the main, as we have
already observed, in our remarks on the horse, she is al¬
ways ready to meet the demands of art, a fact beautifully
set forth in these lines of Hudibras :—
“ How fair and sweet the planted rose,
Beyond the wild in hedges grows !
For without art the noblest seeds
Of flowers degen’rate into weeds.
How dull and rugged, ere ’tis ground
And polish’d, is the diamond.
Though Paradise were e’er so fair,
It was not kept so without care :
The whole world, without art and dress,
Would be but one great wilderness ;
And mankind but a savage herd,
For all that nature has conferr’d.
This does but rough-hew and design,
Leaves art to polish and refine.”
We have good reason to believe that England (in a great
measure from the congeniality of its climate) has long
been famous for dogs, which, on the authority of Strabo
(lib. iy. p. 199), were much sought after by all the sur¬
rounding nations. So high indeed in repute were Bri¬
tish dogs amongst the Romans after the reduction of our
4 T
698
HOUND.
Hound.
island, not only for excellence in the chase, but fierceness
in the combat, that an officer from that country was ap¬
pointed to reside in the city of Winchester, for the ex¬
press purpose of collecting and breeding them to supply
the amphitheatre, as well as the imperial kennel, at Rome.
Nor was this all. As a kind of earnest of our present ce¬
lebrity in the various sports of the field, all the neighbour¬
ing countries, as Dr Campbell remarks, “ have done jus¬
tice to our dogs, adopted our terms and names into their
language, received them thankfully as presents, and, when
they have an opportunity, purchased them at a dear rate.”1
Thus we find, that when King Alfred requested Fulco,
archbishop of Rheims, to send some learned ecclesiastics
into England, he accompanied his letter with a present of
several dogs, being the most valuable he could, in those
times, bestow. The congeniality of our climate has con¬
tributed much to this excellence, as our dogs, hounds
especially, are found to degenerate in most others; which
Somerville alludes to in his poem of the Chase.
“In thee alone, fair land of liberty,
Is bred the perfect hound, in scent and speed
As yet unrivall’d, while in other climes
Their virtue fails, a weak degen’rate race.”
We do not benefit much by research into ancient au¬
thors on the subject of dogs ; for although they have been
much written upon, and immortalised in song by Oppian,
Claudian, Gratius, and others (Virgil says little about
them), yet, from our ignorance of the sort of animal bred
in their time, and the use they made of them, as sports¬
men, we can draw no parallel between them and our own
that would tend to a good purpose. No doubt the “ canis
vestigator” of Columella, and the “ canis odorus" of Clau¬
dian, were of what we term a low-scenting sort, as the
epithets applied to them signify ; but it would be difficult
to pronounce an opinion upon the xccffro^/a/, or the dXw-
rrex.idsg, of Xenophon, although the characteristic proper¬
ties of good hunting hounds are very well and accurate¬
ly laid down by him in the third chapter of his Kwjjye-
rntog, as well as their defects in form, &c. equally clearly
exposed; and his observations on these points might be
perused with advantage by huntsmen of the present day.
Great encouragement has been given to the breeding
of hounds in England by the various monarchs who have
reigned over it. Henry II. was perhaps the first who
made himself conspicuous in this department of the sports¬
man’s occupation, being, as one of his historians says of
him, “ particularly curious in his hounds, that they should
be fleet, well-tongued, and consonous.” The last epithet
is in reference to a property not only little regarded, but
nearly lost now, namely, the deep tongue of the old Eng¬
lish blood-hound, which Shakspeare alludes to in his ce¬
lebrated description of those “ of the Spartan kind
“ (So flewed, so sanded, and their heads are hung
With ears that sweep away the morning dew.
Crook-knee’d, and dewlapt, like Thessalian bulls ;
Slow in pursuit; but match’d in mouth like bells,
Each under each:)”
which would now be considered a disgrace to any man’s
kennel, and we believe nowhere to be found, bearing the
faintest resemblance to the picture drawn of them by
this master-hand.
In Queen Elizabeth’s time a classification was made by
Dr Caius, physician to the queen, in his treatise De Ca-
nibus Britannicis, of the different kinds of dogs peculiar
to Great Britain; but many of the names (the sleute or
sluth hound of the Scotch, for example) having since be¬
come obsolete, they were again classed by Mr Daniel, in
his Rural Sports, which work contains a full and satisfac¬
tory historical account of their origin, different crosses,
&c. under the following genealogical heads-Shepherd’s
Dog, Iceland Dog, Lapland Dog, Siberian Dog, Hound,
Terrier, Large Spaniel, Small Spaniel, Water Dog, Small
Water Dog, Bull Dog, Large Danish Dog, Irish Grey¬
hound, English Greyhound, and Mastiff. Taplin, in his
Sporting Dictionary, expresses his surprise that the Poin¬
ter is omitted; but we consider the Pointer as a dog of
foreign extraction, and to our early ancestors certainly
unknown.
The original stock from which English hounds have
been bred would be very difficult to determine upon ; but
one thing is certain, namely, that the several sorts with
which the country once abounded have been becoming
fewer and fewer, in the course of the last hundred years,
and now centre in three varieties, namely, the Fox-hound,
the Harrier, and the Beagle. The stag-hound is gone,
at least there is no pack of stag-hounds now kept in Great
Britain, the last having been disposed of and sent abroad,
soon after the stag hunting establishment in Devonshire
was broken up, a few years ago. The beagle is also be¬
come rare; and otter-hounds, such as we may conclude
the zasrogicu of Xenophon to have been, never existed in
this country, the dog used in hunting the otter being
the common harrier; and perhaps the parent of all, the
majestic blood-hound, whose
“ Nostrils oft, if ancient fame sings true,
Trace the sly felon through the tainted dew,”
is at present very thinly scattered, here and there only, at
keepers’ lodges in some of our royal forests. But we more
than doubt whether a true specimen of the original Eng¬
lish blood-hound exists in England at all at the present day;
nor is this a matter of regret, as, unlike the rest of his spe¬
cies, his character is said to be that of decided enmity to
man. Strabo describes an attack upon the Gauls by these
animals, and likewise says they were purchased in Bri¬
tain by the Celtae, for the purposes of war, as well as those
of the chase ; but it is doubtful whether the most savage
of this race would devour man without being trained to
it, which we know that they were on a late horrible occa¬
sion, when, as stated in Rainsford’s History of St Domin¬
go, they were fed upon blood, and a figure representing a
negro, containing blood and entrails of beasts, was the ob¬
ject they were led to pursue. In the West Indies, how¬
ever, the blood-hound, under proper control, has been
found useful in tracing runaway negroes, as the sluth-
hound of the Scotch was early applied to discover the
haunts of robbers; and to the same purpose also on the
confines of England and Wales, where the borderers
preyed on the flocks and herds of their neighbours, when¬
ever an opportunity offered. Of deer-stealers, who were
so numerous a century or two ago, they were likewise the
terror; and well might they have been so, for when once
fairly laid upon the foot of one, they seldom failed to hunt
up to him. But it is in the civil wars of our own country
that blood-hounds are placed in the most conspicuous
light, particularly as available to the operations of Wal¬
lace and Bruce ; and the poetical historians of the two
heroes allude to their services to their masters, as well as
to the escapes they had from those of their various ene¬
mies.
The distinguishing features of the English blood-hound
are, long, smooth, and pendulous ears, with a wide fore¬
head, obtuse nose, expansive nostrils, and deep flewed,
with an awfully deep but highly sonorous tongue. The pre¬
vailing colour is a reddish tan, darkening to the upper part,
often with a mixture of black upon the back. In short,
the deep-flewed southern hare-hound, now almost ex¬
tinct in England, very nearly resembles the English blood¬
hound in form and colour; and a person may picture to
Houn
1 Campbell’s Political Survey, vol. ii. p. 205, note (D).
HOUND.
und. himself the latter, by supposing an animal considerably
V larger than the old southern hound. In height he is from
twenty-six to twenty-eight inches, and sometimes more.
The blood-hound of the West Indies is also about the
same height, but differs much in form. He has small,
erect ears, the nose more pointed, and the hair and skin
hard. His countenance is ill featured and ferocious ; and
although not so heavy as the English blood-hound, he is
quite as muscular, and very active.
The distinguishing property of the blood-hound in
chase, consists in his never changing from the scent on
which he is first laid; and he will hunt by the shed blood of
a wounded or dead animal as truly as he will by the foot,
which rendered him so useful in pursuit of the deer or
sheep-stealer.
The English stag-hound, now nearly gone, is little more
than a mongrel blood-hound; at least it is reasonable to
conclude, that the cross which produced him was direct¬
ly from the English blood-hound with some lighter animal
of a similar species (perhaps a greyhound, or lurcher) ap¬
proximating his form, to which conjecture his figure and
disposition, as well as his comparative inferiority of scent,
appear to add strength. It is asserted in the Sportsman's
Cabinet, that the stag-hound “ was originally an improv¬
ed cross between the old English deep-tongued southern
hound and the fleeter fox-hound, grafted upon the basis
of what was formerly called, and better known by the
appellation of, blood-hound.’' But this assertion must
have been made without proper reflection; for, in the
first place, a cross between the deep-tongued southern
and the fox-hound will not produce an animal nearly so
large or so strong as the stag-hound ; and, secondly, the
stag-hound was known in England long before the fox¬
hound was made use of, or, indeed, before there was an
animal at all resembling the one which is now known by
that term.
We confess we regret the prospect of the total extinc¬
tion of the English stag-hound, who, although his form
possessed little of that symmetry we now see in the Eng¬
lish fox-hound, was a majestic animal of his kind, and
possessed the property peculiar alone to the blood-hound
and himself, of unerringly tracing the scent he was laid
upon, amongst a hundred others; which evinces a supe¬
riority,. at all events a peculiarity, of nose entirely un¬
known to our lighter hounds of any breed. The want of
being able to distinguish the 'hunted fox from a fresh-
found one is the bane of English fox-hunting; and there
are not wanting those who think, that in the breeding of
the modern fox-hound, the minor points of high form and
blood are more frequently considered than they should
be, in preference of a regard to nose.
The Fox-Hound.
The English fox-hound of the present day is a perfect
living model; but how he has become such, it is in no
. one’s power to determine. Although we do not like to
apply the term of mongrel to an animal we so highly re¬
spect, yet there can be no doubt of his being one of a
spurious race, engrafted with care on the parent stock,
namely, the old English blood-hound. There is, we be¬
lieve also, no doubt that a century and a half ago there
was no animal in the world resembling the present breed of
fox-hound ; and that the fox, when hunted at all in Great
Britain, was hunted by a dog much resembling what is now
known as the Welch harrier, rough-haired and strong, but
of very far from sightly appearance. As all animals, how¬
ever, improve under the care and guidance of man, until at
length they assume the character of a distinct breed; such
has evidently been the case with hounds, the breeders of
which have, by going from better to better in their choice
of the animals from which they have bred, progressively ar-
699
rived at the perfection we see in them. And such has been Hound,
the case with all our domestic animals, the breeders of which
have alone attained their ends by the choice of individuals
of the highest excellence in their kind, and by a judicious
selection of size, form, and qualities likely to produce the
result. There can be no doubt, then, but that by pursuing
this course throughout a number of generations with the
hound, an animal has been produced of what may be called
quite a new variety in the canine race, answering the de¬
scription and purposes of our present fox-hound. But the
questions may be asked, Whence the necessity for this
change, and forcing, as it were, nature from her usual
course? Why not be content v/ith the low-scenting,
plodding hounds of our forefathers, which, from the superi¬
ority of their nose, not only displayed hunting, in the strict
acceptation of that term, to the highest advantage, but
very rarely missed the game they pursued ? These ques¬
tions are satisfactorily answered in a few words; first, as
the fox is not now found by the drag, and the number of
those animals is so greatly increased, the necessity for this
extreme tenderness of nose does not exist; and, secondly,
by reason of the blood of the race-horse having gradually
mixed with that of our hunters, the sort of hound we have
been alluding to was not found to be adapted to their in¬
creased speed; and particularly as, in proportion as nature
lavished this fine sense of smelling on the old-fashioned
hound, was he given to “ hang” or dwell upon the scent,
thereby rendering the length of a chase (which, to please
the present taste, should, like Chatham’s battle, be “ sharp,
short, and decisive”) beyond the endurance of a modern
sportsman. It is true, Mr Beckford, in his Thoughts upon
Hunting, gives an instance of a pack of old-fashioned
hounds, which ran in a string, as it were, one following
the other, and yet killing twenty-nine foxes in twenty-
nine successive runs, each fault being hit off by an old
southern hound. But what would our hard-riding, mo¬
dern sportsmen think of this as pastime? Nevertheless,
all who witnessed, as we have done, the style of hunting
of the Devonshire stag-hounds, will remember that there
was a close similarity between them in chase, and the pack
Mr Beckford speaks of. But, as the same eminent author
afterwards observes, it is the dash of the fox-hound of the
present day that distinguishes him from all others of his
genus, and hounds must now “ carry a head.”
The breeding a pack of fox-hounds to a pitch bordering
on perfection is a task of no ordinary difficulty; the best
proof of which is to be found in the few sportsmen who
have succeeded in it. Not only is every good quality to
be regarded, and if possible obtained, but every fault or
imperfection to be avoided; and although the good quali¬
ties of hounds are very soon reckoned, their faults in shape
and performance present a longer catalogue. Indepen¬
dently of shape, which combines strength with beauty, the
highest virtue in a fox-hound is not in the exquisiteness of
his nose, but in his being true to the line his game has gone,
and a stout runner to the end of a chase. But he must
not only thus signalize himself in chase; he must also
be a patient hunter, with a cold scent, or with the pack at
fault. In short, to be a hard runner and a good hunter,
and steady on the line, which “ a good hunter” implies, con¬
stitutes a perfect hound, when combined with good form.
The faults of hounds, too often innate, can only be cured
by education. The greatest of all are, skirting, or not be¬
ing true on the line, and throwing the tongue improperly;
first, without a scent, which is known by the term babbling;
secondly, not throwing it at all, or running mute ; and, third¬
ly, on a wrong scent, which is called running riot. The
latter, however, is the least vice of the two, because gene¬
rally curable by the lash; but the fault of skirting is too
often innate; at all events, too often incurable. Thus has
the breeder of the hound to guard against propensities as
700 HOUND.
Hound, well as faults; and a late accredited writer on the subject
——says, “ In modem times, the system of hunting is so much
improved, so much more attention is paid to the condition
of hounds and their style of work, that in this enlightened
age a master of hounds thinks it a reflection on his judg¬
ment if one hound in his pack is detected in a fault.”1
The selection of dog and bitch to breed from is a nice
point for a master of hounds, or his huntsman, to decide
upon; but, if he aim at excellence, he must keep his eye
on perfection. In no animal is perfect symmetry so de¬
sirable as in a fox-hound, for without it there is no depen¬
dence on his services, however good may be his nature.
We will first describe him in the words of a very old
writer, and afterwards in those of Mr Beckford, when it
will appear that there is a strong resemblance in the por¬
traits drawn by each. “ His head,” says the former,
“ ought to be of middle proportion, rather long than round;
his nostrils wide ; his ears large ; his back bowed; the fil¬
lets great; the haunches large ; the thighs well trussed ;
the ham straight; the tail big near the reins, and the rest
slender to the end ; the leg big; the sole of the foot dry,
and formed like a fox’s, with the claws great.” The latter
says, “ There are necessary points in the shape of a hound
which ought always to be attended to; for if he be not a
perfect symmetry, he will neither run fast nor bear much
work; he has much to undergo, and should have strength
proportioned to it. Let his legs be straight as arrows;
his feet round, and not too large ; his shoulders back; his
breast rather wide than narrow; his chest deep ; his back
broad ; his head small; his neck thin; his tail thick and
brushy ; if he carry it well so much the better.” Now
the hound that would answer to either of these descrip¬
tions would disgrace no man’s kennel, and one resembling
the latter would be an ornament to it; but with regard to
the former, it must be borne in mind, that it is from the
pen of a sportsman who wrote a century and half ago,
when, as has been before observed, there is reason to be¬
lieve no animal in the perfect form of the modern fox¬
hound was to be found in this or in any other country.
Judges of the animal, however, will be disposed to think
with us, that there is much of the real character of the
hound in the sentence we have quoted from this old wri¬
ter ; such as the long rather than round head; the wide
nostrils (Pliny says they should be flat, solid, and blunt);
and the dry, fox’s foot. But the “ bowed back” appears
to spoil all, unless by it is meant that gentle rise in the
loins which the judge of hounds admires, and without
which, the late Mr Chute of the Vine, in Hampshire,
who hunted that country for more than thirty years,
gave it as his opinion, no hound was able to maintain his
speed for an hour over hilly and ploughed countries when
“ it carries;”—a technical term for the earth clinging to
the foot, which it will do after a slight frost on the pre¬
ceding night; necessarily adding much to the natural
weight of the hound. Beckford gives us the modern fox¬
hound, and perfect, with the exception of the mention of
one or two material points. “ His chest should be deep,”
says he, “ and his back broad;” but he has omitted a
point much thought of by the modern sportsman, namely,
the back ribs, which should also be deep, as in a strong¬
bodied horse, of which we say, when so formed, that he
has a good “ spur-place,” a point highly esteemed in him.
Nor is either of these writers sufficiently descriptive of
the hinder legs of the hound; for although the “ large
haunch and well-trussed thigh” of the former denote
power and muscle, nevertheless there is a length of thigh
discernible in first-rate hounds, which, like the “ well
let-down hock of the horse, gives them much superiori¬
ty of speed, and is also a great security against laming
themselves in leaping fences, which they are more apt to Houn
do when they become blown, and consequently weak,
The fore legs “ straight as arrow? is an admirable illus¬
tration of perfection in those parts, by Beckford; for, as in
a bow, or bandy-legged man, nothing is so disfiguring to
a hound as his having his elbows out, which is likewise a
great check to speed. In some countries the round, cat¬
like foot is indispensable, and agreeable to the eye in all;
but we would not reject a well-shapen puppy in other re¬
spects for somewhat of an open foot, provided his ancles
or fetlocks were good, a point we consider of the greatest
consequence to all quadruped animals. The shoulders of
the fox-hound should resemble those of the horse—oblique,
but at the same time strong; for a narrow chested hound
is almost certain to get shaken by hard work, and conse¬
quently unlikely to endure beyond his third season.
As Beckford recommends the small head, we may pre¬
sume the form and fashion of this point began to be
changed in his time, and has, we think, been carried to
too great an excess in the fox-hound of the present day,
particularly in one or two kennels (the Belvoir, for exam¬
ple), where very short, as well as small heads, are a lead¬
ing characteristic. For ourselves, we like some length of
head in the fox-hound, not being able to divest ourselves
of the idea of a cross with the pointer when we see him
with a short head and a snubbed nose. Beckford also
says the neck should be thin. We would &&&, moderately
thin. We dislike a thin neck in any animal but the cow
or the stag; at the same time we dislike a short, thick
neck in a hound. His neck should be moderately long
and moderately thick, with the muscles clearly developed;
it should rise gracefully out of his shoulders, with a slight
curve or crest, and, to completely satisfy the eye, should
be quite free from exuberances of flesh and hair on the
lower side of it, called by huntsmen “ chitterlings” or ruf¬
fles, the hound having them being termed “ throaty;” al¬
though there are numerous exceptions to this rule, as some
of the best hounds England ever saw have been throaty;
and although we are aware that one individual instance
will prove neither the rule nor its exception, we can go
as far back as to Mr Meynell’s famous stallion hound
Gusman, for as throaty, and yet as good a fox-hound as
we ever remember to have seen. We agree with Beck¬
ford, that the “ tail,” now called stern, of a hound, should
be “ thick,” and moderately “ brushy;” and if well car¬
ried, it is a great ornament to a fox-hound. But there is
one part of it which the master of a pack likes to see
nearly deprived of its covering, and that is its tip, which,
when in that state, is an infallible proof of a hound being
a good, and not a slack, drawer of covers. As a perfect
model we refer to the portrait of Nosegay, a hound be¬
longing to the Earl of Kintore. Plate CCXCIV.
But to return to breeding the fox-hound. In the breed¬
ing of some animals, beauty of shape is often dependent
on the caprice of fashion, or the taste of the breeder ; but
in the breeding of hounds no such latitude can be given,
for here beauty, or symmetry of shape, is alone in refer¬
ence to utility, and adaptation of parts to the purposes
to which they are to be applied. Yet the breeder of fox¬
hounds has one point further to go; he must, as we be¬
fore remarked, guard against propensities, which run in the
blood of these animals perhaps stronger than their good
qualities, and will sooner or later break out in their work.
In the election then of a dog for a bitch, or a bitch for a
dog, these matters must be attentively considered; and
no man should breed from hounds of either sex that come
under any of the following denominations, viz. not of a
docile sort, but very difficult to enter to their game ; given
to run mute ; to hang on a scent; or to be skirters; not
-) Colonel Cook’s Observations on Fox-hunting, &c.
HOUND.
mnd. only not true to the line, but given to run not either in
v cover or in chase ; and, above all things, if found evidently
deficient in nose, and not able to run at head. Good
constitution should likewise be looked to; but we would
not reject a stallion hound, or a brood bitch, merely for
being slack drawers, or for not being always at the head
in chase, provided they were well bred, of good form, and
true to the line, in cover, and out.
As to the proper combination of form, that must be
self-evident to the breeder of hounds. If a bitch is a little
high on her leg, or light, she should be put to a short¬
legged, strong dog, and of course vice versa; if rather
light in her tongue, that defect may be remedied by an
opposite property in a dog. The defects in legs and feet
can only be remedied by such means; and fortunate is it
for the owner of an otherwise perfect and excellent bitch,
that such remedies are at hand. Length and shortness of
frame, as well as coarse points, are all to be obviated and
altered in the same way, making allowance for the fact,
that the laws of nature are not always certain. Constitu¬
tion can likewise be mended by having recourse to that
which is good (and none so easily detected as the dog’s);
and colour changed if required. In fact, as Beckford says,
“ It is the judicious cross that makes the complete pack
and it was the remark of this practical writer, and therefore
high authority amongst sportsmen, that “ he saw no reason
why the breeding of hounds may not improve till improve¬
ment can go no further.” The question may be asked, is
not his prediction verified ?
But the act of crossing hounds, as indeed all other ani¬
mals, although never thoroughly divested of chance, is one
. of more difficulty than most people would imagine, and one
indeed which, by its results, would often baffle, if not
puzzle, the profoundest of our modern physiologists. Our
space will not admit of our going at length into this intri¬
cate subject, but great mistakes, we conceive, have been
made by masters of fox-hounds, in breeding too much in-
and-in, from nearest affinities, instead of having recourse
to an alien cross. This was peculiarly apparent in the
packs of two very celebrated masters of fox-hounds, the
late Sir Thomas Mostyn, Bart., and the late John Corbet,
Esq. of Sundorne Castle, Shropshire (the former of whom
hunted Oxfordshire, and the latter Warwickshire, each for
upwards of thirty years), who bred in-and-in, Sir Tho¬
mas from a bitch called Lady, and her produce; and Mr
Corbet from a hound called Trojan, and his produce, to the
great injury of their respective packs. We are aware it is
asserted that a pack of fox-hounds should have the appear¬
ance and character of being of one family; but this expres¬
sion is not to be taken in its literal construction. It is in
the conformity of their character and appearance that they
should bear a close resemblance to each other, and not in
their close consanguinity. It is true, the celebrated pack
of Mr Warde, the present father of the field, and a master
of fox-hounds for the unparalleled period of fifty-seven
years, which sold for two thousand guineas, only contained,
in 1825, three couples of hounds not of his own blood, and
those the produce of one stallion hound, Mr Assheton
Smith’s Reubens. But we have no proof of Mr Warde’s
hounds being better for adhering so closely to his own sort;
on the contrary, it is the opinion, we believe, of the sport¬
ing world, reluctantly admitted, in consideration of the
well-merited celebrity of their owner, that, latterly, the
slackness of this renowned pack, unrivalled in fine form,
was to be attributed to that circumstance. On the other
hand, the rare but valuable combination of dash and nose,
a match for the cold and ungenial Oxfordshire hills, for
which the Duke of Beaufort’s pack has been so long con¬
spicuous, has been traced to his Grace’s late huntsman,
Philip Payne (said by Colonel Cook, in his Observations
on Fox-Hunting, to be “ the best judge of breeding hounds
701
in the kingdom”), going from home for his blood, and Hound,
sending his bitches to the celebrated stallion hounds of the —v"«w
best kennels within his reach. This, however, it must be
remembered, is not within the command of every man’s
purse, the expenses attending sending bitches to a distance,
under any circumstances, being heavy; as not only must
they be placed under the care of a trusty servant on their
journey, but there are other occult expenses attending them,
which none but masters of hounds are aware of. It is,
however, a notorious fact, that the produce of some stallion
hounds, if they have a fair chance by the bitch, seldom fail
in turning out well; and perhaps the most signal instance
of “ like begetting like” in this species of animal, is that of
Mr Osbaldeston’s Furrier having been the sire of an entire
pack in that gentleman’s kennel when he hunted the Quorn-
don country in Leicestershire, which he would occasionally
take to the field, amounting to more than thirty-five couples,
although, as may be supposed, they were generally mingled
with the rest of his kennel, which at that period contained
a hundred couples of hounds. These Furrier hounds gave
little trouble in the entering of them, and proved very true
line-hunters, and every thing that fox-hounds should be.
The annals of fox-hunting likewise record similar instances
of the peculiar properties of stallion hounds transmitting
their virtues to many succeeding generations, especially in
the instances of the Pychley Abelard, the Beaufort, and the
New Forest Justice, Mr Ward’s Senator, Mr Meynell’s Gus¬
man, Mr Musters’s Collier, Mr Corbet’s Trojan, Lord Yar¬
borough’s Ranter, with many others of more recent days,
but too numerous to mention here.
The size, or, we should rather say, the height, of a fox¬
hound, is a point upon which there has been much differ¬
ence of opinion. The long-established pack of the late Mr
Chute were at least three inches below the standard of his
neighbour Mr Villebois’s large pack; also as much below that
of his Grace the Duke of Cleveland, who had for many years
also a large and a small pack; and at least four inches lower
than Mr Warde’s, in whose kennel were hounds full twenty-
six inches high. Various arguments are made use of by the
advocates of large and small hounds. Those of the former
assert that they get better across a deep and strongly fen¬
ced country than smaller ones ; whilst the admirers of the
latter insist upon their being better climbers of hills, more
active in cover, and quicker out of it when their fox is
gone; and are oftener found to be perfect in form and
shape. As to uniformity in size, how pleasing soever it
may be to the eye, it is by no means essential to the well¬
doing of hounds in the field, and has been disregarded by
some of our first sportsmen, the great Mr Meynell for one,
who never drafted a good hound for being over or under
size; neither did Mr Assheton Smith, when he succeeded
to his, Mr Meynell’s, country. The great object of both
was to breed them with muscular power and bone, com¬
bined with as much symmetry as could be obtained ; and
to be equal in speed and good qualities, rather than equal
in height.
We consider the proper standard of height in fox-hounds
to be from twenty-one to twenty-two inches for bitches,
and from twenty-three to twenty-four for dog hounds.
The minimum and maximum size of the last fifty years
would have been found in the kennels of Mr Chute and
Mr Warde; the Duke of Cleveland and Mr Villebois
coming next to Mr Warde in what may be called the
maximum class. Mr Chute’s motto over his kennel door
was, “ multum in parvo,” which was his great aim; and
although very full of power, and particularly neat in ap¬
pearance, his hounds did not'more than average twenty-
one inches. On the other hand, many of Mr Warde’s
bitches, the most splendid animals of their kind and sex
the world has ever yet seen, were better than twenty-three,
and some of his dog hounds twenty-six inches high, which
702 HOUND.
Hound, was about the standard of the original Devonshire stag-
hounds. It may be said of hounds, however, as has been
said of horses, that their height has little to do wi th their
size, as far at least as their powers of action are concern¬
ed; and doubtless in all animals that labour, a medium
height is the best.
The amount of hounds bred annually will depend on
the strength of the kennel, and the number of days hunt¬
ing in the week which the country they are intended for
requires. From sixty to eighty couples are about the
complement for a four-days-a-week country, which will
require the breeding of a hundred couples of puppies every
year, allowing the usual diminution of the entry by mal-
conformation, under size, and that bane to the kennel, the
distemper, which often takes off a moiety of them. As the
period of gestation in the female dog is somewhat over
two calendar months, the fox-hound bitch should, if she
can be spared, be put to dog in January, as then she will
litter in the spring, when the weather is comparatively
mild (cold being destructive of young animals of this sort),
and the puppies will then come early into kennel, gene¬
rally be of good size, and powerful; and be entered with¬
out loss of time. The tips of their sterns being pinched off,
and their dew-claws cut, whelps should be taken to their
walks at about two months old; and if to one where there
is plenty of milk or whey, they will be the better for it.
Whelps walked at butchers’ houses grow to a great size,
but they are apt to be heavy-shouldered and throaty, and
otherwise out of shape. If possible to avoid it, puppies
should never be tied up, as perpetually drawing at the
collar-chain throws their elbows out, and otherwise da¬
mages their legs, particularly by spreading their feet, and
altering the form of their ancles, although it is some¬
times almost impossible to avoid it, from their proneness
to do mischief. If old bitches are bred from, they should
be put to young dogs, and of course vice versa; and a
bitch should not be worked for at least the last month of
her time; and immediately on her whelps being taken
from her, a dose of physic should be given her.
It is said that the dog in a state of nature is subject to
few diseases, and for these he finds his cure by an instinctive
faculty; in a domesticated state, however, he is subject
to many, and some of an awful nature, which maybe classed
among the opprobria medicorum, no certain remedy being
discovered for them. Amongst these is one called the
distemper, not known by our forefathers, but at present
become a sort of periodical disorder in kennels, to the de¬
struction of thousands of young hounds annually. The
first symptoms of this disease are, generally, a dry husky
cough ; want of appetite, and consequent loss of flesh ;
extreme dulness, and a running from the nose and eyes.
As the disease advances, it is attended with twitchings of
the head, while the animal becomes excessively weak in
the loins and hinder extremities; is greatly emaciated;
runs at the eyes and nose, and smells very offensively.
At length the twitchings assume the appearance of con¬
vulsive fits, accompanied with giddiness, which cause the
dog to turn i-ound; he has a constant inclination to dung,
with obstinate costiveness at one time, or incessant purg¬
ing at another. Finally, the stomach becomes extremely
irritable ; every thing swallowed is instantly thrown up ;
and the dog generally dies in a spasmodic fit.
For the cure of this disorder many remedies have been
prescribed; but as none of them can be relied upon as
specific, we decline giving them,1 and prefer transcribing
the following observations of an intelligent and experi¬
enced huntsman in the service of a noble duke, accom- Hour
panied by a comment upon it by a noble lord, also a prac-
tical sportsman, hunting his own fox-hounds.
“ As soon,” says the former, “ as the young hounds
come in from quarters, a sharp look-out is kept for the
distemper ; and as soon as any of its symptoms appear, a
dose of cold-drawn castor oil is given, and the following
morning a dose of calomel and jalap. About seven grains
of the former and twenty of the latter made into a bolus,
and put over their throats before they have tasted any
thing, and their heads coupled up above the level of their
bodies for two hours, so as to prevent them from vomiting
up the medicine, which they are certain to do if this is not
carefully attended to. They are then to have their broth
and their meat. The oil and bolus to be repeated in a
day or two as symptoms require; that is to say, if the fever
runs high, repeat the bolus, and, if only to keep the bowels
open, the oil in small quantities. Indeed the great thing
is attending to circumstances, and acting accordingly;
as, for instance, nothing can be more different than when
flux attends the distemper, and when fits and obstinate
costiveness is the case. I believe, however, that at first
a good scouring in both cases is of service. In flux, of
course, don’t repeat the calomel, but take moderate means
to stop it, as flux in a minor degree tends to keep off both
fever and fits. To allay the flux, arrow-root, or boiled
milk and flour porridge. There is no doubt that laudanum
is the surest method to stop it, but then it is sure to end
with fits. Fits at the beginning are no bad sign, and at
the end nothing can be worse. I never either approved
of bleeding or vomiting in the distemper; the first weak¬
ening too much, the latter creating and adding to the ir¬
ritableness of their stomachs.”
“ With the foregoing plain, sensible, and simple treat¬
ment,” says the noble lord in his comment on the fore¬
going observations, “ my junior experience perfectly
agrees with the opinion of   ; but I revert to
what he justly adds about ‘ circumstances,’ and differ with
him about the bleeding, as I think a good scouring out,
and bleeding, before any thing symptomatic of the dis¬
ease has fairly begun, highly commendable. But, vice versa,
for instance, if you bleed after the disease has fairly taken
root, the lungs, nine cases in ten, being affected, it is ten
to one you kill the dog; but if done early in the day, I
cannot but think it is of much service, prevents fever, and
in many cases makes the disease less violent. I think
perhaps the treatment of whelps, after they come in from
their healthy walks to the close confinement of sometimes
an ill-kept kennel, is the cause of the distemper taking
more violent hold of them than it otherwise would do;
and amongst the hundred pretended receipts of many
huntsmen, the remark is a justly correct one, of what may
cure one dog will kill another. But here  
and his ‘ circumstances’ put you right. What might be
advisable would be this: As soon as your puppies come in,
look them attentively over; divide the well-walked whelps
from those that have been ill walked; bleed and scour
well out the fat lot, paying of course attention to their
diet, cleanliness, and exercise; and cherish the poor lot
by the best food, giving them the castor oil without the
calomel or the lancet. But a lot of well-bred fox-hound
whelps are not to be left to the care of a whipper-in or a
boiler, unless he is a perfectly sober, attentive, experi¬
enced man; for in this disease in the animal, as in the
human species, the patient must be most attentively and
closely watched.”
Colonel Cook says he has “ sometimes” found the following efficacious Calomel three grains, cathartic ext. seven ditto, soap
seven ditto, emetic tartar one half grain. Make three pills, and give one every other day. Vaccination was tried in some kennels
as a preventive, but it failed, and was abandoned.
Kennel Management.
HOUND.
703
nd.
The management of hounds in kennel has undergone
great changes for the better since Mr Beckford’s day;
and, divesting the mind of the inferiority of horse flesh
over cow or bullock flesh, the food of hounds, both in its
nature and the cooking of it, is such as man might not
only not reject, if necessity compelled him to have re¬
course to it, but such as he would thrive and do well upon.
It is a common expression, that “ any thing will do for
dogs,” and experience informs us they will exist upon very
miserable fare; but hounds, to be in condition, must have
every thing good of its kind, and also well cooked. Were
a master of hounds, or huntsman, of the present day, to
follow Beckford’s advice, of putting his hounds to a horse
fresh killed, after a hard day, his brother sportsmen would
think him mad ; nor is there scarcely any thing now used
in our first-rate kennels but the best oatmeal (Scotch or
Irish is the best), one year old, and well-boiled horse flesh,
quite free from taint. The meal is put into the copper
when the water boils, and should be boiled up a second
time, and, in all, for at least two hours; for nothing is
worse for the wind of hounds than meal not thoroughly
boiled. When taken out of the boiler, it forms a substance
resembling coarse rice pudding ; and when the fresh flesh,
which is shredded, and the broth in which it is boiled, are
added to it in the trough, and very well mixed, it forms
the best and highest food that can be given to hounds.
In some kennels, after the example of that famous hunts¬
man the late Thomas Oldacre, the meal and flesh are boil¬
ed up together, with the idea that more of the virtue of
the flesh is then imparted to the meal than when it is
merely mixed with the broth ; but the practice is not ge¬
neral. But such is the difference of constitution in hounds,
and the aptitude of some, over others, to gain flesh, or
become foul, persons who are particular as to the condi¬
tion of their pack have troughs filled accordingly, that is,
one with thinner food than another, for hounds of the
former description. No animal in the world is so soon up
and down in his condition as the dog; and, strange as it
may appear, the effect of two or three extra mouthfuls of
thick meat will be visible on some hounds on the second
day after they have eaten them. Nevertheless, the dog
being strictly a carnivorous animal, cannot stand hard work
without flesh, which he should have a fair allowance of
once a day, according as his constitution may require it.
Some masters of hounds, however (the justly celebrated
Mr Ralph Lambton one of them), do not feed with flesh
on the day before hunting, giving only meal and broth ;
and this on the supposition that the faculty of scent is
more delicately susceptible without it. Young hounds
lately come from walks should be fed twice in the day,
as they do not always, at first, take to kennel food.
Colonel Cook is thus explicit and correct on the sub¬
ject of feeding hounds, and their condition, the result of
many years experience, and great attention to the kennel.
“ It is quite certain,” says he, “ a hound too high in con¬
dition cannot run a burst, neither can a poor half-starved
one kill an afternoon fox ; a hound, therefore, cannot be
considered as fit to be brought out, if he is either too high
or too low. I like to see their ribs, but their loins should
be well filled up, and they should be hollow in their flanks :
he that is full in the flanks is sure to be fat in the inside,
and consequently not fit for work. The feeding of hounds,
and the bringing them to cover, able to run a burst, or
kill an afternoon fox, is not altogether a thing so easy as
some people imagine; in fact, it requires nearly as much
trouble to get a hound into condition as it does a horse ;
and if the greatest attention is not paid to this particular,
you cannot expect to catch many foxes. It is the condi¬
tion of a hound which gives him the advantage over the
animal he hunts. Nevertheless their constitutions differ Hound,
as much as those of the human species; some require
thick food, others thin ; the same quantity which may be
requisite for Ranter, if given to Rallywood, would render
him unable to run a yard. Some time before hunting
(say about three weeks), they should have plenty of walk¬
ing exercise, and salts given them once a week. If a
hound is at any time very foul, the following receipt is
very efficacious :—Three grains of ^dSthiops mineral, five
grains of calomel, made into a ball: the hound must of
course be carefully kept from cold water.”
In the summer time, when hounds are out of work, they
do not require flesh more than twice a week, and succu¬
lent vegetables in their food are at this time useful. They
are also physicked and bled at the close of one season, and
before the commencement of the next; and, if necessary,
dressed over with a sulphureous mixture during the idle
months. But some owners of hounds, and huntsmen,
object to dressing them, conceiving that it opens their
pores too much, and subjects them to rheumatic affec¬
tions.
One recent and great improvement in kennel discipline
is, a small reservoir of water within the walls, of suffi¬
cient depth to cleanse the legs of hounds, but not to wet
their bodies, which they are made to walk through im¬
mediately on their coming home. Upon being turned into
their lodging room, they commence licking themselves
dry, which, as a dog’s tongue is proverbially called his
“ doctor,” is most beneficial to their feet, by clearing them
of sand or gravel, as well as healing any trifling wounds
which they may have received. In the Duke of Cleve¬
land’s kennel, this reservoir is filled with broth, which, in
addition to its healing properties, induces hounds to lick
their feet still more than water does. In flinty countries,
the feet of hounds are very frequently wounded, which is
a great disadvantage to those a little inclined to do wrong,
as they are compelled to miss their turn, and so get above
themselves. It also obliges a gentleman to keep a larger
number of hounds than this country would otherwise re¬
quire.
Hounds are fed on the day before hunting about eleven
o’clock a. m., but some delicate feeders require to be let
into the troughs a second time. After hunting, they are
fed as soon as they have licked themselves dry, which, by
the warmth that arises from their bodies when shut up, is
very soon effected ; and in the summer time it is reckon¬
ed safer to feed them in the evening, as they then rest
quieter throughout the night, and are less disposed to
quarrel.
Colour of Hounds.
Independently of the justness and elegance of figure in
animals, which adapt them to the uses or ends of their
creation, nature has been profuse in the adornment of
the surface of their bodies by various beautiful colours.
But in proof that the Creator never errs from his design in
any of the qualities he has communicated to his creatures,
and that he adorns not merely for the sake of ornament
alone, these beauties conferred upon them are found greatly
to contribute to their well-being ; for with them they have
received the consciousness of possessing, and a desire to
preserve them. In fact, it is this which attaches them so
closely to their being, and renders them so attentive to
cleanse, ornament, and take care of themselves, as we every
day see they do; and to preserve, in all its lustre, the ena¬
mel which nature has given them. And we may go even
one step farther than this. An, accurate observer of ani¬
mals will perceive, that they are not only conscious of their
own beauty, but are capable of beholding and admiring
it in others. This is undoubtedly the case with regard to
both sexes of the same species: never are they so atten-
704 HOUND.
Hound, tive to display the graces which nature has bestowed upon
'wthem, never are they so ostentatious, as when they are
together, which is evident from their gambols and frolics;
and, if we may judge of them from our own feelings, how
greatly must this disposition contribute to their mutual
felicity.
In no animal is variety of colours more conspicuous
than in hounds, and it adds greatly to their appearance when
we see them in a body in the kennel, but still more so in the
field. The prevailing ones with the fox-hound are these:
Tan (not common); black (not common); black and
white and tan (the most common); milk white (not com¬
mon) ; red (very rare); blue (the same). Next come
the blended, or mixed colours, known in the kennel as
“ pies.” There is the red pie ; the blue pie ; the yellow pie;
the grey pie ; the lemon pie (very handsome); the hare
pie; and the badger pie, which last is very character¬
istic of the fox-hound. The fox-hound is sometimes tick¬
ed, that is, his coat is dotted with small white specks on
a dark ground, but he is rarely what is called “mottled”
(motley) ; and, we believe, what is known by “ a blue mot¬
tled hound ” is not to be found among fox-hounds, being
peculiar to harriers and beagles. There was for many
years a pack of “ blue mottled ” harriers kept near Croy¬
don, in Surrey.
It is asserted that the original colour of the English
fox-hound was fallow, or pale yellow (Shakspeare speaks
of a greyhound) ; and we are inclined to this opinion
from its being spoken of in several old works upon hunting,
as the “ best colour for hounds that hunt the hart or roe
and there can be no doubt of our fox-hounds being origi¬
nally descended from that breed of dog, be it what it may.
As we know that a recurrence to original colour frequently
takes place in animals and ftirds, after its disappearance
throughout several generations, this may probably ac¬
count for the various pied hounds we see in kennels, the
produce of hounds of distinct colours, perhaps merely
black and white, and often of those nearly black. More¬
over, at Ashdown Park, in Berkshire, an old seat of the
Craven family, there is a picture of a pack of fox-hounds,
above a hundred years old, in which every hound is either
fallow coloured or red.
The Tongue, or Cry of Hounds.
During the early stages of mental progress, the ear is
of more importance to man than the eye. Indeed at all
times sounds, by association, become the signs of ideas;
and the great variety in the voice of nature must have
been designed to meet the peculiar tastes and purposes of
the countless multitudes that dwell on the face of the
earth, lhat the cry of hounds is a voluntary noise, pro¬
ceeding from a powerful organic impulse, is quite appa¬
rent, as is also the purpose for which the impulse is given ;
namely, to announce their having discovered the scent
of an animal, either obnoxious to their notice, or desirable
as food, and by calling their straggling companions toge¬
ther, and uniting their forces, the better to enable them
to secure their prey. On the other hand, here is mercy
shown to the prey they are in pursuit of. The tongue of
the hound gives notice of his approach ; and he does not
pounce upon his victim as the silent greyhound does, which
Gratius, in his poem on coursing, alludes to in the follow¬
ing verse:—
“ Sic canis ilia suos taciturna supervenit hostes.”
But the cry of hounds, melodious and heart-cheering as
it even now is, has lost much of its poetical interest, from
the change man has made in the natural organization of
the animal from which it proceeds; and we shall never Hot
again hear of a master of a pack, after the manner of Ad- W j
dison’s knight, returning a hound that had been given to
him as an “ excellent bass,” whereas the note he wanted
was a “ counter-tenor.” The great Beckford, however,
was something of the worthy knight’s opinion ; for he says,
in his Thoughts upon Hunting, “ If we attended more
to the variety of the notes frequently to be met with in
the tongues of hounds, it might greatly add to the harmo¬
ny of the pack.” This is well in theory. The natural or¬
ganization of the dog is musical; he is, in fact, a victim
to musical sensibility; and we may reasonably suppose
that the notes of his companions in the chase may be as
pleasing to himself as to his huntsman ; but we more than
doubt whether a huntsman of this day would draft a high¬
ly-bred and beautiful young bitch, as good too as she looks
to be, merely because her light, fox-hunting tongue might
be somewhat drowned, and now and then lost, in the gene¬
ral chorus of the pack. He would rather say, “ Let every
tongue he a fox,1 and I’ll leave the rest to chance.” But, on
a good day for hearing it, what natural sound is more de¬
lightful and animating than that of hounds in full cry, in
the deep recesses of an echo-giving wood ? Neither would
those writers who have availed themselves of the beauty
and sublimity which allusions to sounds in nature stamp on
their various compositions, have at all descended from their
eminence if they had, like Shakspeare, delighted as much
in bringing the soul in contact with such a sound as this,
as with the rolling of the thunder, or the howling of the
storm.
The Age of Hounds.
The dog exhibits no exact criteria of age after the first
two years, during which time the whiteness and evenness
of his teeth are a pretty certain test of his not exceed¬
ing that period. An old hound, however, cannot be mis¬
taken if only looked in the face, where he shows old age
nearly as distinctly as man. As to the length of services
of hounds, that depends upon circumstances. Few are
found in a kennel after their eighth year, and very few
after their ninth; and not many hard-working hounds can
“ run up,” or keep pace with the rest, after their fifth sea¬
son at most. Hounds are in their prime in the third and
fourth years; and although there are a few instances,
such as Sir Richard Sulton’s Lucifer, the Beaufort Nector,
and the Cheshire Villager, of their hunting in their twelfth,
eleventh, and tenth year, the average of their work can¬
not, we fear, be placed beyond four seasons. Old hounds
are useful in the field, but when they cannot run up with
the pack, they should be drafted. The perfection of a
pack consists in the great body of it being composed of
hounds quite in their prime.
Separation of the Sexes.
The separation of the sexes in the kennel and in the
field is one of the late innovations in the sporting world,
and generally considered as a good one. In the first place,
it pleases the eye to see a pack of hounds nearly all of a
size, which cannot be the case when it is composed of
dogs and bitches mixed ; and the character of the animal
is likewise more uniformly displayed when confined to
one individual sex. Secondly, by the total separation of
dogs and bitches in the kennel and in the field, the former
are less inclined to quarrel, and the latter are more at
their ease, than when subject to the constant, and, at
times, importunate solicitations, of the male sex. Of
their performances in the field, however, when taken into
it separately, some difference of opinion exists; and each
1 “ Every tongue a fox,” is a well-known sporting phrase.
HOUND.
705
^ sex has its advocates. With a good fox before them, and
J a warm scent, bitches are decidedly quicker, and more off
hand in their work, than dog hounds; but with a colder
scent, or at fault, the general opinion is, that they are not
oo patient, and more given to over-run it. That they are
superior in “ dash,” which, Beckford says, is the distinctive
characteristic of a fox-hound, we bejieve is universally ac¬
knowledged ; and a celebrated master of hounds,1 who
hunted them himself several seasons in Leicestershire,
has been heard frequently to say, that if his kennel would
have afforded it, he would never have taken a dog hound
into the field. That, in the canine race, the female has
more of elegance and symmetry of form, consequently
more of speed, than the male, is evident to a common ob¬
server ; but there is nothing to lead us to the conclusion,
that, in the natural endowment of the senses, any supe¬
riority exists. It is however remarkable, that the Latins,
when speaking of hunting, or “ sporting dogs,” as we call
them, generally use the feminine gender, one instance of
which is to be found in the second ode of the fifth book
of Horace (multa cane), which ode every sportsman ought
to read, as it gives so pleasing a picture of a country life.
Names.
The naming of hounds and horses has nearly exhaust¬
ed human invention, as well as classical research. Beck-
ford furnishes a list of more than eight hundred names
for hounds, alphabetically arranged. But the naming of
hounds is somewhat under metrical control; for it is not
only confined to words of two and three syllables, but
their quantity, or rather their time, must be consulted.
For example, a dactyl, as Lucifer, answers well for the
latter; but who could holloa to Aurora? a trochee, or
an iambus, is necessary for the former, the spondee dwell¬
ing too long on the tongue to be applied smartly to a
hound. But there ought to be a nomenclator, as of old,
at every kennel door ; for it is but few persons unconnect¬
ed with a pack that can recollect their names until after
a rather long acquaintance with them, from the great si¬
milarity of form, character, as well as sometimes of colour,
in old-established kennels. “How is it possible,” said a
young master of fox-hounds a few years ago, “ that I
should distinguish every hound in my kennel by his name,
when I find three spots on one side of their body, and^ve
perhaps on the other ?” There have been, however, and
still are, persons who can see a large kennel of hounds once
drawn to their feeding troughs, and call them all by their
names afterwards, the result alone of a keen and prac¬
tised eye.
The price of hounds is strangely altered within the
space of half a century, or less; and on this subject we
cannot do better than quote Colonel Cook. “ Hounds,”
says he (p. 6), “ have always been much undervalued ; we
sometimes hear of eight hundred or even a thousand
guineas as the price of a hunter, and the sum of three or
four hundred is often considered as a mere trifle ; whereas
a pack of hounds, on which every thing depends, was only
considered worth a few hundreds. Yet Shakspeare him¬
self appears to have known the value of a hound; for in
his “ Induction” to the Taming of the Shrew, a nobleman
returned from hunting thus speaks of his hounds with
delight to his huntsman :
Nobleman. Huntsman, I charge thee, tender well my hounds ;
Brach Merriman,—the poor cur is emboss’d,
And couple Clowder with the deep-mouth’d brach.
Saw’st thou not, hoy, how Silver made it good,
At the hedge-corner, in the coldest fault ?
I would not lose the dog for twenty pound.
Huntsman. Why, Belman is as good as he, my lord; Hound.
He cried upon it at the meerest loss,
And twice to-day pick’d out the dullest scent;
Trust me, I take him for the better dog.
“ The sum of twenty pounds for a single hound in
Shakspeare’s time,” continues the colonel, “ and that not
the best in the pack either, was no inconsiderable price.
I am not alluding to ‘ a lot of cursbut surely a well-
bred, established pack of fox-hounds, including brood
bitches, and puppies at walk, must be cheap at a thousand
or twelve hundred pounds.”
Now the value of anything is what it will fetch; and
how far an established pack of fox-hounds is cheap at a
thousand or twelve hundred pounds, is a matter of con¬
sideration with reference to concomitant circumstances;
but that they will have cost the seller a great deal more,
there can be no doubt. We should put the average price
at something less than either of the above sums, although,
within the last dozen years, several packs have been sold
for the former sum; and the justly renowned one of Mr
Warde, the present Father of the Field, fetched two thou¬
sand guineas; and the late Lord Middleton gave Mr Os-
baldeston the same sum for ten couples of hounds out of
his kennel.
The Harrier.
The modern harrier bears no greater resemblance to the
one in use fifty years back, than the hunter of the present
day to that ridden by our grandfathers. In fact, he is now
nothing less than the fox-hound in miniature, which it is
the endeavour of all breeders to have him. Their qualities
also are as opposite as their form, the one delighting to
dwell upon the scent, the other a little inclined, perhaps,
to the other extreme. But the taste of the day for all
sports of the field would not endure the tedious exactness
of the old psalm-singing harrier; and not only in point of
diversion, but on the score of the pot, the balance is great¬
ly in favour of the improved variety. Before the old-
fashioned harrier, the hare had time to play all sorts of
tricks, to double on her foil, and so stain the ground that
she often escaped by such means; whereas the modern
hound, if the scent be tolerably good, forces her from her
foil to fly the country, and very often beyond her know¬
ledge, when a good straightforward run is the almost in¬
variable result. The observation of Mr Beckford holds
good here. He could not, he said, imagine a hound too
well bred to show sport, and kill his game; but he could
readily conceive the reverse, when the game ran stout and
well.
To Sir John Dashwood King, Bart, of West Wycombe
Park, Bucks, is the credit due for what may be termed
the living model of the present improved harrier ; and so
characteristically stamped are his sort of hound, now wide¬
ly spread, that they are recognised by a sportsman at the
first glance. Their standard height did not exceed eighteen
inches, and therefore, in that respect, they were not an over¬
match for their game ; but from the great equality of their
size and speed, combined with rare hunting qualities, they
killed more hares, with good runs, than any other pack in
the kingdom, and for many, many years in succession cer¬
tainly “ bore the bell.” Sir John kept them more than
thirty years, at Bourton-on-the-Hill, Gloucestershire, near
the four-shire stone on the Oxford and Worcester road,
where his father kept them before him; hunting partly in
the vales of Warwickshire and Worcestershire, and partly
over the Cotswold Plills, which latter country is famous
for the stoutness of its hares, frequently standing an hour
before this celebrated pack, after having been driven be-
1 Sir Bellingham Graham, Bart, of Norton Conyers, Yorkshire.
4 u
*
VOL. XI.
HOUND
yond their knowledge by their pressing method of hunt¬
ing up to them, a method quite unpractised by the old
long-eared harrier. The parent stock of this pack was a
small fox-hound from the Duke of Grafton’s kennel, called
Tyrant, whose blood, form, and character, were strikingly
apparent throughout; and so great was its celebrity, that
it fetched the highest price ever known to be given for
harriers, namely, seven hundred guineas, by Lord Soudes
of Rockingham Castle, Northamptonshire. Sir John, how¬
ever, deserved success. He bred upwards of seventy
couples of hounds every year, and had an establishment
of horses, &c. nearly equal to fox-hounds. The hare-
hounds bred for many years by Mr Yeatman of Stock
House, Dorsetshire (who lately resigned the Blackmore
vale country, in which he hunted foxes), came next to Sir
John’s in the true form and character of the modern harrier.
The Stag-Hound.
The English stag-hound is now known only by name,
as there are none of the breed kept for the purpose of
hunting the wild stag; and such deer as are turned out
before his majesty’s, and the few other packs that follow this
game, are hunted by fox-hounds of the highest blood that
can be procured. And the change is a good one; for al¬
though the English stag-hound was a noble animal of his
kind, he was not sufficiently speedy, nor perfect in his
work, to satisfy the present taste, and he was likewise too
much given to dwell on the scent in chase, as well as of
very delicate constitution in kennel. He is originally sup¬
posed to be the produce of the old English blood-hound,
by a cross of some kind of greyhound, such as the Highland
deer-greyhound, approximating his own form. At all
events, it is certain that the former, the blood-hound, was
the dog first made use of in hunting deer in England;
and it is probable that, as the taste for following hounds
on horseback increased, a turn of speed was given to the
original breed by a cross with a speedier sort. We may
add, the old paintings of English stag-hunting favour this
hypothesis.
The Beagle.
This variety of the dog is now nearly extinct, and for
the same cause as the stag-hound. Time is at present con¬
sidered as too precious to afford an hour at least, and per¬
haps two, to the hunting down one hare, which is now ac¬
complished in a more off-hand manner, in twenty minutes.
To an admirer of nature, however, and of the endowments
given to inferior animals, the busy, intelligent, and highly-
gifted beagle certainly affords a treat. His form, also,
when not out at his elbows, is handsome in the extreme,
and his perseverance in chase is exceeded by none. But
he has one of the greatest faults that hounds can possess;
he is noisy, and dwells upon the scent, whilst his game is
flying the country before him. In fact, his only use or
value now is (independently of being looked at and ad¬
mired, for he is a perfect animal of his kind), to accom¬
pany a bx-ace of greyhounds when a hare is wanted, and
not ready at hand. There is, however, one pack of beagles
kept in Dorsetshire, known as the Mountain Harriers,
whose performances are much spoken of in the sporting
world.
The Greyhound.
The greyhound has now lost his place in the catalogue
of the dogs used in chase, neither can be classed as such,
since man has deprived him of the necessary faculty of
smell; but he was held in such high estimation in the
middle ages, as to be considered as the peculiar companion
of a gentleman. He never went abroad without these
dogs; the hawk which he bore upon his fist, and the grey¬
hounds which ran before him, were certain testimonies of
his rank; and in the ancient pipe rolls, payments appear Hou
to have been often made in these valuable animals. But ''“’"v
at no period of his existence was the greyhound the sym¬
metrically elegant animal we now see him, nor possessed
of nearly so much speed ; neither was the diversion of the
leash at any time carried on with so much spirit as within
the space of the last thirty years, in various parts of Great
Britain. But the necessity for, or rather the cause of, the
change in the form of the greyhound, may be traced to
his being no longer, as formerly, made use of to course and
pull down deer, but chiefly to exhibit his speed at our
different spirited coursing meetings, for the various prizes
contended for, as also in private matches.
The Courser s Manual or Stud Book, by Thomas Good-
lake, Esq. (1828), has the following interesting passages
on the alteration effected in this species of dog. “ In the
days of Elizabeth,” says the author, “ the greyhound seems
to have been a fine and effective animal, but approaching
more to the bony, wire-haired make of the Highland grey¬
hound represented in the pictures of Edwin Landseer, and
deficient in the symmetry and fine glossy coat which mark
a high-bred kennel of modern times. It is probable, that
during the early part of the seventeenth century, judicious
crosses were made, partly from the beautiful Italian grey¬
hounds, which we often see in family pictures, accom¬
panying our fair ancestresses in their parks and plaisances,
and partly from the stouter breed of dogs represented
in Flemish hunting-pieces; and that even Persia and
Arabia, whose greyhounds are not to be despised in point
of form and speed, contributed their quota of blood; as it
is shown by the history of Cromwell’s Coffin Nail, that the
wealthier gentry of that period spai'ed no expense or
pains in improving the more highly-prized breeds of sport¬
ing animals. If we mistake not, some of the pictures of
Charles the First contain portraits of greyhounds ap¬
proaching nearly in point of coat and shape to the pre¬
sent breed.”
Speaking of the late Lord Orford, who, with respect
to modern coursing, laid the foundation-stone of the ce¬
lebrity to which it has arrived, and who, besides being
celebrated for his greyhounds, established the first cours¬
ing club that we read of, at Swaffham in Norfolk, in the
year 1776, the same writer says, “ A few anecdotes of
this noble patron of coui*sing may not be uninteresting.
He was passionately fond of the sport; and as he was a
man who never would do things by halves, but was zea¬
lous beyond measure in succeeding in whatever he un¬
dertook, he may be said to have made as much px-ogress
as possible in perfecting the breed of the greyhound,
and encouraging an emulative spirit in coursing amongst
his opulent neighbours, from the time he took it up till
his death. Indeed, his extensive property, and his influ¬
ence as lord-lieutenant of Norfolk, gave him the greatest
means of accomplishing his favourite object. He could
command such an immensity of private quarters, or walks
as they are generally called, for gx-eyhounds, that he bred
largely, and few possessed the same advantages of selec¬
tion. He is recorded as having at one time fifty brace
of greyhounds; and it was his fixed rule never to part
with a single whelp till he had had a fair trial of his
speed ; consequently he had chances beyond almost any
other individual, of having a collection of vei’y superior
dogs. Intent on obtaining as much perfection in the
bi-eed as possible, he introduced every experimental cross,
from the English lurcher to the Italian greyhound. He
it was that first thought of the cross with the English
bull-dog, in which he pei’severed in opposition to every
opinion, until, after breeding on for seven removes, he
found himself in possession of the best greyhounds at the
time ever known; and he considered that this cross pro¬
duced the small ear, the rat-tail, the fine, thin, silky
H O U
and coat, together with that quiet, innate courage which the
[ || high-bred greyhound should possess, preferring death to
urs- relinquishing the chase.” There is something euri-
^ ously analogous in the sense conveyed by the concluding
words of this extract. His lordship fell dead from his
horse immediately after witnessing the triumph of his fa¬
mous bitch Czarina, in a match at Swaffham, having been
in vain admonished on the impropriety of taking the field
in his then indifferent state of health; and his memory
is introduced as a toast at most coursing meetings, as fa¬
ther and patron of the sport.
The Terrier.
The terrier is no longer the accompaniment to a pack of
fox-hounds, and for the best of all reasons,—foxes are not
nearly so often digged for as formerly ; and his only use
was, by his bay, to inform the diggers whereabouts the
fox lay ; and we suppose he took his name from his being
so eager to get under ground. There is also a second rea-
HOUNSLOW, a town, part of the parish of Heston,
in the hundred of Ossulton and county of Middlesex, ten
miles from London. It is on the great western road,
and more post-horses are kept there than at any other
town in England. Near to it are some considerable pow¬
der-mills, and also mills for rolling copper. On what was
formerly Hounslow Heath, but now enclosed, there are
extensive barracks for cavalry.
HOUR, in Chronology, an aliquot part of a natural day,
usually a twenty-fourth, but sometimes a twelfth. Ori¬
ginally the word hora, or wsa, comes, according to some
authors, from a surname of the sun, the father of hours,
whom the Egyptians called Horns. But others derive it
from the Greek optfyiv, to terminate, ox distinguish ; and others
again from the word vgov, urine, conceiving that Trismegis-
tus was the first who settled the division of hours, from
observing an animal consecrated to Serapis, named cyno-
cephalus, which made water twelve times a day, and as
often in the night, at equal intervals.
An hour with us is a measure or quantity of time, equal
to a twenty-fourth part of the natural day, or nycthemeron ;
or the duration of the twenty-fourth part of the earth’s
diurnal rotation. Fifteen degrees of the equator answer
to an hour, though not precisely, but near enough for
common use. The hour is divided into sixty minutes, the
minute into sixty seconds, and so on. The most ancient
hour is that of the twelfth part of the day. Herodotus,
(lib. ii.) observes that the Greeks learned from the Egyp¬
tians, amongst other things, the method of dividing the day
into twelve parts. The division of the day into twenty-
four hours was not known to the Romans before the first
Punic war. Until that time they only regulated their days
by the rising and setting of the sun. They divided the
twelve hours of their day into four, namely, prime, which
commenced at six o’clock ; third, at nine ; sixth, at twelve ;
and none, at three. They also divided the night into four
watches, each containing three hours.
HOURS, Hor;e, in the ancient mythology, were cer¬
tain goddesses, the daughters of Jupiter and Themis. At
first they were only three in number, Eunomia, Dice, and
Irene; but to these were afterwards added two more, Car-
po and Thallote. Homer makes them the doorkeepers of
heaven, and Ovid allots them the employment of harness¬
ing the horses of the sun.
Hours, Horae, in the Roman Catholic church, are cer¬
tain prayers performed at stated times of the day, as ma¬
tins, vespers, lauds, and the like. The lesser hours are,
prime, tierce, sixth, and none, and they are called canonical
hours, as being prescribed by the canons of the church in
H O U 707
son why he is better left at home. He was seldom steady Hound
from wing, if he was from foot, and thus often the cause U .
of riot. It was, however, a matter of astonishment to be-
hold those which were very highly bred, making their way,
as they did, to the end of the longest chases, over strong
and wet countries, as well as through the thickest covers,
and so often making their appearance at the end of them.
At all events, if left behind, they were sure to find their
way home in the course of the night, whatever the dis¬
tance might be. One peculiarity of form was essential to
their being sure of getting up to their fox, viz. not too full
in the shoulder; and those whose colour was pure white,
and who were broken-haired, were generally most esteemed
by huntsmen. It was often their lot to lose their life, by
scratching up the earth behind them, and cutting off their
means of retreat; and they were now and then killed by
a fox, the latter a rare occurrence. They were common¬
ly entered to a badger, whose bite is more dangerous than
that of a fox. (b. b. b. b.)
commemoration of the mysteries accomplished at those
hours. These hours were anciently called course, cursus ;
and Mabillon has written a dissertation on them, entitled
De Cursu Gallicano. The first constitution enjoining the
observation of the canonical hours is dated in the ninth cen¬
tury ; being found in a capitular of Heito, bishop of Basil,
directed to his curates, importing that the priests shall never
be absent at the canonical hours either by day or by night.
Hour-Glass, a popular kind of chronometer or clepsy¬
dra, serving to measure the flux of time by the descent or
running of sand out of one glass vessel into another.
HOURIS, in modern history, is a name given by the
Mahommedans to those females who are designed for the
faithful in Paradise. These are not the same as those with
whom they had lived on earth, but are formed for this pur¬
pose with singular beauty and undecaying charms. Islam-
ism is not more distinguished from Christianity by its in¬
herent character than by the rewards which it holds out
to its faithful votaries. The latter is the religion of a civi¬
lised people, and is entirely spiritual: the reward which
Jesus promises to the elect is that they shall see God face
to face. In the Christian religion, therefore, every thing
tends to mortify the senses, nothing to excite them. Islam-
ism, on the contrary, is the religion of a people in the in¬
fancy of civilisation ; it arose in a poor country, destitute
of the necessaries of life, amongst a people fierce and war¬
like, who were incapable of being addressed through the
medium of their understandings. Mahommed therefore
appealed to the senses. He promised his followers odori¬
ferous baths, rivers of milk,- fair black-eyed houris, and
groves of perpetual shade. The Arab, thirsting for water,
and parched by a burning sun, sighed for shade and cool¬
ness, and was ready to do any thing for such a recompense.
The religion of Mahommed may consequently be said to
be a religion of promise; it appeals to the senses, it ad¬
dresses the passions, it holds out the prospect of revelling
in those pleasures which are most desired and pursued by
men in whom the merely sensual predominates over the
intellectual part of their nature. But Christianity, which
sprung from a purer source, considered the rewards of a
future life as insufficient to repress the vices, disorders,
and crimes, which spring from the passions, and, superadd¬
ing to its precepts a penal sanction, may justly be said to
be a religion of menace. From these general principles
may be deduced the opposite characters of the two reli¬
gions ; the one appealing only to the senses and the pas¬
sions ; the other addressing itself to the minds and con¬
sciences of mankind, and having for its grand object to
reform, not to debase society.
708 H O U
House HOUSE, a habitation, or place built with conveniences
H for dwelling in. See Architecture and Building.
hold6” Houses, amongst the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, were
flat-roofed, and had usually stairs on the outside, by which
they might ascend and descend without coming into the
house. Each house, in fact, was so laid out that it enclos¬
ed a quadrangular area or court. This court was exposed
to the weather, and being open to the sky, gave light to the
house. This was the place where company was received,
and for that purpose it was strewed with mats or carpets
for their better accommodation. It was paved with mar¬
ble or other materials, according to the owner’s ability, and
provided with an umbrella of vellum to shelter them from
the heat and inclemency of the weather. This part of
their houses, called by the Romans impluvium, or cava
(Bdium, was provided with channels to carry off the water
into the common sewers. The top of the house was level,
and covered with a strong plaster by way of terrace. Hi¬
ther, especially amongst the Jews, it was customary to re¬
tire for meditation, private conversation, devotion, or the
enjoyment of the evening breezes.
The Grecian houses were usually divided into two parts,
in which the men and women had distinct mansions assign¬
ed. The part assigned to the men was towards the gate,
and called avboumrig; the apartment of the women was the
farthest part of the house, and called yui/a/xwv/r/j. Jews,
Greeks, and Romans supposed their houses to be polluted
by dead bodies, and to stand in need of purification.
House, in Astrology, denotes the twelfth part of the
heavens. The division of the heavens into houses is found¬
ed upon the pretended influence of the stars, when meet¬
ing in them, upon all sublunary bodies. These influences
are supposed to be good or bad ; and to each of these houses
particular virtues are assigned, on which astrologers pre¬
pare and form a judgment of their horoscopes. The hori¬
zon and meridian are two circles of the celestial houses,
which divide the heavens into four equal parts, each con¬
taining three houses, six of which are above the horizon,
and six below it; of these, six are called eastern and six
western houses.
A scheme or figure of the heavens is composed of twelve
triangles, all called houses, in which are marked the stars,
signs, and planets, so included in each of these circles.
Every planet has likewise two particular houses, in which
it is pretended that they exert their influence in the strong¬
est manner; but the sun and moon have only one, the
house of the former being Leo, and that of the latter Can¬
cer.
The houses in astrology have also names given them
according to their qualities. The first is the house of life,
which is the ascendant, extending five degrees above the
horizon, and the rest below it. The second is the house
of riches ; the third, the house of brothers ; the fourth, in
the lowest part of the heavens, is the house of relations,
and the angle of the earth; the fifth, the house of chil¬
dren ; the sixth, the house of health; the seventh, the
house of marriage, and the angle of the west; the eighth,
the house of death ; the ninth, the house of piety; the
tenth, the house of offices; the eleventh, the house of
friends ; and the twelfth, the house of enemies.
HOUSEHOLD, the whole of a family considered col¬
lectively, including the mistress, children, and servants.
But the household of a sovereign prince includes only the
officers and domestics belonging to his palace.
The principal officers of the household of the king of
Great Britain are, the lord steward, the lord chamberlain
of the household, the groom of the stole, the master of the
great wardrobe, and the master of the horse.
The civil government of the king’s house is under the
care of the lord steward of the king’s household, who, being
the chief officer, is entitled to have all his commands ob-
H O U
served and obeyed. His authority extends over all the Hou J
other officers and servants, excepting those of his majesty’s |'H
chapel, chamber, and stable; and he is the judge of all HouiJ
crimes committed either within the court or the verge. ^ t '
Under him are the treasurer of the household, the comp¬
troller, cofferer, the master of the household, the clerks
of the green-cloth, and the officers and servants belonging
to the accounting-house, the marshalsea, the verge, the
king’s kitchen, the household kitchen, the acatery, bake¬
house, pantry, buttery, cellar, pastry, &c. Next to the lord
steward is the lord chamberlain of the household, who has
under him the vice-chamberlain, the treasurer, the comp¬
troller of the chamber ; forty-eight gentlemen of the privy
chamber, twelve of whom wait quarterly, and two of them
lie every night in the privy chamber; the pages of the
presence-chamber ; the mace-bearers, cup-bearers, carvers,
musicians, and others.
The groom of the stole has under him the eleven ether
lords of the bed-chamber, who wait weekly in the bed¬
chamber, and also the grooms of the bed-chamber, the
pages of the bed-chamber, and back stairs, &c.
The master or keeper of the great wardrobe, has under
him a deputy, comptroller, clerk of the robes, brusher, &c.
and a number of tradesmen and artificers, who are all sworn
servants to the king.
The master of the horse has under his command the
equerries, pages, footmen, grooms, coachmen, farriers, sad¬
dlers, and all the other officers and tradesmen employed
in his majesty’s stables.
Housing, or House-Line, in nautical language, a small
line formed of three fine strands or twists of hemp, smaller
than rope-yarn. It is chiefly used to seize blocks into their
strops, to bind the corners of the sails, or to fasten the bot¬
tom of a sail to its bolt-rope, and the like.
Housing, or Housee, a cover laid over the saddle of a
horse, in order to save it from the weather, dirt, and the
like. The word is formed from the French houssie, which
signifies the same thing, though it anciently denoted a kind
of hood worn by country people.
HOUSSA is the name of an extensive portion of Cen¬
tral Africa, which, along with Bornou, bears the general
name of Soudan, or Land of the Blacks. It consists of
various petty kingdoms or states, which occupy territory
stretching east and west from the upper course of the Yeou
nearly to the Niger, but the boundaries of which on the
south and north are imperfectly defined. This region ap¬
pears in several respects to be superior to the countries on
either side of it. It is less sultry, an advantage which it pro¬
bably owes to its higher elevation. The face of the country
bears marks of greater cultivation, the fields being covered
with large crops of wheat, two of which are annually pro¬
duced ; and, to prevent the grain from being destroyed by
insects, it is secured in granaries raised on poles. The
soil is well watered by the river Quarrama or Zirmie,
which, with several tributaries, flows westward to join the
Niger. On its eastern quarter it is traversed by the Yeou,
and on its southern by the Shary or Tschadda, which also
falls into the Niger. Besides these natural supplies of wa¬
ter, artificial irrigation is diligently practised. The predo¬
minant people here are the Fellatahs, of whom we shall
afterwards speak.
From information afforded by Major Denham, who tra¬
velled in this region of Africa, it appears that Houssa is
divided into seven provinces or states, to each of which a
prince or petty governor was appointed under the Fella¬
tahs, the inhabitants all speaking one language. Over the
whole a sultan holds supreme rule. The most fertile pro¬
vince is Kano, the most extensive is Zegzeg, the most
warlike Ghoober and Zamfra, which two countries seem to
constitute one province under the rule of the Fellatahs;
the central province is Kashna or Kassina. Three others,
H O U
j issa. of which our information is very indistinct, are designated
L Dor or Dowry, Ranoo, and Yareem. Captain Clapperton
mentions a province called Guari, which may correspond
to Yareem ; and the same traveller speaks of Doura, in im¬
mediate connection with the southern part of Zegzeg, as
if bordering on it. Another province is called Kotongra
or Kotongkora, which may correspond to Ranoo.
Kano, the capital of a province of the same name, and
the principal commercial city of Houssa, is situated in lati¬
tude 12° 0' 19" north, aAd longitude 9° 20' east. It may
contain between 30,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, of whom
a great proportion are slaves. This number is exclusive of
strangers, who crowrd thither during the dry months from
all parts of Africa. The city is of an irregular oval shape,
about fifteen miles in circumference, and surrounded by a
clay w all thirty feet in height, having a dry ditch on both
sides of it. There are fourteen gates made of wood, and co¬
vered with sheet iron, and these are regularly opened and
shut at sunrise and sunset. A platform inside, with two
guard-houses below it, serves to defend each entrance.
The houses within the walls do not occupy more than one
fourth of the ground enclosed, the remaining space being
laid out in fields and gardens. The city is almost divided
into two parts by a large morass, which stretches from east
to west. This swamp is crossed by a small neck of land,
which is overflowed during the rainy season, but in the
dry season the market is held upon it. On account of this
morass, and also of the many pools of stagnant water made
by digging clay for building houses, the city is rendered
very unhealthy. Captain Clapperton thus describes the
houses of Kgno.
“ They are built of clay, and are mostly of a square
form, in the Moorish fashion, with a central room, the
roof of which is supported by the trunks of palm-trees,
where visitors and strangers are received. The apart¬
ments of the ground-floor open into this hall of audience,
and are generally used as store-rooms. A staircase leads
to an open gallery overlooking the hall, and serving as a
passage to the chambers of the second story, which are
lighted with small windows. In a back court-yard there
is a well and other conveniences. Within the enclosure
in which the house stands, there are also a few round huts
of clay, roofed with the stalks of Indian corn, and thatched
with long grass. These are usually very neat and clean,
and of a much larger size than those of Bornou. The go¬
vernor’s residence covers a large space, and resembles a
walled village. It even contains a mosque, and several
towers three or four stories high, with windows in the Eu¬
ropean style, but without glass or frame-work. It is ne¬
cessary to pass through tw'o of these towers in order to
gain the suite of inner apartments occupied by the gover¬
nor.”
The great market, as already observed, is held upon a
neck of land which intersects the moi'ass. Here streets
consisting of sheds or stalls of bamboo are regularly arran¬
ged, different places being allotted to those who traffic in
different commodities. The latter consist of cattle, vege¬
tables, fruits, the fine cotton fabrics of the country, goora
or kolla nuts, which are called African coffee, and crude
antimony, with which every eyebrow in Houssa is dyed.
The Arabs also dispose of sundry commodities, such as
cast-off dresses. The slaves, w'ho constitute the staple ar¬
ticle of trade, have a special market appropriated to them,
consisting of two long ranges of sheds, one for males and
the other for females. Here these poor creatures, drawn
up in regular array, and dressed in attractive attire, are
inspected and scrutinized by purchasers, in much the same
manner as horses are in the cattle-markets of this country.
The market of Kano is under the superintendence of a
sheik, who regulates the police, and is said also to possess
the exorbitant powder of fixing the prices. The medium
S S A. 70S
of exchange consists of the small shells called cowries, four Houssa.
hundred and eighty of which make a shilling, so that pay- '
ing a large sum is here rather a tedious process. Kano is
celebrated all over Central Africa for the dyeing of cloth,
for which process there are numerous establishments. Some
ingenuity, is displayed in the manufacture of leathern jars,
which are fashioned upon a clay mould out of the raw
hide. The inhabitants are also acquainted with the art of
tanning. The negroes here are very polite and ceremo ¬
nious, especially to those advanced in years. A part of the
city is appropriated to the use of those who are afflicted
with blindness, which is a prevalent disease.
Adjoining the province of Kano on the west there is a
portion of territory called Katagum, which is said by Cap¬
tain Clapperton to be a distinct province. According to
that traveller, it is able to send into the field 4000 horse
and 20,000 foot, armed with bows, swords, and spears.
The city is built in the form of a square, the sides facing
the cardinal points of the compass, wdth four corresponding
gates, w7hich are regularly opened and shut like those of
Kano. It is defended by two walls, which have ditches on
each side, and one between them. The governor and princi¬
pal inhabitants have houses made entirely of clay. They
are flat roofed, and sometimes consist of two stories, with
square or semicircular openings for windows. The city may
contain from 7000 to 8000 inhabitants. There are other
towns comprised within the boundaries of this province,
but none requiring particular description. Many parts of
Katagum are highly cultivated, and laid out in plantations
of cotton, tobacco, and indigo, which are separated from
one another by rows of date-trees, and shaded by large um¬
brageous trees.
The next considerable town is Soccatoo, situated near¬
ly at the western extremity of Houssa. The country which
lies between Kano and Soccatoo is remarkably fine, and
under high cultivation. It is diversified with forests of no¬
ble trees, and various rivers and streams, and traversed by
picturesque ridges of granite, amongst which villages are
romantically situated.
Soccatoo stands in latitude 13° 4' 52" north, and longi¬
tude 6° 12' E. “ It occupies,” says Captain Clapperton,
“ a long ridge which slopes gently towards the north, and
appeared to me the most populous town I had visited in
the interior of Africa; for, unlike most other towns in
Houssa, where the houses are thinly scattered, it is laid
out in regular well-built streets. The houses approach
close to the walls, which were built by the present sultan
in 1818, after the death of his father ; the old walls being
too confined for the increasing population. This wall is
between twenty and thirty feet high, and has twelve gates,
which are regularly closed at sunset. There are twro large
mosques, including the new one at present building by the
Gadado, besides several other places for prayer. There
is a spacious market-place in the centre of the city, and
another large square in front of the sultan’s residence.
The dwellings of the principal people are surrounded with
high walls, which enclose numerous coozees and flat-roof¬
ed houses, built in the Moorish style, whose large water¬
spouts of baked clay, projecting from the eaves, resemble
at first sight a tier of guns. The inhabitants are princi¬
pally Fellatahs, possessing numerous slaves. Such of the
latter as are not employed in domestic duties reside in
houses by themselves, where they follow' various trades;
the master, of course, reaping the profit. Their usual
emplo}'ments are weaving, house-building, shoe-making,
and iron wrork: many bring fire-wood to the market for
sale. Those employed in raising grain and tending cat¬
tle, of wdiich the Fellatahs have immense herds, reside in
villages without the eity. It is customary for private in¬
dividuals to free a number of slaves every year, accord¬
ing to their means, during the great feast after the Ra-
H O U S S A.
710
Houssa. madan. The enfranchised seldom return to their native
country, but continue to reside near their old masters,
still acknowledging them as their superiors, and present¬
ing them yearly with a portion of their earnings. The
trade of Soccatoo is at present inconsiderable, owing to
the disturbed state of the surrounding country. The ne¬
cessaries of life are very cheap ; butcher-meat is in great
plenty, and very good. The exports are principally civet,
and blue check tobes called sharie, which are manufac¬
tured by the slaves from Nyffee, of whom the men are
considered as the most expert weavers in Soudan, and the
women as the best spinners. The common imports are
brought from the borders of Ashantee; and coarse calico
and woollen cloth, in small quantities, with brass and
pewter dishes, and some few spices, from NyfFee. The
Arabs, from Tripoli and Ghadamis, bring unwrought silk,
ottar of roses, spices, and beads. Slaves are both ex¬
ported and imported. A great quantity of Guinea corn
is taken every year by the Tuaricks, in exchange for salt.
The market is extremely well supplied, and is held daily
from sunrise to sunset. On the north side of Soccatoo
there is a low marsh, with some stagnant pools of water,
between the city and the river: this, perhaps, may be the
cause of the great prevalence of ague, as the city stands
in a fine airy situation.”
Subsequently to the writing of the above description,
nearly two thirds of the city were destroyed by a confla¬
gration ; but when Clapperton visited it a second time,
it had been rebuilt, in a manner so closely resembling
what it had formerly been, that little alteration could be
perceived. The palace, or house of the sultan, forms a
sort of enclosed town, with an open quadrangle in front.
A painted and ornamented cottage constitutes the hall
of audience. Soccatoo is likely to decline, on account of
the residence of the court having of late been transferred
to Magaria.
The countries of Ghoober and Zamfra or Zanfara are
inhabited by a rude and warlike race, who have sometimes
assumed authority over Houssa, and are at present, or were
lately, in open rebellion against Soccatoo. The people are
a species of outlaws or robbers, and the high road between
Kano and Soccatoo passing through their territory, mer¬
chants can only travel between the two cities in numerous
armed bodies. Coonia, the capital of Ghoober, is strongly
fortified, and in 1829 repulsed the whole military force of
Houssa, consisting of 50,000 or 60,000 men. Zirmie, the
capital of Zamfra, occupies a peninsula formed by the river
Quarrama, which has here very high and steep banks co¬
vered with mimosas and prickly bushes, through which a
narrow path winds to the gates. It is surrounded with a
clay wall and a dry ditch. The governor of this strong¬
hold bears the character of a freebooter, and the inhabit¬
ants, whom Clapperton represents as having a reckless in¬
dependent look, are esteemed the greatest rogues in all
Houssa. Runaway slaves from all quarters make Zirmie an
asylum, where they are always well received.
To the north of Kano lies the considerable province of
Kashna or Kassina, which at one period held supreme
sway over all Houssa, and which has recently shaken OS'
the voke of Soccatoo. Kashna, the capital, is situated in
lat. 12. 59. N. on a ridge of sienite, one of a number of
ridges of this rock which run from north-north-east to
south-south-west. The walls are of clay, and very exten¬
sive ; but, as in the case of Kano, the houses do not occu¬
py above one tenth of the ground enclosed, the rest being
laid out in fields, and covered with wood. The houses are
mostly in ruins, the principal commerce of the country
having been transferred to Kano since the Fellatah power
became predominant. Notwithstanding its abject state, it
has nevertheless a considerable trade, which is carried on
with the Tuaricks, or w ith caravans coming across the de¬
sert by the route of Ghadamis and Tuat. The manufac- Housi
tures of Kashna are chiefly of leather, such as water-skins, Wy-
red or yellow cushions, bridles of goat-skin, and hides.
There is likewise some trade in fruits, such as figs, melons,
pomegranates, and limes.
To the south of Soccatoo and Kano lies the country of Zeg-
zeg, one of the finest in all Africa, and the most extensive
province in Houssa. It is bounded on the east by Kano, on the
south-east by Yacoba, on the south by a mountainous tract in¬
habited by Pagans, on the south-west by Nyffee, and on the
north and west by Guari and Kashna. Travellers represent
Zegzeg as resembling in appearance the finest parts of Eng¬
land, being beautifully variegated with hill and dale, over
which are spread rich pastures and extensive fields, yielding
plentiful crops, particularly of rice. Zaria, the capital, is
situated in lat. 10. 59. N. and long. 8. 42. E. It occupies
a great extent of ground, the houses being detached, or ra¬
ther clustered together in small villages, which are sepa¬
rated from each other by corn fields, and even woods. The
whole is surrounded with high clay walls, and the popula¬
tion has been estimated at about 50,000. To the south of
Zegzeg, the country, though diversified by rising grounds,
is fertile and well cultivated, and contains a number of con¬
siderable towns. Lander describes Cuttup as consisting of
“ nearly five hundred villages almost joining each other, oc¬
cupying a vast and beautiful plain, adorned with the finest
trees. Among these, the plantain, the palm, and the co¬
coa-nut tree were seen flourishing in great abundance, and
the aspect of the country strikingly resembled some parts
of Yariba. A considerable traffic is carried on here in
slaves and bullocks, which are alike exposed in the daily
market. The bullocks are bred by the Fellatahs, who re¬
side here for no other purpose. Among the other articles
brought here for sale, are red cloth, gum, salt, goora-nuts,
trona, beads, tobacco, native cloth, rings, needles, cutlery,
honey, rice, and milk ; people from the most distant parts
resorting hither in vast numbers.” To the south of this
place stretch a range of hills, which, Lander was told, were
inhabited by a ferocious race of yamyams or cannibals, who
a short time previously had killed and eaten a whole cara¬
van-full of people. In a country fertile, but rocky, is situ¬
ated Dunrora, a town containing about 4000 inhabitants.
Not far from this place is a large town called Jacoba,
which was described to Lander as standing on the river
Shary; whilst farther to the east, on the same stream,
there was said to be situated another large city called
Adamowa; and here our knowledge of this portion of Af¬
rica becomes scanty and imperfect.
In the western tracts of Houssa there are few towns of
any importance: these were visited, and have been de¬
scribed, by Captain Clapperton. After leaving Boogawa,
a small town in the province of Katagum, and passing first
through a thickly-wooded tract, and then over an open,
well-cultivated country, this traveller reached Katungwa,
a walled town. A range of low rocky hills was seen
stretching nearly south-west, called Dooshee (the rocks),
from which a large town takes its name. These were the
first rocks that had occurred after leaving the southern
borders of the Great Desert, the whole country thus far
being soft alluvial clay. Near the extremity of the Doo¬
shee hills is situated Zangeia, within the walls of which
town there is a ridge of loose blocks of stone connected
with the range. These masses of rock are about 200 feet
in height, and give a romantic appearance to the neat huts
clustering round the base, and to the fine plantations of
cotton, tobacco, and indigo, and the rows of date and
other trees. From the extensive walls which remain, Zan¬
geia must have once been a very large town. Now, how¬
ever, it consists merely of a collection of thinly-scattered
hamlets. The country between this place and Kano is
highly cultivated, and beautifully diversified by hill and
h o v
den. dale. Captain Clapperton passed several walled towns, the
principal of which was Girkwa. As in the other towns al¬
ready described, the houses here are in groups, with large
intervening vacancies. The disproportion in the size of
the walls of towns and the number of houses, to the
amount of inhabitants, which is exhibited in many parts of
Houssa, is to be accounted for by the usurpation of the
country by the Fellatahs, who genei’ally massacred the for¬
mer occupants, or carried them away captives. To com¬
plete our description of Houssa, it will be necessary to give
an account of this singular people, who are gradually ex¬
tending their authority over Central Africa.
By the most correct accounts, it would appear that the
Fellatahs are an off-shoot from the Foolahs of Western Af¬
rica, and may be identified with them. They are a mix¬
ture of Moors, Arabs, Berbers, and probably other races of
men. They are much superior to the native negroes, with
whom they very rarely mix their blood. Captain Lyon,
speaking of the Fellatahs, observes, “ their complexion
being of a much lighter hue than that of the other tribes,
they call themselves white ; their colour resembles that of
our gypsies in England. Many female slaves are brought
to Mourzouk from their nation, and are very handsome
women.” Other observers describe their complexion as
being very dark, and of a shade intermediate between that
of the deepest African and the Moors. The fact seems to
be, that their colour varies in a very remarkable manner,
from being nearly white to nearly black. Both men and
women pay considerable attention to their dress, wdiich
amongst the wealthy inhabitants is rather showy. In their
domestic habits they are regular, orderly, and cleanly, and
the slaves are generally well treated. The Mahommedan
is the predominant religion, and considerable attention is
paid to keeping up an appearance of it. Prayers are regu¬
larly said five times a day in the Arabic language, which
both the male and female children of the better sort of
Fellatahs are taught to read and write. Their marriages are
celebrated without any pomp or noise, and such contracts
are of a less arbitrary nature than wre find them to be
amongst the inferior races of mankind. Captain Clapper-
ton makes the following remarks regarding Houssa:—“ The
government of the Fellatahs in Soudan is in its infancy.
The governors of the different provinces are appointed du¬
ring pleasure ; and all their property, on their death or re¬
moval, falls to the sultan. The appointment to a vacancy
is sold to the highest bidder, who is generally a near rela¬
tion, provided that his property is sufficient to enable him
to bid up to the mark. All the inferior offices in the towns
are sold in like manner by the governors, who also succeed
to the property of those petty officers at their death or re¬
moval. In the province of Kano they have no regular
system of taxation. A great deal of marketable property
is claimed by the governor, such as two thirds of the pro¬
duce of all the date-trees and other fruit-trees, the proprie¬
tor being allowed only the remaining third. A small duty
is also levied on every article sold in the market; or, in
lieu thereof, a certain rent is paid for the stall or shed. A
duty is also fixed on every tobe that is dyed blue, and sold.
On grain there is no duty. Kano produces the greatest
revenue that the sultan receives ; it is paid monthly, in
horses, cloth, and cowries. Adamowa pays yearly in slaves ;
Yacoba in slaves and lead ore; Zegzeg in slaves and cow¬
ries ; Zamfra the same; Hadiga, and Katagum, and Za-
onima in horses, bullocks, and slaves ; Kashna in slaves,
cowries, and cloth ; Ader, or Tadela, in bullocks, sheep,
camels, and a coarse kind of cotton cloth, like what is call¬
ed by us a counterpane.” Of the number of negroes and
Fellatahs who inhabit the country of Houssa no correct idea
can be formed. (r. R. R.)
HOVEDEN, Roger de, descended of an illustrious
family, was born in Yorkshire, most probably at the town
HOW 711
of that name, some time in the reign of Henry I. After Howard,
he had received the rudiments of education in his native ''-w-y-w
country, he studied the civil and canon law, wdiich were
fashionable and lucrative branches of learning. He be¬
came domestic chaplain to Henry II. who employed him
to transact several ecclesiastical affairs, in the conduct of
which he acquitted himself with honour. He was by pro ¬
fession a lawyer, but, like other lawyers of the time, belong¬
ed to the church, and also officiated as professor of theology
at Oxford. After the death of Henry, he applied himself
to history, and composed annals, which commence at the
year 731, where Bede’s ecclesiastical history terminates,
and extend to the third year of King John, or 1202.
These annals were first published by Saville, amongst the
Historici Anglici, 1595, and were reprinted at Frankfort,
1601, in two books, folio. The style of Hoveden is bar¬
barous, like the age to which it belongs; but in diligence,
knowledge of antiquity, and that fidelity which is the first
quality of an historian, he not only surpassed the rude
historians of the preceding ages, but left an example
which many of his successors, in more enlightened times,
failed to imitate. According to Vossius, floveden also
wrote a history of the Northumbrian kings, and a life of
Thomas a Becket. Edward III. when endeavouring to
ascertain his title to the crown of Scotland, caused a dili¬
gent search to be made for the works of Hoveden ; a cir¬
cumstance which shows the estimation in which they were
held, not only by the monarch himself, but by the age in
which he flourished. (a.)
HOWARD, Henry, Earl of Surrey, a highly-accom¬
plished nobleman, the son and grandson of two Dukes of
Norfolk, was born about the year 1520, and educated in
Windsor Castle, with Henry Fitzroy, earl of Richmond,
natural son of King Henry VIII. Wood states from tra¬
dition that he was for a time a student at Cardinal College,
Oxford. In 1532, Howard, with his companion Richmond,
was at Paris, where he remained a number of months. The
latter died in 1536, after which Howard travelled into Ger¬
many, where he visited the emperor’s court, and thence pro¬
ceeded to Florence, where he fell in love with the fair Geral¬
dine, whom his sonnets have immortalized, and, like a true
innamorato, published a challenge to all comers, whether
Christians, Jews, Saracens, Turks, or cannibals, in defence
of the beauty of his mistress, and proved victorious in the
tournament instituted by the grand duke on the occasion.
The duke, it seems, was so delighted with his gallant ex¬
ploits, that he would gladly have retained him at his court;
but he rejected the invitation, being determined to main¬
tain the superlative beauty of his Geraldine in all the prin¬
cipal cities in Italy. This romantic resolution was how¬
ever frustrated by the command of his sovereign, Henry
VIII. recalling him to England.
In 1540 he signalized himself in a tournament at West¬
minster, against Sir John Dudley, Sir Thomas Seymour,
and others^ In 1542 he marched under the command of
his father against the Scotch ; and in the same year he was
confined in Windsor Castle for eating flesh in Lent, con¬
trary to the king’s proclamation. In the expedition to
Boulogne in France, he was in 1544 appointed field-mar¬
shal of the English army; and after the taking of that
town in 1546, made king’s lieutenant and captain-general
of the forces in France. He was at this time knight of
the Garter. In the same year, having attempted to inter¬
cept a convoy, he was defeated by the French, and soon af¬
terwards superseded in his command by the Earl of Hert¬
ford.
After his return to England, Surrey, conscious of his
former services, and peevish under his disgrace, could not
help reflecting on the king and council. This proved the
first step towards his destruction. He had married Frances,
the daughter of John earl of Oxford; and after her death
712 HOW
Howard, he is said to have made love to the Princess Mary, For
this the Seymours, rivals of the Norfolk family, and now
in favour with the king, accused him of aspiring to the
crown, adding, that he had already presumed to quarter
part of the royal arms with his own ; but, whatever might
be the pretence, the real cause of his ruin was the jealousy
and power of his enemies. In short, the destruction of the
Howards being determined on, Surrey, and his father the
Duke of Norfolk, were committed to the Tower, on the
12th of December 1546 ; and on the 13th of January follow¬
ing, Surrey was tried at Guildhall by a common jury, and
beheaded on Tower-Hill on the 19th day of the same
month, nine days before the death of the king, who thus,
to fill up the measure of his crimes, finished his life with
the murder of his best subject. The accusations brought
against this young nobleman on his trial were so exceed-
ingly ridiculous, that one is astonished how it was possible,
even in that despotic reign, to find a judge and jury so un¬
principled as to carry on the farce of a trial and conviction.
As to the character of this unfortunate nobleman, all our
poets have celebrated his praise. Mr Walpole commences
his anecdotes of Surrey by observing : “ We now emerge
from the twilight of learning to an almost classic author,
that ornament of a boisterous yet not unpolished court,
the Earl of Surrey, celebrated by Drayton, Dryden, Fen¬
ton, Pope, illustrated by his own muse, and lamented for
his unhappy death ; a man, as Sir Walter Raleigh says, no
less valiant than learned, and of excellent hopes.” Leland
calls him the conscript enrolled heir of Sir Thomas Wyatt
the elder, in his learning and other excellent qualities ; and
the author of 7Vie Art of English Poetry says, that the
Earl of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wyatt may justly be call¬
ed the reformers of our poetry and style. His poems were
published in 1557, 12mo ; and in 1565, 1574, 1585, 1587,
8vo. Several of the sonnets ascribed to him are by Sir
Thomas Wyatt and others. He also translated two books
of the /Eneid, which he executed with fidelity without
prosaic servility, and which form the earliest specimen of
blank verse in the English language. The diction is often
poetical, and the versification varied by suitable pauses.
It .is probable that he intended to translate the whole; and
this is so much more correct and elegant than his other
ti’anslations, that it appears to have been the production of
his happier days.
Howard, Charles, an able statesman and experienced
seaman, was the son of Lord William Howard, baron of
Effingham, and born in 1536. He served under his father,
who was lord high admiral of England, till the accession of
Queen Elizabeth. In January 1573 he succeeded his fa¬
ther. in his title and estate ; after which he became suc¬
cessively chamberlain of the household and knight of the
Garter, and in 1585 was made lord high admiral, at the cri¬
tical juncture when the Spaniards were sending an Arma¬
da, as they supposed, to the assured conquest of this king¬
dom. YVhen he received intelligence of the approach of
the Spanish fleet, and saw of how great consequence it was
cO get out the few ships which were ready at Plymouth,
he not only gave orders in every thing himself, but even
wrought with his own hands, and the first night left the
port with six ships. The next morning, though he had
only thirty sail, and these the smallest of the fleet, he at¬
tacked the Spanish fleet; but first despatched his brother-
in- aw, Sir Edward Hobby, to the queen, to desire her ma¬
jesty to make a proper disposition of the land forces for
the security of the. coast, and to hasten as many ships as
possible to his assistance. His valour was conspicuously
display ed in repeated attacks of a superior enemy. The
coolness of his temper was not less remarkable ; and it was
owing to his energy and prudence that the victory remain¬
ed witn tne English. The queen expressed her sense of
his merit in the most honourable terms, and granted him a
HOW
pension for life. In 1596 he commanded in chief the naval, HowJ
as Essex did the land, forces sent against Spain, when,
in the attack on Cadiz, his prudence and moderation were
amongst the principal causes of the success which the Eng¬
lish met with in that great and glorious enterprise; and,
upon his return the following year, he was advanced to the
dignity of Earl of Nottingham. The next eminent service
in which his lordship was engaged was in 1599, when the
Spaniards seemed to meditate a new invasion. Her ma¬
jesty, who always placed her safety in being too quick for
her enemies, drew together, in a fortnight, a fleet and an
army’, which rendered hopeless the success of her foreign
and domestic enemies ; and she gave the earl the supreme
command of both, with the title of lord-lieutenant-general
of all England, an office unknown in succeeding times.
When age and infirmity had unfitted him for action, he
resigned his office, and spent the remainder of his life in
ease and retirement till the period of his decease, which
happened in 1624, in the eighty-seventh year of his age.
Howard, John, a man of singular and transcendent hu¬
manity, was the son of a reputable tradesman in St Paul’s
Churchyard, and was born at Hackney in the year 1726.
A.t a proper age he was put as apprentice to Mr Nathaniel
Newnham, a wholesale grocer in Watling Street. But not
long after this, his father died, leaving only this son and a
daughter, to both of whom he bequeathed handsome for¬
tunes ; and by his will he directed that his son should not
be considered as of age till he had reached five-and-twenty.
His constitution was weak, and his health appeared to have
been injured by the necessary duties of his apprenticeship;
and therefore, at its expiration, he took an apartment in a
lodging-house in Church Street, Stoke Newington, Middle¬
sex ; but not meeting with the tenderest treatment, he re¬
moved to another lodging-house in the same street, which was
kept by a widow lady, Mrs Sarah Lardeau, a worthy sen¬
sible woman, but an invalid. Here he was nursed with so
much care and attention, that out of gratitude for her kind¬
ness, he resolved to marry his landlady. In vain did the
latter expostulate with him upon the extravagance of such
a proceeding, considering the disparity of their ages; but
nothing could alter his resolution, and they were privately
married about the year 1752. This lady was possessed of
a small fortune, which he presented to her sister. During
his residence at Newington, the minister of the dissenting
meeting-house in that place resigned his office, when a
successor was appointed; and Mr Howard, who was bred
a dissenter, and all his life sted lastly adhered to that pro¬
fession, proposed to purchase the lease of a house near the
meeting-house, and to appropriate it as a parsonage-house
for the use of the minister tor the time being, tor which
purpose he contributed L.50. His wife died on the 10th of
November 1755, aged fifty-four ; and he was a sincere and
affectionate mourner for her death. About this time, it is
believed, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In
the year 1756 he had the misfortune to experience some
ot the evils which it afterwards became the business of his
life to alleviate. Having embarked that year in a Lisbon
packet, the Hanover, in order to make the tour of Portugal,
the vessel was taken by a French privateer; and the hard¬
ships he suffered during his subsequent confinement in France
are naturally supposed to have awakened his sympathies in fa¬
vour of prisoners, and to have suggested to him the humane
enterprise of endeavouring to render prisons less pernicious
to health and morality. “ Before we reached Brest,” says he
( On Prisons, 4to, 1784, p. 11), “ I suffered the extremity of
thirst, not having for above forty hours one drop of water, nor
hardly a morsel of food. In the castle at Brest I lay six
nights upon straw; and observing how cruelly my countrymen
were used there and at Morlaix, whither I was carried
next, during the two months I was at Carhaix upon parole,
I corresponded with the English prisoners at Brest, Mor-
V ^
HOW
ird. laix, and Dinnan ; at the last of those towns were several
of our ship’s crew, and my servant. I had sufficient evi¬
dence of their being treated with such barbarity, that many
hundreds had perished, and that thirty-six were buried in
a hole at Dinnan in one day. When I came to England,
still on parole, I made known to the commissioners of sick
and wounded seamen the sundry particulars, which gained
their attention and thanks. Remonstrance was made to
the French court; our sailors had redress; and those that
w^ere in the three prisons mentioned above were brought
home in the first cartel ships. Perhaps,” adds Mr Ho¬
ward, “ what I suffered on this occasion increased my sym¬
pathy with the unhappy people whose case is the subject
of this book.”
He afterwards, it is said, made the tour of Italy; and at
his return settled at Brokenhurst, a retired and pleasant
villa in the New Forest, near Lymington, in Hampshire,
having, on the 25th of April 1758, married a daughter of
Edward Leeds of Croxton, Cambridgeshire, king’s serjeant.
This lady died in 1765, in giving birth to her only child, a
son, who unfortunately became lunatic. After her death
Mr Howrard left Lyrmington, and purchased an estate at
Cardington, near Bedford.
But the sphere in which he had hitherto moved was too
narrow for his enlarged mind. Being named in 1773 to
the office of sheriff of Bedfordshire, from that time his
sphere of usefulness was extended. His office, as he him¬
self observes, brought the distress of prisoners more im¬
mediately under his notice. A sense of duty induced him
personally to visit the county jail, where he observed such
abuses and scenes of calamity as he had before no con¬
ception of; and he soon exerted himself in order to re¬
form them. With a view to obtain precedents for certain
regulations which he proposed, he went to inspect the
prisons in some neighbouring counties. But finding in
them equal room for complaint and commiseration, he de¬
termined to visit the principal prisons in England. The
farther he proceeded, however, the more shocking were
the scenes presented to his view; and this induced him
to resolve upon exerting himself to the utmost, in order
to effect a general reform in these horrid places of con¬
finement, considering it as of the highest importance, not
only to the wretched objects themselves, but to the com¬
munity at large. Upon this subject he was examined by
the House of Commons in March 1774, when he had the
honour of receiving their thanks. This encouraged him
to proceed in his design. He revisited all the prisons in
the kingdom, together with the principal houses of cor¬
rection. He also in 1775 enlarged his circuit by going
into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where he found the
same want of reformation.
Onegrand object which hehad in viewwas, to put a stopto
that shocking distemper called the jail fever, which raged
so dreadfully in many of the prisons as to render them to
the last degree offensive and dangerous ; a distemper by
which more had been taken off than by the hands of the
executioner, and which, in several instances, had been
communicated from the prisons into the courts of justice,
and proved fatal to the magistrates and judges, and to
multitudes of persons who attended the trials, as well as
to the families of discharged felons and debtors. Another
end he proposed was, to procure the immediate release
of prisoners, who, upon trial, were acquitted, but wffio
often continued to be unjustly detained from not being
able to pay the accustomed fees ; and also to abolish
many other absurd and cruel usages which had long pre¬
vailed. But the great object of all was, to introduce a
thorough reform of morals into our prisons, where he had
found the most flagrant vices prevailing to such a degree,
that they were become seminaries of wickedness and vil-
lany, and the most formidable nuisances to the commu-
von. XI.
H O W
713
nity, in consequence of the promiscuous intercourse of Howard,
prisoners of both sexes, and of all ages and descriptions, 'w—
by which the young and Jess experienced were initiated,
by old and hardened sinners, into all the arts of villany
and the mysteries of iniquity; so that, instead of being
reformed by their confinement, which should be the chief
end of punishment, those who were discharged became
more dangerous to society than before.
These laudable endeavours he had the satisfaction to
see, in some instances, crowned with success ; particular¬
ly in regard to the healthiness of prisons, some of which
were rebuilt under his inspection. Through his interpo¬
sition, also, better provision was made for the instruction
of prisoners, by the introduction of bibles and other pious
books into their cells, and a more constant attendance of
clergymen. But in order to introduce a more general and
humane regulation, and to conduce to the reformation of
criminals, he determined to visit other countries, and exa¬
mine the plans there adopted, in the hope of collecting
some information which might be useful in his own county.
For this purpose he travelled into France, Flanders, Hol¬
land, Germany, and Switzerland, and afterwards through
the Prussian and Austrian dominions. Fie also visited
the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Poland,
and some cities in Portugal and Spain. In all these expen¬
sive and hazardous journeys, he denied himself the usual
gratifications of travellers, and declined the honours which
were offered him by persons of the first distinction, apply¬
ing himself solely to one grand object. To him indeed
the inspection of a jail, or an hospital, was more grateful
than all the entertainments of a palace. With what asto¬
nishment and gratitude he was received by their miser¬
able inhabitants may easily be imagined, since, whilst he
made observations on their situation, he meditated their
relief; and many distressed prisoners abroad, as well as
at home, partook of his bounty, and some were liberated
by it; for he considered those of every nation, and people,
and tongue, as brethren. On his return, he published, in
1777, the State of the IVisons in England and Wales, with
Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign
Prisons, 4to. In the year 1778 he undertook a third jour¬
ney through the Prussian and Austrian dominions, and the
free cities of Germany; and likewise extended his tour
through Ital}', and revisited some of the countries which
he had before examined. The observations he made in
this tour were published in an appendix, 1780, containing
also some remarks respecting the management of prisoners
of war, and the hulks on the Thames. But wishing to ac¬
quire some further knowledge on the subject, he, in 1781,
revisited Holland and some cities in Germany. He also
visited the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Po¬
land, and in 1783 some cities in Portugal and Spain; and
returned through France, Flanders, and Holland. The
substance of all these travels was afterwards thrown into
one narrative, which wTas published in the year 1784. He
likewise published a curious account of the Bastille, in
8vo.
His travels and exertions, however, were not yet at an
end. Fie conceived a further design, which was to visit
the principal lazarettos in France and Italy, in order to
procure information concerning the best methods of pre¬
venting the spread of the plague, with a view to apply
them to other infectious disorders. But not obtaining all
the satisfaction which he wished for in those countries,
he proceeded to Smyrna and Constantinople, where that
most dreadful of human distempers actually prevailed ;
“ pleasing himself,” as he said, K with the idea of not on¬
ly learning, but of being able to communicate somewhat
to the inhabitants of those distant regions.” In the exe¬
cution of this design, though he was so much exposed to
danger, and actually caught the plague, “ that merciful
4 x
714 HOW
Howard. Providence,” as he himself piously remarks, “ which had
hitherto preserved him, was pleased to extend its protec¬
tion to him in this journey also, and to bring him home
once more in safety.”, On his way home he revisited the
chief prisons and hospitals in the countries through which
he passed; and afterwards went again to Scotland, and
thence to Ireland, where he proposed a new and very im¬
portant object, namely, to inspect the Protestant charter-
schools, in some of which he had before observed shame¬
ful abuses, which he reported to a committee of the Irish
House of Commons. In this more extensive tour, he
took a particular account of what he had observed amiss in
the conduct of this noble charity, with a view to a refor¬
mation, and not without considerable success. In the
course of these journeys, particular cities and communi¬
ties were not unmindful of paying him proper respect. At
Dublin, he was created a doctor of laws by Trinity College;
and the city of Glasgow and the town of Liverpool did
honour to themselves by enrolling him amongst their
members. Upon his return home, having again inspect¬
ed the prisons in England, and the hulks on the Thames,
in order to see what alterations for the better had been
made, and which he found to be very considerable, though
still imperfect, he published the result of his last labo¬
rious investigations, in an Account of the Principal La¬
zarettos in Europe, with various Papers relative to the
Plague, together with further Observations on some Fo¬
reign Prisons and Hospitals, and additional Remarks on the
present State of those in Great Britain and Ireland, with
a great number of curious plates. The work likewise
contained observations on penitentiary houses, which had
been encouraged by act of parliament, for the correction
and reformation of criminals, and of which he and Dr Fo-
thergill had been nominated by the king superintendents.
Besides these, he published the Grand Duke of Tuscany’s
new code of criminal law, with an English translation; of
which, as indeed of all his publications, he gave away a
great number of copies amongst his acquaintance. His
laying open the horrors of despotism in a neighbouring
country, however, had nearly exposed him to suffer them ;
and had it not been for the timely notice of our ambassa¬
dor, he would probably have ended his days in the Bastille.
Not satisfied, however, with what he had already done,
he concludes his Account of Lazarettos with announcing
his intention again to quit his country, for the purpose of
revisiting Russia, Turkey, and some other countries, and
extending his tour in the East. “ I am not insensible,”
says he, “ of the dangers that must attend such a jour¬
ney. Trusting, however, in the protection of that kind
Providence which has hitherto preserved me, I calmly
and cheerfully commit myself to the disposal of unerring
wisdom. Should it please God to cut off my life in the
prosecution of this design, let not my conduct be uncan-
didly imputed to rashness or enthusiasm, but to a serious,
deliberate conviction that I am pursuing the path of duty,
and to a sincere desire of being made an instrument of
more extensive usefulness to my fellow-creatures than
could be expected in the narrower circle of a retired life.”
Accordingly, to the great concern of his friends, he set
out in summer 1789 on this hazardous enterprise; the
principal object of which was to administer a medicine in
high repute at home in malignant fevers (Dr James’s pow¬
der), under a strong persuasion that it would prove equal¬
ly efficacious in the plague. But in this second tour in the
East, it pleased God to cut off his life ; for, having spent
some time at Cherson, a new settlement of the empress of
Russia, at the mouth of the Dnieper or Borysthenes, to¬
wards the northern extremity of the Black Sea, near Oc-
H O W
zakow, he, in visiting the Russian hospital of that place, Hoi
or, as some say, a young lady, caught a malignant fever,
which carried him off on the 20th of January, after an ill- ^
ness of about twelve days ; and having been kept five days, ^ '
according to his express directions, he was buried, by his
own desire, in the garden of a villa in the neighbourhood,
belonging to a French gentleman, from whom he had re¬
ceived great civilities. While absent on his first tour in
Turkey, his character for active benevolence had so much
attracted the public attention, that a subscription was set
on foot to erect a statue to his honour, and in a short time
above L.1500 was subscribed for that purpose. But some of
those who knew Mr Howard best never concurred in the
scheme, being well assured that he would neither counte¬
nance nor accede to it; and in consequence of two letters
to the subscribers, from Mr Howard himself, the design
was laid aside. It was, however, resumed after his death;
and surely, of all the statues or monuments raised by pub¬
lic gratitude to illustrious characters either in ancient or
modern times, none was ever erected in honour of worth
so genuine and admirable as that of Howard, who devoted
his time, his strength, his fortune, and finally sacrificed
his life, in the pursuits of humanity ; and who, to adopt the
expressive words of Mr Burke,1 “ visited all Europe [and
the East], not to survey the sumptuousness of palaces or
the stateliness of temples; not to make accurate measure¬
ments of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a
scale of the curiosity of modern art; not to collect me¬
dals, or to collate manuscripts; but to dive into the
depth of dungeons ; to plunge into the infection of hospi¬
tals ; to survey the mansions of sorrow and of pain; to
take the gauge and dimensions of misery, depression, and
contempt; to remember the forgotten ; to attend to the
neglected ; to visit the forsaken ; and to compare and col¬
late the distresses of all men in all countries. His plan is
original, and it is as full of genius as it is of humanity.
It is a voyage of discovery, a circumnavigation of charity;
and already the benefit of his labour is felt more or less in
every country.”
HOWDEN, a market-town of the east riding of the
county of York, 184 miles from London. It stands in a
level and somewhat marshy district, about one mile from
the river Ouse, over which there is a ferry. It is very
ancient, and was formerly the seat of the Bishop of Dur¬
ham. There is a market on Saturday, to which much
coro is brought; and one of the largest fairs for horses is
held in July. The population amounted in 1801 to 1552,
in 1811 to 1812, in 1821 to 2080, and in 1831 to 2130.
HOWE, Richard, Earl, an English naval commander
of distinguished eminence, was born in the year 1725, be¬
ing the second son of Lord Viscount Howe, by the daugh¬
ter of Baron Kilmansegg. From his early attachment to
the life of a mariner, he quitted the school of Eton at
the age of fourteen, and went on board the Severn, com¬
manded by the Honourable Captain Legge, and destined
for the South Seas under Commodore Anson. Mr Howe
next appeared in the Burford, Captain Lushington com¬
mander, who being killed in an expedition against the
Caraccas, Commodore Knowles made Mr Howe an acting
lieutenant. At the age of twenty he was promoted to
the rank of commander in the Baltimore sloop of war, and
joined a squadron at that time cruising off the coast of
Scotland, where he met with an opportunity of displaying
his undaunted courage and intrepidity, by engaging and
beating off two French frigates of thirty guns each, with
the assistance of another armed ship, notwithstanding that
he was severely wounded in the head during the action.
This service was immediately and justly rewarded with
1 Speech at Guildhall in Bristol, 1780.
HOW
Hie. the rank of post-captain. He was soon afterwards ap-
^ ^ pointed to the rank of captain on board Commodore
Knowles’s own ship of eighty guns, with which he return¬
ed to England in the year 1748. When hostilities again
commenced,‘he commanded the Dunkirk of sixty guns, in
North America; a ship which constituted part of the
squadron under Admiral Boscawen, and with which he
captured a French man of war of superior metal, off the
coast of Newfoundland, namely, the Alcide of sixty-four
guns. In order to annoy the coast of France, he received
in the year 1758 the command of a small squadron, with
which he effected the destruction, at St Malo, of a num¬
ber of magazines and ships. When he served on board the
Essex, Prince Edward, afterwards Duke of York, sailed
with him, at which time he powerfully contributed to the
reduction of the town of Cherbourg. In 1758 his elder
brother fell in North America, in the service of his king
and country ; upon which occasion the young commodore
succeeded to the family title and estate. In the follow¬
ing year he had a share in the victory gained by Sir Ed¬
ward Hawke over the French fleet under Admiral Con-
flans. He afterwards served in the Channel, and was cap¬
tain of the Amelia, the ship of admiral the Duke of York.
On the restoration of peace, he was nominated one of the
lords of the admiralty, and some time afterwards treasurer
of the navy. He was in the year 1770 raised to the rank
of rear-admiral of the blue, and chosen commander-in¬
chief on the Mediterranean station. In 1775 he was pro¬
moted to the rank of rear-admiral of the white. In refer¬
ence to his rapid promotion, Lord Hawke said in the
House of Peers, “ I advised his majesty to make the pro¬
motion. I have tried my Lord Howe on important occa¬
sions ; he never asked me how he was to execute any ser¬
vice, but always went and performed it.”
In the summer of 1776, Lord Howe appeared off Mas¬
sachusetts, as commander-in-chief of his Britannic majes¬
ty’s fleet acting in North America, and in the capacity of
commissioner for restoring the blessings of an amicable re¬
conciliation. All the provincial governors were made ac¬
quainted with his arrival by means of circular letters ex¬
pressive of the full extent of the authority with which he
and his fellow commissioners were invested ; but as con¬
gress did not deem the conditions winch these letters con¬
tained to be at all satisfactory, they were ordered to be in¬
serted in all the gazettes for the examination of the people.
His powers being thus circumscribed at the very commence¬
ment, he could only act in the capacity of naval commander,
in which he aided the operations of the land forces with un¬
common skill. It wras not to be imagined, however, that
much glory could redound to his lordship from such an un¬
equal contest, till thejunction of France with Americaplaced
the contending parties more upon a level. On the arrival
of Admiral d’Estaing, in the month of July 1778, off San¬
dy Hook, Lord Howe was certainly in a very critical situa¬
tion ; but, in consequence of an effort of uncommon skill
and dexterity, the French commander deemed it prudent
to retire, when he was pursued by Lord Howe to Rhode
Island, after obtaining a reinforcement under Admiral Byron.
The intentions of the enemy were completely counteract¬
ed, and the campaign was finally terminated with honour.
Here he resigned his command, and returned to England ;
but in 1782 he was promoted to the rank of admiral of the
blue, made a viscount of Great Britain, and chosen com¬
mander of the fleet which was sent for the relief of Gib¬
raltar. The combined fleets of France and Spain were
about a third superior to that under Lord Howe, who, with
thirty-four sail of the line, appeared off Gibraltar in the
month of October, being driven into the Mediterranean by
contrary winds. Although he was pursued by the com¬
bined fleet, he found means to supply the fortress with pro¬
visions. He checked the enemy by a partial action, and
h o X 715
notwithstanding he offered to give them battle, it was de- Howe's
dined on their part; and he had the satisfaction to execute Island
his commission prior to his return home, in spite of the jjJiter
numerous difficulties which he had to encounter.
On the termination of the war he was nominated first
lord of the admiralty, which he both resigned and resumed
with the different changes of administration. In the year
1787 he was appointed admiral of the white, and in the
following year created an earl of Great Britain. When
hostilities were renewed with France in 1793, his lordship,
at the express desire of his majesty, accepted the command
of the Channel fleet; but he had it not in his powder to ef¬
fect any thing decisive till the summer of 1794. On the
memorable first of June, with a fleet consisting of twenty-
five sail of the line, he gave battle to a French fleet of
twenty-six, and gained a most signal victory over the ene¬
my, capturing seven of their ships, one of which was so
shattered as to go to the bottom, whilst several others were
very much crippled. His lordship had the good fortune
not to lose a ship, and comparatively but few men, con¬
sidering the great loss sustained by the enemy. The gra¬
titude of the nation was suitable to the importance of this
naval victory, and it is more than probable that the
first of June will never be forgotten. In 1795 he was
made general of marines ; but the infirmities which are the
usual concomitants of age induced him to resign his naval
command in the year 1797, and on his final retreat he was
presented with the badge of the Garter. His influence as
an officer contributed greatly to stifle a spirit of mutiny
and discontent which at this time exhibited alarming symp¬
toms amongst the seamen of his majesty’s fleets. He ter¬
minated his brilliant and honourable career on the 5th of
August 1799, in the seventy-third year of his age, leaving
none but female issue behind him. His lordship’s valour,
always cool and steady, was of that nature which enables a
commander to make the most of his situation ; his judgment
was sound and penetrating, which prevented him from be¬
ing easily imposed upon by external appearances ; and his
seamanship was of the most consummate and masterly kind.
Howe’s Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, discovered
by Captain Wallis in 1767. It is about sixty miles long
and four broad, andw'as found by Captain Cook in 1774 to
consist of several smaller islands almost joined together by
reefs, and to have no inhabitants. Long. 154. 7. W. Lat.
16. 46. S.
HOWITZ, a kind of mortar, mounted upon a field car¬
riage, like a gun. See Gunnery.
HOWTH, a promontory which forms the northern en¬
trance of the Bay of Dublin, having a small village about
seven miles north-east from that city, in the province of
Leinster. It gives the title of earl to the family of St
Lawrence, who were so called from a victory obtained by
them over the Irish on St Lawrence’s day 1177, their for¬
mer name being Tristram ; and this place has continued in
possession of the family above six centuries. Long. 6. 22.
W. Lat. 53. 21. N.
HOY, a small vessel chiefly used in coasting, or carry¬
ing goods to or from a s‘hip, in a road or bay, where the
ordinary lighters cannot be managed with safety or conve¬
nience.
Hoy, one of the Orkney Islands, off the north coast of
Scotland, is situated between the island of Pomona and the
north coast of Caithness, and is separated from the small
island of Grmmsay by a sound about a mile in breadth.
See Orkney Islands.
HOXTER, a city of Prussia, the capital of a circle of
the same name, in the Minden division of the province of
Westphalia. It is situated on the river Weser, and con¬
tains 460 houses, with 3411 inhabitants. The manufac¬
tures are linen, leather, and table-cloths. Long. 9. 16.
11. E. Lat. 51. 46. 42. N.
71 f>
HUG
H U D
Hoy a
Hucknall
Torkard.
HOYA, with Diepholz, a province of the kingdom of
Hanover. It has been formed at different periods, a part
‘ having belonged to the house of Brunswick since the year
1583, another part which came to that house two years
after, and a part consisting of three bailiwicks, which was
ceded by the prince of Hesse-Cassel in 1815. It is bound¬
ed on the north-west by Oldenburg, on the north by Bre¬
men and Brunswick, on the north-east by Bremen and
Verden, on the east by Calenburg and Luneburg, on the
south by Prussian Westphalia, on the south-west by Olden¬
burg, and on the west by Osnabruck. It extends over
1352 square miles, contains one city (Hoya), twenty-four
market-towns, fifty-six parishes, and 497 villages and ham¬
lets, and 14,666 dwellings. The number of inhabitants
amounted in 1812 to 104,970, but they are estimated to
have increased one fifth since that period. The Platt-
Deutsche is the common language. The religion is ex¬
clusively Lutheran, or at least the Catholics and reformed
are in no place so numerous as to hold any public exercise
of their forms of worship. It is generally a sandy heath,
but towards the river Weser there are some tolerably fertile
pasture lands. It yields buck-wheat, rye, barley, and a very
small portion of wheat, and produces flax, feathers, wax,
and honey. The only manufactures are coarse linens and
woollens, made in each peasant’s house for his own family.
The capital, Hoya, is situated on the Weser, and contains
220 houses and 1867 inhabitants, who carry on some trade
by the river with Bremen. Long. 9. 5. 40. E. Lat. 52.
48. 47. N.
HUAHEINE, or Aheine, signifying, in the native lan¬
guage of the South Sea Islands, woman, the easternmost
of the group called the Society Islands by Captain Cook.
It is twenty-four miles in circumference, and is divided
into two peninsulas by an isthmus overflowed at high water.
It has a very narrow stripe of fertile low land next the
shore, and the hills are in some places highly cultivated.
The productions are similar to those of Otaheite, but they
are about a month earlier. The inhabitants are larger
made and stouter, and the women are in general more
handsome. This island has been visited by many naviga¬
tors since the time of Captain Cook, but their informa¬
tion throws no new light on the productions of the island
or the manners of the people. Long. 150. 58. W. Lat.
16. 43. S.
HLBLLY, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Be-
japoor. It is large and populous, defended by a mud ram¬
part and ditch, and has for many years carried on an ex¬
tensive trade, particularly with Goa, to which are sent sandal
wood and elephants’ teeth, and in return raw silk, cottons,
woollens, and rjce are received. There are also manufac¬
tures of raw silk and cotton, great quantities of which are
sold for the dresses of the country people. It is a wealthy
place, the residence of many rich bankers, who, by means
of their agents, extend their commercial intercourse to Su¬
rat, Hyderabad, Seringapatam, and even to more distant
places on which bills of exchange can be negotiated, and
who regulate the standard of the currency in all the ad-
oining countries. The English East India Company for-
nerly had a factory here, which was plundered by the
vlahrattas in 1673, when the Company sustained a great
loss. In 1685 it was taken by the Mogul troops of Au-
rungzebe, and soon after the death of that monarch in
1707 it was again taken by the Mahrattas, and still con¬
tinues in their possession. Long. 75. 10. E. Lat. 15.
24. N.
HUB1\ER, John, a learned geographer of Germany,
who taught geography at Leipsic and Hamburg with ex¬
traordinary reputation ; and died at Hamburg in 1732,
aged sixty-three. His principal wrork is a Geographical
Treatise, printed at Basil in 1746, in six vols. 12mo.
HUCKNALL-f ORKARD, a town in the hundred of
Broxtow, in the county of Nottingham, 130 miles from
London, where there are manufactures of hosiery. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1497, in 1811 to 1793
in 1821 to 1940, and in 1831 to 2200.
HUDDERSFIELD, an extensive town and parish in
the wapentake of Aybrig, of the west riding of Yorkshire,
187 miles from London. It stands on the river Colne,
and is connected by canal navigation with the Calder at
Wakefield, a distance of fourteen miles. It is a place of
great industry, chiefly occupied in the manufacture of
woollen goods of various kinds. A cloth market is held
on Tuesday, which is very numerously attended by wool-
staplers and merchants from Leeds, Halifax, and Wake¬
field, as well as by some from Manchester, with which it
has also a canal communication. A new cloth hall was
built in 1765, by Sir John Ramsden, the proprietor of
the site of the town, and it is a very fine building. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 7268, in 1811 to 9671,
in 1821 to 13,284, and in 1831 to 19,035. It has been
created a borough by the law of 1832, returns one mem¬
ber to parliament, and has about 600 voters.
HUDSON, Henry. Of this eminent navigator nothing
is known prior to the year 1607, when he was employed
by some London merchants in a small vessel, for explor¬
ing a north-east passage to China and Japan. He set sail
on the 1st of May with only ten men and a boy, and reach¬
ed as high as 80° of north latitude, where being stopped
by the ice, he returned to England in the month of Sep¬
tember following. In his next voyage he landed at Nova
Zembla ; but being unable to make any farther east, he re¬
turned in August the following year. The Dutch East
India Company fitted him out in the year 1609, with a
crew of twenty men, English and Dutch; and after at¬
tempting in vain to penetrate eastward, he steered for the
American coast, and went as far as Chesapeake Bay. But
his crew having mutinied, he durst not attempt a westerly
passage through Davis’s Strait, and therefore returned
home. The knowledge acquired by him in these voyages
increased his ardour for discovery, and he again made an
offer of his services to the Dutch East India Company,
which were not accepted; and for his last voyage, Sir
Thomas Smith, Sir Dudley Digges, and some other of his
friends, fitted him out. He set sail on the 17th of April,
and came in sight of Greenland on the 4th of June. Sail¬
ing westward, he reached the mouth of the strait which
bears his name, through which he advanced along the
coast of Labrador, which he called Nova Britannia. Here
he hoped to have discovered the long-wished-for passage ;
but he found he was only in a bay, in the southern part
of which he determined to winter. After this he fitted
out his shallop for further discoveries ; but as he had no
means of revictualling his ship, he distributed his last re¬
maining bread, with tears in his eyes, amongst his people,
and proposed to return home. But his mutinous crew en¬
tered his cabin by night, tied his hands behind his back,
and set him ashore at the west end of the straits, with
seven of the crew w'ho were most attached to him. They
were never more heard of, and it is probable that they
were swallowed up by the waves.
Hudson, William, a celebrated English botanist, was
born at Westmoreland about 1730. He was bound ap¬
prentice to an apothecary in London, whose business he
continued, and proved a friend to the widow and daugh¬
ters of his master. It appears from the testimony of Dr
Pulteney, that he had a residence in the British Museum,
but we are not informed in what capacity. He died of a
paralytic distemper in May 1793. He possessed a com¬
prehensive knowledge of English plants, which induced
him to undertake an arrangement of English botany ac¬
cording to the Linnaean classification ; a task which had
been previously attempted by Dr Hill, but the execution
Hu !
fi :
Hi inj
HUD
ip Ison’s of which was very imperfect. Hudson’s Flora Anglica
ay appeared in 1762, in one volume 8vo, the Latin preface
[| I to which was written by Mr Stillingfleet, received with
j Ison’s great applause, and contributed greatly to the adoption of
xex^j the sexual system in England.
1 Hudson’s Hag, a large bay of North America, lying be¬
tween 51 and 69 degrees of latitude, discovered in 1610
by Henry Hudson. This intrepid mariner, in searching
after a north-west passage to the South Seas, discovered
three straits, through which he hoped to discover a pas¬
sage to Asia by America. He had made two voyages be¬
fore on the same adventure ; the first in 1607, and the
second in 1608. In his third and last, 1610, he entered
the straits leading into this new Mediterranean, the bay
known by his name ; coasted a great part of it, and pene¬
trated to eighty degrees and a half into the heart of the
frozen zone. His ardour for the discovery not being abat¬
ed by the difficulties he struggled with in this domain of
winter, he staid there until the ensuing spring, and pre¬
pared in the beginning of 1611 to pursue his discoveries ;
but his crew, who had suffered equal hardships, without
the same spirit to support them, mutinied, seized upon
Hudson and seven of those who were most faithful to
him, and committed them to the fury of the arctic seas
in an open boat. As already mentioned, Hudson and
his companions were either swallowed up by the waves,
or, gaining the inhospitable coast, were destroyed by the
savages; but the ship and the rest of the men returned
home. Other attempts towards a discovery were made
in 1612 and 1667; and a patent for planting the coun¬
try, with a charter for a company, was obtained in the
year 1670. In 1746 Captain Ellis wintered as far north
as fifty-seven degrees and a half; and Captain Christo¬
pher attempted further discoveries in 1761. I he com¬
pany being desirous of obtaining information regarding
a river called the Coppermine River, directed Mr Hearne,
a young gentleman in their service, to proceed over
land for that river, which he had orders to survey if pos¬
sible down to its embouchure; to make observations for
fixing the latitudes and longitudes ; and to bring home
maps and drawings both of it and the countries through
wdiich he might pass. Accordingly Mr Hearne set out
from Prince of Wales’s Fort, on Churchill River, latitude
58° 47^' north, and longitude 94° 7-|' west from Green¬
wich, on the 7th of December 1770. On the 13th of
June he reached the Coppermine River, and found it all
the way, even to its mouth, encumbered with shoals and
falls, and emptying itself into the sea over a dry fiat of
the shore, the tide being then out, which seemed by the
edges of the ice to rise about twelve or fourteen feet. Mr
Hearne was nevertheless sure of the place where it emp¬
tied itself into being the sea, or a branch of it, by the
quantity of whalebone and seal-skins which the Esqui¬
maux had at their tents, and also by the number of seals
which he saw upon the ice. It appears from the map
which Mr Hearne constructed of this singular journey,
that the mouth of the Coppermine River lies in latitude
72° north, and longitude 25° west from Churchill River;
that is, about 119° west of Greenwich. Mr Hearne s
journey back from the Coppermine River to Churchill
lasted till the 30th of June 1772, so that he was absent
about a year and seven months. The subsequent progress
of discovery in this quarter has been detailed in the ar¬
ticle on Greenland.
Hudson’s Bay Company. See Company.
Hudson’s River, a large river of North America, which
rises on the east of Lake Ontario, and running by Al¬
bany, and on the back of the south part of New England
through part of New York, falls into the bay or the sea
beyond the west end of Long Island, and below the town
of New York.
HUE 717
HUE and Cry, in Law, the pursuit of a person who Hue and
has committed felony on the highway. Of this custom, Cry
which is of British origin, the following deduction is given li
by Mr Whitaker. “ When it was requisite for the Bri-
tons to call out their warriors into the field, they used a
method that was particularly marked by its expeditious¬
ness and decisiveness, and remains partially among us to
this moment. They raised a cry, which was immediate¬
ly caught by others, and in an instant transmitted from
mouth to mouth through all the region. And, as the no¬
tice passed along, the warriors snatched their arms, and
hurried away to the rendezvous. We have a remarkable
description of the fact in Csesar, and there see the alarm
propagated in sixteen or seventeen hours through a hun¬
dred and sixty miles in a line. And the same practice
has been retained by the Highlanders almost till our own
time. When the lord of a clan received intelligence of an
enemy’s approach, he immediately killed a goat with his
own sword, dipped the end of a half-burnt stick in the
blood, and then gave it and the notice of the rendezvous
to be carried to the next hamlet. This was called the
cross-tarric, or fiery cross. It symbolically threatened fire
and sword to all his followers that did not instantly re¬
pair to the rendezvous. The notice was despatched from
hamlet to hamlet with the utmost expedition, and in three
or four hours the whole clan was in arms, and assembled
at the place appointed. This was the ordinary mode by
which the chieftains assembled their followers for war.
The first person who received the notice set out with it
at full speed, delivered it to the next he met, who instant¬
ly set out with the same speed, and handed it to a third.
In the rebellion of 1745 it was sent by an unknown hand
through the region of Breadalbane ; and flying as expedi¬
tiously as the Gallic signal in Cmsar, traversed a tract of
thirty-two miles in three hours. This quick method of
giving a diffusive alarm is even preserved among ourselves
to the present day; but is applied, as it seems from
Caesar’s account above to have been equally applied
among the Celtae, to the better purposes of civil polity.
The hutesium and clamour of our laws, and the hue and
cry of our own times, is a well-known and powerful pro¬
cess for spreading the notice and continuing the pursuit
of any fugitive felons. The cry, like the clamour of the
Gauls or the summons of the Highlanders, is taken from
town to town and from county to county; and a chain of
communication is speedily carried from one end of the
kingdom to the other.”
HUESCA, a city of Spain, in the province of Aragon.
It is built at the junction of the two rivers Alcanadre and
Isuela, which fall into the Ebro. It is the see of a bishop,
and has an episcopal palace, with a very sumptuous catne-
dral. Within this city is a magnificent university, con¬
sisting of two colleges, and both amply endowed. The
country around it is highly fertile, and there are manu¬
factories both of linen and woollen. It is a city of very
ancient origin, and the walls built by the Romans are still
visible around it. It contains 6800 inhabitants.
HUESCAR, a small city of Granada, in Spain. It is
near the borders of Murcia, on the banks of the Alman-
zora. A canal, projected and commenced here formerly,
has been suffered to languish, if not to fall into decay.
It was designed to irrigate the lands in Lorca, Totana,
and other dry parts of Murcia, and to afford water car¬
riage for timber, hemp, flax, and other stores, from the
Sierras de Huescar, to the royal arsenal of Carthagena.
This city has a castle, and a population of 3000 inhabi¬
tants.
HUET, Peter Daniel, bishop of Avranches, was born
at Caen on the 8th of February 1630, and early distinguish¬
ed for his love of letters and philosophy. His parents hav¬
ing died whilst he was yet an infant, Huet fell into the
718 HUE
Huet. hands of guardians who neglected him ; but his invincible
love of learning enabled him to surmount every disadvan¬
tage, and he finished his studies in the belles-lettres before
he had completed his thirteenth year. He studied philo¬
sophy under Father Mambrun, a Jesuit, who, in imitation
of Plato, directed him to commence by learning geometry ;
and Huet contracted such a relish for the mathematics,
that he applied himself to almost every branch of the exact
sciences, and maintained public theses thereon at Caen.
But he was withdrawn from this pursuit by the Principles of
Descartes on the one hand, and the Sacred Geography of
Bochart on the other. Of Descartes, then in all his vogue,
Huet was a warm admirer, and, for many years, adhered
to his philosophy, which, however, he at length saw reason
to abandon as visionary. But the work of Bochart, who,
like himself, was a native of Caen, made a more lasting
impression upon his mind, and inspired him with that taste
for erudition by which he was afterwards so much distin¬
guished. In 1652 Huet accompanied Bochart in a visit to
Sweden, where he met with a most gracious reception from
the queen, Christina. In undertaking this journey he had
two objects in view; one was, to see Christina, who was
then occupied in regulating and improving her states ; and
the other to become acquainted with the learned men by
whom that princess was surrounded, and to examine the
ancient manuscripts in her possession, particularly one of the
works of Origen. He returned with literary treasures of
more than one kind, which in due time he communicated
to the public. Scarcely had he revisited his native city,
when, in conjunction with some friends, he formed there
an academy for the encouragement of learning, which, we
believe, is still in existence. The reputation and merit of
Huet, however, had not procured him any solid recom¬
pense, when, in 1670, he was united as sub-preceptor with
Bossuet, who had just been appointed to superintend the
education of the Dauphin. It was at this period that he
took occasion to embark in a work which suited him per¬
fectly, and in which he was engaged nearly twenty years.
In conformity with a suggestion of the Duke of Montausier,
he formed the plan of those editions of the Latin classics,
ad usurn Delphini, destined for the instruction of his illus¬
trious pupil; and it was he who directed the execution of
the undertaking. In 1674 he was received into the French
Academy; and it may be remarked that, in his inaugural
discourse, he complained that ancient learning was then
held in little estimation, being almost banished from the
commerce of the polite world, and buried in the dust and
obscurity of a few cabinets. Flechier, who was then di¬
rector of the academy, spoke in reply, and dwelt upon the
protracted and useful studies which had been the delight
of the Abbe Huet in his early youth, and which formed
the sole occupation, as well as passion, of his more mature
years. His duties as sub-preceptor did not prevent him
from satisfying his ardent taste for the most difficult lan¬
guages, and the most ancient books. Leaving court in the
evening, he occasionally passed entire nights in the libra¬
ries of Paris, whence he derived the information which he
could not obtain from his own. In 1678 Louis XIV.
granted him, as a recompense for his zeal and services, the
abbey of Avenay, near Caen, where he composed the
greater part of his works. In 1685 he was appointed to
the bishopric of Soissons, of which, however, he did not
take possession ; he had not, in fact, received the bulls in
1689,. when M. Brulart de Sillery, nominated for the bi¬
shopric of Avranches, proposed to him an exchange. This
latter see was much more acceptable to Huet, because it
fixed him at no great distance from his native city and his
abbey; but he was not consecrated until 1692, by reason
of some differences which had arisen between the court of
Fiance and that of Rome. Huet did not neglect his epis¬
copal duties; but when these were discharged, he indulged
HUG
his love of learning with so much ardour, and passed so Hufin
much time in his library, that men of the world, and even ||
ecclesiastics, who had business to transact with him, could ^ugi
scarcely obtain access to the studious prelate. An indivi- nots
dual who had often been told, when he called, that the
bishop could not be seen, because he was occupied among
his books, withdrew one day, much dissatisfied; “ why,”
said he, “ has the king sent us a bishop who has not yet
completed his studies.” Huet, however, did not long re¬
tain his preferment. Sensible of growing infirmities, and
finding that he could not reconcile his tastes with his du¬
ties, he resigned his bishopric, and received in exchange
the abbey of Fontenay, situated at the gates of Caen.
Some time afterwards he repaired^to Paris; established
himself in the Jesuits’ College there, to which he present¬
ed his fine library; and, during twenty years, divided his
time between prayer and study, for which he preserved
his taste to the last. Zealous for the glory of that religion
which, in more than one work, he had ably defended, he
closed his long and honourable career on the 26th January
1721, at the advanced age of about ninety-one. The
works of Huet, the greater part of which continue to be
held in high estimation, are, 1. De Interpretatione libri
duo, 1°. de optimo genere interpretandi, 2°. de Claris in-
terpretibus, Paris, 1661, in 4to ; 2. Origenis Commentaria
in Sacram Scripturam, Greek and Latin, Rouen, 1668, in
two vols. folio ; 3. Lettre sur 1’origine de Romans, Paris,
1670 ; 4. Demonstratio Evangelica, Paris, 1679, in folio ;
5. Censura Philosophise Cartesianae, Paris, 1689 and 1694;
6. Quaestiones Alnetanae de Concordia Rationis et Fidei,
Caen, 1690 ; 7. De la situation du Paradis terrestre, Paris,
1691, in 12mo ; 8. Nouveaux Memoires pour servir a
1’Histoire du Cartesianisme, 1692, in 16to; 9. Statuts
Synodaux, Caen, 1693, in 12mo; 10. Huetii Carmina,
Utrecht, 1700, in 12mo ; 11. Histoire du Commerce et
de la Navigation des Anciens, anonymous, Paris, 1716, in
12mo; 12. Petri Danielis Huetii Commentarius de rebus
ad eum pertinentibus, Amsterdam, 1718, in 12mo; 13
Traite Philosophique de la faiblesse de 1’Esprit Humain,
Amsterdam, 1723, in 8vo ; 14. Origines de Caen, Rouen,
1706, in 8vo ; 15. Diane de Castro, oule faux Yncas, 1728,
in 12mo ; 16. Latin notes on Manilius, 1679, in 4to; 17.
Dissertations sur diverses matieres de Religion et de Phi-
lologie, published by the Abbe Tilladetin 1714 ; 18. Opus¬
cules sur la Langue Fran^aise, by the same. (a.)
HUUNGEN, a city, the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, in the duchy of Baden, and circle of the Lake.
The bailiwick comprehends four cities or walled towns,
twenty-seven villages and hamlets, with a population of
10,950 persons. The city stands on the river Bregach,
and contains 201 houses, with 1370 inhabitants, subsist¬
ing by agriculture.
HUGUENOTS, an appellation given by way of con¬
tempt to the Reformed or Protestant Calvinists of France.
The name originated in the year 1560, though authors are
not agreed as to the occasion thereof; but the following
derivations have been suggested. One of the gates of the
city of Tours is called the gate Fourgon, by corruption
i'romfeu Hugon, the late Hugon. This Hugon was once
Count of Tours, according to Eginhard in his life of Charles
the Great, and to some other historians. He was it seems
a very wicked man, who by his fierce and cruel temper
made himself dreaded ; so that after his death he was sup¬
posed to walk about in the night-time, beating all those
he met with. This tradition the learned Thuanus has not
scrupled to mention in his history. Davila and other
historians pretend that the nickname of Huguenots was
first given to the French Protestants, because they used
to meet in the night-time in subterraneous vaults near
this gate of Hugon; and what seems to countenance this
opinion is, that they were first called by the name of
H U L
H U L 719
ulk Huguenots at this city of Tours. Others assign a more
(1 illustrious origin to the name; and say that the Leaguers
gave it to the Reformed, because the latter were for keep-
ing the crown upon the head of the line descended from
Hugh Capet; whereas the former were for giving it to
the house of Guise, as descended from Charles the Great.
Others again derive it from a French and faulty pro¬
nunciation of the German word edignossen, signifying con¬
federates, and originally applied to that valiant part of
the city of Geneva which entered into an alliance with
the Swiss cantons, in order to maintain their liberties
against the tyrannical attempts of Charles III. duke of
Savoy. These confederates were called Eignots, whence
Huguenots.
The persecution which the Huguenots underwent has
scarcely any parallel in the history of religion. Though
they obtained a peace from Henry III. in 1576, it was
only of short continuance; and their sufferings, mitigated
by the famous edict of Nantes, granted to them in 1598
by Henry IV. were again renewed, after the revocation
of that edict by Louis XIV. in 1685.
HULK, an old ship of war, fitted with an apparatus to
fix or take out the masts of ships of the royal navy, as oc¬
casion requires.
Hulk is also a name bestowed on any old vessel laid
up as unfit for further service. It is probably derived
from the 6Xxa3ss, or vessels of burthen, of the ancient
Grecians.
HULL, a sea-port town of the east riding of the county
of York, 234 miles from London byway of York, and 170
by way of Lincoln, and crossing the Humber from Barton.
It is situated on a river of the same name, whose waters
are received at the town into the Humber. The old part
of the town, with the exception of the fine market-place,
is ill built, with narrow streets; but that portion near the
docks consists of handsome and commodious houses and
streets. It is admirably situated for trade, from being at
the mouth of the great rivers Humber, Ouse, and Trent,
whose tributary streams, and the various canals that
branch from them, afford facilities for the conveyance of
the productions of a large space of country to Hull, and
for receiving from it the requisite articles of foreign
growth. These advantages'have been improved by the
activity of the inhabitants, who have constructed docks
and warehouses, which, for accessibility and security, are
only inferior to those of London and Liverpool. The
building and equipment of ships is an important branch
of industry; and those built at Hull are considered as su¬
perior to those constructed at the more northern ports. As
there is a vast trade with Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and
Denmark, centring at Hull, the builders are enabled to
procure timber, iron, flax, hemp, and other articles for
ship-building, on the most favourable conditions. This is
the port from which the greater number of ships are des¬
patched to the whale fishery on the coasts of Greenland.
The owners of ships in Hull do not confine themselves to
the trade of their own port, but charter them to all parts
of the world, by the merchants of London, Liverpool, and
other mercantile places. A considerable direct trade is
carried on with the West India islands, with South Ame¬
rica, the United States, the Mediterranean, and the ports
of Holland and Belgium. Though the ancient gates re¬
main, there are no land fortifications; but on the sea side
the approach to the town is defended by competent bat¬
teries. As Hull is situated in the fertile district of Hol-
derness, it is well supplied with necessaries from that part,
as well as from the Lincolnshire country, on the other
side of the Humber. It is a county of itself, with its own
courts, sheriffs, and assizes ; and a branch of the Trinity
House has the superintendence of the pilots and the lights.
It is governed by a mayor and aldermen, and returns two Hull-
members to parliament, chosen by the resident freemen
and householders, who amount to about 3800. The town
was formerly subject to inundations ; but, by appropriate
embankments and drainage, that inconvenience is no longer
felt. The population amounted in 1801 to 29,516, in 1811
to 26,792, in 1821 to 31,425, and in 1831 to 32,958. If to
this be added the inhabitants of Drypool, Sutton, and Sul-
coates, which form a part of the town, the whole population
will be from 45,000 to 50,000.
The gradual increase of the foreign trade of Hull may
be seen by the following account of the number of vessels
which have entered from foreign parts in each year from
1820 to 1833 both inclusive.
Years.
British Vessels:
Ships.
Tonnage.
Foreign Yessels.
Ships.
Tonnage.
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
627
578
672
778
776
1,171
717
982
881
883
897
974
762
755
11,453
117,434
113,133
134,999
153,313
142,615
227.363
130,674
191.364
156,925
165,791
163,657
187,361
140,788
142,301
2,167,718
117
1Q6
103
203
510
1000
854
800
674
603
556
725
454
610
7315
15,111
13,820
14,011
26,103
58,603
100,773
70,137
72,338
60,082
58,854
51,015
73,547
43,481
62,403
720,278
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house is next
in value after London, Liverpool, and Bristol. The sum
collected in the year 1833 amounted to L.624,057. 7s.
lid., from which was deducted, for drawbacks, bounties,
and over-entry certificates, L.5292. 9s. 3d., and for the
payment of salaries and incidents, L.24,470. 4s. 3d.; thus
leaving a clear sum of L.594,294. 14s. 3d. remitted to
London.
Another criterion of the proportional amount of trade
is the amount of postage paid. By this Hull will appear
to be the sixth town of England, and the tenth of the
united kingdom. The sums collected at the towns at
the post-office were,
1833. 1834.
London L.632,696 L.642,871
Dublin 80,611 69,096
Liverpool 70,011 74,080
Manchester 53,510 56,287
Edinburgh 42,759 41,864
Glasgow 36,053 36,481
Bristol 33,884 33,242
Birmingham 28,685 28,812
Leeds 20,316 21,331
Hull 14,607 14,853
Without more voluminous accounts than the nature of
this work will admit, it is not easy to give a tolerable
view of the articles imported at and exported from Hull;
but an official account, in a condensed form, of the coun¬
tries from which the vessels, arrived that had entered
the port of Hull in the years 1830,1831, 1832, and 1833,
will convey a tolerably accurate view of the nature of the
whole trade.
H U M
720 ' HU M
Vessels that entered Hull during Four Years.
Hi
Countries.
Russia   
Sweden  
Norway 
Prussia 
Mecklenburg 
Hanover  
Oldenburg  
Hanseatic towns  
Netherlands 
France 
Portugal and Azores 
Spain and Canaries 
Tuscany 
Naples and Sicily 
Austrian Italy 
Greek islands 
Turkey and Continental Greece.
North Africa 
Mauritius 
Canada 
New Brunswick 
Nova Scotia, 
West Indies 
United States 
Whale fishery 
Isles of Guernsey and Jersey....,
Denmark with Holstein 
Ionian Islands 
British Ships.
Vessels.
266
90
3
160
5
718
685
53
45
65
3
53
6
3
7
4
1
94
147
10
I
16
166
16
27
12
Tons.
256,090
16,700
307
31,113
628
103,910
65,728
4,590
4,223
6,823
552
7,153
765
580
938
1,167
147
33,682
50,018
2,509
153
5,505
35,377
1,247
2,935
1,472
Foreign Ships.
Vessels.
60
136
201
228
58
115
174
146
231
11
10
4
862
Tons.
12,255
20,163
23,807
29,346
5,589
6,344
10,911
11,557
17,467
814
1,134
550
830
236
65,006
Hull, in nautical language, is the main body of a ship,
without either masts, yards, sails, or rigging. Thus, to
strike a hull in a storm, is to take in her sails, and to lash
the helm on the lee-side of the ship ; and to hull, or lie a-
hull, is said of a ship the sails of which are thus taken in,
and helm lashed a-lee.
HULST, a city of the Netherlands, in the province of
Friesland and circle of Goes. It is strongly fortified, and,
by means of a canal, is connected with Helle-Gat, which
is joined to the West Scheldt at Ghent. It contains 400
houses, and (in 1830) 2124 inhabitants. Long. 4. 36. 25.
E. Lat. 51. 16. 54. N.
HUMAN, in general, is an appellation given to what¬
ever relates to mankind. Thus we say, the human soul,
human body, human laws, and the like.
HUMANITY, the peculiar nature of man, by which he
is distinguished from all other beings.
Humanities, in the plural, signify grammar, rhetoric,
and poetry, known by the name of literce humaniores.
HUME, David, an illustrious philosopher and histo¬
rian, was born in the south of Scotland, on the 26th of
April, old style, in the year 1711. His father was a de¬
scendant of the family of the Earl of Home or Hume ; and
his mother, whose name was Falconer, was descended from
that of Lord Halkerton, whose title came by succession to
her brother. This double alliance with nobility was a
source of great self-complacency to Hume, who was not
philosopher enough to despise such distinctions. But
being the younger son of a country gentleman of no great
fortune, his patrimony was consequently insufficient to
support him. For this reason he was destined for the bar,
and passed through the usual course of academical study
in the University of Edinburgh; but having conceived an
early passion for letters, he contracted an insurmountable
aversion for any other pursuit; and whilst his friends ima¬
gined that he was poring over Voet and Vinnius, he was
secretly occupied with Cicero and Virgil. His fortune,
however, being small, and his health somewhat affected
by close application, he was induced to make a feeble at¬
tempt at engaging in business; and in the year 1734, he
went to Bristol, with recommendations to some eminent
merchants of that city. But the bustle and activity of a
mercantile city were by no means suited to his meditative
disposition ; and, in a few months, he left it in disgust.
Immediately after this, he went over to France with the
view of prosecuting his studies in private, and established
himself first at Rheims, and then at La Fleche in Anjou,
where, in order to maintain his independence, he practised
the most rigid frugality. The writings of Locke and Ber¬
keley having directed the attention of many learned men
towards metaphysics, Mr Hume had early applied himself
to studies of this kind, and, during his retreat, composed
his Treatise of Human Nature, which he published at Lon¬
don in 1738. This work he had meditated even while at
college ; a circumstance which proves at once the self-suffi¬
ciency of Hume, and the early bias of his mind towards
scepticism. He had the mortification, however, to find
his book generally neglected, and to perceive that the taste
for systematic writing was now upon the decline. “ It
fell,” he says, “ dead-born from the press, without reach¬
ing such distinction as even to excite a murmur among
the zealots.” He adds, however, that “ being naturally of
a cheerful and sanguine temper, he soon recovered the
blow.” But this pretended equanimity was, we suspect,
mere affectation. For the work, so far from passing alto¬
gether without notice, was criticised w ith much ability in
the only review of that period, The Works of the Learned;
and the critique has with some reason been ascribed to War-
burton. One remark of the reviewer is singular, and may
be almost thought prophetic. “ This work abounds with ego-
H U
ime. tisms. The author would scarcely use that form of speech
more frequently, if he had written his own memoirs.”
In 1742, Mr Hume published, with more success, the
first part of his Essays moral, political, and literary. But
these, though better received than his former publication,
contributed little to his reputation as an author, and still
less to his profit; and his small patrimony being now al¬
most spent, he accepted an invitation from the Marquis of
Annandale to go and live with him in England. With this
nobleman he remained a twelvemonth, during which time
his small fortune was considerably increased. He then re¬
ceived an invitation from General St Clair to attend him
in the capacity of secretary to the expedition which was
at first meant against Canada, but afterwards ended in an
incursion on the coast of France. In 1747, he received
an invitation from the general to attend him in the same
situation in his military embassy to the courts of Vienna
and Turin. He then wore the uniform of an officer, and
was introduced at these coxirts as aide-de-camp to the ge¬
neral, along with Sir Harry Erskine, and Captain, after¬
wards General Grant. These two years were almost the
only interruptions which his studies experienced during
the whole course of his life ; but his appointments made
him some compensation on this account, for he was now
“ master of near L.1000,” and, in his own opinion, “ in¬
dependent.” In 1749 he returned to Scotland, and lived
about two years with his brother at his country-house,
where he composed the second part of his essays, called
Political Discourses. And now the general approbation
of his productions was indicated by a more extensive sale
than formerly, and likewise by the numerous answers pub¬
lished by different persons in order to counteract their
supposed pernicious tendency. In 1752 were published
at Edinburgh his Political Discourses, the only work of
his which was well received on its first appearance ; and
the same year at London, his Inquiry concerning the Prin¬
ciples of Morals, which in his own opinion was incompa¬
rably the best of all his works. This year also he was ap¬
pointed librarian to the Faculty of Advocates at Edin¬
burgh ; but the principal advantage resulting from this em¬
ployment was, that he had thereby the command of a large
library. He then formed the design of writing the His¬
tory of England ; but deeming the whole to be too exten¬
sive, he confined himself to the history of Britain under
the house of Stuart; and in 1754 published the first vo¬
lume, entitled A Portion of English History, from the
Accession of James I. to the Revolution, in 4to. The
book, however, was almost universally decried on its first
appearance, and soon afterwards seemed to sink into obli¬
vion. Dr Herring, primate of England, and Dr Stone,
primate of Ireland, were the only persons of the author’s
acquaintance who approved of the work, and sent him
messages not to be discouraged.
But notwithstanding the approbation of these eminent
men, Mr Hume’s spirits were so much sunk by his want of
success, that he had some thoughts of retiring to France,
changing his name, and bidding adieu to his own country
for ever. This design, however, was rendered impracti¬
cable by the breaking out of the war of 1755 between
France and Britain. He then published his Natural His¬
tory of Religion, to which, soon after its appearance, an
answer was published in the name of Dr Hurd, bishop of
Lichfield and Coventry, though, in reality, it proceeded
from Bishop Warburton, as Dr Hurd afterwards expressly
declared. In 1756 was published the second volume of
the History of the Stuarts. This was better received, and
helped to retrieve the character of the former volume.
Three years afterwards his History of the House of Tu¬
dor made its appearance, and was almost as ill received
as the History of the Stuarts had been, the reign of Eli¬
zabeth being particularly obnoxious. The author, how-
VOL. XI.
ME. - 72]
ever, had now learned to aespise popular clamour; and Hume,
proceeded to finish at his leisure the more early part of
the English history, which was published in 1761, and
received with tolerable success.
Mr Hume being now turned of fifty, and having ob¬
tained by the sale of his books a competent fortune, re¬
tired into his native country of Scotland, determined
never more to set his foot out of it. From this resolution,
however, he was diverted by the Earl of Hertford, whom
he attended as secretary in his embassy to Paris in
1763. In 1765, the earl being appointed lord-lieutenant
of Ireland, Mr Hume was intrusted with the sole manage¬
ment of the business of the state till the arrival of the
Duke of Richmond towards the latter end of the year.
In 1767, he returned to Edinburgh, with a much larger
income, procured for him by the Earl of Hertford, than he
formerly possessed ; and now formed the same design he
had previously entertained, namely, of burying himself in
his philosophical retreat. In this, however, he was again
disappointed, by receiving an invitation from General
Conway to become under secretary of state ; and this in¬
vitation he was prevented from declining, both by the
character of the person, and his connections with Lord
Hertford. In 1769 he returned to Edinburgh, possessed
of L.1000 a year, healthy, and, though somewhat stricken
in years, yet having a prospect of long enjoying his ease,
and of seeing the increase of his reputation. Of his last
illness and character he has himself given the following
account:—“ In spring 1775 I was struck with a disorder
in my bowels, which at first gave me no alarm, but has
since, as I apprehend it, become mortal and incurable.
I now reckon upon a speedy dissolution. I have suffered
very little pain from my disorder; and, what is more
strange, have, notwithstanding the great decline of my
person, never suffered a moment’s abatement of my spi¬
rits ; insomuch that were I to name the period of my
life which I should most choose to pass over again, I
might be tempted to point to this latter period. I pos¬
sess the same ardour as ever in study, and the same gaiety
in company. I consider, besides, that a man of sixty-
five, by dying, cuts off only a few years of infirmities ;
and though I see many symptoms of my literary repu¬
tation breaking out at last with additional lustre, I know
that I could have but few years to enjoy it. It is diffi¬
cult to be more detached from life than I am at present.
To conclude, historically, with my own character, I am,
or rather was (for that is the style I must now use in
speaking of myself, which emboldens me the more to speak
my sentiments)—I was, I say, a man of mild dispositions,
of command of temper, of an open, social, and cheerful
humour, capable of attachment, but little susceptible of
enmity, and of great moderation in all my passions. Even
my love of literary fame, my ruling passion, never soured
my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments.
My company was not unacceptable to the young and care¬
less, as well as to the studious and literary; and as I took
particular pleasure in the company of modest women, I
had no reason to be displeased with the reception I met
with from them. In a word, though most men anywise
eminent have found reason to complain of calumny, I never
was touched, or even attacked, by her baleful tooth ; and
though I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil
and religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed in my
behalf of their wonted fury. My friends never had occa¬
sion to vindicate any one circumstance of my character
and conduct; not but that the zealots, we may well sup¬
pose, would have been glad to invent and propagate any
story to my disadvantage ; but they could never find any
which they thought would wear the face of probability. I
cannot say there is no vanity in making this funeral ora¬
tion of myself, but I hope it is not a misplaced one ; and
722 HUM
HUM
Hume, this is a matter of fact which is easily cleared and ascer-
tained.” His fears concerning the incurableness of his dis¬
order proved too true. He died on the 25th of August
1776, and was interred in the Calton-hill burying-ground,
Edinburgh, where a monument is erected to his memory.
Hume’s account of his own life is dated only four months
previous to his decease; and as he was then aware that a re¬
covery from the malady under which he suffered was hope¬
less, if not impossible, it may be considered as the testi¬
mony of a dying man respecting his own character, con¬
duct, and opinions. But it disappointed those who expect¬
ed to find in it some acknowledgment of error in specula¬
tion, and perhaps also some expressions of regret for the
injury done to many by the promulgation of doctrines cal¬
culated to unsettle their faith and annihilate their hopes in
religion. Hume, however, was not a man from whom any
thing of this sort could have reasonably been expected.
Devoid of all sense of religion in his own mind, and consti¬
tutionally disposed to call in question the received opinions
concerning it, he had, from a mere fondness for specula¬
tion, mixed with a love of philosophical applause, laboured
to extirpate from the human mind all respect for the au¬
thority of revelation, or the obligations imposed by it, and
had even treated the disciples and advocates of Christi¬
anity with a contempt bordering on detestation, “ as if he
had been revenging a personal injury.” Having early im¬
bibed the principles of a philosophy the direct tendency
of which was to unsettle all the foundations of belief, phi¬
losophical and moral, as well as religious, and thus to un¬
dermine the best interests and dissolve the firmest bonds
of society, he went on doubting until he even doubted whe¬
ther he doubted, and at last became so entangled in the
inextricable mazes of scepticism, that all kinds of opinion
or belief appeared to him involved in nearly equal uncer¬
tainty. With a mind thus overclouded by its own specu¬
lation, and a natural temper, in which quiet self-love was
interwoven with perfect equanimity, it is scarcely to be
wondered that Hume, instead of being visited by repent¬
ance or regret, should have terminated an otherwise ir¬
reproachable life “ in such a happy composure of mind
that nothing could exceed it.” In short, he died in the
same state of mind in which he had lived, “ believing no¬
thing, and fearing nothingand though, to men of differ¬
ent sentiments, there is something sickening in the levity
of his imaginary conversations with Charon, when in the
near prospect of eternity, yet this seems in no degree in¬
consistent with our general conception of his character,
and still less with the desire of rendering his death a sort
of triumph to philosophy, over what he and some at least
of his friends deemed superstition. In fact, he was at last
surrounded by men who, from congeniality of sentiments,
contemplated his end with satisfaction ; and it is by no
means improbable, that the same love of approbation for
which he was distinguished throughout life, should have
contributed to give a peculiar colouring to its close. But
however this may have been, his social qualities, his wit,
his acuteness, his generosity, and, we may add, his fame,
preserved to him the regard of his learned countrymen,
who forgot the sceptic in the philosopher, and the infidel
in the historian.
It is indeed as an historian and a political writer that
Hume will perhaps be best known to posterity. Yet even
in his capacity of historian he has many faults. As slavish
in politics as he was daring in religion, he does not scruple
to disguise facts from party motives; and he seldom omits
an occasion to sneer at Christianity under the name of fa¬
naticism or superstition. The inexpressible charm of his
style has been universally felt and acknowledged; but this
is at best only a poor compensation for that negligence
which prevents an historian from discovering the truth, or
that prejudice which leads him to misrepresent it. Hume, we
fear, sinned in both ways; and his reputation has suffered Humo
in consequence. His errors have been detected, his misre- ||
presentations exposed, and his unjust aspersions refuted, Humili;
often by the very authorities which he professed to have ’'"''V''
consulted. But his political and historical disquisitions
display throughout an acuteness, penetration, and compre¬
hensiveness which no writer of modern times has approach¬
ed, and which, notwithstanding all the defects we have al¬
luded to, will secure to him a rank permanently high in the
literature of his country. In his political essays, he antici¬
pated many truths, which it has required more than half a
century adequately to unfold and illustrate.
Of the character of Hume as a speculative philosopher
the reader will find the most able and exact appreciation
in the First and Second Dissertations prefixed to the pre¬
sent work. That he mj^s profound, far-sighted, and even
original, in as far at least as originality consists in discover¬
ing consequences which had escaped the penetration of
others, has been admitted even by his opponents ; nor can
it be doubted that intellectual philosophy has benefited by
the rare sagacity with which he traced some of the pre¬
vailing systems to their necessary consequences, and thus
showed how dangerous it is to form theories on a subject
where the sphere of observation is extremely confined, and
direct experiment is in a great measure impracticable.
Few books have been so often reprinted as Hume’s His¬
tory, and none has ever experienced greater injustice, than
by being united, in the same form, with Smollett’s Conti¬
nuation. The best and most complete edition of his phi¬
losophical works, is that which was published at Edinburgh,
1826, in four vols. 8vo, including all the essays, and exhi¬
biting the more important alterations and corrections in
the successive editions published by the author. In this
edition, which was superintended by Mr David Constable,
the essays are reprinted from that of 1777, corrected by
the author for the press a short time before his death, and
which he desired to be regarded as containing his philoso¬
phical principles ; whilst the essays contained in the early
editions, but which were omitted in that of 1777, are an¬
nexed to the fourth volume, together with two essays, the
one on Suicide, and the other on the Immortality of the
Soul. In addition to the author’s Life, written by himself •
the account of his controversy with Rousseau, originally
printed in French, and shortly afterwards (in 1766) in
English, is also prefixed. The English translation was su¬
perintended by Mr Hume himself; and as it relates to an
extraordinary occurrence in the lives of these eminent per¬
sons, it has justly been thought a suitable appendage to the
short memoir which Mr Hume left of his own life.
HUMECTATION, formed of humour, moisture, moist¬
ening, in pharmacy, the preparing of a medicine by steep¬
ing it for a time in water, in order to soften and moisten
it; or to cleanse it, or prevent its subtile parts from being
dissipated in grinding, or the like.
Humectation is also used for the application of moist¬
ening remedies. In this sense we say, embrocations, em-
plasters, unctions, humectations, fomentations, and so on.
HUMIDITY, that quality in bodies by which they are
capable of wetting other bodies. This differs very much
from fluidity, and seems to be merely a relative thing, de¬
pending on the congruity of the component particles of the
liquor to the pores of such particular bodies as it is capa¬
ble of adhering to, penetrating a little, or wetting. Thus,
for instance, quicksilver is not moist with regard to our
hands or clothes, but may be called so in reference to gold,
tin, or lead, to whose surfaces it will perfectly adhere, and
render them soft and moist.
HUMILI ATI, a congregation of religious persons in
the church of Rome, established by some Milanese gentle¬
men upon their release from prison, where they had been
confined under the Emperor Conrad, or, as others say, un-
HUN
HUN
723
pjailia- der Frederick I. in the year 1162. This order, which ac-
J311 quired great wealth, and had no less than ninety monaste-
|l ries, was abolished by Pope Pius V. in 1570, for their
luxury and cruelty, and their houses given to the Domini-
” ' cans and Cordeliers.
HUMILIATION, the act of humbling or of abating a
person’s pride, and bringing him lower in his opinion. In
this sense humiliation is distinguished from mortification ;
for humiliation brings down the mind, but mortification
subdues the flesh.
HUMILITY is a virtue consisting in the moderate va¬
lue which a person puts upon himself, and every thing re¬
lating to him. Or, more particularly, it consists in not at¬
tributing to ourselves any excellence or good which we
have not; in not overrating any thing which we have or
do; in not taking an immoderate delight in one’s self; in
not assuming more of the praise of a quality or action than
belongs to us ; and in a lowly sense and acknowledgment
of our imperfections, errors, and sins. This virtue ex¬
presses itself in the modesty of our appearance, of our pur¬
suits, and of our behaviour towards other men. It is dis¬
tinguished from affectation, bashfulness, and meanness.
HUMMOCK Island. There are two small islands of
this name, in the Eastern Seas, one fifteen miles south of
Mindanao, in long. 126. 37. E. and lat. 5. 24. N. The other,
which is inaccessible except at one point, lies in long. 123.
40. E. and lat. 24. 15. N.
HUMOUR, from the Latin humor, in its original signi¬
fication, stands for moisture in general; and hence it has
been restricted to signify the moisture of animal bodies, or
those fluids which circulate through them. As the tem¬
per of the mind has been supposed to depend upon the
state of the fluids in the body, humour came to be sy¬
nonymous with temper and disposition.
Humour is often made use of to express a particular spe¬
cies or modification of wit. See Wit.
HUMPHREY, Laurence, a learned English divine,
was born at Newport-Pagnell, Buckinghamshire, about the
year 1527. He received his school education at Cam¬
bridge, ahd afterwards became a fellow of Magdalen Col- Hundred
lege, Oxford, where he took his degree as master of arts I
in 1552. In 1555 he retired, with other Protestant refu- HunSar^*
gees, to Zurich, in Switzerland, where he resided for some
time; but after the death of Queen Mary he returned to
England, where he was restored to his fellowship in Mag¬
dalen College, from which he had been expelled, and, in
1560, appointed queen’s professor of divinity at Oxford.
In 1570 he was made dean of Gloucester; in 1580 he
was removed to the deanery of Winchester; and, if he
had not been disaffected towards the church of England, in
other words, a moderate and conscientious nonconformist,
he would probably have been raised to the episcopal bench.
Humphrey was considered as a great and general scholar,
an able linguist, a profound theologian, and, for his time,
an excellent writer. He died early in 1590, leaving a wife
who had brought him twelve children. His works are, 1.
Epistola de Graecis Uteris, et Homeri lectione et imitatione,
Basil, 1558; 2. De Religionis conservatione et reforma-
tione, deque primatu Regum, Basil, 1559; 3. De Ratione
interpretandi auctores, Basil, 1559 ; 4. Optimates, sive de
Nobilitate, ej usque antiqua origine, Basil, 1560 ; 5. Joan-
nis Juelli Angli, Episcopi Sarisburiensis, Vita et Mors,
London, 1573; 6. Two Latin Orations spoken before
Queen Elizabeth, one in 1572, and the other in 1575; 7.
Sermons; 8. Some Latin pieces against the Papists, parti¬
cularly Campian. (a.)
HUNDRED, Hundredum, or Centuria, a part or di¬
vision of a county, and anciently so called from its contain¬
ing an hundred families, or from its furnishing an hundred
able men for the king’s wars. After Alfred’s dividing
England into counties, and giving the government of each
county to a sheriff, these counties were divided into hun¬
dreds, of which the constable was the chief officer.
HUNFELD, a town of the province of Fulda, in Hesse-
Cassel, the capital of a bailiwick of the same name, which
contains one town and thirty-two villages, with 7633 in¬
habitants. The town is situated on the river Haun, and
has some considerable bleacheries, with 1730 inhabitants.
HUNGARY.
I :nt
31 popu.
h n.
This is the largest division of the dominions under the
government of the imperial house of Austria. It is form¬
ed into three separate parts, politically distinguished as
the kingdom of Hungary, the principality of Siebenbur-
gen, and the military districts of Carlstadt, Warasdin, and
the Bannat. Although the other parts will be noticed in
their alphabetical order in this work, this general head
will comprehend such circumstances as may be applica¬
ble to the whole, because its chief purpose is to describe
what, in the Austrian administration, is denominated the
kingdom of Hungary.
The names of the circles, their extent, their population,
and the capitals of each circle, are as follow:
Hither Danube 
Farther Danube 
Hither Theissa 
Farther Theissa....
Sclavonia 
Croatia 
Peculiar (besondere)
Districts  
Extent in
Square
Miles.
21,890
17,402
15,249
27,308
3,784
3,786
15,718
105,197
Population.
2,572,129
1,943,143
1,597,105
2,231,353
348,340
558,066
1,121,136
10,371,272
Capital Cities.
Presburg.
U ngrisch-Altenburg.
Leutschau or Locse.
Szigeth.
Eszek or Essegg.
Warasdin.
Agram or Zagrab.
The capital of the whole kingdom was formerly the city
of Presburg, but since 1784 that honour has been enjoyed
by the city called by the Germans Ofen, and by the
Hungarians Buda, which is in fact a kind of suburb to the
city of Pesth, but separated from it by the river Danube,
over which there is a long wooden bridge, which keeps
up the communication between the two places, whose
united population amounts to 95,000 souls.
Few countries contain a greater variety of races than Races of
are to be found in the population of Hungary, or classes the people-
varying more in their language, religion, occupations,
manners, and in their progress towards civilization. ,lhe
most numerous of these races are the Magyars, the ori¬
ginal inhabitants. They reside chiefly in the central and
most fruitful plains, where the agriculture is most easily
conducted, and leave to the Sclavonians that part of the
country which is mountainous or sterile, or where more
severe labour is required. They are remarkable for their
strength rather than their height, being very muscular,
with broad shoulders, but with rather short legs and arms ;
and their countenances are distinguished by a conscious
expression and a look of self-importance. Their language
is clear and concise, and the sound of it is soft and pleas¬
ing. They are much attached to it, and generally prefer
it to the Latin, which all but the very lowest of them can
speak. They are divided into three branches, each of
724 HUNGARY.
Hungaiy. which has its peculiar dialect, and are distinguished by nomination of German, or other colonists, are free. The Hun^
'—'N""-'' the districts they occupy thus: the Magyars of the Da- lot of the common peasants has, however, been of late w^
nube, the Magyars of the Theissa, and the Paloczin years much improved. They are more protected against
Magyars. Another of the greater races of the people is the power of their lords, by being allowed to acquire
the Sclavonian, who inhabit chiefly the mountainous dis- property, and by being permitted to leave their estates to
tricts within the kingdom, both in the north and the south, their heirs, and to become, if they can do so, burghers
They are of a darker complexion than the Magyars, but of the royal cities. Their condition is, however, still a
are well formed, and the females are distinguished by severe one, as they bear almost all the burdens of the
their forms, and graceful figures and movements. This state, and are incapable of commencing suits in the courts
race is distinguished by different names, and they differ against either the nobility or burghers.
much in their several dialects. The Slowaks are the Although all the Christian sects enjoy equal civil rights Relidor
oldest settlers in the hilly district, and amongst them are and similar legal establishments, the Roman Catholics areail(l ed^l
some originally from Bohemia, some few from Poland, the most numerous body. They consist of two classes,tion-
many from Red Russia (called Russniaks), and others one adopting the Latin ritual, the other adhering to that
in the south from Illyria, sometimes called Serbians. In of the Greek church, and called United Greeks. Accord-
these are comprehended the greater number of the Croa- ing to a survey made in 1825, the former amounted to
tians, many of the Bulgarians, and, near the sea coast, 5,233,952 individuals, and the latter to 624,259. The
about Fiume, the Liburini. As these have various dia- hierarchy for these 5,858,211 persons consists of three
lects, some approaching nearer to the Latin than others, archbishops, in the cities of Gran, Kolocsa, and Erlau; of
but all in some degree connected with that language, the seventeen bishops, viz. in Agram, Bosnie with Sirmien,
intercourse between the tribes is maintained by a spe- Esanad, Fiinfkirchen, Grosswardein, Kaschau, Neusol,
cies, much adulterated, of the tongue of ancient Rome. Neitra, Raab, Roseneau, Steinamanger, Stuhlweisen-
Fhe Germans in Flungary are a numerous body ; and the burg, Szathmar, Veszprim, Waizen, and Zeug with Zips;
two descriptions of them are distinguished by the natives and, besides these, there are the following dignities, viz.
as Saxons and Suabians. The first settled in the coun- 307 canonries, 160 abbeys, eighty-nine archdeaconries,
try some centuries ago, and came as colonists from Sax- and 307 vice-archdeaconries. This sect has 3723 paro-
ony and the banks of the Rhine. The second colonists chial churches and numerous chapels, which are served
have obtained settlements at various but more recent by 6345 priests. Next in number to the Roman Catho-
times. ^ Ihe whole number of this race is estimated at lie is the orthodox Greek or non-united church, compris-
about 700,000. I hey inhabit a tolerably good and exten- ing 1,452,516 persons. This church has for its rulers an
siye breadth of land along the frontiers of the provinces archbishop at Carlovitz, and seven bishops at the cities of
of Austria and Steyermark, from the Danube to the Raab, Bacs, Temeswar, Carlstadt, Paekracz, Arad, Ofen, and
and have, in the interior of the land, several cities and Werschetz. They have sixty presbyteries, twenty-five
towns, as well as numerous small places in the southern and large convents, 1643 churches, 2122 pastors, and 2781
western divisions of Hungary. They mostly retain their lay ecclesiastics, who form a kind of monks. The Protes-
original language, which, however, is much corrupted by tant Reformed church, on the Geneva model, consists al-
the adoption of words and phrases from the several tribes most wholly of Magyars, and amounts to 1,251,226 per-
with which they are in contact. The smaller settlers in sons. They are under four superintendencies, establish-
Ilungary are the Wallachians, the New Greeks or Mace- ed in the cities of Pesth, Papa, Miskolcz, and Debrec-
donians, a colony of I rench in the county of Torontal, zin; and under these there are thirty-four synods, 1359
another of Italians on the sea-coasts, and numerous Turk- churches, and 1407 pastors. The Lutheran church con-
ish individuals in all the commercial towns and cities, sists of 667,945 members, and is governed by four super-
About 140,000 Jews are established in Hungary, who, intendents or bishops, residing in the cities of Presburg,
with some scattered Armenians in most of the towns, Neusol, Odenburg, and Teissholz; under these are thirty-
™ n reta.^ traders. five consistories, with 487 parish churches, many chapels,
Classes of The inhabitants are divided into nobles, citizens, and and 518 ministers. Besides these there are a few assem-
ants.1 Peasants. Fhe first class, though differing in titles and blies of Armenians, and a few Mahommedans. The Jews
rank, have all equal privileges; the principal distinction have 342 synagogues, and a rabbi to each. Though the
between them is, that, in the assembly of the states, or population has vastly increased since 1825, it is not sup-
diet, the magnates have personally a seat and vote; whilst posed that the proportional numbers of the several reli-
the other nobles vote by their representatives. The gious parties has been materially altered. Each of these
higher clergy are considered as nobles, and enjoy similar sects has its separate schools, colleges, and universities;
privileges. Ihe nobility can alone possess free lands, or and education is more diffused than in many of the other
tnose enjoying the jus dominicale, and they are exempt parts of Europe. In most of the sees schools for Catho-
from tuxes, tithes, and the quartering of soldiers ; but, on lies are supported by the prelates ; and besides, there are
the other hand, they are bound to perform personal mili- royal academies at Agram, Grosswardein, Kaschau, Pres-
tary service, when the pressure of circumstances compels burg, and Raab; and at Pesth there is one of the oldest
the diet to decree the levy en masse, or, as it is called, and richest universities in Europe. In the schools of
theinsui-rection. the higher class, including the university, the number of
Ihe citizens or burghers are the inhabitants of those students is stated at 20,318. The schools for primary in-
cities which own no superior lord but the monarch. These struction in the villages are but slightly encouraged, nor
have privileges similar to the nobility, by which they are do the peasantry discover much inclination for instruc-
exempted from the payment of taxes and tithes, and from tion ; but in the cities and large towns there are 103 schools
the quartenngs of the military; and their deputies have for the use of the Catholics. The Protestants of the re¬
seats in the diet. They are governed by their own ma- formed class, as well as the Lutherans, have schools for
gistrates, and manage their own local funds. They can- primary instruction in each of their parishes. The former
not, however, hold estates out of their cities, nor institute have burgher schools in the cities, and seven gymnasiums,
a suit against the nobles in their individual names, but only and three colleges at Debreczin', Saros-Patak, and Papa,
in that of the corporation to which they belong. The with 4180 students. The Lutherans have nine gymna-
peasants geneially are slaves, but with a more or less mi- siums and good colleges at Eperies, Presburg, Odenburg,
tigated degree of servitude ; and some few, under the de- and Kesmark, in which there are 2660 students. The non-
HUNGARY.
] ngary. united Greeks have till recently much neglected the edu-
J cation of the adherents of their church ; but of late years
some attempts at improvement have been made. They
have established some schools, the best of which are at
St Andrew, Alt-Ofen, and Miskolcz. As aids to the
higher branches of science, may be noticed the astrono¬
mical observatories at Ofen and at Elau, the chemical and
mineralogical institutes at Schemnitz, the military aca¬
demy at Pesth, and the society founded in 1832 in that
city, under the title of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
} in tains The northern and western sides of Hungary are re¬
al face ofmarkably mountainous. The Carpathian Mountains form
tfcoun' a semicircle extending from the south-east portion of the
kingdom till it meets the Danube on the western frontier.
In the circle they describe, many projecting ranges ex¬
tend themselves into the level land. On the western side
the Carinthian Mountains cover a considerable portion of
the kingdom. The highest points of the Carpathian Moun¬
tains are, the Lomnitzer Spitze, 8545 feet above the level
of the sea ; the great Krywan, 8218; the Caesmark, 8194 ;
and the Uniacke, 7597. The loftiest parts of the Carin¬
thian Mountains, though within the Austrian dominions,
form no portion of the kingdom of Hungary, nor do any
part of the Noric or Rhsetian Alps. The greatest extent
of level land in Hungary is found to the eastward of the
river Theissa, forming a rich plain of more than 20,000
square miles. Another level, called the Three-Cornered
Plain, is found to the eastward of the Danube, beginning
near Presburg, the base of which line extends 150 miles in
length. The soil is as various as the elevation of the land ;
on the mountains it is dry and sterile; on the terraces
that surround them, of moderate fertility, and of most
luxuriant richness on the plains, but mixed with consider¬
able tracts nearly barren, where, for many miles, neither
tree, stone, bush, nor living creature, are to be seen, with
sand-hills, varying their position with the violent storms
that frequently occur.
i tiva- Hungary, however, is a country highly productive,
1 • yielding the largest proportion of the necessaries of life of
any part of the ancient Austrian dominions, and furnish¬
ing, from its surplus, large quantities of corn, tobacco,
fruit, wine, and cattle, to the neighbouring states. Ac¬
cording to the account of Grellman, the extent of land is
39,329,000 jochs, the joch being equal to an English acre
and two fifths. Of this land only 23,905,126 jochs are in
cultivation ; the remainder is composed of sandy deserts,
lakes, morasses, and barren mountains. The productive
lands are thus divided: 4,897,218 arable, 638,767 gar¬
dens, 911,176 vineyards, 2,129,225 meadows, 5,536,000
pastures, 850,000 ponds, and 8,940,740 woods. The
northern part of Hungary scarcely produces sufficient
corn for its own consumption; but the south is the gra¬
nary, not only for the northern part of the kingdom, but,
after deficient harvests, for a great portion both of Ger¬
many and Italy. The corn consists of wheat, rye, barley,
oats, peas, and, in the most southern parts, of rice and
maize. Next to the cultivation of corn, the growth of
wine is the most considerable object of attention, and
managed with the greatest care. The wines of Tokay have
long been celebrated throughout Europe, and are of the
first class of sweet wines ; but the wines of Odenburg, of
Rust, and of Ofen, are very highly valued, though but little
known beyond the boundaries of the Austrian empire.
The whole of the annual produce of wine is estimated by
Blumenbach at 4,500,000 hogsheads, and valued at nearly
ten millions sterling. Notwithstanding the proportion of
woodland, the eastern part of the kingdom is much dis¬
tressed from the want of fuel; but the west furnishes
much wood, both for firing and building, and considerable
quantities of gall-nuts, turpentine, pitch, tar, and pot and
pearl ashes, for the supply of the surrounding countries.
725
The other productions of agriculture which furnish com- Hungary,
merce, are hemp, flax, and tobacco. This last article has
been long and successfully cultivated ; and that produced
in the provinces of Tolna, of Fiinfkirchen, and in the pe¬
ninsula of Murakoz, is highly prized for its peculiarly aro¬
matic flavour. The forests are of great extent, cover¬
ing nearly 15,000,000 English acres. They furnish abun¬
dant fuel for home consumption; and some timber, with
much charcoal, is exported. Vast quantities of gall-nuts
are collected in the woods; and the bark, especially of
the oak, is an article of considerable traffic with Turkey,
and with other countries.
The breeding of cattle is an important branch of the Cattle,
rural economy of Hungary. The horses, though small,
are active and hardy; but, in spite of the measures pur¬
sued by the government to improve the races, they are still
much inferior to those of most parts of the empire. They
are generally set to work at too early a period, and their
food is usually scanty and bad. They have, however,
been somewhat improved of late years by the institution
of studs in different parts, whence stallions are gratuitous¬
ly supplied. The whole number of horses does not ex¬
ceed 480,000 of all kinds. The horned cattle are a race
much valued in every part of the empire, though they re¬
ceive but little attention. The extensive steppes between
Debreczin, Temeswar, Neusatz, and Pesth, are the native
homes of these beasts. Their number is 886,900 oxen,
and 1,508,100 cows. These, by their sale to the surround¬
ing countries, produce annually nearly L.500,000 sterling.
The numbers of the sheep are stated to be upwards of
8,000,000. There are prodigious flocks on the plains be¬
tween the Danube and the Theissa, and on the elevated
grounds of that district. The wool is coarse, and the
owners estimate the cheese, milk, and flesh, more than
the fleeces. In Western Hungary, on the other hand,
the large flocks having been much improved of late years
by crosses with the Merino breeds, and with the sheep of
Padua, yield fine wool, which, to the value of L.500,000,
is exported. Swine are reared in abundance ; and though,
when cured, they form the principal animal food of the
inhabitants, there are yearly from 200,000 to 250,000 of
these animals exported. The feathered tribes furnish a
part of the annual wealth of the country. The greater
part of the goose feathers, in which the Jews of Prague
trade, come from Hungary; and the capital of the Aus¬
trian dominions is supplied from thence with that com¬
modity. The rearing of silk-worms has been of late much
attended to in some of the southern parts of Hungary,
especially in the Bannat. The mulberry trees are very
flourishing, and great progress is expected in future, but
the undertaking is yet in its infancy.
The southern part of Hungary is a country enriched by Minerals,
minerals of various kinds. About two thirds of the mines
belong to the crown, and are worked on account ot the
government, under an expensive system of administra¬
tion, and with a profusion of royal officers. These are
formed into four divisions, the principal seats of which are
at Chemnitz, Schmolnitz, Nagybanja, and Oravicza, and
employ, in the various operations, about 45,000 workmen.
The labourers occupied in these mining operations are
generally emigrants from Moldavia and Wallachia. We
have no statistical accounts of the actual produce of the
mines; but that of gold, silver, and iron has of late years
increased. The first two of these metals have advanced,
in the last fifteen years, from the value of L.220,000 to
nearly L.400,000, and the increase in iron has been in
nearly the same proportion. t
The manufactures of Hungary are yet in an infant state. Manufac-
The kingdom has been long accustomed to supply rawtures.
materials to the surrounding countries, and to draw from
them their manufactured goods. The inhabitants are not
726 HUN
Hungary.^ disposed to labour in confined houses; and, till within the
WV"*^ last twenty years, their principal occupation, exclusively
of agriculture, was confined to making very coarse cloths,
and various kinds of woodware, for furniture, musical in¬
struments, and toys. The spinning of flax is a domestic
manufactory, carried on by the females of almost every
peasant’s family. The annual quantity produced is esti¬
mated at sixteen million of ells, or about ten million yards,
the far greater part of which is consumed within the king¬
dom. The principal bleaching works are at Roseneau,
where about 300,000 ells are annually whitened, all of the
finer kind. There is much woollen cloth made in small
manufactories scattered over the kingdom, but it is of a
coarse quality, and adapted only for the use of the peasan¬
try. Within the last thirty years more extensive factories
have been established in Gacs, Illawa, Kaschau, Mun-
katsch, Lipersdorf, Mosztenie, and Presburg. These have
been mostly founded by Germans, and the greater part
of the operative people are of that nation. At these
places the use of various kinds of machinery has been in¬
troduced, and the cloth made in them, from the wool
of a mixed breed of sheep, partly of the Merino and
partly of the Paduan races, is of fine quality and well fi¬
nished. There are forty paper-mills in Hungary, which
produce printing and writing paper, all of a very wretched
quality, except some from the mill belonging to the uni¬
versity, which is tolerably good. Silks and ribbons are
made at Pesth, Grosswardein, and Presburg, but to a very
small extent. The leather of Hungary is much valued
throughout the whole Austrian territories, but the quanti¬
ty of curried leather, prepared mostly at Presburg, is not
equal to the consumption ; and the hides of their cattle are
sent to Germany, from which they return in a state fit for
use. The tanneries are numerous in Presburg, Funfkir-
chen, Ratko, Zips, and Debreczin. The iron produced
by the native mines is manufactured into the various arti¬
cles which the wants of the inhabitants require, at Zips,
Abouigvar, Sarosch, Zemplin, Vorschod, and through the
whole county of Gomorer. The best steel is made in Dios-
gyvor, and the vicinity of Neusol; and the swords and other
weapons manufactured in the different hardware districts
are esteemed as of excellent quality, though of clumsy
and grotesque forms. Glass is made (but scarcely any but
green) in twenty-five glass-houses in different parts of the
kingdom. The sugar refiners supply the domestic con¬
sumption. Snuff and tobacco are made almost exclusive¬
ly from the plants raised on their own soil. The soap of
Hungary, which is very good, is principally made from
natron in Debreczin, where there are seventy-eight ma¬
nufactories of that article. Linseed-oil, oil of turpentine,
corn spirits, cordials, especially Rosoglio, and a medicine
for wounds, known through Germany by the name of the
Hungarian Balsam, refined saltpetre, and pearl ashes, are
the productions of the other manufactories.
Commerce. Hungary is surrounded on every side by the other Aus¬
trian dominions. The states of that country are proud of
their independence as a separate kingdom, and tenacious
of their privileges, especially of their exemption from the
taxes imposed by the cabinet of Vienna. As the empe¬
ror’s government has no wish to embroil itself with the
states by attempting internal taxation, it extracts a reve¬
nue by surrounding Hungary with custom-houses, where
tolls are collected on every commodity that enters into
the kingdom, or passes from it into the hereditary states.
1 he toll thus collected is one-thirtieth part of the com¬
modity, or three and a third per cent, on the value of it.
The very high rate of carriage, arising from the bad state
ot the roads, is, however, a greater impediment to the ex¬
change of commodities than even this tax at the frontiers.
The principal trade of Hungary beyond the immediate
boundaries is with Poland and Silesia, which countries
GARY.
draw from thence their wine, and with the north of Italy, Hungai
to which its surplus corn is transported. The port of v—-v-'
Fiume is connected with Hungary by the only good roads
the kingdom possesses, and may be considered as its ha¬
ven for exportation and importation, and as alone bring¬
ing it into contact with distant countries. The central
point of internal trade is Pesth, where, at four great fairs,
the concourse of buyers and sellers is so great, that the
prices settled by them, if they do not absolutely govern,
in a great degree regulate, those of the other parts of the
kingdom. From the central city the commerce diverges
in four great branches : Is#, Towards the German Austrian
• dominions by Raab, Presburg, Komorn, and Odenburg,
at each of which places considerable business is transact¬
ed ; 2c?, towards Gallicia, through Kaschau, Eperies, and
Leutschau; 3c?, to Siebenburgen, Moldavia, and Wallachia,
through Debreczin, Ezegedin, and Temeswar; and, kth,
to the Turkish dominions beyond the Danube, through
Neusatz and Semlin. At all these places considerable
annual fairs or markets are held, which are resorted to by
' vast numbers of merchants, not only from Germany and
Poland, but by the Turks, Armenians, Greeks, and’even
Tartars. Besides the marts at these cities, there are in
Hungary sixteen hundred other places where annual fairs
are held. The means of internal transit furnished by the
rivers are a great assistance to commerce. The Danube
is navigable for craft of two hundred tons burden, the
Theissa for those of one hundred; and the other rivers, the
Save, the Drave, the Waag, the Gran, the Unna, and the
Kulpa, are all navigable for smaller vessels of various di¬
mensions. The recent introduction of steam navigation
has been extended to Hungary, and promises great ad¬
vantages to the future commerce with the Black Sea.
Some impediments on the Danube have already been re¬
moved, and measures are in progress for removing the re¬
mainder ; but already several steam-vessels have complet¬
ed their voyage from Pesth to Constantinople. The chief
commodities exported from Hungary are the raw products
of the soil. The greatest in amount are live cattle ; the
next in value to these are, corn, tobacco, wine, hides, and
wool. The chief imports are, colonial ware, linen, cot¬
ton, and woollen articles for clothing, and some few fo¬
reign luxuries. The value of the exports is said to ex¬
ceed that of the imports to the amount of L.750,000 an¬
nually.
The government of Hungary is a limited monarchy, Constitu
at present hereditary in the house of Hapsburg ; but, in tion.
case of the failure of all the branches of that family, the
king, or rather dynasty, becomes elective by the assem¬
bled states or diet. The laws by which the constitution
was founded, and by which it is maintained, are the Gol¬
den Bull of their king Andreas II., dated in 1222, the
magna charta of the nobles, whose privileges are princi¬
pally regarded; and these have been confirmed by the
peace of Vienna in 1606, and of Lintz in 1647. By these
two treaties also the free exercise of their religion is se¬
cured to the Protestant sectaries. All these interests
were further confirmed by the diet of Presburg in 1687,
and by the inauguration diploma of Leopold II. in 1790.
These various charters and acts of the states have merely
secured to the privileged orders their ancient rights, but
have left the peasantry, or, in other words, the great mass
of the population, in the same state of subjection as be¬
fore their promulgation.
The whole executive power is vested in the monarch. The kinj
He is the source of all titles and offices, and nominates to
the higher ecclesiastical dignities, and to the benches of
justice. He makes war and peace, can call together and
dissolve the diet, and draw forth the whole military po¬
pulation. He receives the incomes of all vacant ecclesi¬
astical benefices, and is heir to the property of such noble
HUNGARY.
. H sary. families as become extinct. The direction of the univer-
J - ^ sities and colleges belongs to the king, but to the higher
offices in them he can only appoint those who are of no¬
ble birth. The appeals to Rome upon the affairs of the
Catholic church can only be made through him, and the
royal authority has been constantly exercised to contract
the number and to limit the causes of such applications.
The king must be of the Catholic religion, and, at his in¬
auguration, must swear to maintain the privileges and
rights of the states. Notwithstanding this oath, by va¬
rious circumstances, many arising out of the late long
wars, the power and influence of the crown have been re¬
cently very much extended. Within six months after
succeeding to the throne, the king must call together the
states, and in their presence, in the open air, swear to
maintain the privileges of the states, to leave the crown
of St Stephen within the kingdom, and to allow the states
to elect a king, upon failure of issue both male and fe¬
male of the Emperor Charles VI. Joseph I. and Leopold
I. During a minority, the palatine is guardian of the
king and kingdom; but the monarch is capable of assum¬
ing the exercise of power when he has completed his four¬
teenth year.
St s. The states of Hungary (status et ordines) consist of, 1^,
the prelates, to which class belong the archbishops, bishops,
abbots, and priors of the Greek and Catholic churches;
2d, the temporal barons and magnates, the high bailiffs of
the provinces, and the counts and independent noble pro¬
prietors of estates; 3c?, the nobility or knights, who do
not attend personally, but choose two deputies for each
county (komitat) or province; and, kth, the deputies from
the royal cities. These members are said to be the re¬
presentatives of Hungary, whilst the mass of the inhabi¬
tants, described in their law as misera plebs contribuens,
have no connection with public affairs, except by paying
taxes and furnishing recruits, from both which services
the nobles and clergy are exempt. The purposes for
which the states assemble are, the coronation of the king,
the election of a palatine, the admission to or exclusion
of nobles and cities from their rank, the granting subsi¬
dies and imposing taxes, and the framing new laws, or
rather giving the assent of the assembly to such laws as
the king may enact. By the constitution, the states
should be convened every five years, or whenever any
pressing circumstances require their assembling. Of these
circumstances the king must judge, as the states are only
convened by his summons. They meet in two chambers,
or, as they are denominated, tables. The magnates’ ta¬
ble is composed of the royal barons, the high hereditary
officers of the kingdom, and the prelates, counts, and free
landlords. The other chamber, called the states’ table,
consists of the deputies of the komitats, or the supleans of
the nobles, the representatives of the royal free cities,
and the persons appointed by such magnates as do not
attend, who are called ablegati absentium. Though the
states meet but in two chambers, yet they vote in four
distinct bodies, and the absolute majority of those present
determine each question in that body. If the king and
three of these bodies determine any point, it becomes a
law ; and the fourth body has no suspending power. The
king appears personally, or by his commissioner, and claims
his prerogatives, and the states demand a confirmation
of their rights. At the diet in 1792 there were present
thirty bishops and other ecclesiastics, 178 counts, 131
hereditary officers and barons, sixteen law officers, thirty de¬
puties of chapters, ninety-eight representatives of komitats,
115 supleans of absent magnates, and eighty-two deputies
of cities. The sitting of the diet depends on the king, who
has usually dismissed them as speedily as possible, out of re¬
gard to the general welfare of the people. During the meet¬
ing of the diet, all the courts of justice are shut up, and the
727
deputies of the free cities and of the komitats are maintain-Hungary,
ed at the time of the session at the expense of the people
who send them, whilst the hereditary officers are kept by
the crown. From these regulations, it is not to be won¬
dered at that no anxiety for the meeting of the diet is ma¬
nifested by any part of the kingdom. The king is well
aware that no considerable sum beyond what is necessary
•for the expenses of the local government will often be
granted by the diet; and when it is granted, as the whole
is squeezed from the hard earnings of the peasants, it is
collected with difficulty, and produces great oppression.
As each komitat has its own provincial diet, in which its
affairs are discussed and regulated, and to which appeals
from the courts of justice of the nobles (herren stuhls) can
be made, there is less occasion for the assembling of the
general diet; and though, by the constitution, that body
should meet every five years, yet, by a general acquies¬
cence, its periodical convocation has been of late dispensed
with. Whenever the diet is convoked, the summons of
the monarch states the purposes for which they are to meet,
in the orders to these subordinate diets ; and "no other pro¬
position is or can be produced at the assembly. The local
diets thus have an opportunity of discussing the proposi¬
tions that are to be made to the general assembly, of de¬
termining what part to take, and of instructing their depu¬
ties in what manner to vote. No project of a new law ori¬
ginates with any of the states; and the sittings, though
they were formerly very stormy, have of late been rather
in compliance with ancient forms, and for purposes of dis¬
play, than for any objects of great utility.
The principal officer of the kingdom is the palatine, Great ofli-
who is the representative of the king, president of the cers.
diet, and of the supreme court of justice, dispenser of
pardons, and mediator between the monarch and the
states; his office continues only one year, but he may be
re-appointed. Next to him is the judge of the supreme
court, who is the president of the other two, and fills the
office of palatine in the absence of that chief. The ban
of the Croats follows next in rank, but has no official du¬
ties, unless at the coronation, when he carries the golden
ball. The hereditary treasurer (tavernicus) has a seat
in the supreme council, and is captain of the noble Hun¬
garian body guards, who perform the palace duty.
The administration is conducted by the emperor, Chancery
through the means of the Hungarian court of chancery court,
in Vienna, which is constituted of twenty-four state coun¬
cillors, viz. three ecclesiastics, eleven magnates, and ten
of knightly rank, all nominated by the monarch. This
college exercises the superintendence over churches,
schools, and charitable establishments, administers the
funds of the universities and convents, and regulates the
agriculture, the trade, and the feudal claims. This body
has no original jurisdiction in matters of finance or of jus¬
tice, but may be appealed to by the provincial diets or
the local courts of law.
The primary courts of law are under the control of the Oppressed
nobles, who appoint the judges and direct the procedure.state of
The oppression in such courts towards those not noble t^le PeoP^e-
has long been excessive, and, though somewhat mitigated
since the reign of Maria Theresa, bears still the deep im¬
pression of the worst periods of the feudal government.
The whole system of law seems calculated only to secure
and perpetuate to the nobility the enormous power they
possess. The nobles are exempt from all taxes and im¬
posts of every kind; the only duty they owe to the state
is that of personal service in war. If a person not noble
assaults one who is so, the legal punishment is death,
which is, however, now usually commuted into the forfei¬
ture of all his property, with the privilege of reclaiming it
whenever he shall have the means of paying lor it a sti¬
pulated portion of the value. If a peasant is injured by
HUNGARY.
728
Hungary, a noble to whose estate he is attached, he can have no
redress, since he can only sue for it in the name and
through the medium of the very person against whom he
seeks it. The court in which his complaint is to be heard,
not only consists of persons who are generally the depen¬
dents of the presumed offender, but moreover they can
only be assembled at his summons. If a peasant is injur¬
ed by any other noble, he cannot seek redress in his own
person, but only through the intervention of him on whose
estate he lives; and such is the contempt in which the
peasantry are held, that even this privilege must very
often be nugatory. The law of entail is another injurious
privilege of the nobility, common, indeed, to all the feu¬
dal countries, which puts it out of their power to alienate
the estates to the detriment of the successors. The effect
of this is, that the possessions of the nobles are of enor¬
mous extent, embracing often whole komitats ; and they
are held upon tenures which convert them into the na¬
ture of principalities. The kingdom indeed partakes more
of the nature of a great military confederation of subor¬
dinate chiefs, under one hereditary leader, than of any
other known form of government. As all the descendants
of noble families are themselves noble, whilst property re¬
mains almost unalienable, the poverty into which indivi¬
duals belonging to distant branches of these families fall
is in proportion to their number. In Hungary it is estimat¬
ed that one person in twenty is of noble birth, all possess¬
ing the obnoxious privileges here noticed ; many of them,
though free from all taxes, sunk to a state of most abject
poverty, and some of them filling the offices of peasants
or servants. The inhabitants of the free cities are sup¬
posed to be about equal in numbers to the nobility; and
the remainder of the people, according to these estimates,
amounting to eighteen out of every twenty, can have no
protection from the laws, nor any resource when injured
or oppressed by their superiors. “ The noble,” says Dr
Bright, “ pays no tribute, and goes freely through the
country, subject to neither tolls nor duties ; but the pea¬
sant is subject to pay tribute; and although there may
be some nominal restrictions to the services due from him
to the government, it can safely be said that there is no
limit in point of fact to the services which he is compel¬
led to perform. Whatever public work is to be executed,
not only when a road is to be prepared, but when new
roads are to be made, or bridges built, the county meet¬
ing gives the order, and the peasant dares not refuse to
execute it. All soldiers passing through the country are
quartered exclusively upon the peasantry. They must
provide them, without recompense, with bread, and fur¬
nish their horses with corn ; and, whenever called upon,
by an order termed a forespan order, they must provide
the person bringing it with horses and means of convey¬
ance. Such an order is always employed by the officers
of government; and whoever can in any way plead pub¬
lic business as the cause of his journey, takes care to pro¬
vide himself with it. In all levies of soldiers, the whole
falls upon the peasant, and the choice is left to the arbi¬
trary discretion of the lord and his servants.”
From the same intelligent traveller we learn, what, in¬
deed, the observations of all ages have taught, that whilst
the nobles are hospitable, high spirited, well informed,
and zealous to promote such institutions and projects as
they think calculated to benefit their country, the pea¬
santry are not only poor, but idle, dissolute, and disho¬
nest. Perhaps in no other country of Europe is highway
robbery so frequent; and, as a remarkable trait in the cha¬
racter both of the noble and the peasant, we are told that
to every nobleman’s house a prison is attached, in which
are to be constantly found from ten to twenty miserable
wretches, pinioned in a way which would not be tolerat¬
ed in England towards the worst felons. The dungeons
in which they are immured are far more dismal and Hunga
wretched than any prison in London can exhibit. The '
extreme viciousness of the Hungarian peasantry seems
to have extinguished all feeling in the breasts of the high¬
er nobles for their degraded state ; and, instead of the
wise policy which, by meliorating their condition, would
improve their morals, they are left to endure those punish¬
ments which a different state of society would be likely
to render unnecessary.
The military force and the financial affairs of this king- Militar
dom are so mixed up with those of the general adminis-force.a:
tration, of the extensive expenditure of which they form afinance-
part, that it would be both difficult and tiresome to enter
into the representation of them ; and, besides, they vary
so much from political events at different periods, that
what would be correct at one time, would be defective at
others.
Though Hungary has a national language, yet it is not Langua
generally spoken, nor supposed to be understood, by more and iite:
than one third of the inhabitants. The only written lan-ture-
guage, until within a very late period, was the Latin, in
which all their laws and public proceedings were promul¬
gated ; and it is still the most common medium of com¬
munication. It was not till the reign of Maria Theresa
that any experiments were made to improve and polish
the national language. When she formed her Hungarian
guards, a number of young men of noble families were
drawn to Vienna, where they had means of knowing the
estimation in which the cultivation of learning was held
in the more civilized parts of Europe, and were taught to
feel the inferiority of their native country, in not possess¬
ing a national language and national literature. This sti¬
mulated them to exertions to remove the stigma, and
gave birth to most of those writings of which the Hunga¬
rians boast. The cultivation of the vernacular tongue
was further promoted by the attempt of the Emperor Jo¬
seph to introduce the German tongue into their public
transactions; this roused the patriotic spirit of the Hun¬
garians, and the effect of that spirit became visible in the
extension and improvement of the native language. Since
that period the study of this language has produced some
good poets, who have generally dedicated their powers to
the praises of their country, and to recording the merits of
its most distinguished natives. As the subjects of their
poetry are very little known beyond the limits of the coun¬
try, we must trust to the reports of those who feel the
most interest in the subjects of which it principally treats,
and who, for that reason, may not be the most unbiassed
critics.
The principal cities, and their population in 1834, w ere
as follows:—
Pesth, with Buda or Ofen 95,000
Debreczin 46,000
Presburg 36,000
Theresienstadt 34,000
Szegedem 34,000
Misklaz 28,500
Nyir-Egybaza 20,000
Stuhlweisenburg 20,000
Komorn 18,500
Schemnitz 17,500
Raab 17,500
Grosswardein 17,000
Mako 17,000
Gyongyos 15,500
Boszormeny 15,000
Szathmar 14,500
Gyula 14,500
Fileghyaza 14,500
Kaschau ...14,000
Odenburg 13,500
HUNGARY. 729
H gary. Esongrad 13,000
^ Temeswar 12,500
Gran 12,000
Szolnok 12,000
Pecs 11,500
Nagy-Karoly 11,500
Agram 11,500
Eszeck 11,500
V eszprim 10,500
jj ory. The early history of this important kingdom is highly
interesting, both as marking the tribes from Asia who es¬
tablished and finally spread themselves over the whole of
Europe, and as illustrating the origin of that feudal system
which ultimately produced the present state of civilization.
The inhabitants of this country are not to be confound¬
ed with those tribes called the Hunns, whom we are ac¬
customed to consider as their progenitors, on account of
the similarity of the names ; a similarity which does not
exist in their native language, but which has been given to
them by foreigners.
The Hunns were, according to De Guignes’s history of
that people, a powerful but uneducated nation of Tartary,
against whose incursions the great wall of China was con¬
structed, about 209 years before the Christian era. In the
time of Augustus they inhabited the shores of the Caspian
Sea, from whence, being pressed westward by other tribes,
they became the scourge of Europe, and gradually attained
great power, which was at length wielded by Attila. But
after his death in the year 453, the nation fell to ruin,
though some of them were long to be found on the north
of the Danube, and some on the shores of the Palus Maeo-
tis, or Sea of Azoph, till at length their name totally disap¬
peared.
The present people of Hungary, or, in their own lan¬
guage, the Magyars, made their first appearance in Eu¬
rope in the year 894 of our era, having advanced from the
southern shores of the Black Sea, under a leader named
Almus. By himself and his son Arpad, the Bulgarians,
the Slawen, the Wallachians, the Germans, Croatians, and
Dalmatians, who were settled there, were either subdued,
driven out, or extirpated, by the year 900. The land was
at first divided amongst the heads of the several families;
but in a short time the power was conceded to the chief,
who assumed the title of duke, and the right of granting
land to reward any deed of warlike merit.
The Magyars were no sooner in possession of the rich
country, than their interference was requested by their ri¬
val neighbours for aid against each other ; a request which,
by such warriors, excited by their recent conquests, was
not received with hesitation or delay. They soon extend¬
ed their power in every direction by collecting a large and
active body of cavalry, which was not to be resisted by any
forces that could be collected to oppose them. They soon
spread themselves, and in a few years were feelingly known
to the north in Hamburg and Bremen, to the west in
France, to the south in Otranto, and to the east at Con¬
stantinople. In the year 933 they first came, under their
duke Zwenlibold, in contact with the Emperor of Ger¬
many, Henry I., whom they defeated in a great battle
near Merseburg, on the river Saal, in Saxony. They pe¬
netrated into Franconia, but there, at Drommling on the
Ohr, they met a severe repulse. In a subsequent incursion
into Bavaria, after some early successes, they experienced
a sanguinary defeat on the river Lech, from the German
king Otho I., in the year 955. The continued attacks
of the more civilized people of the west drove them in
the course of a few years wholly out of Germany. As
they became settled in their country, they gradually adopt¬
ed more tranquil habits. They had learned something of
the simplest arts of agriculture in the countries which
they had invaded ; and the numerous prisoners whom they
VOL. XI.
had brought with them were made to cultivate the land, Hungary,
and to practise the simplest mechanic arts. This progress
continued under one of their dukes, Taksony, who used
his power to convince his followers that there were other
ways of extending their authority than by warlike expedi¬
tions. Under Geysa or Geesa, the great-grandson of Ar¬
pad, who married Carol ta, a Christian princess, an import¬
ant event took place. He was celebrated for his hospita¬
lity, and invited foreigners to settle in his country; and,
amongst others, he, at the instigation of his wife, called in
some of the priests. By gradual steps their religion was
also introduced; and in the year 973 Geysa and some thou¬
sands of his chief people embraced the Christian faith, and
were admitted into the bosom of the church by a public
baptism.
By the aid of the Bishop Pellegrin of Passau, and of the
Bishop of Prague, Adelbert, he strove to overcome the
reluctance felt by the greater part of his people to adopt
the new religion. This task was left to his son and suc¬
cessor Stephen, who for his success in conversion, and for
his extirpation of heathenism, was canonized after his
death; and in his lifetime was presented by Pope Silves¬
ter II. with a crown, the remains of which are still pre¬
served, a patriarchal crucifix, and the title of apostolic
king. The throne of Hungary was thus founded in the
year 1000, and was surrounded by an aristocracy and an
hierarchy calculated to support it. The king endowed ten
rich bishoprics, and divided his dominion into seventy-two
countships (gespanschafts), over each of which was placed
a chief, with full civil and military authority, in the exer¬
cise of which he was alone accountable to the monarch
himself.
These nobles and prelates were formed into a senate,
and, in conjunction with them, the king framed a constitu¬
tion, which has in its groundwork existed to the present
time. In the year 1002, the chief of Siebenburgen, named
Gyula, remained in heathenism, and had contracted alli¬
ances with the yet unconverted subjects of Stephen. He
was attacked and subdued, and his dominions added to the
kingdom of Hungary. Stephen married a sister of the Em¬
peror of Germany, Henry II.; and being thus connected,
was universally acknowledged as a king, and the succes¬
sion declared to be hereditary in his descendants. But
he died leaving no issue, and for several years the kingdom
was in a state of anarchy, some parts of it acknowledging
one sovereign, and others a different one, and contending
with greater violence, because during the contests the re¬
mains of heathenism still continued, and its adherents form¬
ed a powerful party. They were, however, suppressed by
one of the race of their ancient kings, Ladislaus, who, in
1077, united in himself the supreme power, and added to
its strength by conquering and enclosing within his domi¬
nions the provinces of Croatia and Sclavonia. In this
course he was followed by his son Solaman, who increased
his dominion in 1095 by the subjugation of Dalmatia and
Bosnia. A daughter of this King Ladislaus, named Sophia,
married a prince of the house of Hapsburg, Dukes of Aus¬
tria ; and it is through this lady that the present occupiers
of the imperial throne trace their pedigree up to Arpad,
one of the earliest founders of the kingdom of Hungary.
Both these kings were of great benefit to the country, by
the wise laws they introduced, and the internal regulations
which they established. Under them and their successors
colonists were introduced both from Flanders and from Al¬
sace, and many Germans from various circles. These were
mostly established in Siebenburgen ; but everywhere they
communicated better practices in cultivation, and in the
various arts of civilized life. Belas II. one of their kings,
who had been educated at the court of Byzantium, in¬
duced the Hungarians, who had been accustomed to pass
the greater part of their time under tents, to build perma-
4 z
HUNGARY.
730
Hungary, nent houses, and to erect towns and cities, which were en-
dowed with privileges; and, in imitation of what he had
seen in the Greek capital, he established a court, with great
offices of state, to give dignity and power to his throne.
In the year 1186, this Belas married Margaretta, daugh¬
ter of Henry king of France, the widow of the son of Henry
II. king of England. She brought with her to the Hun¬
garian court some degree of French elegance, and induced
several of the younger nobles to repair to Paris for their
improvement in learning and in military exercises.
Under his successor Andreas II. the power of the great
nobles was exercised to compel that weak prince to extend
and strengthen their influence, and they extorted from him
a treaty in their favour in 1223, which has been denomi¬
nated the Golden Bull.
Belas IV. was anxious to make some alterations, and
before he could adopt and prepare them, was interrupt¬
ed by incursions from the Mongul tribes, who for a time
spread devastation over a great part of the country. They
were, however, ultimately repulsed, and the king restored
to his authority. He then drew to Hungary a vast num¬
ber of German colonists, which improved the state of civi¬
lization ; and he founded several cities, fortified them,
and conferred extensive privileges upon the burghers, who
thus became in process of time a counterbalance to the
power of the nobles. In 1241 his son Stephen was crov/n-
ed as co-regent with the father. This gave rise to con¬
tests between the two sovereigns, by which the royal
power suffered severely. Andreas IV. succeeded to the
throne, and dying in 1301, the male line of the Arpad
race became extinct. The female line gave the crown to
the family of Anjou, under whose princes Hungary attain¬
ed its highest pitch of prosperity and power. Louis, the
first of the new dynasty, was the son of Robert, originally
the Norman, who ruled in Sicily, and had married the
Princess Elizabeth of Poland. Under this prince the thrones
of Hungary and Poland were united, he having obtained
the first in 1342, and the second on the death of his uncle
in 1370, and became the greatest power in Europe, ex¬
tending from the Adriatic to the Baltic Seas. The several
public institutions were improved, the better cultivation of
the soil was promoted, the administration of justice esta¬
blished, and cases which had before been decided by wager
of battle determined by judges. This prince also endea¬
voured to introduce learning, and with that view establish¬
ed a university at Ofen, and a free school in Fiinfkirchen.
He relieved commerce from many burdensome imposts,
and, according to the policy of the age, sought to preserve
his subjects from heavy usury, by banishing all the Jews
from his dominions.
Louis died without male issue, and his two daughters,
Hedwig and Maria, divided his dominions. The former
ascended the throne of Poland, and the latter that of Hun¬
gary. Maria man-ied Siegmund, the son of the Emperor
Charles IV. who, with his wife, was crowned in 1387.
Siegmund’s reign was distinguished by his contests with
the nobles, who held him a prisoner at one period, during
which Red Russia was seized upon by the Poles, a portion
of Dalmatia by the Venetian republic, and some parts of
the eastern frontier by the Turks, who since their ap¬
pearance began to annoy Hungary, which thus became the
bulwark of Europe against the infidels. In this reign also
commenced the religious wars of the Hussites. Siegmund
left only a daughter, Elizabeth, who married the Archduke
Albert of Austria; the latter died in 1436, leaving her preg¬
nant with a son, Ladislaus, who bore the surname of Posthu¬
mus. He was declared king, and the government conduct¬
ed by John de Hunoyed, who, under the title of stadtholder,
saved Belgrade, and indeed Hungary, from the Turks. On
attaining his majority in 1456, Ladislaus was dissatisfied Hungai
with his great benefactor, and most unjustly persecuted
his family. The eldest of the Hunyades was put to death,
and the youngest, named Mathias, distinguished by the
surname of Corvinus, was imprisoned. Ladislaus died in
1457, without issue, when Mathias seized on the vacant
throne, and was confirmed in it by an assembly of the
states collected at Pesth, in spite of the strong pretensions
of the Emperor Frederick III.
Under the new reign great vigour was displayed. Ma¬
thias, though an elected king, knew how to emancipate
himself from the dominion of those who had chosen him,
as well as to oppose with success all external enemies. He
recovered the provinces which had been lost by his prede¬
cessors, and by hostilities gained others. He drove the
Turks out of Bosnia. In a war with George, king of Bo¬
hemia, he seized Moravia, Silesia, and Lausatia, and de¬
prived the emperor himself of some of his provinces, espe¬
cially of the land below the Ens. His active spirit enliven¬
ed commerce, improved agriculture, and formed excellent
institutions for judicial and fiscal administration. To all
his other watchful precautions he added that of maintain¬
ing a constant regularly-armed force.
This flourishing state of Hungary vanished speedily af¬
ter the death of Mathias, when, in 1490, Wladislaus of Bo¬
hemia, the grandson of Albert and Elizabeth, was raised
by the states to the throne. He had from the first power¬
ful parties to contend with amongst the nobles, and at
length a kind of servile war to engage in. The peasants
rose in every part at the instigation of some amongst the
nobles, and the insurrection was not quelled till 1512,
and then only with the loss of the lives of 40,000 of these
miserable people, and the condemnation of others to the
condition of slaves.
During this reign Count John Zapolya raised a power¬
ful faction in the assembly of the states, by proposing a law
in 1505, to revive an ancient enactment, that in case of the
death of a king without issue, the states should elect to the
throne none but a native of Hungary. This attempt was
frustrated by a treaty entered into with the emperor, and
after the death of the king his son Ludwig succeeded him ;
but in an unhappy battle with the Turks at Mohacz in
1526, Ludwig fell, and Zapolya was declared by his party
the successor to the throne. A larger party of the states,
however, declared in favour of Ferdinand, who had mar¬
ried Anna, the daughter of Wladislaus. A civil war en¬
sued, which drove Zapolya from the station he had assum¬
ed, and, as a denounced traitor, he fled to the Turks, by
whose assistance he was enabled to make a predatory in¬
cursion, which was repressed after some time; and though
Ferdinand, now become emperor, was fairly established,
Zapolya was restored to his estates and his dignities, and
the peasants who had lost their privileges by the insurrec¬
tion of 1512 were re-instated in the rights they had before
possessed. The want of success in the attempts of Zapolya
has been attributed to his avowed persecution of heretics,
by which the Protestants, who had become numerous, were
induced to strengthen the party of the house of Austria,
who, after being safely placed on the throne, were far from
acting in conformity with the views of those who main¬
tained that they had turned the scale in favour of that fa¬
mily.
At length, at an assembly of the states held in 1547,
the hereditary right of the house of Austria to the throne
of Hungary was solemnly established; and from that pe¬
riod the history of Hungary is included in that of the im¬
perial house which long gave a succession of emperors to
Germany, and has at length assumed the title of Emperors
of Austria.
HUN
H ?ary- Hungary- Water, a distilled water prepared from the
ter tops of flowers of rosemary, and so denominated from a
|(,er clueen Hungary, for whose use it was first made.
v* 'r-Ls HUNGER, an uneasy sensation occasioned by long ab¬
stinence from food when the body is in a healthy state.
The following useful observations upon hunger or famine
are extracted from a paper by Dr Percival in the second
volume of the Manchester Transactions.
In a state of famine, life may be protracted, with less
pain and misery, by means of a moderate allowance of wa¬
ter. For the acrimony and putrefaction of the humours
are obviated by such dilution; the small vessels are kept
permeable ; and the lungs are furnished with that moisture
which is essential to the performance of their functions.
Fontanus, a writer of respectable authority in the estima¬
tion of Morgagni, relates the history of a woman who ob¬
stinately refused to take any sustenance, except twice, dur¬
ing the space of fifty days, at the end of which period she
died. But he adds, that she used water by way of drink,
though in small quantity. Redi, who made many experi¬
ments (cruel and unjustifiable in our opinion) to ascertain
the effects of fasting on fowls, observed that none were
able to support life beyond the ninth day to whom drink
was denied, whereas one indulged with water^ lived more
than twenty days.
Hippocrates has observed, that children are more affect¬
ed by abstinence than young persons, these more than the
middle-aged, and the middle-aged more than old men.
The power to endure famine, however, must depend no
less upon the state of health and strength than upon the age
of the sufferer. There are also particular constitutions
which do not suffer much pain from the calls of hunger.
Dr Percival was informed by a young physician from Ge¬
neva, that when he was a student at Montpellier he fasted
three nights and four days, with no other refreshment than
a pint of water daily. His hunger was keen, but never
painful, during the first and second days of his abstinence ;
and the two following days he perceived only a faintness
when he attempted either bodily or mental exertion. A
sense of coldness was diffused over his whole frame, but
more particularly affected the extremities. His mind was
in a very unusual state of pusillanimity ; and he experienced
a great tendency to tears whenever he recollected the cir¬
cumstance which had been the occasion of his fasting.
During the whole period, the alvine excretions were sup¬
pressed, but not those by the kidneys; and at the close of
it his skin became tinged with a shade of yellow. The
first food he took was veal broth, which had something of
an intoxicating effect, producing a glow of warmth, and rais¬
ing his spirits, so as to render him ashamed of his despon¬
dency. Perhaps, in the case of Sextius Baculus, as recorded
in the Commentaries of Caesar (lib. vi.), the extraordinary
courage and prowess which he suddenly exerted might be
aided by the exhilarating effect of sustenance, which, under
such circumstances, it is probable he would no longer de¬
cline. The fact, however, evinces that neither his sick¬
ness nor the sensations of hunger had been so violent as
much to impair his strength of body or vigour of mind.
Pomponius Atticus, the celebrated friend of Cicero, who
put a voluntary end to his life in the seventy-seventh year
of his age by refusing all food, appears to have experienced
ease from his disorder, rather than any acute sufferings, by
famine. “ Sic cum biduo cibo se abstinuisset, subito fe-
bris decessit, leviorque morbus esse coepit; tamen proposi-
tum nihilo secius peregit. Itaque die quinto, postquam id
consilium inierat, decessit.”1 From the former circum¬
stance, it has been conjectured that he did not wholly deny
himself the use of water, or of some other diluent. But
HUN 731
though a few examples of this kind may be produced, we Hunger,
have the evidence of numerous melancholy facts to show
that the pressure of want is agonizing to the human frame.
“ I have talked,” says an ingenious writer,2 “ with a captain
of a ship who was one of six that endured it in its extre¬
mity, and who was the only person that had not lost his
senses wfoen they received accidental relief. He assured
me his pains at first were so great as to be often tempted
to eat a part of one of the men who died, and which the
rest of his crew actually for some time lived upon. He
said that, during the continuance of this paroxysm, he
found his pains insupportable, and was desirous at one time
of anticipating that death which he thought inevitable.
But his pains, he said, gradually decreased after the sixth
day (for they had water in the ship, which kept them alive
so long), and then he was in a state rather of languor than
desire ; nor did he much wish for food, except when he saw
others eating; and that for a while revived his appetite,
though with diminished importunity. The latter part of
the time, when his health was almost destroyed, a thousand
strange images rose upon his mind, and every one of his
senses began to bring him wrong information. The most
fragrant perfumes appeared to him to have a fetid smell;
and every thing he looked at took a greenish hue, and
sometimes a yellow. When he was presented with food
by the ship’s company that took him and his men up, four
of whom died shortly after, he could not help looking upon
it with loathing instead of desire ; and it was not till after
four days that his stomach was brought to its natural tone,
when the violence of his appetite returned with a sort of
canine eagerness.”
To those who by their occupations are exposed to such
dreadful calamities, it is of serious importance to be in¬
structed in the means of alleviating them. The American
Indians are said to use a composition of the juice of tobac¬
co, and the shells of snails, cockles, and oysters calcined,
whenever they undertake a long journey, and are likely to
be destitute of provisions. It is probable the shells are not
burned into quicklime, but only so as to destroy their tena¬
city, and to render them fit for levigation. The mass is
dried, and formed into pills of a proper size to be held be¬
tween the gum and lip, which, being gradually dissolv¬
ed and swallowed, deaden the sensations both of hunger
and of thirst. Tobacco, by its narcotic quality, seems well
adapted to counteract the uneasy impressions which the
gastric juice makes on the nerves of the stomach when it
is empty ; and the combination of testaceous powder with
it may tend to correct the secretion that is supposed to be
the chief agent in digestion, and which, if not acid, is al¬
ways united with acidity. Certain at least it is, that their
operation is both grateful and salutary ; for we find the
luxurious inhabitants of the East Indies mix them with
the betel-nut, to the chewing of which they are universal¬
ly and immoderately addicted. Perhaps such absorbents
may be usefully applied, both to divide the doses and to
moderate the virulence of the tobacco. For, in the inter¬
nal exhibition of this plant, much caution is required, as it
produces sickness, vertigo, cold clammy sweats, and a train
of other formidable symptoms, when taken in too large a
quantity. During the time of war, the impressed sailors
frequently bring on these maladies that they may be ad¬
mitted into the hospitals, and released from servitude. It
would be an easy and safe experiment to ascertain the effi¬
cacy and to adjust the ingredients of the Indian composi¬
tion mentioned; and there is reason to believe that the
trial would be in some degree successful; for it is known
that smoking tobacco gives relief to those habitual pains of
the stomach which appear to arise from the irritation of
1 Com. Nepos, in Vita Pompon. Attici.
Dr Goldsmith’s Hittory of the Earth, voL ii. p. 126.
732 HUN
Hunger, the gastric secretion. The like effect is sometimes pro-
duced by increasing the flow of saliva, and swallowing
what is thus discharged. And Dr Percival has related the
case of a gentleman who used to masticate, many hours
daily, a piece of lead, which being neither hard, friable,
nor offensive to the palate, suited his purpose, as he thought,
better than any other substance. He continued the cus¬
tom for many years, deriving great ease from it, and suf¬
fering no sensible injury from the poisonous quality of the
metal. On mentioning this fact to a navy surgeon, the
doctor was told that the sailors, when in hot climates, are
wont to mitigate thirst by rolling a bullet in their mouths.
A more innocent mean, the doctor observes, might be de¬
vised ; but the efficacy of this evinces, that the salivary
glands are for a while capable of furnishing a substitute for
drink. When a scarcity of water occurs at sea, Dr Frank¬
lin has advised that the mariners should bathe themselves
in tubs of salt water. For, in pursuing the amusement of
swimming, he observed, that however thirsty he was before
immersion, he never continued so afterwards; and that,
though he soaked himself several hours in the day, and
several days successively, in salt water, he perceived not,
in consequence of it, the least taste of saltness in his mouth.
He also further suggests, that the same good effect might
perhaps be derived from dipping the sailors’ apparel in the
sea, and expresses a confidence that no danger of catching
cold would ensue.
To prevent the calamity of famine at sea, it has been
proposed by Dr Lind, that the powder of salep should con¬
stitute part of the provisions of every ship’s company. This
powder and portable soup, dissolved in boiling water, form
a rich thick jelly; and an ounce of each of these articles
furnishes one day’s subsistence to a healthy full-grown
man. Indeed, from Dr Percival’s experiments it appears,
that salep contains more nutritious matter, in proportion to
its bulk, than any other vegetable production now used as
food. It has the property also of concealing the nauseous
taste of salt water ; and consequently may be of great ad¬
vantage at sea, when the stock of fresh water is so far con¬
sumed that the mariners are put upon short allowance.
By the same mucilaginous quality, it covers the offensive¬
ness, and even in some measure corrects the acrimony, of
salted and putrescent meats. But, as a preservative against
hunger, salep would be most efficaciously combined with
an equal weight of beef suet. By swallowing little balls of
this lubricating compound at proper intervals, the coats of
the stomach would be defended from irritation ; and as oils
and mucilages are highly nutritive, of slow digestion, and
indisposed to pass off by perspiration, they are peculiarly
well adapted to support life in small quantities. This com¬
position is superior in simplicity, and perhaps equal in ef¬
ficacy, to the following one, so much extolled by Avicenna
the celebrated Arabian physician, to whom we are indebt¬
ed for the introduction of rhubarb, cassia, tamarinds, and
senna, into the materia medica. “ Take sweet almonds
and beef suet, of each one pound ; of the oil of violets two
ounces ; and of the roots of marshmallows one ounce ; bray
these ingredients together in a mortar, and form the mass
into boluses about the size of a common nut.” Animal fat
is singularly pow erful in assuaging the most acute sensa¬
tions of thirst, as appears from the narrative of the suffer¬
ings experienced by those who were confined in the black
hole at Calcutta. A hundred and forty-six persons, exhaust¬
ed by fatigue and military duty, w ere there thrust together
into a chamber of eighteen cubic feet, having only two win¬
dows, strongly barred with iron, from which, in a close
sultry night, and in such a climate as that of Bengal, little
or no circulation of fresh air could be enjoyed. In a few
HUN
minutes these unhappy wretches fell into such a profuse Hunge
perspiration, that an idea can hardly be formed of it; and
this again was succeeded by a raging thirst, winch in¬
creased in proportion as the body was drained of its mois¬
ture. Water, w ater, became the universal cry ; and an old
soldier on the outside, through pity, furnished them with
a few skinfuls of it. But these scanty supplies, like sprink¬
lings thrown on the fire, served only to feed and increase
the flame. From this experience of its effects, Mr Hol-
well, their chief, determined to drink no more, and kept
his mouth moist by sucking the perspiration out of his
shirt sleeves, and catching the drops as they fell from his
head and face. “ You cannot imagine,” says he, “ how-
unhappy I was if any of them escaped me.” He came into
the prison without his coat, the season being too hot to
bear it; and one of his miserable companions, observing
the expedient he had hit upon of allaying his thirst, robbed
him from time to time of a considerable part of his store.
This plunderer, whom he found to be a young gentleman
in the service of the East India Company, afterwards ac¬
knowledged that he owed his life to the many comfortable
draughts which he derived from him. Before Mr Holwell
adopted this mode of relief, he had attempted, in an ungo¬
vernable fit of thirst, to drink his own urine ; but it was so
intensely bitter that a second taste could not be endured;
whereas, he assures us, no Bristol water could be more soft
and pleasant than his perspiration. And this, we may pre¬
sume, consisted chiefly of animal fat, melted by excessive
heat, and exuding from the cellular membrane through the
pores of the skin.
Persons who have been accustomed to animal food are
soon reduced when supplied only with the farinacea. Seve¬
ral years ago, to determine the comparative nutritive powers
of different substances, an ingenious young physician, as
Dr Percival informs us, made a variety of experiments on
himself, to which he unfortunately fell a sacrifice. He
lived a month upon bread and water ; and under this regi¬
men of diet he every day diminished much in his weight.
In attempts to recover those who have suffered under
the calamities of famine, great circumspection is required.
Warmth, cordials, and food, are the means to be employ¬
ed ; and it is evident that these may prove too powerful in
their operation, if not administered with caution and judg¬
ment. For the body, by long fasting, is reduced to a state
of more than infantile debility ; the minuter vessels of the
brain, and of the other organs, collapse for want of fluids
to distend them ; the stomach and intestines shrink in their
capacity; and the heart languidly vibrates, having scarce¬
ly sufficient energy to propel the scanty current of blood.
Under such circumstances, a proper application of heat
seems an essential measure, and may be effected by placing
on each side a healthy man in contact with the patient.
Pediluvia or fomentations may also be used with advan¬
tage. The temperature of these should be low er than that
of the human body, and gradually increased according to
the effects of their stimulus. New milk, weak broth, or
water gruel, ought to be employed both for the one and
the other ; as nutriment may be conveyed into the system
this way, by passages probably the most pervious in a state
of fasting, if not too long protracted. “ A lad at New¬
market1 having been almost starved in order that he might
be reduced to a proper weight for riding a match, was
weighed at nine o’clock in the morning, and again at ten;
and he was found to have gained near thirty ounces in
weight in the course of an hour, though he had only drank
half a glass of wine in the interval. The wine probably
stimulated the action of the nervous system, and incited
nature, exhausted by abstinence, to open the absorbent
1 Watson's Chemical Essays, vol. iii. p. 101.
HUN
I iger‘ pores of the whole body, in order to suck in some nourish-
rd ment from the air.” But no such absorption as this can
!! be expected in a state of extreme weakness and emaciation
nn^\) gradually induced, because the lymphatics must partake
> of the general want of tone and energy. And notwith¬
standing the salutary effects of wine in the case of the
jockey, who, it is likely, had been reduced by sweating as
well as by abstinence, such a stimulant might prove dan¬
gerous, and even fatal, in other cases. It appears safer
to advise the exhibition of cordials in very small doses, and
at first considerably diluted. Slender wine whey will per¬
haps best answer this purpose, and afford, at the same
time, an easy and pleasant nourishment. When the sto¬
mach has been a little strengthened, an egg may be mixed
with the whey, or administered under some other agreeable
form. The yolk of one was, to Cornaro, sufficient for a
meal; and the narrative of this noble Venetian, in whom
a fever was excited by the addition of only two ounces of
food to his daily allowance, shows that the return to a full
diet should be conducted with great caution, and by very
slow gradations.
HUNGERFORD, a market-town of the county of
Wilts, in the hundred of Kentbury, but a part of it is with¬
in the county of Berks. It is sixty-eight miles from Lon¬
don, on the road to Bath, and is watered by the river Ken-
net. It has some trade by the Kennet and Avon Canal,
both with London and with Bristol. There is a market,
which is held on Wednesday. The church is a very an¬
cient building.
HUNINGEN, a town of the arrondissement of Altkirch,
in the department of the Upper Rhine, in France. It is
on the Rhine, and was strongly fortified till 1815; and being
within two miles of the Swiss frontier, was deemed of mi¬
litary importance, as commanding the river. It contains
about 1000 inhabitants. Long. 7. 30. E. Lat. 47. 42. N.
HUNNS, a fierce and savage nation, who formerly in¬
habited that part of Sarmatia bordering on the Palus Maeo-
tis and the Tanais, the ancient boundary between Europe
and Asia. Their country, as described by Procopius, lay
north of Mount Caucasus, which, extending from the Eux-
ine to the Caspian Seas, separates Asiatic Sarmatia from
Colchis, Iberia, and Albania, and occupies the isthmus be¬
tween the two seas above mentioned. Here they resided,
unknown to other nations, and themselves ignorant of other
countries, till the year 376. At this time, a hind pursued
by the hunters, or, according to some authors, an ox stung
by a gad-fly, having passed the marsh, was followed by
some Hunns to the other side, where they discovered a
country much more agreeable than their own. On their
return, having acquainted their countrymen with what they
had seen, the whole nation passed the marsh, and having
attacked the Alans, who dwelt on the banks of the Tanais,
almost exterminated them. They next fell upon the Os¬
trogoths, whom they drove out of their country, and forced
to retire to the plains between the Borysthenes and the
Tanais, now known by the name of Podolia. They next
attacked the Visigoths, whom they obliged to shelter them¬
selves in the most mountainous parts of their country ; and
at last the Gothic nations, finding it impossible to withstand
such an inundation of barbarians, obtained leave from the
Emperor Valens to settle in Thrace.
The Hunns thus became in 376 masters of all the coun¬
try between the Tanais and Danube, where they conti¬
nued quietly till the year 388, when great numbers of
them were taken into the pay of Theodosius I.; but, in
the mean time, a party of them, called the Nephthalite
or White Hunns, who had continued in Asia, overran all
Mesopotamia, and even laid siege to Edessa, where they
were repulsed with great slaughter by the Romans. The
European Hunns frequently passed the Danube, and com¬
mitted the greatest ravages in the western empire ; some-
HUN 738
times they also fell upon the eastern provinces, where Hunns.
they put all to fire and sword. They were often defeated
and repulsed by the Romans; but the empire was now
too weak to subdue or prevent them from making excur¬
sions ; so that they continued to make encroachments,
and became every day more formidable than before. In
411, the Hunns, under Attila, threatened the western
empire with total destruction. This monarch, having
made himself master of all the northern countries from
the confines of Persia to the banks of the Rhine, invaded
Maesia, Thrace, and Illyricum, and made such progress,
that tlie emperor not thinking himself safe at Constanti¬
nople, withdrew into Asia. Attila then broke into Gaul,
where he took and destroyed several Cities, and massacred
the inhabitants with the greatest cruelty. At last he was
driven out with great slaughter by Aitius the Roman ge¬
neral, and Theodoric king of the Goths, and could never
afterwards make any great progress. About the year
452 or 453 Attila died, and his kingdom was immediate¬
ly split into a number of small ones by his numerous chil¬
dren, who waged perpetual war with one another. The
Hunns then ceased to be formidable, and became daily
less able to cope with the other barbarous nations whom
Attila had kept in subjection. Still, however, their do¬
minion was considerable; and in the time of Charles the
Great they were masters of Transylvania, Wallachia, Ser-
via, Carniola, Carinthia, and the greater part of Austria,
together with Bosnia, Sclavonia, and that part of Hungary
which is situated beyond the Danube. In the year 776,
whilst Charles was in Saxony, two princes of the Hunns,
Caganus and Jugunus, sent ambassadors to him, desiring
his friendship and alliance. Charles received them with
extraordinary marks of friendship, and readily complied
with their request. However, they not long afterwards
entered into an alliance with Taffila duke of Bavaria, who
had revolted from Charles, and raised great disturbances
in Germany. Charles dissembled his resentment till he
had entirely reduced Bavaria, when he resolved to re¬
venge himself on the Hunns for the underhand succours
they had given to his enemy. Accordingly, he ordered
levies to be made throughout his dominions, and having
assembled a very numerous army, divided it into two bo¬
dies, one of which he commanded himself, and the other
he committed to the care of his generals. The two ar¬
mies entered the kingdom of the Hunns at different places,
ravaged their country far and wide, burned their villages,
and took all their strongholds. This he continued for
eight years, till the people were almost totally extirpated;
nor did the Hunns ever afterwards recover the blow, or
appear as a distinct nation.
There were two different nations which went by the
name of Hunns; the Nephthalite or White Hunns, and
the Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns. The former inhabited
a rich country bordering to the north on Persia, and at a
great distance from the Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns, with
whom they had no intercourse, nor the least resemblance
either in their persons or manners. They were a power¬
ful nation, and often served against the Romans in the
Persian armies; but in the reign of the Emperor Zeno,
being provoked by Perozes king of Persia laying claim to
part of their country, they defeated the Persians in two
pitched battles, slew their king, overran all Persia, and
held it in subjection for the space of two years, obliging
Cabades, the son and successor of Perozes, to pay them
an annual tribute. These Hunns, called by the writers
of those times the White Hunns, did not wander, like
the others, from place to place ; but, contented with their
own country, which supplied them with all necessaries,
they lived under a regular government, subject to one
prince, and seldom made inroads, unless provoked, either
into the Persian or Roman territories. They lived ac-
734
HUN
HUN
Hunter, cording to their own laws, and dealt uprightly with one of fourteen his father sent him to the College of Glasgow.
another, as well as with the neighbouring tribes. Each In this seminary he passed five years, and by his prudent
of their great men used to choose twenty or more com- behaviour and diligence acquired the esteem of the pro¬
panions to enjoy with him his wealth, and partake of all fessors, and the reputation of being a good scholar. His
his diversions ; but, upon his decease, they were all bu- father had designed him for the church; but the idea of sub-
ried with him in the same grave. This custom savours scribing to articles of faith was so repugnant to the liberal
of extreme barbarity; but in every other respect the mode of thinking which he had already adopted, that he felt
Nephthalite were a less ferocious race than the Scythian an insuperable aversion to theological pursuits. In this
Hunns, who, breaking into the empire, filled most of the state of mind he happened to become acquainted with Dr
provinces of Europe with blood and slaughter. Cullen, afterwards so celebrated as professor at Edinburgh,
The latter were, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, a who was then just established in practice at Hamilton under
savage race, exceeding in cruelty the most barbarous na- the patronage of the Duke of Hamilton. Dr Cullen’s con-
tions. According to Jornandes, they began to practise their versation soon determined him to lay aside all thoughts of
cruelty upon their own children the very first day they the church, and to devote himself to the profession of phy-
. came into the world, cutting and mangling the cheeks of sic. His father’s consent having been previously obtained,
their males, to prevent the growth of hair, which, contrary Mr Hunter in 1737 went to reside with Dr Cullen. In
to the sentiments of other nations, they must have looked the family of this excellent friend and preceptor he passed
upon as unbecoming and unmanly. They had, perhaps, nearly three years; and these, as he was often heard to
in this practice another view, which Jornandes seems to acknowledge, were the happiest of his' life. It was then
insinuate elsewhere, namely, to strike terror into the ene- agreed that he should go to prosecute his medical studies
my with their countenances thus deformed and covered at Edinburgh and London, and afterwards return to settle
with scars. They had no other food but roots and raw meat, at Hamilton in partnership with Dr Cullen. He accord¬
being quite unacquainted with the use of fire; they had ingly set out for Edinburgh in November 1740, and con-
no houses at all, not even huts; they lived constantly ex- tinued there till the following spring, attending the lec-
posed to the air, in the woods and on the mountains, where, tures of the medical professors, and amongst others those
from their infancy, they were inured to hunger, thirst, and of Dr Alexander Monro, who, many years afterwards, in
all manner of hardships ; and they had such an aversion allusion to this circumstance, styled himself his old master,
to houses, which they called the sepulchres of the living, Mr Hunter arrived in London in the summer of 1741,
that, when they migrated into other countries, they could and took up his residence at the house of Dr Smellie, who
hardly be prevailed upon to come within the walls of any was at that time an apothecary in Pall Mall. He brought
house, not thinking themselves safe when shut up and co- with him a letter of recommendation to Dr James Dou-
vered. They used even to eat and sleep on horseback, glas, from Mr Foulis, printer in Glasgow, who had been
scarcely ever dismounting; a circumstance which, in all useful to the doctor in collecting for him different editions
likelihood, induced Zosimus to assert that the Hunns of Horace. Dr Douglas was then intent on a great ana-
could not walk. They covered their nakedness with goats’ tomical work on the bones, which he did not live to com-
skins, or the skins of a sort of mice sewed together. Day plete, and was looking out for a young man of abilities and
and night were indifferent to them, as to buying, selling, industry whom he might employ as a dissector. This in¬
eating, and drinking. They had no law, nor any kind of duced him to pay particular attention to Mr Hunter ; and
religion, but complied with their inclinations, whenever finding him acute and sensible, he desired him to make
these prompted them, without the least restraint, or dis- him another visit. A second conversation confirmed the
tinction between good and evil. In war they began the doctor in the good opinion he had formed of Mr Hunter;
battle with great fury and a hideous noise; but if they and without any further hesitation he invited him into his
met w ith a vigorous opposition, their fury began to abate family to assist in his dissections, and to superintend the
after the first onset; and when once put into disorder, they education of his son. Mr Hunter having accepted Dr
never rallied, but fled in the utmost confusion. They were Douglas’s invitation, was by his friendly assistance enabled
quite unacquainted with the art of besieging towns; and to enter himself as a surgeon’s pupil at St George’s Hospi-
authors observe, that they seldom or never attacked the tal under Mr James Wilkie, and as a dissecting pupil un¬
enemy’s camp. They were a faithless nation, and thought der Dr Frank Nichols, who at that time taught anatomy
themselves no longer bound by the most solemn treaties with considerable reputation. He likewise attended a
than they found their advantage in observing these. Hence course of lectures on experimental philosophy delivered by
we often find them, upon the least prospect of obtaining Dr Desaguliers. Of these means of improvement he did not
more advantageous conditions, breaking into the Roman fail to make a proper use. He soon became expert in dis-
empire, in defiance of the most solemn oaths and engage- section, and Dr Douglas was at the expense of having seve-
ments. Several corps of Hunns, after their coming into ral of his preparations engraved. But before many months
Europe, served in the Roman armies against the Goths had elapsed, he had the misfortune to lose this excellent
and other nations; nay, they were ready for hire to fight friend. The death of Dr Douglas, however, made no
against each other, being blind to every consideration ex- change in the situation of our author. He continued to
cepting that of interest. For further information on this reside with the doctor’s family, and to pursue his studies
subject, the reader is referred to the learned and profound with the same diligence as before.
work of De Guignes, of which some account is given in In 1743 he communicated to the Royal Society an essay
the biographical notice of the author. See article Guignes. upon the structure and diseases of articulating cartilages.
HUNTER, a name given to a horse qualified to carry This ingenious paper, on a subject which till then had not
a person in the chase. See Horse. been sufficiently investigated, affords a striking testimony
Hunter, Dr William, a celebrated anatomist and phy- of the rapid progress he had made in his anatomical inqui-
sician, was born on the 23d of May 1718, at Kilbride, in ries. As he had it in contemplation to teach anatomy, his
the county of Lanark, in Scotland. He was the seventh attention was directed principally to this object; and it de¬
child of John and Agnes Hunter, who resided on a small serves to be mentioned as an additional mark of his pru-
estate in that parish called Long Calderwood, which had dence, that he did not precipitately engage in the attempt,
been long in the possession of his family. His great grand- but passed several years in acquiring such a degree of know-
father by his father’s side was a younger son of Hunter of ledge, and such a collection of preparations, as might ensure
Hunterston, chief of the family of that name. At the age his success. Dr Nichols, to whom he communicated his
HUN
A ter. scheme, and who about that time declined giving lectures
^ in favour of Dr Lawrence, did not give him much encou¬
ragement to prosecute it. But at length an opportunity
presented itself for the display of his abilities as a teacher.
A society of navy surgeons had an apartment in Covent
Garden, where they engaged the late Mr Samuel Sharpe
to deliver a course of lectures on the operations of surgery.
Mr Sharpe continued to repeat this course, till finding that
it interfered too much with his other engagements, he de¬
clined the task in favour of Mr Hunter, who gave the so¬
ciety so much satisfaction that they requested him to ex¬
tend his plan to anatomy, and at first he had the use of
their room for his lectures. This happened in the winter
of 1746. He is said to have experienced much solicitude
when he began to speak in public; but the applause he
met with soon inspired him with courage ; and by degrees
he became so fond of teaching, that for many years before
his death he was never happier than when employed in
delivering a lecture. The profits of his first two courses
were considerable; but, by contributing to the wants of
different friends, he found himself at the return of the next
season obliged to defer his lectures for a fortnight, merely
because he had not money enough to defray the necessary
expense of advertisements.
In 1747 he was admitted a member of the corporation
of surgeons; and in the spring of the following year, soon
after the close of his lectures, he set out, in company with
his pupil Mr James Douglas, on a tour through Holland
and France. His lectures suffered no interruption by this
journey, as he returned to England soon enough to pre¬
pare for his winter course, which commenced about the
usual time.
At first he practised both surgery and midwifery; but
to the former of these he had always an aversion. His pa¬
tron, Dr James Douglas, had acquired considerable repu¬
tation in midwifery ; and this probably induced Mr Hun¬
ter to direct his views chiefly to the same line of practice.
His being elected one of the surgeon-accoucheurs, first
to the Middlesex, and soon afterwards to the British Ly¬
ing-in Hospital, assisted in bringing him forward in this
branch of his profession, in which he was recommended
by several of the most eminent surgeons of that time, who
respected his anatomical talents, and wished to encourage
him. But these were not the only circumstances which
contributed to his success. He owed much to his abilities,
and much to his person and manner, which eminently qua¬
lified him for the practice of midwifery.
In 1750 he seems to have entirely relinquished his views
in surgery, as in that year he obtained the degree of doc¬
tor of physic from the university of Glasgow', and began
to practise as a physician. About this time he quitted the
family of Mrs Douglas, and went to reside in Jermyn
Street. In the summer of 1751 he revisited his native
country, for which he always retained a cordial affection.
His mother was still living at Long Calderwood, which
had now become his property by the death of his brother
James. Dr Cullen, for w'hom he alw ays entertained a sin¬
cere regard, was then established at Glasgow, and had ac¬
quired considerable reputation both as a practitioner and
teacher of physic; so that the two friends had the plea¬
sure of being able to congratulate each other on their mu¬
tual prosperity. During this visit he showed his attach¬
ment to his little paternal inheritance by giving many in¬
structions for repairing and improving it, and for purchas¬
ing any adjoining lands that might be offered for sale. Af¬
ter this journey to Scotland, to which he devoted only a
few weeks, he was never absent from London, unless his
professional engagements, as sometimes happened, required
his attendance at a distance from the capital.
In 1755, on the resignation of Dr Layard, one of the
physicians of the British Lying-in Hospital,_we find the go-
TER. 735
vernors of that institution voting their “ thanks to Dr Hun- Hunter,
ter for the services he had done the hospital, and for his
continuing in it as one of the physiciansso that he seems
to have been established in this office without the usual
form of an election. The year following he was admitted as
a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. Soon after¬
wards he was elected a member of the Medical Society; and
to the Observations and Inquiries published by that society
he at different periods contributed several valuable papers.
In 1762 we find him warmly engaged in controversy,
supporting his claim to different anatomical discoveries, in
a Work entitled Medical Commentaries, the style of which
is correct and spirited. As an excuse for the tardiness
with which he brought forward this work, he observes in
his introduction that it required a good deal of time, and
he had little to spare ; that the subject w'as unpleasant,
and therefore he was very seldom in the humour to take
it up. In this publication he confined himself chiefly to
a dispute with the professor of anatomy at Edinburgh, con¬
cerning injections of the testicle, the ducts of the lachry¬
mal gland, the origin and use of the lymphatic vessels, and
absorption by veins. He likewise defended himself against
a reproach wdiich Professor Monro senior had cast upon
him, by giving a concise account of a controversy he
was involved in with Mr Pott, concerning the discovery of
the hernia congenita. It was not long before Mr Pott
took occasion to give the public his account of the dis¬
pute ; and, in reply, Dr Hunter added a supplement to
his Commentaries. No man was ever more tenacious
than Dr Hunter of what he conceived to be his anatomi¬
cal rights. This was particularly evinced in the year
1780, when his brother communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety a discovery he had made twenty-five years before,
relative to the structure of the placenta, the communica¬
tion between it and the uterus, and the vascularity of the
spongy chorion. At the next meeting of the society a
letter was read, in which Dr Hunter put in his claim
to the discovery in question. This letter was followed
by a reply from Mr John Hunter, and here the dispute
ended.
In 1762, when the queen became pregnant, Dr Hun¬
ter was consulted; and two years afterwards he had the
honour to be appointed physician extraordinary to her
majesty. About this time his avocations were so nume¬
rous that he became desirous of lessening his fatigue;
and having noticed the ingenuity and assiduous applica¬
tion of Mr William Hewson, who was then one of his pu¬
pils, he engaged him first as an assistant, and afterwards
as a partner, in his lectures. This connection continued
till the year 1770, when some dispute happened which
terminated in a separation. Mr Hewson was succeeded
in the partnership by Mr Cruikshank, whose anatomical
abilities were deservedly respected.
In 1767 Dr Hunter was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, and in the year following communicated to that
learned body observations on the bones, commonly sup¬
posed to be elephants’ bones, which have been found
near the river Ohio in America. This was not the only
subject of natural history on which our author employed
his pen ; for, in a subsequent volume of the Philosophical
Transactions, we find him offering his remarks on some
bones found in the rock of Gibraltar, and which he proves
to have belonged to some quadruped. In the same work,
likewise, he published an account of the nyl-ghau, an In¬
dian animal not described before. In 1768, Dr Hunter
became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries; and the
same year, at the institution of a Royal Academy of Arts,
he was appointed by his majesty to the office of profes¬
sor of anatomy. This appointment opened a new field
for his abilities; and he engaged in it, as he did in every
other pursuit of his life, with unabating zeal. He now
736 H U N
Hunter, adapted bis anatomical knowledge to the subjects of paint-
ing and sculpture ; and the novelty and justness of his
observations proved at once the readiness and extent of
his genius. In January 1781 he was unanimously elect¬
ed to succeed the late Dr John Fothergill as president
of the Medical Society. As his name and talents were
known and respected in every part of Europe, so the
honours conferred upon him were not limited to his own
country. In 1780, the Royal Medical Society at Paris
elected him one of their foreign associates ; and in 1782
he received a similar mark of distinction from the Royal
Academy of Sciences in that city.
The most splendid of Dr Plunter’s medical publications
was the Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus. The
appearance of this work, which had been begun as early
as the year 1751 (when ten of the thirty-four plates it con¬
tains were completed), was retarded till the year 1775,
in consequence of the author’s desire of sending it into
the world with fewer imperfections. This great work is
dedicated to the king. In his preface to it, we find the
author very candidly acknowledging, that in most of the
dissections he had been assisted by his brother Mr John
Hunter, “ whose accuracy,” he adds, “ in anatomical re¬
searches is so well known, that to omit this opportunity
of thanking him for that assistance would be in some mea¬
sure to disregard the future reputation of the work itself.”
He likewise confesses his obligations to the ingenious art¬
ists who made the drawings and engravings; “ but par¬
ticularly to Mr Strange, not only for having by his hand
secured a sort of immortality to two of the plates, but for
having given his advice and assistance in every part with
a steady and disinterested friendship.”
When Dr Hunter began to practise midwifery, he was
desirous of acquiring a fortune sufficient to place him in
easy and independent circumstances. Before many years
had elapsed, he found himself in possession of a sum ade¬
quate to his wishes in this respect; and this he set apart
as a resource of which he might avail himself whenever
age or infirmities should oblige him to retire from business.
After he had attained this competency, as his wealth con¬
tinued to accumulate, he formed a laudable design of en¬
gaging in some scheme of public utility, and at first had it
in contemplation to found an anatomical school in the me¬
tropolis. For this purpose, during the administration of
Mr Grenville, he presented a memorial to that minister, in
which he requested the grant of a piece of ground in the
Mews, for the site of an anatomical theatre. Dr Hunter
undertook to expend L.7000on the building, and to endow
a professorship of anatomy in perpetuity. This scheme
did not meet with the reception it deserved. In a con¬
versation on this subject, which he had soon afterwards
with the Earl of Shelburne, his lordship expressed a wish
that the plan might be carried into execution by subscrip¬
tion, and very generously requested to have his name set
down for a thousand guineas. Dr Hunter’s delicacy would
not allow him to adopt this proposal. He chose rather to
execute it at his own expense, and accordingly purchased
a spot of ground in Great Windmill Street, where he erect¬
ed a spacious house, to which he removed from Jermyn
Street. In this building, besides a handsome amphitheatre
and other convenient apartments for his lectures and dis¬
sections, there was one magnificent room, fitted up with
great elegance and propriety as a museum. Of the magni¬
tude and value of his anatomical collection some idea may
be formed, when we consider the number of years he em¬
ployed in making the anatomical preparations, and in the
dissection of morbid bodies, added to the eagerness with
which he procured additions from the collections of Sandys,
Hewson, Falconer, Blackall, and others, that were at dif¬
ferent times offered for sale in this metropolis. His speci¬
mens of rare diseases were likewise frequently increased
T E R.
by presents from his medical friends and pupils; who, Hunts ;
when any thing of this sort occurred to them, very justly ,’y> '
thought they could not dispose of it more properly than by
placing it in Dr Hunter’s museum. Speaking of an acqui¬
sition in this way in one of his publications, he says, “ I
look upon every thing of this kind which is given to me,
as a present to the public ; and consider myself as thereby
called upon to serve the public with more diligence.”
Before his removal to Windmill Street, he had confined
his collection chiefly to specimens of human and compara¬
tive anatomy, and of diseases; but now he extended his
views to fossils, and likewise to the promotion of polite li¬
terature and erudition. In a short space of time he be¬
came possessed of a most magnificent collection of Greek
and Latin books. A cabinet of ancient medals contributed
likewise much to the richness of his museum. A descrip¬
tion of part of his coins in this collection, struck by the
Greek free cities, was afterwards published by the doctor’s
learned friend Mr Combe. In the preface some account
is given of the progress of the collection, which has been
brought together since the year 1770, with singular taste,
and at the expense of upwards of L.20,000. In 1781, the
museum received a valuable addition of shells, corals, and
other curious subjects of natural history, which had been
collected by the late worthy Dr Fothergill, who gave di¬
rections by his will, that his collection should be appraised
after his death, and that Dr Hunter should have the re¬
fusal of it at L.500 under the valuation. This was ac¬
cordingly done, and Dr Hunter purchased it for the sum
of L. 1200.
Dr Hunter, at the head of his profession, honoured with
the esteem of his sovereign, and in possession of every
thing that his reputation and wealth could confer, seemed
now to have attained the summit of his wishes. But these
sources of gratification were embittered by a disposition to
the gout, which harassed him frequently during the latter
part of his life, notwithstanding his very abstemious man¬
ner of living. On Saturday the 15th of March 1783, after
having for several days experienced a return of a wander¬
ing gout, he complained of great headach and nausea. In
this state he went to bed, and for several days felt more
pain than usual, both in his stomach and limbs. On the
Thursday following he found himself so much recovered,
that he determined to give the introductory lecture to the
operations of surgery. It was to no purpose that his friends
urged to him the impropriety of such an attempt. He was
determined to make the experiment, and accordingly de¬
livered the lecture ; but towards the conclusion his strength
was so exhausted that he fainted away, and was obliged to
be carried to bed by two servants. During the night and
the following day his symptoms were such as indicated
danger; and on Saturday morning, Mr Combe, who made
him an early visit, was alarmed on being told by Dr Hun¬
ter himself, that during the night he had certainly had a
paralytic stroke. As neither his speech nor his pulse were
affected, and he was able to raise himself in bed, Mr Combe
encouraged him to hope that he was mistaken. But the
event proved the doctor’s idea of his complaint to be but
too well founded. He died on Sunday the 30th of March
1783.
By his will, the use of his museum, under the direction
of trustees, devolved to his nephew Dr Matthew Baillie,
and in case of his death, to Mr Cruikshank, for the term of
thirty years ; at the end of which period the whole collec¬
tion was bequeathed to the university of Glasgow, where
it is now deposited.
Hunter, John, an eminent surgeon, was the youngest
child of John Hunter of Kilbride, in the county of Lanark.
He was born at Long Calderwood on the 13th of July 1728.
His father died when he was about ten years of age, from
which circumstance his mother was induced to grant him
HUN
Hi er. too much indulgence. In consequence he made no pro-
^ gress at the grammar school, and was almost wholly illite¬
rate at the age of twenty, when he arrived in London. His
brother Dr W. Hunter was at that time the most eminent
teacher of anatomy, and John expressed a wish to attend
him in his researches. The doctor, anxious to make trial
of his talents, gave him an arm to dissect for the muscles,
with proper instructions how it was to be performed ; and
the dexterity with which he managed his undertaking ex¬
ceeded the expectations of his brother.
Having acquired some reputation from this first attempt,
his brother employed him in a more difficult dissection,
which was an arm in which all the arteries were injected,
and these and the muscles were to be preserved and ex¬
posed. In the execution of this task he also gave the high¬
est satisfaction, and his brother predicted that he would
become a good anatomist, and never want employment.
Under the instructions of his brother, and Mr Symonds his
assistant, he enjoyed every favourable opportunity of in¬
creasing his anatomical knowledge, since that school mo¬
nopolized all the dissections then carried on in London.
He was admitted into partnership with his brother in the
winter of 1755, and a certain department of the lectures
was allotted to him ; and he also lectured when the doctor
was called away to attend his patients. The mind of Mr
Hunter was peculiarly fitted for the study of anatomy, and
the indefatigable ardour with which he prosecuted it is
scarcely to be equalled. He applied to human anatomy
for ten years, during which period he made himself master
of every thing then known, and also made some consider¬
able additions. He was the first who discovered the ex¬
istence of the lymphatic vessels in birds.
In 1760 his friends advised him to go abroad, as he ex¬
hibited many symptoms of an incipient consumption. In
October that year he was appointed a surgeon on the staff
by the inspector-general of hospitals, Mr Adair, and in the
spring of the ensuing year he went to Belleisle with the
army. He served, during the continuance of the war, as
senior surgeon on the staff, when he acquired his know¬
ledge of gun-shot wounds. He settled in London on his
return to England ; but finding that his half-pay and pri¬
vate practice could not support him, he taught practical
anatomy and surgery for several winters. He built a house
near Brompton, where he pursued the study of compara¬
tive anatomy with unabated ardour. He discovered the
changes which animal and vegetable substances undergo in
the stomach by the action of the gastric juice ; the mode
in which a bone retains its shape during its growth ; and
explained the process of exfoliation, by which a piece of
dead bone is separated from the living.
On the 5th of February 1767, he was chosen a fellow of
the Royal Society. In the year 1768 he became a mem¬
ber of the incorporation of surgeons, and in the following
year was elected one of the surgeons of St George’s Hos¬
pital, through the influence of his brother. He published
his treatise on the natural history of the teeth in May
1771; and in July the same year he married Miss Home,
daughter of Mr Home, surgeon to Burgoyne’s regiment of
light horse. His private practice and professional reputa¬
tion advanced with rapidity after his marriage; and although
his family increased, he devoted much of his time to the
forming of his collection. He discovered the cause of
HUN 737
failure in the cure of every case of hydrocele, and pro- Hunter’s
posed a mode of operating in which that event may cer- Isles,
tainly be avoided. He ascertained that simple exposure to
the air can neither produce nor increase inflammation ;
and he considered the blood as alive in its fluid state. He
also discovered that the stomach after death is sometimes
acted on and dissolved by the gastric juice, respecting
which he communicated a paper to the Royal Society.
Comparative anatomy occupied the greater part of his
time and attention, and he suffered no opportunity to escape
him. He dissected the torpedo in 1773, and laid an ac¬
count of its electrical organs before the Royal Society. A
young elephant which had been presented to the queen
having died, it was given to Dr Hunter, and afforded him
an opportunity of examining the structure of that mons¬
trous animal, as did also two others which died in the
queen’s menagerie. In the year 1774 he published an ac¬
count, in the Philosophical Transactions, of certain recep¬
tacles of air in birds, communicating with the lungs, and
lodged in the muscular parts and hollow bones of these ani¬
mals. Several animals belonging to the species called
Gymnotus electricus of Surinam having been brought alive
to Britain in 1775, their electrical properties excited a con¬
siderable share of the publication, and Mr Hunter purchased
many of them after they died, for the purpose of prosecut¬
ing his favourite experiments. He published an account of
their electrical organs in the Philosophical Transactions for
1775 ; and in the same volume appeared his experiments on
the power of animals and vegetables to produce heat.
Mr Hunter was appointed surgeon-extraordinary to his
majesty in 1776, in the autumn of which year he became
extremely ill, when both himself and his friends apprehend¬
ed that his life was in danger ; but he happily recovered so
far as to be able to publish the second part of his treatise
on the Teeth in 1778, which completed the subject; and
in 1779 he published in the Philosophical Transactions his
account of the Free Martin. He was chosen a fellow of
the Royal Society of Sciences and Belles Lettres at Got-
tenburg, and in 1783 he became a member of the Royal
Society of Medicine and the Royal Academy of Surgery in
Paris. When Mr Adair died Mr Hunter was appointed
inspector-general of hospitals, and surgeon-general to the
army. This event happened in 1792, at which time he was
elected honorary member of the Chirurgo-Physical Society
of Edinburgh, and one of the vice-presidents of the Vete¬
rinary College of London, then first established. He pub¬
lished also three papers on the treatment of inflamed veins,
on intro-susception, and on the mode of conveying food into
the stomach in cases of paralysis of the oesophagus.
On the 16th of October 1793, when in his usual state
of health, he went to St George’s Hospital, and meeting
with some things which irritated his mind, and not being
perfectly master of the circumstances, he withheld his
sentiments; in which state of restraint he went into the
next room, and turning round to Dr Robertson, one of
the physicians of the hospital, he gave a deep groan, and
dropt down dead, being then in his sixty-fifth year, the
same age at which his brother Dr Hunter had died.
HUNTER’S Isles, a cluster of small islands lying oft
the north-west extremity of Van Diemen’s Land, and fre¬
quented by numerous sea-fowls and seals. Long. 145. E.
Lat. 40. 30. S.
VOL. XI.
5 A
738
HUNTING.
Hunting. Nature has prepared many advantages and pleasures
for the use of mankind, and given them the taste to en¬
joy them, and the sagacity to improve them ; but of all
the out-of-door amusements that have occupied the mo¬
dern world, at least the male part of it, nothing has bet¬
ter stood the test of time than the noble diversion of
hunting.
“ Of all our fond diversions,
A hunter’s is the best;
In spite of wars, and petty jars,
That, sport has stood the test.”
And why has it stood the test ? Not merely because the
passion for the chase is interwoven closely with our na¬
ture ; not because it originated in necessity, therefore
originated in nature ; but because it has been encouraged
and approved of by the very best authorities, and prac¬
tised by the greatest men. It cannot now, then, be sup¬
posed to dread criticism, or require support; neither can
any solid objections be raised against a reasonable enjoy¬
ment of the sports of the field in general, provided what
ought to be the pleasing relaxation of a man’s leisure
hours be not converted into the whole business of his life.
But hunting, above all others, is a taste characteristically
manly and appropriate to the gentlemen of Great Britain ;
and it has likewise another advantage over all other sports
of the field, which adds much to its value in this land of
liberty, and especially in the present age : it is a kind
of Saturnalian amusement, in which the privileges of rank
and fortune are laid aside, the best man in the chase be¬
ing he who rides the best horse, and who is best skilled
in the use he should make of his superiority.
But let us look a little into the origin of hunting, the
encomiums passed upon it, and the advantages derived
from it.
We shall commence with the sacred history itself, which
describes the first warriors under the denomination of
hunters; and not only did the passion for the chase form
a kind of society between the dog, the horse, the falcon,
and man, but Pliny is quite correct in saying that hunt¬
ing was not only one of the first exercises of man, but
that it gave rise to monarchical states. For example,
Nimrod, the first king., who reigned at Babylon, devoted
himself to hunting, and delivered his subjects from the
savage beasts that desolated the country; and in the se¬
quel, by making soldiers of his companions in the chase,
employed them in extending his empire, and establishing
his conquests. In fact, nothing in those days procured a
man so much esteem as being an expert sportsman or
hunter; and had not Nimrod been a sportsman, he would
not have been a king. People submit themselves to go¬
vernment by force, as wild animals do, and not by choice ;
and he erected himself into a monarch by finding him¬
self stronger than his neighbours. He taught the peo¬
ple to make up companies for the chase ; and, after exer¬
cising them for this purpose in the first instance, he led
them on by degrees to a social defence of one another,
and thus laid the foundation of his authority and his king¬
dom. It is no wonder, then, that so many of the first
kings or heroes of whom antiquity makes mention should
be characterised as celebrated hunters, and destroyers of
noxious animals ; an employment prescribed in the Book
of Moses, and deified in the theology of the Pagans.
Bacchus is drawn by tigers, because he subdued them;
Apollo obtained the laurels that encircle his brow, by
killing the serpent Python; and Hercules got his lion’s
skin by his exploits in the forest of Nemaea. Diana was
worshipped in her temple, the finest the world ever saw, Hunti>
in honour of her skill in destroying noxious animals; even
Venus herself took the field, and Adonis was killed in the
chase. The Egyptians, also, in their most splendid ages,
were much addicted to hunting; and it was the common
exercise of the children educated in the court of Sesostris.
But there would be no end to these examples of the
acknowledged benefits of the chase, on the manners and
characters of nations. The ancient Persians considered
hunting not only as a serious employment, but an excel¬
lent preparation for war, in which the same weapons were
used as in the chase; and their renowned monarch, Cy¬
rus, was the first sportsman of his day. With the Athe¬
nians the passion for the sports of the field was so strong,
that Solon was obliged to restrain the ardour for hunting,
to prevent the people neglecting the mechanic arts, which
it was his wish they should cultivate; and the Lace¬
demonians, who were warriors by profession, cultivated
hunting with incessant care. It was not only their ruling
passion, but there is reason to believe they exercised in
it the greatest skill; and, as we learn from Virgil, in his
third Georgic, they were celebrated for their breed of
speedy dogs. But there is not a nation in which it has
not been found necessary to restrain by laws the exces¬
sive love for the chase ; so natural is it to man, and so apt
to degenerate into a passion injurious both to health and
to society.
One of the greatest compliments paid to the chase is,
its having been considered as a theme worthy the pens of
the ablest writers of the most refined periods of the world.
Whilst Greece was the nursery and residence of every
branch of polite literature, and of all the arts and scien¬
ces then known to mankind ; whilst every study that de¬
pends on the powers of the imagination, or the faculties
of the understanding, was there carried to the very sum¬
mit of perfection ; we find Xenophon composing his Kwjj-
ytrixag, treating of every description of field-sports. He,
according with the custom of the times, opens the sub¬
ject with fable, and tells us that hunting, which he calls
the gift of the gods, and the use of dogs, originated
with Apollo and Diana, and that the invention was made
a present of to Chiron, who took pupils in the art, each
of whom was, in his turn, honoured by the gods (ds-o diw
His real object, however, was to encourage in
the youth of his country a taste for the pleasures of the
chase, and other manly pastimes, as the best prepara¬
tion for war, the-senate, and the world. Whilst he con¬
demns the effeminate man as shamefully useless to his
country, he represents the well-trained sportsman as not
only mighty in war, but ready to sacrifice his person
and his wealth to the public good. As a preparation
for war, and particularly the higher branches of the sol¬
dier’s profession, we need not the testimony of Xeno¬
phon ; for our own experience has shown us, that, speak¬
ing generally, no man takes a view of a country, at first
sight, with equal facility to a sportsman, particularly a
sportsman who has been accustomed to follow hounds.
Indeed, unless he have what is called in the field, “ a
good eye to a country,” he cannot ride with judgment
after hounds in our enclosed or woodland districts; and
when the chase is concluded, it is surprising to witness
the rapidity with which an experienced fox-hunter sees
the points of a country in which he is a stranger, that
must lead him towards his wished-for home. With respect
to the other advantages alluded to by Xenophon, he had
very good authority for what he asserted of them. The
HUNTING.
Hu mg* Olympic games were established by the Greeks for two
^ distinct purposes: first, to inspire their youth with a
love of glory, as well as a taste for rtianly and invigorating
exercises, conducive to contempt of danger, and cool¬
ness when exposed to it; and, secondly, with a view of
drawing together the leading men of the different states
of Greece, which gave them an opportunity of deliberat¬
ing upon matters of general concern. As regarded the
other various occupations of life which a gentleman is call¬
ed upon to fulfil and do honour to, we may remark, that an
irreproachable moral character was a necessary qualifica¬
tion for a competitor at those games or sports. Drawing
something like a parallel here, then, we may add, that
neither is a sportsman in our own country esteemed, how
skilful soever he may be, if his character be tainted with
fraud ; and we are not unmindful of the advantages de¬
rived from the mixture of society in the hunting-field, or
of the many valuable and lasting friendships that may be
dated from accidental meetings by the cover’s side. But
Xenophon wrote in praise of hunting rather perhaps as
a soldier than a philosopher, giving it as his opinion,
that the exercise of the chase formed the best soldiers
in the world ; that it habituated men to cold, heat, and
fatigue; that it kindled courage, elevated the soul, and
invigorated the body ; that it retarded the effects of age,
and rendered the senses more acute ; and, finally, that
the pleasure it afforded was a sovereign remedy against
all mental uneasiness; in which latter sentiment he is se¬
conded by a modern author of celebrity, who says that
“ the chase fortifies the heart as well as the body.” Nor is
Xenophon the only eminent soldier or philosopher of his
renowned country who has written in commendation of
hunting. Aristotle wrote a treatise on field-sports, by
order of Alexander the Great; and Polybius, one of the
greatest soldiers of any age, relates that Maximus restored
discipline in the Roman legions, by often exercising them
in hunting; and he even goes so far as to celebrate one
individual sportsman, Ptolemy Epiphanes, for his dexterity
in killing a wild bull. Amongst the poets of Greece, Op-
pian distinguished himself highly by his poems on hunting.
So excellent, indeed, were they considered by his empe¬
ror, that he is said to have presented him with a piece of
gold for every verse they contained, and thus they acquir¬
ed the honourable appellation of “ the golden verses of
Oppian.” Several of the most splendid similes of Homer
are taken from hounds in chase, and it is in the manly cha¬
racter of Achilles that we chiefly recognise him as his hero.
The Romans at one time discouraged hunting amongst
the upper orders of society, from the fear of its becoming a
passion which might divert them from their essential du¬
ties. But here they committed an error; for, aware of its
beneficial effects in forming their people for war, f^ey
substituted public exhibitions of animals destroying each
other in an amphitheatre, which could only have harden¬
ed the heart, without advantage to either body or mind.
Yet we find many of their emperors encouraging hunting,
and many of their best writers extolling it. The learned
and polished Hadrian was so passionately addicted to hunt¬
ing, and also to horses and dogs, that he erected monu¬
ments to the memory of the latter, and built a city on the
spot on which he had killed a wild boar, after a desperate
encounter with him, and which he called by a word which,
being interpreted, signifies Hadrian’s chase. Amongst
the celebrated writers of the Augustan age, we may men¬
tion two, who, not being themselves sportsmen, could
only have, made sporting a subject for their pens, from a
sense of the benefits arising from it. Virgil makes his
young Ascanius a sportsman as soon as he is able to sit
his horse; and he also makes him, at a very early age,
the first in the fight (jirimum hello), as he had been the
first in the field. In the speech addressed to him by the
739
bold Numanus, which cost that hero his life, we have the Hunting,
finest contrast of the evils of effeminate habits with the
benefits of manly pursuits, that the pen of a satirist could
produce. The words, O verce Phrygice, neque enim Phry-
ges ! “ Oh, worse than women in the shape of men,” con¬
vey the severest rebuke a nation could receive for having
made themselves contemptible to their enemies, by the
effects of an effeminate life, and pursuits unworthy of
men; whereas the advantages of the manly exercises of
youth are finely set forth in the vaunting exclamation of
this hardy Rutulian. Neither is Horace behind his con¬
temporary poet in his disgust of an effeminate youth. In
the twenty-fourth ode of his third book, he beautifully
contrasts those softening pleasures which emasculate the
mind and enervate the body, with the opposite effects of
manly sports and exercises; and, in his justly celebrated
Epistle to Lollius, he recommends the chase, not only as
a noble exercise, but as contributing to health and peace
of mind. His Carmen Sceculare was also written in ho¬
nour of manly exercises; and in another of his odes we find
him upbraiding a young Roman for giving up the manly
exercise of riding; and glancing at the destruction of
Troy, and the feminine education of Achilles, seeming to
insinuate, that effeminacy was likely to destroy the energies
of his own countrymen, as it had those of others. That his
apprehensions were not unfounded, a few centuries proved;
for the Romans, after the conquest of Persia and other dis¬
tant kingdoms, participating in their luxurious habits, be¬
came as easy a prey to the Goths and Vandals, as the Gre¬
cians and other nations had before been to themselves;
and, in the decline of the republic, the few victories which
they gained were achieved but by the terror of their name.
Minor poets have also made sporting their theme. Gra-
tius wrote a poem on coursing. He was contemporary
with Ovid, and a sportsman, as the knowledge of his sub¬
ject denotes. Nemesianus also, three centuries afterwards,
wrote some poems on hunting, though they have not been
so highly esteemed. But the sports of the field are allud¬
ed to by innumerable classic writers, and made the ground¬
work of their most beautiful allegories and fables, both in
verse and prose ; and perhaps, after all, the greatest com¬
pliment that can be paid to them, as well as the best an¬
swer to the assertion that any man can make a sportsman, is
to be found in the latter department of literature. We al¬
lude to the letters of that accomplished country gentleman
and scholar, Pliny the consul, in which he speaks of his
prowess in the chase. In one addressed to Tacitus the his¬
torian, boasting of a famous day’s sport he had been enjoy¬
ing, he also boasts of the good effect it had had on his mind,
telling him that Minerva accompanied Diana on the hills;
and in the eighteenth letter of the fifth book he goes a
point beyond this : “ As for myself,” says he to his friend
Macer, “ I am employed at my Tuscan villa in hunting
and studying, sometimes alternately, and sometimes both
together; but I am not ijet able to determine in which of
those pursuits it is most difficult to succeed.
It is not surprising that hunting should have been the
theme of poets, as poetry then ceases to be the language
of fiction ; neither can the subject itself be deemed un-
poetical, as it affords an opportunity to expatiate, not mere¬
ly on the beauties, but also on the endowments of nature.
That the feelings of nature have more of rapture in them
than those which are excited through the medium of
science, is a fact which cannot, we think, be denied; and
thus do we account for the exhilarating passion of the chase.
To describe a chase, however, is a task of no small diffi¬
culty, and perhaps more so in prose than in verse, as the
imarination must be powerfully excited by the transport¬
ing Scenes on which it has dwelt, and cannot well be re¬
strained in a mere recital of facts. When the noise of the
battle is over, powerful must be the pen that could revive
HUNTING.
740
Hunting, the clang of arms. “ The chase is done,” sings Ossian ;
« an(i nothing is heard on Ardven but the torrent's roar.”
Somerville’s poem of The Chase will live to the end of
time; for although it was not faultless in the eyes of the
perhaps too rigid Johnson, it is written with the spirit and
fire his subject demanded; and many of the instructions it
conveys, when stripped of their poetical dress, are esteem¬
ed by sportsmen of the present day. “ Manners,” says
Lord Karnes, “ are never painted to the life by any one to
whom they are not familiar;” neither could a man have
v/ritten the poem we speak of unless he had been himself
a sportsman. Indeed his descriptions of hunting the hare,
the stag, and the fox, place the objects clearly and beau¬
tifully before our eyes, and show that the poet had often
witnessed with rapture the scenes to which he devoted his
muse. The following passage, descriptive of the feelings
of a master of hounds on a hunting morning, is not merely
truly natural, but at the same time highly poetical:
“ Hail, gentle dawn ! mild, blushing goddess, hail;
Rejoic’d I see thy purple mantle spread
O’er half the skies; gems pave thy radiant way,
And orient pearls from every shrub depend.
Farewell, Cleora ! here, deep sunk in down,
Slumber secure, with happy dreams amused.
 Me other joys invite;
The horn sonorous calls, the pack awak’d
Their matins chaunt, nor brook my long delay :
My courser hears their voice;—See there! with ears
And tail erect, neighing, he paws the ground;
Fierce rapture kindles in his redd’ning eyes,
And boils in ev’ry vein.”
Although hunting songs are a species of ancient lyrics,
of which the specimens are rare, and in our own country
“ the songs of the chase” do not appear to include any
earlier than the middle of the seventeenth century, we have
some of a more modern date that have been highly popu¬
lar with the public, and no doubt have given the original
impulse to many a good sportsman. The power and force
of national songs have never been disputed in any age ; and
he who said, that if he were allowed to compose the ballads
of a nation, he would soon alter its form of government,
uttered a boast not altogether unfounded in the principles
of human nature. Compositions of this kind, then, that
tend to encourage a love of manly pursuits and pastimes,
and give a relish to a country life, should by no means be
thought lightly of by a people who, like ourselves, have
ever been conspicuous for our excellence in the one, and
our fondness for the other; but which, in the opinion of
some, appear to be on the wane, as the natural consequence
of our present state of almost excessive refinement. This
would be a real cause for regret. The fondness for rural
life amongst the higher order of the English has hitherto had
a great and salutary effect upon the natural character of
their country ; and there cannot be found a finer race of
men than the country gentlemen of Great Britain. Instead
of the softness and effeminacy which characterise the men
of rank of most other nations, they exhibit a union of na¬
tural elegance and strength, a robustness of frame and
freshness of complexion, which are to be attributed to their
living so much in the open air, and pursuing so eagerly the
invigorating recreations of a country life. Their hard ex¬
ercise produces a healthy tone of mind and spirits, as well
as of body, accompanied with a manliness and simplicity
of manners, which even the follies of a town cannot easily
pervert, and can never entirely destroy. Let us, however,
hope that the fears on this head are groundless; let us hope
that what Horace sighed for, what Cato, Plato, and Cicero
recommended, what Bion eulogised, what all the best
poets of antiquity sang the praises of (according to the
poets, the golden age was spent in the country), and for
which kings and emperors quitted their thrones, will never
be ill suited to, or considered as beneath the taste of a Bri¬
tish country gentleman, in what circle soever he may move. Huntii
That the sports of the field are classical, the authority of n
all ages will vouch for; neither is the man of fashion, or
haut tony by any means incompatible with the country gen¬
tleman and sportsman. On the contrary, how has the cha¬
racter of Paris been handed down to us by the poets ?
Was he not the finest gentleman, the greatest favourite of
the female sex, the greatest beau of his day ? Such he is
represented to have been ; but although a prince, he had
been bred a shepherd; and from the robust habits he had
acquired in his youth, he was the only man who could stand
up against the powerful arm of Dares, the great champion
of his day. What was the all-accomplished Pliny, or Lol-
lius whose education Horace had superintended ?
Again; on the score of health, the chief felicity of man,
were it not for the sports of the field, the softness and
effeminacy of modern manners, in the higher walks of life,
would soon exhibit their pernicious effects on forthcoming
generations, by depriving them of their natural defence
against diseases incident to our climate, by subjecting
them to that morbid debility and sensibility of the nervous
system which lays the foundation of most diseases, as also
depriving them of the courage to support them. And who
enjoys the blessing of health equally with the country gen¬
tleman and sportsman ? Somerville says,
“ In vain malignant steams and winter fogs
Load the dull air, and hover round our coasts ;
The huntsman, ever gay, robust, and bold,
Defies the noxious vapoury and confides
In this delightful exercise to raise
His drooping head, and cheer his heart with joy.”
Certain is it, the rough sports of the country have been
known not only to cure diseases of long standing in the
human frame ; but the exercise of hunting, with the tempe¬
rance it enjoins, absolutely steels the constitution, as the
poet expresses himself, against the attacks of the most com¬
mon of the diseases peculiar to this variable climate. Its
effect on the mind, which he also alludes to, is of no less
value ; for, from the very exhilarating nature of the amuse¬
ment, it relieves it from dwelling upon its anxieties, from
which few persons are free ; and it is one of the best cures
for the heartach, or any of those shocks which our flesh
is heir to :—
“ Dona cano divum, loetas venantibus artes,
Auspicio, Diana, tuo,”
sang the poet Gratius ; and Horace’s description of a sports¬
man’s return to his family, after the toils and perils of the
day, is a true picture of a country life, replete with every
possible enjoyment.
Objections have been made to encouraging youth in a
love of our national field-sports, on the score of their en¬
grossing too much of their time and attention, to the ne¬
glect of more necessary attainments. “ It is true,” says a
Roman historian, “ the masters in every branch of learn¬
ing, whom the accomplished father of Commodus provided
for his son, were heard with inattention and disgust; whilst
the lessons of the Parthian, or the Moor, in the arts of the
javelin and the bow, could not be too often repeated.”
But where is the pursuit that may not be carried to ex¬
cess ? and yet without zeal no person ever succeeded in field-
sports of any kind, much less in hunting. “ Whatever
thy hand findeth to do, do it with all thy might,” said So¬
lomon ; and had not Providence implanted this zeal in
man’s nature, he never would have been what man now is,
but, comparatively, a useless being. Objections are again
made, that the sports of the field, hunting animals with dogs
especially, are cruel; but the charge, if proved, does not
altogether lie against man. The beasts and birds of the
field have been given to him, as well as the way to procure
them pointed out to him ; or wherefore the almost unsearch¬
able faculties of the dog ? Some persons, however, have
w y
HUNTING. 741
ing. thought otherwise : “ Is it a labour worthy of man,” says
a very celebrated English writer, “ to watch from day to
day, from night to night, the haunts of our fellow animals,
that we may destroy them ? To triumph over a poor man¬
gled hare or hind, after we have harassed them up and
down the country for many hours together with an army
of dogs and men ? Is it an exercise becoming the majesty
of a rational spirit to run yawling with a parcel of hounds,
perhaps a whole day together, after some timorous animal ?”
In answer to this it may be urged, that we knew no other
method of availing ourselves of them when first they were
given for our use ; and it may be strongly urged, that the
destruction of wild animals was never so speedily, and
therefore humanely accomplished, as it is at the present
day. A century or two ago, the fox lingered all night in
a trap, and then too often was subjected to a lingering, if
not an agonizing death. He is now killed by hounds, ge¬
nerally in a short time, if he cannot escape from what may
be deemed his lawful pursuers. The buck in the forest of
the king, or in the park of the nobleman, is now no longer
hunted down by the slow but sure blood-hound, a race
nearly extinct, but the unerring eye of the rifle-shot seals
his doom on the spot. We agree with the poet, that
“ Poor is the triumph o’er the timid hare
but she was given for our use, and must be taken, as Esau
took the venison, by hunting her ; and here likewise is an
improvement. A hundred years back she was trailed up to
her form, the operation perhaps of an hour, with the ter¬
ror-striking notes of the hounds all that time in her ear ;
and then pursued for at least two hours more, by animals
with not half her speed, but with a power of following
her by the foot, which it was nearly impossible to evade.
At the present day she is whipped out of her form, twenty
minutes generally deciding her fate ; and, in consequence
of her being now pursued in the forenoon, instead of, as
before, just on her return from her walk, she escapes oftener
than she is killed. Animals destined to fall by the gun are
now nearly certain of meeting with instant death. In addi¬
tion to the increased skill of our marksmen, the improved
formation of the gun enables it to carry destruction with a
much surer hand, owing to the force and precision with
wdiich it carries its shot. Thus, if the game be stricken,
it is stricken to instant death, not wounded and mangled
by weak, scattered shot. Another consideration presents
itself in the discussion of this subject. Life is said to be
“ sweetbut strip it of intellectual enjoyment, and its
sweetness is very considerably abated. But we will go
one step farther. The natural death of wild animals must
generally be lingering, and often painful in the extreme;
they have no relief to fly to, but perish as it were by inches.
This being admitted, perhaps the hand that instantly de¬
prives them of life may be deemed the hand of a friend.
An old English writer on field-sports thus forcibly,
though somewhat boldly, expresses himself on the alleged
cruelty of hunting the hare to death. “ What can be a
more convincing proof of God’s infinite wisdom, or even
of his indulgence to the sons of men, than the formation
of this animal (the hare), which naturally flies from crea¬
tures she never beheld in her life, makes use of the most
refined politics to escape their pursuits (although she can¬
not foresee whether they are the effects of love or anger),
and yet is forced to leave behind her such particles of
matter as betray her flight? Again, of how nice and cu¬
rious a contexture must be the innumerable pores or pipes
of the dog’s nostrils, which serve as so many sheaths, or
canals, to convey the said particles to the brains of the
hounds, there to animate and put in motion every limb,
joint, and muscle of their bodies. How excellent was the
Hand that furnished these creatures with such tuneful
notes to assemble their fellows, and give tidings to their
masters, with such an amazing art to unravel the various Hunting,
windings of the fugitive, with so relentless fury to pursue
her to the death.”
But our sensibilities towards the sufferings of animals
are limited, not only in wisdom, but in mercy (for, in¬
crease our sensibilities, and who could live ?) and let
us not charge a sportsman with cruelty because he is
the destroyer of that part of the brute creation which
was evidently intended should be destroyed by some
one. Sportsmen have existed, and must for ever exist,
from necessity. They have extirpated some animals,
and culled out such as are serviceable to man, and sub¬
mit to his will and government. Those that will sub¬
mit are his friends, those that will not are his foes; and
so it was intended to be since the charge was given to
Adam, and the subsequent commission to Noah. The
sports of the field, indeed, as now followed, are generally
allowed to have a tendency to improve and promote a
free and generous conduct, as well as that manly spirit
which is the very reverse of cruelty ; and, in the harmless
exercise of our imagination, looking at that law of na¬
ture which enjoins the destruction of one animal for the
good of another, so far from passing a hard sentence on
the sportsman, we think with the poet, that
“ His life is pure, who wears no fouler stain !”
No great satisfaction would arise from a reference to
the practices of the ancients in the field, who, it appears
from Virgil, hunted any thing, from the wild ass to the
stag ; but, we have reason to believe, without much sys¬
tem, as far as their dogs had to do with it. We conceive
the ancient Germans and Gauls to have been the best
early sportsmen upon system ; and the ancient Britons,
who came originally from Gaul, and, according to Caesar
and Tacitus, were one of the widely-extended Celtic
tribes, introduced, or rather brought with them from
Gaul, that ardent passion for the chase for which Great
Britain has ever since been remarkable. The Anglo-Nor¬
man and early English monarchs likewise all appear to
have had a passion for the chase; and although a code of
laws relative to hunting was formed by one of the Welsh
princes in the twelfth century, containing a list of ani¬
mals, climbing ones, for example, which does not accord
with the present idea of hunting, we hear nothing of fox¬
hounds per se, till we find them in the kennel of Edward
I., and an item in his wardrobe book of L.21. 6s.' as the
annual expenses of his pack, consisting of six couples.
Soon after this period, at all events in the course of the
next king’s reign, the diversion of hunting in England
may be said to have been first reduced to something like
a science ; treatises having been written on the subject for
the instruction of young sportsmen, as well as rules laid
down for the observation and conduct of those who filled
the various offices, in the forest, the kennel, and the stable.
One of the most curious of these performances, is a ma¬
nuscript written in the beginning of the fourteenth cen¬
tury, in Norman French, by William Twice, huntsman
to Edward II., an ancient translation of which occurs
amongst the Cottonian manuscripts. In it are enumerated
and described the different beasts that were then objects
of the chase in England ; and, in the manner of a dialogue,
the huntsman is informed how he should blow his horn at
the different points of a chase. But the generally rude
system of hunting in the earlier days of England had
previously been in some measure improved and amended
by William the Conqueror, of whom Somerville thus
writes:—
“ Victorious William to more decent rules
Subdued our Saxon fathers; taught to speak
The proper dialect; with horn and voice
To cheer the busy hound, whose well-known cry
742 HUNTING.
Hunting. His list’ning peers approve with joint acclaim.
From him successive huntsmen learn’d to join
In bloody social leagues, the multitude
Dispers’d ; to size, to sort, their warrior tribes,
To rear, feed, hunt, and discipline the pack.”
Edward III. was a great stag-hunter; and even at the
time he was engaged in war with France, and resident in
that country, he had with him, attached to his army, sixty
couples of stag-hounds, and an equal number of hare-
hounds. We also learn from Froissart, that the Earl of
Foix, a foreign nobleman, contemporary with King Ed¬
ward, had one hundred and fifty couples of hounds in his
castle. But it does not appear that the fox was much in
esteem for the chase by any of the Anglo-Norman sports¬
men ; for in Twice’s Treatise on the Craft of Hunting,
he is classed last of all the beasts of venery, excepting
themartern and the roe ; nor does Somerville in his poem
treat him with the respect that he pays to the stag or the
hare. The first public notice of him occurs in the reign
of Richard II., who gave permission, by charter.1! to the
Abbot of Peterborough, to hunt him. Hunting, however,
in all its branches, appears to have advanced steadily till
the last centmy, when it flourished greatly by the en¬
couragement given to it by George III.; and as time im¬
proves every art, it has at length, we believe, attained per¬
fection.
Whatever pastime mankind indulge in, their first en¬
deavour should be to make themselves acquainted with
the best means of pursuing it, which will greatly increase
the pleasure derived from it. But as the philosopher
was laughed at for his offer of teaching Alexander the
Great the art of war, so the theory of no pastime is worth
any thing unless it be based on practice. And, perhaps,
of all sports invented by reason for the use and amuse¬
ment of mankind, there is none to which theory would
avail so little as the noble and popular one of hunting.
Indeed, the practical part of hunting, notwithstanding its
popularity, is but little known, at least but little under¬
stood, from the perplexing difficulties that accompany it;
and there is reason to believe it was still less understood
before the appearance of a work, in which the whole sys¬
tem is minutely and accurately detailed by an eminent
sportsman, and master of fox-hounds, of the early part of
the last century. It is scarcely necessary to observe,
that the work alluded to is “ Beckford’s Thoughts upon
Hunting, in a series of familiar Letters to a Friendof
which it has been said, “ they are so truly the effusions
of sound judgment, and so replete with the useful remarks
of an experienced sportsman, that there is no room for
any thing new or additional to be introduced upon the
subject.” It is true, this has been considered, and will con¬
tinue to be considered, as a standard work amongst sports¬
men ; but as systems and habits change with time, and
many of both have been materially changed since Beck-
ford’s day, another work on fox-hunting, also from a prac¬
tical pen, made its appearance in 1826, and was well re¬
ceived by the sporting world, viz. “ Observations on Fox-
Hunting, and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel
and the Field, by Colonel Cook,” several years a master
of fox-hounds ; hunting various English counties, but prin-
cipally the Rodings of Essex, celebrated for the stoutness
of its foxes.
It is only within a very short space of time that sports¬
men have been given to communicate their thoughts, or
the result of their experience in the field, to the public,
unless under fictitious signatures. In proof, however,
of the benefit derived from such contributions to the
stock of sporting science, if such a term will be allowed ;
and likewise in confirmation of what has been advanced
on the subject of change of systems and habits that oc¬
curs in the course of time, we will make a few comments
on the practices of one of the most conspicuous sportsmen Huntim
England ever gave birth to, the celebrated Hugo Mey- v^y>
nell, Esq. of Quorndon Hall, Leicestershire, and made
partially known through the medium of a small pamphlet,
entitled “ The Meynellian Science, or Fox-Hunting upon
System,” by the late John Hawkes, Esq. a personal friend
of Mr Meynell’s. That Mr Meynell studied fox-hunting
as a science, we believe no one will deny; and that his
master-mind was quite equal to the task he imposed upon
himself, is also an admitted fact; for he was a man of more
than ordinary acuteness, coupled with a close and accu¬
rate observation of every thing that passed under his eye;
and all this with the benefit of an education perfected
beyond the usual extent of that bestowed upon, or, per¬
haps we may say, submitted to, by young gentlemen of
large fortune in his day, having studied nearly three years
under a private tutor after he became of age. That he
shone beyond all others who had preceded him, in the
breeding and management of hounds, is a fact universally
admitted, producing, as Mr Hawkes says of them, “ the
steadiest, best, and handsomest pack of fox-hounds in the
kingdom adding also the emphatic remark, that his ob¬
ject was to combine strength with beauty, and steadiness
with high mettle. His idea of perfect shape was, short
backs, open bosoms, straight legs, and compact feet; and
the first qualities of hounds he considered to be fine noses
and stout runners, opinions which all found to hold good.
But there were peculiarities in Mr Meynell’s system of
hunting, to which, as detailed by Mr Hawkes, we scarce¬
ly know how to reconcile ourselves. For example, he tells
us that his young hounds were broken in to hare in the
spring of the year, “ to find out their propensities, which,
when at all flagrant, they early discovered, and he drafted
them according to their defects and in the same page
he adds, “ after hare-hunting, they were, the remaining
part of summer, daily walked amongst riot.” Now we can¬
not approve of entering hounds to an animal they are not
intended to hunt, and are at a loss to comprehend what is
here meant by the word “ riot,” unless it be hares (as the
term generally implies) or deer (which were never found
wild in his country), which they had been previously in¬
structed to hunt. Their “ propensities,” also, by which is
here generally understood their steadiness or unsteadiness,
must, under such circumstances, have been rather dif¬
ficult to pronounce an opinion upon, with the exception
of their promising to be true to the line, and not given to
skirt. The goodness or badness of nose could of course
have been discernible when hunting their own game (the
fox), to which, in our opinion, all fox-hounds should be
entered. Beckford, we remember, speaks of his hunts¬
man letting his puppies enter to a cat; but we cannot ap¬
prove of such a practice, f
Early in the autumn Mr Meynell hunted his woodlands,
Charnwood Forest chiefly, with his whole pack, and then
divided them into “ the old” and “ the young packbut,
to show the disadvantage of this system, Mr Hawkes
says, “ the young hounds were hunted twice a week, as
much in woodlands as possible, and in the most unpopular
districts.” The present plan of mixing young and old
hounds together is far preferable to this, not only as they
can then take their turn in the good and popular “ dis¬
tricts,” but, by having the assistance of older hounds in
chase, the younger ones are less likely to do wrong.
Mr Meynell’s idea of perfection in hounds, in chase, Mr
Hawkes says, “ consisted of their being true guiders in
hard running, and close and patient hunters in a cold
scent, together with stoutness.” Their imperfections,
“ over-running the scent, and babbling, were considered
their greatest faults.” To all this every sportsman must
assent.
The following passage contains perhaps rather more of
HUNTING.
Hu ng. enthusiasm than of fact, although a qualification is given
^ ^ to it in the concluding sentence. “ Mr Meynell’s hounds,”
says Mr Hawkes, “ were criticised by himself and his
friends in the most minute manner. Every hound had
his peculiar talents, and was sure to have a fair opportu¬
nity of displaying them (!) Some had the remarkable fa¬
culty of finding a fox, which they would do, almost inva¬
riably, notwithstanding twenty or thirty couple were out
in the same covert. Some had the propensity to hunt
the doubles and short turns. Some were inclined to be
hard runners. Some had a remarkable faculty of hunting
the drag of a fox, which they would do very late in the
day. And sometimes the hardest runners were the best
hunters; and fortunate was the year when such excel¬
lencies prevailed.”
“ Mr Meynell,” continues Mr Hawkes, “ prided him¬
self on the steadiness of his hounds, and their hunting
through sheep and hares, which they did in a very supe¬
rior manner. He'seldom or never attempted to lift his
hounds through sheep; and from habit, and the great
flocks the hounds were accustomed to, they carried the
scent on most correctly and expeditiously, much sooner
than any lifting could accomplish.” We are far from ad¬
vocates for lifting hounds when it can be avoided; but
knowing the so often insurmountable difficulties occasion¬
ed by flocks of sheep and herds of cattle in the country
Mr Meynell hunted, in addition to a crowd of horsemen
pressing upon the heels of the pack, we consider that, if,
under such circumstances, hounds do not almost instant¬
ly recover the scent, the assistance of the huntsman is
called for. The “ steadiness and docility” of Mr Meynell’s
pack, we have reason to believe, were remarkable, and
are vouched for by other authority than Mr Hawkes’s.
“ A most extraordinary instance of discipline in hounds,”
says Colonel Cook (p. 202), “ occurs to me, which I
ought to have mentioned when speaking of that unrival¬
led sportsman the late Mr Meynell. He met in the Mar¬
ket Harborough (Leicestershire) country, at a small patch
of gorse on the side of a hill, in a very large pasture field:
the hounds feathered as they went in, and found instant¬
ly. The covert being only about two acres, and open, Mr
Meynell immediately saw that the fox was in danger of
being chopped ; he therefore called out to Jack Raven,
the huntsman, “ Jack, take the hounds away ;” and, at one
of his usual rates, every hound stopped, and the pack were
taken to the hedge side, when Mr Meynell called out
three steady hounds, and threw them into the cover. The
fox was so loath to break, that the three hounds kept
hunting him for ten minutes, in the hearing of all the
pack, who lay perfectly quiet at Raven’s horse’s feet, till
the fox went away over the finest part of the country ;
and the moment Mr Meynell gave his most energetic,
thrilling holloo (Mr Hawkes speaks of the power of Mr
Meynell’s cheering holloa, which, he says, “ thrilled through
the heart and nerve of every hearer’’), every hound flew
to him; the burst was the finest that any sportsman ever
beheld, and after an hour and ten minutes they killed
their fox.” This is doubtless an astonishing instance of
command of hounds with a scent before them, particular¬
ly so to those persons who are aware of the generally un¬
controllable power of the impulse given to them by nature
at that particular time ; and were it not for the high re¬
putation of the pack alluded to, we should, as we cannot
doubt the fact, be inclined to say, it savoured a little of
slackness, or, at all events, of a too severe discipline, bor¬
dering upon the annihilation of the distinguishing natural
properties of the fox-hound, namely, high mettle and dash.
“ Mr Meynell,” adds Mr Hawkes, “ was not fond of cast¬
ing hounds; when once they were laid upon the line of scent,
he left it to them ; he only encouraged them to take pains,
and kept aloof, so that the steam of the horses could not
743
interfere with the scent. It is true, hounds should not be Hunting,
cast, if they can do the work themselves; and if the au-
thority of Mr Meynell could restrain a Leicestershire field
of horsemen to keep aloof when his hounds were at check,
more time may have been given them to make their own
cast; but it must be recollected that, when the hounds are
at fault, the fox is not.” Again, “ when his hounds came
to a check, every encouragement was given to them to
recover the scent, without the huntsman getting amongst
them, or whippers-in driving them about, which is the
common practice of most packs. The hounds were hol¬
loa’d back to the place where they brought the scent, and
encouraged to try round in their own way, which they
generally did successfully, avoiding the time lost in the
mistaken practice of casting hounds at the heels of the
huntsman. When the hounds were cast, it was in two or
three different lots, by Mr Meynell, his huntsman, and
whipper-in; and not driven together in a body, like a
flock of sheep. They were allowed to spread, and use
their own sagacity, at a very gentle pace; and not hur¬
ried about in a blustering manner. It was Mr Meynell’s
opinion, that a great noise, and scolding of hounds, made
them wild. Correcting them in a quiet way was the most
judicious method. Whippers-in also should turn hounds
quietly, and not call after them in a noisy, disagreeable
manner.” In all the foregoing remarks we coincide with
the opinions of these two celebrated sportsmen. We think
a huntsman should never be nearer than from sixty to a
hundred yards of his hounds when they first check; nor
can a whipper-in execute his office of turning or stopping
a hound at this moment too quietly and discreetly; but
no general line of conduct for either the one or the other
can be laid down. Some hounds, and especially if they
have been pressed upon by horsemen, will not turn to
either horn or holloa, without a smack of the whip, or at
all events a rate; nor will the body of the pack, if a little
blown, or excited by a previous holloa, always try for their
fox so well and quickly as they should do, if left quite to
themselves ; or, as Mr Hawkes so properly expresses him¬
self, if left to “ their own sagacity.” That a great noise
makes hounds wild no one doubts, and the system of hol¬
loaing is every year on the decrease. As for the division
of the pack into three lots when at fault, that perhaps ori¬
ginated with Mr Meynell; indeed we believe it did; but
the practice is now become not uncommon, of its being
divided into two, namely, one lot with the huntsman, and
the other with the first whipper-in.
“ When hounds are going to the cry,” writes Mr
Hawkes, “ they should be encouraged in a pleasant way;
not driven and rated, as if discord was a necessary ingre¬
dient in the sport and music of a finfe cry of hounds.
Whippers-in are too apt to think their own importance
and consequence consist in shouting, holloaing, and unne¬
cessary activity. When hounds can hear the cry, they
get together sooner than any whipper-in can drive them.
If any hound is conceited, and disinclined to go to cry, he
should immediately be drafted.”
On the subject of blood, that is, killing and eating foxes,
we entirely assent to the following remarks: “ Blood was
a thing Mr Meynell was more indifferent about than most
masters of hounds. The wildest packs of hounds were
known to kill the most foxes in cover, but very seldom
showed good runs over a country. Hounds chopping
foxes in cover is more a vice than a proof of their being
good cover-hounds. Murdering foxes is a most absurd
prodigality. Seasoned foxes are as necessary to sport as
experienced hounds.” Our own opinion of the value of
blood to hounds perfectly accords with that which, it ap¬
pears, was entertained by Mr Meynell; namely, that it is
far from a sine qua non to the well-doing of fbx-hounds,
or any other hounds, as is apparent at once from the mo-
744
HUNTING.
Hunting, dern system of hunting the stag. If it be possible, the pack
are not permitted to break his skin, much more to devour
him ; still, despite of the rating and flogging they get to
prevent their injuring the object they are pursuing, they
do pursue it to the last with all their might and main.
But let it not be supposed that we set no value on what
may be termed well-carried blood. On the contrary, we
think the flesh and blood of a fox well found, and hand¬
somely killed, by hounds in the moments of high excite¬
ment, must be very beneficial to them. But when chop¬
ped in a cover (generally the effect of accident, and
not, as Mr Hawkes supposed, of vicious propensity in
any individual hound), we consider a round of beef would
be a more acceptable present to them; nor is the case
much altered when a fox is digged out of an earth,
after perhaps an hour’s delay. We remember to have
heard Mr Osbaldeston assert, that the best week’s sport
he ever had in Leicestershire when he hunted it, was
after his hounds had been out nine days in succession
without tasting a fox.
“ Mr Meynell’s natural taste,” continues Mr Hawkes,
“ led him to admire large hounds ; but his experience
convinced him that small ones were generally the stout¬
est, soundest, and in every respect the most executive.
His hounds had more good runs than any pack of his day.
Two very extraordinary ones happened of a very rare de¬
scription. One was a run of one hour and twenty minutes
without a check, and killed their fox. The other was two
hours and fifty minutes without a cast, and killed. The
hounds in the first run kept well together, and only two
horses performed it; the rest of the field were unequal to
its fleetness. The other run alluded to was performed
by the whole of the pack; and though all were up at the
death, two or three slackened in their pace just at the
last. One horse only went the whole of it.”
Mr Hawkes thus speaks of the necessary qualifications
of hounds to show sport:—“ To obtain a good run, hounds
should not only have good abilities, but they should be
experienced, and well acquainted with each other. To
guide a scent well over a country for a length of time,
and through all the difficulties usually encountered, re¬
quires the best and most experienced abilities. A faulty
hound, or injudicious rider, by one improper step, may
defeat the most promising run.” It is evident, from the
above judicious observations, that an old-established pack
of hounds must have great advantages over one of an op¬
posite character.
We shall finish our extracts from this little pamphlet,
which was merely circulated privately amongst the author’s
friends, but valued as from the pen of so eminent a sports¬
man as the late Mr Hawkes proved himself to be, both
in the field and on the race-course, where he shone con¬
spicuously as one of the best gentlemen-jockies of his day,
with his judicious remark on the conduct of sportsmen
who follow hounds. “ Gentlemen, and every person who
makes hunting his pursuit,” says he, “ should learn to
ride judiciously to hounds. It is a contemplative amuse¬
ment ; and much good diversion might be promoted by
a few regular precautions. The principal thing to attend
to is, not to ride too near the hounds, and always as much
as possible anticipate a check. By which means the
leading men will pull their horses up in time, and afford
the hounds fair opportunity to keep the line of scent un¬
broken. Sheep, cattle, teams at plough, and arable land,
are all causes of checks. Ihoughtless sportsmen are apt
to press too much on hounds, particularly down a road.
Lvery one should consider that every check operates
against the hounds, and that scent is of a fleeting nature,
soon lost, never again to be recovered.”
The following is the concluding paragraph, affording a
good specimen of the writer’s enthusiastic love of fox¬
hunting, as also of a cultivated mind:—“ Fox-hunting,” Hunt
he asserts, “ is a manly and fine exercise, affording health vi
to the body, and matter and food for a contemplative
mind. In no situation are the faculties of man more
displayed. Fortitude, good sense, and collectiveness of
mind, have a wide field for exercise ; and a sensible
sportsman would be a respectable character in any si¬
tuation in life. The field is a most agreeable coffee¬
house, and there is more real society to be met with there
than in any other situation of life. It links all classes to¬
gether, from the peer to the peasant. It is the English¬
man’s peculiar privilege. It is not to be found in any
other part of the globe, but in England’s true land of li¬
berty ; and may it flourish to the end of time !”
There is perhaps no part of the material of fox-hunting
more interesting than the management of hounds in the
kennel, which, we do not hesitate in saying, presents one
of the most curious scenes that are anywhere displayed
in the whole circle of the transactions of mankind with
the inferior animal creation. To see sixty couples of
those animals, all hungry as tigers, standing aloof in their
yard (as is the practice in some kennels), and, with¬
out even hearing, much less feeling, the whip, not daring
to move until the order is given to them to move. And
what is the order given? why, at the words, “ Come
over, Bitches” or, “ Come over, Dogs” every hound of
each individual sex comes forward, as the sex it belongs
to may be called for, leaving those of the other sex in
their places. Then the act of drawing them to the feed¬
ing troughs is an exceedingly interesting sight. Often, with
the door wide open, and the savoury meat in their view,
the huntsman has no use for his whip, having nothing to
do but to call each hound by his name, which of course he
readily answers to. The expression of countenance, too,
at this time, is well worthy of notice; and that of earnest
solicitation, of entreaty, we might almost say of importu¬
nity, cannot be more forcibly displayed than in the face
of a hungry hound awaiting his turn to be drawn. He
appears absolutely to watch the lips of the huntsman, an¬
ticipating his own name. A view of a pack of fox-hounds
likewise in their lodging-rooms, is a most agreeable sight
to those who love to see animals in a high state of enjoy¬
ment, which no doubt hounds are when reposing on their
well littered-down benches after a hard day’s work, and
with their bellies well filled. They absolutely appear to
feel for each other’s comforts, in placing themselves in si¬
tuations that enable their fellow-creatures to repose parts
of their bodies upon their own, to render their position for
sleep and rest more agreeable to them.
The system of fox-hunting has been much changed since
that sport commenced. Almost all foxes were once found
by the drag, and the first challenge was loudly cheered in
days when the game was scarce. A long drag, how¬
ever, although a great test of nose, is by no means desir¬
able, as, if it happens to be down wind, the fox takes the
hint, and is off long before the hounds can hunt up to his
kennel. It was nevertheless a fine feature in the sport,
as the gradual increase of cry, the cheering holloas of the
sportsmen, and the crash when the fox was unkennelled,
contributed greatly to ennoble the scene, and created,
as it were, two climaxes in a chase, when it ended in
blood. But another disadvantage attended it. Hounds
could not be depended upon, taking the average of scent,
to hunt a drag that had become cold ; so they were oblig¬
ed to be out very early in the morning, which was not
only disagreeable, as encroaching upon the sportsman’s
rest, but was coupled with the disadvantage, at all events
with the risk, of finding a gorged fox, too full to run far,
much less to run fast. The modern system does not re¬
quire the drag, as woodland covers are comparatively
small to what they used to be ; gorse covers made for the
HUNTING.
745
Hi ing. purpose of holding foxes are easily accessible to hounds
w* ^ accustomed to draw them; and the game is in most
countries so plentiful, that if a fox be not found in one
cover, he is almost certain to be found in another, and
that not far off. The consequence is, no more time is now
lost in drawing two or three gorse covers, than the drag
of one fox formerly occupied ; neither did that always
lead to a find. Moreover, at the present hour of finding,
there is but little chance of unkennelling a gorged fox.
It is by some asserted, that what are called woodland
foxes are stouter runners than those bred in the artificial
gorse and other covers, and we have good reason to be¬
lieve they are so. But the great objection to large wood¬
lands is the uncertainty of getting a run, from the difficulty
of making foxes break from them, as they naturally hang
to places which appear to afford them security; and it
often happens that hounds, and the horses of the servants,
have done a fair day’s work before the run begins. On
the other hand, we admit that a fox found in a wood of
considerable extent is more likely to show a decidedly
good day’s sport, than one found in an artificial cover, and
for this reason : he slips away unperceived, eight times
out of ten, and consequently has time to look about him,
and make his points, ere the chase commences ; whereas
a fox viewed away from a small gorse cover, within sight
of a hundred or two of horsemen, is bullied, frightened, and
soon blown, which occasions him to run short; and, of
course, if the scent serves, and the hounds are good, he
cannot live long, half an hour being as much as can be
calculated upon under such circumstances. Gorse covers,
however, if not too small,—not under three or four acres,
—are indispensable in a hunting country, as foxes are
very fond of them for their security against any thing but
fox-hounds; and another great advantage attending them
is, that they can be placed wherever it may be thought
desirable to place them.
The making of gorse covers requires no small attention,
we had nearly said skill. The ground is all the better for
being trenched to the depth of from a foot to a foot and a
half, and it should be made as clean and in as good con¬
dition as if it were to be the seed-bed of turnips. The
seed should be minutely examined, as it often fails from
having lost its germinating properties ; and it should be
drilled in the ground, and hoed, after the manner of a tur¬
nip crop. By keeping it clean by the hoe, it will, if the
seed be good, and the land dry, often hold a fox in the
second year, but will seldom fail in the third. Some wri¬
ters, Colonel Cook among the number, speak of broom
being sown amongst gorse. This should never be, as all
huntsmen who draw, or run through, broom covers, can
vouch for their being decidedly inimical to scent. A no¬
vel description of fox-cover came into fashion a few years
back in Leicestershire, but is not highly approved of, from
the difficulty hounds experience in drawing it. Strong
black thorn stakes are driven into the ground endways, at
a small distance apart, and the rank grass and weeds grow¬
ing rapidly over, and entwining with them, form a strong
cover the first year; and it is found proof against a fall of
snow, which gorse covers are not, and are often forsaken
by foxes on that account. All artificially-made covers
should be not nearer than half a mile at the least to any
house or village ; and if on a gently sloping bank, facing
the south, foxes will like them better.
Some sportsmen object to many rides being cut through
covers, as they are so often the cause of foxes being head¬
ed by the horsemen. The objection in part holds good ;
but a certain number of rides are necessary in all large
covers, to enable the servants to get near their hounds, who
might otherwise be disposed to run riot, as they soon dis¬
cover when they are out of the reach of either rate or
whip. Woodlands, with rides in them, are essential to the
VOL. XI.
making of young hounds in all countries; and the finest in Hunting.
England are those of the Duke of Buccleuch, near Kel-
tering in Northamptonshire, within the limits of the Pytch-
ley Hunt, with rides, or, speaking more properly, avenues
in them, to the extent of upwards of fifty miles.
When speaking of the disadvantages of large woods, in
which foxes are apt to hang or dwell, Colonel Cook recom¬
mends killing a fox, and letting the hounds eat him, in the
middle of them ; which we believe will generally have the
desired effect. On the other hand, should a fox be killed
in a small cover, he should, if possible, be carried out of it
before the hounds break him up, for reasons which are ob¬
vious from the foregoing remark.
The arrangement of earths, and the stopping of them,
are matters of no small importance in a hunting country.
Artificial ones are sometimes made, but they are reckoned
unhealthy for foxes ; and the best are those made by bad¬
gers, which can always be commanded at pleasure, by
turning out those animals in pairs. On the proper and
t careful stopping of earths every thing depends; for no¬
thing can be more annoying to sportsmen than to have
their fox get to ground, just as the hounds have well set¬
tled to the scent of him, with every prospect of a run.
There are various methods of stopping earths, but none
more secure than by a bunch of gorse, or furze, crammed
well into the mouth of them, with the stalks pushed in¬
wards. When earths are only slightly stopped, a fox will
scratch his way into them ; and as this very often happens,
it shows the necessity of a careful and experienced earth-
stopper ; and we agree with Colonel Cook in thinking it
better to pay for each day’s stopping, rather than annually
in the lump, reserving the power to withhold payment in
case of evident neglect. The expense of earth-stopping
varies according to the nature of the soil, covers, &c.; but
in certain countries it amounts to as much as L.200 per
annum. It may also surprise some persons to hear, that the
rent paid for artificial covers, that is, for the land on which
they are made, in one hunt alone, in Leicestershire, amounts
to upwards of L.700 per annum.
The following calculations of the expenses of a pack of
fox-hounds, varying, of course, with the extent of them,
are given by Colonel Cook, and admitted to be very near
the mark ; making allowance for the difference in the price
of markets at the time he made them, and at others.
For hounds hunting twice a week:—
Six horses, including groom and helpers L.300
Hounds’ food, for 25 couples  150
Firing  30
Taxes  80
Whipper-in and feeder  140
Earth-stopping  50
Saddlery    40
Farriery, shoeing, medicine, &c  50
Young hounds purchased, and expenses at walks... 60
Casualties     100
L.1000
A second whipper-in, and two horses in addition... 170
L.1170
Expenses for three times a week:—
Twelve horses, groom, helpers, &c L.600
Food for forty couples of hounds    220
Firing  40
Taxes  100
Two whippers-in and feeder.  210
Earth-stopping  65
Saddlery  80
Farriery, shoeing, &c ,....'  80
Young hounds purchased, and expenses at walks... 80
Casualties  150
L.1625
5 B
746 HUN
Hunting. Expenses for four times a week:—
Fourteen horses, &c L.700
Hounds’ food for fifty couples    275
Firing      50
Taxes  120
Two whippers-in and feeder  210
Earth -stopping  80
Saddlery    100
Farriery, shoeing, &c    100
Expenses of greyhounds purchased, and at walks... 100
Casualties     200
L.1935
“ If you do not attend to the kennel department your¬
self,” adds the Colonel, “ but keep a huntsman, the ex¬
pense will be at least L.300 more.”
The only remark we have to offer on the foregoing cal¬
culations is, that the author does not allow a sufficient num¬
ber of hounds for the several days’ hunting in the week.
For example, we venture to say, that no country could be
hunted four times a week with fifty couples of hounds; at
all events, fifty couples of hounds equal to that work are
very rarely to be found. We agree with the writer, that
either four times a week, or even twice, are preferable to
three, for keeping hounds in regular work, when sound
But on the subject of expenses we have a word or two
more to say. Knowing, as we do, that they generally, we
believe we may add always, exceed the calculations made
by Colonel Cook, and in some instances by double, we con¬
sider it rather inconceivable that, in the present depressed
state of land property, either noblemen or private gentle¬
men should be expected or permitted to bear all the charge
of hunting a country themselves, knowing, as we do, the
great sacrifices of property and income that have already
been made to a perseverance in keeping fox-hounds, un¬
assisted by a subscription. But this cannot go on much
longer ; nor indeed is it, with some exceptions, fit that it
should; and, in support of our assertions, we will quote
the sentiments of a writer on this subject, admirably well
expressed, in a late number of the New Sporting Maga¬
zine.1
After hinting at the probable decline of a sport, from
this cause alone, which Mr Burke described as “ one of
the balances of the constitution,” he thus proceeds :—“ As
to the total abolition of the sport, we anticipate no such
event. It is the favourite sport of Englishmen ; and that
wdnch a man likes best he will relinquish last. Still, with
the exception of countries that boast their Clevelands,
their Yarboroughs and Suttons, their Graftons, Beauforts,
Rutlands, Fitzwilliams, Segraves, Middletons (his lordship
is since dead), and Harewoods—their great and sporting
noblemen, in fact—we feel assured that, unless something
be speedily arranged, half the packs in England must ei¬
ther be curtailed of their fair proportion of sport, or abo¬
lished altogether. This is not as it should be. Men are
as fond of hunting, at least of riding to hounds, as ever;
but though we feel that we may be telling a disagreeable truth
to many, the fact is, that most men want to hunt for nothing.
The day for this, however, is fast drawing to a close. The
breed of country gentlemen who keep hounds—the Ralph
Lambtons, the Farquharsons, the Assheton Smiths, the
Villebois and Osbaldestons—are fast disappearing, in all
probability never to be renewed. True that it is a fine, a
proud sight, to see an English country gentleman spending
his income on his native soil, and affording happiness and
amusement to his neighbours, receiving their respect and
esteem in return; but we cannot help feeling, that unless a
man has one of those overwhelming incomes that are more
TING.
frequently read of than enjoyed, it is hardly fair that the Huntin
expenses of a sport which affords health and recreation to 1
hundreds should fall upon his individual shoulders. Heirs
at law will not be hindered by the remoteness of relation¬
ship from impugning the conduct of their ancestors ; nor
will it be any consolation to a son, on coming into posses¬
sion of an overburdened estate, to know that the difficul¬
ties which oppress him were incurred for the purpose of
keeping a pack of fox-hounds, by which his father afforded
amusement to the country.” It may here be not unappro-
priately added, that at the time the above was written
(February 1834), three of the best hunting countries in
England were vacant, viz. the Quorndon in Leicestershire,
the Pytchley in Northamptonshire, and the Oakley in
Bedfordshire.
Fox-hunting is a sort of prescriptive right, which Eng¬
land has claimed from a very early period ; and, more than
this, it has long been considered that the common law al¬
lowed persons to enter the lands of another in pursuit of a
fox, the destruction of which was presumed to be a public
benefit. This opinion was founded on the celebrated case
Grundy v. Feltharn (1, Term. Reports, p. 334); but in
that of Earl of Essex v. Capel, Summer Assizes, 1809, the
legality of hunting foxes over the land of another is render¬
ed very questionable. This being the case, it is a great
compliment to the sport, as no doubt injury of land to a
certain amount, though small, is occasioned by it, that it
is permitted to the extent to which we see it, in every
county in Great Britain; and that an action of trespass is
an unusual occurrence, must be considered as still more cre¬
ditable to the yeomanry and tenantry who live by the oc¬
cupation of land. On the other hand, however, it must
be remembered, that the produce of land is very consider¬
ably enhanced by the great demand, as well as extra prices
given, for hay, corn, and straw, as likewise by the encou¬
ragement to breeding horses; and that, wherever there is a
colony of fox-hunters, it is accompanied by a great influx
of money, which is expended in the immediate neighbour¬
hood.
There were formerly three established classes of hunt¬
ing in Great Britain, each of which had advocates, as it
may have been suitable to situation, fortune, time of life,
&c.; and although the struggle for superiority has ended
in favour of that of the fox, we have reason to believe,
that since what are termed “ packs of hounds’' have been
established, hunting the stag or buck claims precedence
of the hare; the hare of the fox ; the otter, perhaps, of
all. We will then offer a few more remarks upon them, as
we have ranked them here.
Since the stag has ceased to be drawn for, and found in
his native majesty, and hunted as a wild animal, “ stag
hunting” has lost all its interest with the sportsman ; and
when we say that the chase of no other animal is, after all,
from first to last, so full of interest as that of the stag, the
sportsman has some cause for regret. But wild-stag hunting
could not have remained one of the popular diversions of Great
Britain, for two sufficient reasons. First, from the country be¬
ing so generally cleared of w ood, there would have been a
great scarcity of game; and, secondly, from the circumstance
of the stag being, by his nature, unfit to be hunted during
some of the months that sportsmen like to be on the field.
The act of harbouring the deer, however, must be consi¬
dered as amongst the very highest branches of the sports¬
man’s art, and one which none but a well-practised sports¬
man could perform. Neither was the hunting to death of
the wild stag by any means so easy a task as might be sup¬
posed, from the bulk of the animal, which it must be propor¬
tionally difficult for him to conceal. On the contrary, like
1 No. xxxiv. vol. vi.
HUNTING.
747
t r
v. y
ting, the harts of Meandros, flying from the terrible cry of Diana’s
hounds, the “ wise hart,” or cerf sage as he is termed in an¬
cient hunting, knows how to foil hounds perhaps as well as,
or better than, most other wild animals, and is allowed to
consult the wind in his course more than any of them. It is
also said of him, that he will, when pursued, rouse other
deer from their lair, to induce the hounds to run counter,
or change ; and his device of taking soil, with nothing but
the nose to be seen above the water; running down a
stream, and seeking for a hard and dry road when pressed;
are facts too well established to require comment. But,
after all, the subtilty of man in harbouring a deer, and
knowing beforehand its age, sex, and size, by the slot
and other distinguishing marks which it leaves behind it
as it traverses its native forests, is more conspicuously dis¬
played than in any other department of the chase, and is a
most satisfactory illustration of “ the dominion given to man
over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.” We
shall then dismiss this part of our subject with the remark,
that although, properly speaking, the diversion of hunting
the stag is totally extinct in Great Britain, we can vouch
practically for the fact, that there is not a nobler sight
in nature than that of a full-headed stag roused from his
lair by hounds, and majestically trotting before them, snuf¬
fing the air as he goes, and appearing to care little for his
pursuers, from confidence in his natural powers. That these
powers are great, all modern stag-hunters are satisfied of;
and those of endurance, when chased, are allegorized in the
fable of the Maenalaean stag, the running down of which is
said to have occupied Hercules for a year, and was in
consequence counted amongst the labours of that hero.
That deer are superiorly winded animals, is apparent by
the immense height they can leap, just before they die from
bodily exhaustion; and it may be accounted for by their
being furnished with two spiracles, or breathing places,
one at the corner of each eye. Oppian, the Greek poet,
must have supposed, by the following line, that they had
four.
“ TiT/yaZvfioi ptvis, •zituot; vr/ostiiri S;ai/Xo<,”
which was a mistake of the sporting bard ; and some wri¬
ters have made Aristotle say, that goats breathed at their
ears, whereas he directly asserts the contrary. The classic
writers, however, as well as our own poets, have taken
some of their most beautiful similes from the chase of the
deer; for example, Virgil’s comparing the flight of Tur-
nus to a stag trying to escape from the toils ; and the death
of the favourite hind by the hand of the young lulus, a
master-piece of pastoral poetry. But the death of the stag
has been a favourite theme of our own poets; and both
Shakspeare and Thomson have been equally happy in their
description of the last moments of the antlered monarch of
the forest, the lattelr particularly :
 “ He stands at bay,
And puts his last weak refuge in despair.
The big round tears run down his dappled face :
He groans in anguish ; whilst the growling pack,
Blood-happy, hang at his fair jutting chest,
And mark his beauteous chequer’d sides with gore.”
The following account of hunting the wild stag in De¬
vonshire, but now nowhere to be seen in England, is from
one of Nimrod’s Tours, in 1824:—“The amusement of stag¬
hunting appears to be of ancient date in the county of De¬
von. For many years previous to 1775, the North Devon
stag-hounds were kept in a style almost amounting to mag¬
nificent, by the then Sir Thomas Acland, Bart., when Co¬
lonel Basset took them and kept them to the year 1784.
At that period the late Sir Thomas Acland became master
of them, and kept them to the year 1793, when Colonel
Basset took them again, at his own expense, and hunted
them to the year 1801 inclusive ; when ill health obliging
him to part with them, he gave away all but six couples
and a half to Lord Soudes. In 1802 Lord Fortescue re¬
vived them, by receiving from Colonel Basset the six cou¬
ples and a half he had reserved, and kept them for that
year. In 1803 they were first kept by subscription by Mr
Worth, who continued at the head of them till 1810. In
1811 Lord Graves became master of them, also by sub¬
scription ; but in the spring of 1812 Lord Fortescue de¬
termined upon keeping them at his own expense, which
he did for seven years, v/hen they were once more esta¬
blished by subscription; and since the year 1819 have
■ been managed by Mr Lucas, who still continues at their
head.”
The next year after Nimrod visited them, they wTere
given up ; but we give the extracts from his account of
two days’ diversion with these hounds, on each of which
they found a “ warrantable” deer. Speaking of the first,
he says, “ When we arrived within half a mile of the covert
in which a stag was harboured, the hounds, till then in
couples, were put into a stable, when the celebrated Joe
Faulknor, one of the whippers-in, was despatched with two
couples of old hounds, for the purpose of rousing the game.
One of these, a hound called Leader, was shown to me as
a sample of a perfect stag-hound; and they were both
said to be so steady, and to know a rate so well, that they
will stop if a wrong (not a warrantable) deer be found,
and will draw again. It was some time after Joe had got
his tufters into covert before we heard any thing but an
accidental note from his melodious pipe, which is certain¬
ly pitched in the right key. During this interval of sus¬
pense, for, as the poet sings,
   “ The blood more stirs
To rouse a lion than to start a hare,”
a farmer rode up with a piece of a stick in his hand, which
was cut to the size of a slot he had found in a neighbour¬
ing wood. On my measuring it by my hand, I found it to
be four inches in length, which, exceeding the usual length,
showed it to be the slot of an old and very large stag.”
He then proceeds to relate that the harboured stag was
roused, but afforded very little sport, on account of the ex¬
treme badness of the weather, and total want of scent. Of
the find on the second day he thus speaks :—“ The stag lay
‘ close couched,’ or he must have been found before. We
stood on an eminence which overhung the covert, and
therefore could command a view of it. A long silence had
prevailed, and we began to wonder what had become of
Joe and his tufters, when all on a sudden a holloa was
heard, and a hound threw his tongue :
“ The deep-mouthed blood-hound’s heavy bay
Resounded up the rocky way ;
And faint, from further distance borne,
Were heard the clanging hoof and horn.”
The rouse, it seems, had taken place in a small covert, a
short distance below us, and we could see a stag of noble
size, with branching antlers, trotting majestically along in
a small opening between two woods, apparently paying
little attention to the old hounds behind him. Indeed, at
one time, so far from verifying the words of a poet, that
pedibus limor addidit alas, he very coolly broke into a
walk, as much as to say, ‘ I value you not;’ but the staunch
old tufters getting nearer to his haunches, obliged him to
quicken his pace ; and, to the great joy of all present, he
put his head straight for a moor twelve miles across.” But
this is a subject for poetry; and it is impossible to read even
the foregoing short account of rousing the deer with hounds,
without calling to our recollection the beautiful lines of the
Scottish bard in the Lady of the Lake, so strictly true to
nature:—
“ The antlered, monarch of the waste
Sprang from his heathery couch in haste;
But ere his fleet career he took.
The dew-drops from his flanks he shook ;
Hunting,
HUNTING.
748
Like crested leader proud and high,
Tossed his beamed frontlet to the sky ;
A moment gazed adown the dale,
A moment snuffed the tainted gale ;
A moment listen’d to the cry,
That thicken’d as the chase drew nigh ;
Then, as the headmost foes appear’d,
With one brave bound the copse he clear’d,
And stretching forward free and far,
Sought the wild heaths of Uam-Var.”
Nimrod relates a few incidents connected with this day’s
sport, peculiar to hunting the deer. “ I had,” says he, “ in
this run, an opportunity of witnessing a circumstance pe¬
culiar to stag-hunting, and that is, hunting in water. Our
deer beat down a river for about half a mile, the hounds
following him by scent, which we might wonder how they
could avail themselves of in so chilling an element as a
rapidly-flowing stream. This, I think, may be called one
of the master-pieces of natural instinct.” Again, “ Our
stag once sank in Bremridge Wood, when he was fresh
found ; and the crash of those deep-tongued hounds at the
time was very fine indeed. I was in hopes we should have
viewed him in Castle Hill Park, but we were just too late.
When he broke out of the park, he took a ring through
some of the neighbouring coverts; when skirting it again,
he returned to the place where he was found, and was killed
at Bragford, a short distance beyond. He was once what
is called ‘ set up’ in the water, where he sank ; but break¬
ing out again, he was pulled down by the pack ; and when
one of the field went up to him to cut his throat, his eye
was glazed. He was as fine a stag as ever was seen. He had
brow, bay, tray, three on top on one horn, and two on the
other; and the weight of his haunch was thirty-nine pounds.”
Nimrod laments the want of the French horns that form¬
ed part of this establishment, but which, some time before
his visiting it, were done away with. The recheat and the
mort were wanting to make the thing complete.
A kind of technological dictionary is required to almost
all sports of flood and field. Of the technical terms in
deer-hunting Nimrod thus speaks :—“ What we fox-hun¬
ters call the ball or pad of a fox on foot, they term the
‘ slot.’ We drag up to a fox; they draw on the slot, or
walk up a deer. We find or unkennel a fox ; they rouse or
unharbour a deer. A fox runs up and down a cover ; a
dear beats up or down a covert, or a stream. With us, a
fox is headed (turned back, or driven from his point) ; with
them, a deer is blanched. We say, a fox stops or hangs in a
cover, in a run ; they say, their game sinks. We recover
our fox ; they fresh find their deer. We run into (kill)
our fox ; they set up the deer. The fox is worried ; the
deer is broken up. The fox goes a clicketting ; the deer
goes to rut. The fox barks ; the stag bellows. The bil-
liting (excrement) of the one is termed the feument or
feumishing of the other. The brush of the fox is the
single of the deer. The mask of the fox is the snout or
nose of the deer. The view, the foil, the tally-ho, and
who-whoop, are common, I believe, to all; but currant jelly
and sweet sauce are not in the fox-hunter’s vocabulary.”
“ There are some expressions here,” continues Nimrod,
“ which require farther explanation than I am able to af¬
ford them ; and it is almost presumptuous in me, without
any assistance at hand, to attempt giving an opinion on the
subject. The word ‘ harbour,’ however, is one of common
acceptation, and implies a place of refuge. To unharbour
a deer has long since been settled by Pliny: ‘ Excidere
feram cubili? The expression is clear, and falls smooth¬
ly on the ear. Not so with ‘ taking soil:’ it savours of
filth, and is only applicable, in this sense, to a hog delight¬
ing, in the summer months, to wallow in mud or dirty wa¬
ter, previously to going to his bed. To ‘ beat up and
down’ is only another way of expressing to run to and fro,
and is found in Terence, in the word cursito. The deer
being ‘ set up,’ can only be in allusion to his having his Huntinc If
throat cut; for Cicero speaks of a man being ‘ set up’ to v,-'Vxi
have that pleasant operation performed :—‘ In cervicibus
imponere dominum.’ The stag roused from his lair has
certainly a great superiority over unkennelling the fox.
The latter is tame and puny, whereas the former is bold
and classical, and quite in association with the wildness of
the forest, of which this animal is the monarch. The lair
is but another word for the den ; as we read in Virgil’s ce¬
lebrated contrast of a town and country life, in which he
so beautifully describes the manly pursuits of the latter;
and likewise in the hunting scene with Dido and Aineas.
The word feument I never heard before, but conclude
it is derived from the Greek word fugfia, recrementum.”
The following is Nimrod’s description of a full-headed
deer. “ A perfect head, I find, consists of brow, bay, tray,
and three on top of each horn ; but some have brow, bay,
tray, and five, on each horn, though these are rare.”
Of the powers of endurance of a deer before hounds, as
also of his subtilty in foiling them, the same writer thus
speaks : “ When we reflect on the powers of a stag, and
look at his qualities for speed, we cannot be surprised
that, when not overladen with flesh, or a ‘ heavy deer,’
as he is then called in Devonshire, he should afford some
extraordinary chases. The following well-authenticated
facts will speak to their powers of locomotion : ‘ When Sir
Thomas Acland kept the hounds, a farmer in the neigh¬
bourhood of Holnicote House saw a stag one evening in
his fields, with a particular spot on his side. The next
morning he met this same stag running in great distress,
with the hounds close at his haunches, and he soon after¬
wards sank before them. On his asking Sir Thomas where
he had found him, he learnt that it was twenty^five miles,
as the crow flies, from the place where he was killed. He
must therefore have travelled that distance in the course
of the previous night.’ ” Again, on the power of leaping,
which we have already noticed, and particularly in allusion
to their wind, when otherwise much distressed, we find
the following remark: “ On my return from hunting on
the preceding Tuesday’s hunting,” says Nimrod, “1 was
shown a leap, in Lord Fortescue’s park, which a hind had
taken last season before this pack, after a long run, and not
ten minutes before she sank before them. What makes it
more extraordinary is, that, on being paunched, a calf was
taken from her almost able to stand. The fence was a
stone wall, with a rail on the top of it, not to be broken;
and your readers may judge of its height from the following
statement, having had no other means of measuring it:
My own height is five feet nine inches ; the horse I rode is
fifteen hands two inches high; the top of the fence was
upwards of two feet above the crown of my hat; and it was
up a steep bank that she approached it. The stag we ran
went up to this fence, but did not attempt to leap it.”
The natural history of the stag will be given in due
course; and we now dismiss the subject of stag-hunting with
the remark that, although, from the adverse circumstances
attending it in a country like Great Britain, so generally
free from large tracts of woodlands, which the red deer
delights in, and also so much intersected with streams,
real stag-hunting can never be again reckoned amongst the
popular diversions in England, a good substitute for it is
found in the turning out deer before fox-hounds in the
neighbourhood of the metropolis, which has the advantage
of affording a certainty of something in the shape of a run,
and frequently very long ones, to persons whose time is
precious, as well as the opportunity of, in a great measure,
selecting the country best suited to the habits and propen¬
sities of the game. There are a number of stag-hunting
establishments in England, and there has been a royal es¬
tablishment of this nature throughout several successive
reigns. In that of George III. stag-hunting was in high re-
Hunting.
HUNTING.
Hi ing. pute amongst the nobility and gentry forming the court, as
^ ^ well as of others residing in its neighbourhood. Mr Beck-
ford said little about it, because he knew little : the reason
he himself gives ; but the following expression in his book
relating to it made a deep impression on fox-hunters, who
reluctantly acknowledge its truth. “ Could a fox-hound,”
says Mr Beckford, “ distinguish a hunted fox, as the deer¬
hound does the deer that is blown, fox-hunting would be
complete.”
The roe-buck has partaken of the same respite from
the chase as the wild red deer, although by the old laws of
the forest he was not considered as venison until hunted;
and, according to Caesar, the Britons did not eat this animal
at all. The fact is, the roe-buck runs so short, after the first
ring, that he is said to hunt the hounds, instead of the
hounds hunting him ; an artifice by which he hopes to
elude his pursuers, as, of course, it must produce a confu¬
sion of scents. Neither does his cunning end here. When
closely pursued in a thick wood, he will bound to one side
of a path by a sudden spring, and, lying close down upon
his belly, permit the hounds to pass by him without offer¬
ing to stir. But the beauty of form and elegance of mo¬
tion of the “ favourite roe,” which Solomon has made an
emblem of connubial attachment, ought to protect it from
the chase, although they do not appear to have done so in
the country in which Solomon wrote, as he recommends
to the man who has engaged to be surety for his neigh¬
bour, to deliver himself “ as a roe from the hand of the
hunter, and as a bird from the hand of the fowler.” There
has been only one pack of roe-buck hounds kept in Great
Britain, and that was by a gentleman of the name of Pley-
dell, of Whatcombe House, near Blandford, Dorsetshire,
lately deceased, in whose covers these animals abounded,
as they also do in various parts of Scotland.
Hunting the otter was a sport much thought of in Eng¬
land, and is of very early date, chiefly perhaps for the great
value formerly set on fresh-water fish, previously to that of
the sea being so generally available throughout the coun¬
try as it has been within the last hundred years, and con¬
tinues to be still more so. The system of hunting the
otter is this : The sportsmen go on each side of the river,
beating the banks and sedges with the hounds. If there
be an otter near, his “ seal” (foot) is soon traced on the
shore; and, when found, he is attacked by the sportsmen
with spears, when he “vents,” that is, comes to the surface of
the water to breathe. If he be not soon found by the river
side, it is conjectured he is gone to “ couch” inland, for he
will occasionally go some distance from his river to feed.
He is traced by the foot, as the deer is; and when found,
and wounded in the water, he makes directly for the shore,
where he maintains an obstinate defence. He bites most
severely, and does not readily quit his hold ; on the con¬
trary, if he seizes a dog in the water, he will dive with him
to the bottom of the river, and will never yield to him
whilst he has life. This sport is still pursued in the few
fenny and watery districts that now remain in England, and
has for a long time been confined principally to those parts
where, from local circumstances, the other more noble and
exhilarating distinctions of the chase cannot be conve¬
niently enjoyed. An attempt, however, has been recently
made to revive it, by a celebrated Oxfordshire sportsman,
Mr Peyton, only son of Sir Henry Peyton, Bart., of which
attempt we subjoin an account, extracted from the Oxford
Journal. By this, two facts are established ; the one, that
otter-hunting spiritedly pursued is not a tame diversion ;
and the other, that the charge against this animal of de¬
stroying young lambs and poultry, is not altogether un¬
founded.
“ We have great pleasure in informing our readers, that a
novelty in the sporting world, as far as relates to this
county, has recently been introduced by that ardent and
749
indefatigable sportsman, Mr Henry Peyton, namely, a pack Hunting,
of those rare animals, otter-hounds, with which he hunts
the country in the neighbourhood of Bicester ; so that these
midnight marauders and inveterate enemies of the finny
tribe, which are numerous in the Cherwell, and streams
near Rousham and North Aston, will not repose as here¬
tofore in uninterrupted security. Mr Peyton hunts the
pack himself, assisted by a very powerful auxiliary in the
person of Viscount Chetwynd. These gentlemen start
with their otter spears ere the day breaks, and at half-past
five in the morning they may be seen two or three times
a week wending their way on foot along the banks of the
river, in pursuit of the ‘ furry varmint/ The pack has
had some very excellent runs, one of which continued a
distance of twenty-five miles, having been found in the
river Cherwell, near to Flights Mill, and hunted through
all the turnings of that serpentine stream to his lodgings
at Watereaton, where he took refuge amongst the old
willows, and succeeded in baffling his pursuers; subse¬
quently to which a capital day’s sport was afforded at
North Aston. The hounds found near the mill, and went
away in the direction of Nell Bridge ; but twisting into the
Adderbury Brook, after a chase of about eight miles, he
was come up with, when some hard fighting occurred, in
which a small terrier, bred by Mr Peyton, greatly signaliz¬
ed himself, being much punished, as indeed were all the
hounds, from the determined ferocity of the otter, which
was ultimately speared by Mr Peyton. It turned out to
be a fine bitch otter, weighing upwards of twenty pounds,
and, from the appearance of the dugs, it was conjectured
that some of her family were in the vicinity, and conse¬
quently the hounds were again laid on, and finally succeed¬
ed in killing four fine cubs, weighing on the average eleven
pounds each. The farmers of the neighbourhood who
were up at the death were quite overjoyed, and nothing
would satisfy them but the immediate cutting up of one
of the cubs ‘ a la reynard,’ and a distribution of the pads,
head, and body, amongst them. It is said that these am¬
phibious fish-merchants, when suffering hunger by reason
of a scarcity of fish, will boldly in the season carry away
young lambs ; so that the farmers, independently of their
stream being pilfered of fish, often sustain a more substan¬
tial injury, and therefore are much gratified at the oppor¬
tunity now afforded of in some degree thinning the num¬
bers of these voracious gluttons.”
The otter-hound is not a distinct kind of hound, the
strong rough-haired harrier answering the purpose best,
provided he will hunt a low scent, as the game shows no
small sagacity, as well as circumspection, in guarding
against assault from man or dog. In 1796, on the river
Worse, near Bridgenorth, Shropshire, four otters were
killed, one of which stood three, another four hours before
the hounds ; and in 1804 the otter-hounds of Mr Coleman
of Leominster, Herefordshire, killed an otter in a mill
pond, which is said to have weighed thirty-four pounds and
a half; supposed to have been eight years old, and to have
consumed a ton of fish or flesh annually, for the last five
years. It will be observed, in the list of hounds, there
are three more packs kept in England for the purpose of
hunting the otter.
Flare-hunting claims precedence of fox-hunting in the
sporting chronology of Great Britain, and we believe of all
other countries, inasmuch as a hare has always been es¬
teemed excellent eating, and a fox the rankest of carrion.
We gather from Xenophon that it was practised before his
day, and he wrote fully upon it above three centuries be¬
fore Christ, both hounds and nets being then used in the
pursuit. Neither can we marvel at hare-hunting being the
favourite diversion in all nations given to sporting where
the use of the horse in the field had not become common.
But we will go a point farther than this, and assert, that
750 HUN
Hunting, how inferior soever may be the estimation in which hunting
the hare is held in comparison with hunting the fox, no
animal of the chase affords so much true hunting as she
does, which was the opinion of the renowned Mr Beckford.
In our description of the modern harrier (see article
Hound), we have termed him the fox-hound in minia¬
ture ; and we may apply the simile to hare-hunting, which
now, as long as the chase lasts, greatly resembles fox-hunt¬
ing, only on a minor scale. In the modern system, there
is no tracking to the seat with the one, any more than
dragging up to the kennel with the other ; but both animals
are now chiefly stumbled upon by accident, and instantly
fly for their lives. With the system of hunting also has
the kind of hound been altered; there being now no long¬
er occasion for that nice distinction of scent which was
wanting to be a match for the windings and doublings a
hare was able to make in her course when hunted by the
slow and fastidious southern hound, and which was essen¬
tial to the finding her at all, in countries where hares were
scarce, by the perplexing means of a very cold trail. In
fact, we do not think we can better elucidate the gradual
but great change that has taken place in this highly popu¬
lar and ancient British diversion, than by the following ex¬
tracts from a very old work upon sporting called the Gentle¬
man’s Recreation, published nearly two centuries back.
“ Your large, tall, and big hounds,” says the author,
“ called and known by the name of the deep-mouthed or
southern-mouthed hounds, are heavy and slow, and fit for
woodlands and hilly countreys ; they are of deep mouths,
and swift spenders; they are generally higher behind than
before, with thick and short legs, and are generally great
of body and head, and are most proper for such as delight
to follow them on foot, as stop-hunting, as some call it;
but by most it is termed ‘ hunting under the polethat
is, they are brought to that exactness of command, that, in
their hottest scent and fullest chase, if one but step before
them, or hollow, or but hold up or throw before them the
hunting pole, they will stop at an instant, and hunt in full
cry after you at your own pace, until you give them en¬
couragement by the word of command; which much adds
to the length of the sport and pleasure of the hunters, so
that a course oft-times lasts five or six hours.
“ Opposite to the deep-mouthed or southern hound
are the long and slender hounds called the fleet or north¬
ern hound, which are very swift, as not being of so heavy
a body, nor hath such large ears : these will exercise your
horses, and try their strength ; they are proper for open,
level, and champain countreys, where they may run in
view and full speed ; for they hunt more by the eye than
the nose, and will run down the game in an hour, and
sometimes in less ; that is, a hare ; but the fox will exer¬
cise them better and longer.
“ Between these two extremes there are a middle sort
of dogs, which partake of both their qualities, as to strength
and swiftness, in a reasonable proportion ; they are gene¬
rally bred by crossing the strains, and are excellent in
such countreys as are mixt, viz. some mountains, some
enclosures, some plains, and some wood-lands; for they
will run through thick and thin, neither need you help
them over hedges, as you are often forced to do by
others.
“ A true right-shaped deep-mouthed hound should have
a round thick head, wide nostrils, open and rising up¬
wards, his ears large and thin, hanging lower than his
chaps ; the flews of his upper lips should be longer than
those of his nether chaps; the chine of his back great
and thick, strait and strong, and rather bending out than
inclining in ; his thighs well trussed ; his haunches large;
his fillets round and large; his tail or stern strong set on,
waxing taperwise towards the top ; his hair under his belly
rough and long; his legs large and lean ; his feet dry and
TING.
hard, with strong claws and high knuckles. In the whole, Hunt®
he ought to be of so just a symmetry, that when he stands y>
level you may not discern which is highest, his fore or
hinder parts.
“ For the northern or fleet hound, his head and nose
ought to be slenderer and longer, his back broad, his belly
gaunt, his joynts long, and his ears thicker and shorter;
in a word, he is in all parts slighter made, and framed af¬
ter the mould of a greyhound.
“ By crossing these breeds as aforesaid, you may bring
your kenel to such a composure as you think fit, every
man's fancy being to be preferred; and you know the old
saying,
‘ So many men, so many minds,
So many hounds, so many kinds.’ ”
In proof of our assertion, that there is more of true
hunting with harriers than with any other description of
hounds, we shall point out a few of the difficulties which
they have to overcome. In the first place, a hare, when
found, generally describes a circle in her course, which is
in itself not only more difficult to follow, but it naturally
brings her upon her foil, which is the greatest trial for
hounds. Secondly, the scent of the hare is weaker than
that of any other animal we hunt; and, unlike some, it is
always the worse the nearer she is to her end; which ac¬
counts for its being better, and lasting longer, when go¬
ing to her seat, than when running. There is scarcely
any scent from a hare until she is in motion ; therefore
hounds constantly draw over her ; and, of course, accord¬
ing to the length of time she has been gone to her seat
after feeding, will be the difficulty of hunting her by the
trail. In fact, at the most distant part of her previous
night or morning’s walk, the most tender-nosed hound in a
pack will be scarcely able to own the scent at all. But the
grand puzzler of all is, when hounds get upon the counter
trail, about the middle of a hare’s work, and the scent lies
so equal that it is most difficult to distinguish heel from
chase. No such difficulty as this can occur in any other
description of hunting, and can only be obviated by the
skill and experience of the huntsman in his notice of the
working of his hounds. But although this difficulty is al¬
luded to by almost all writers on the chase, we know not
where to look for directions to the huntsman at the criti¬
cal moment. It is true, Mr Daniel, in his Rural Sports,
says, “ To find out this, see if your hounds challenge
counter ; if they double, and carry it on counter, they will
soon signify their error by opening singly.” We conceive
there is some reason in this remark, but it will not always
avail. Hounds, harriers in particular, are fond of a scent;
and if they cannot carry it forward, they will turn and
hunt it heel; and here it is that the judgment of a hunts¬
man turns to account. One with a keen eye, and a per¬
fect knowledge of his hounds, may be able to unravel this
mystery perhaps six times out of ten ; but it is in no man’s
power to be sure of doing it. His chief guide is in the
cry of his pack at this time, which will slacken instead
of getting fuller if the scent be heel, as the experience
of old hounds adds to their natural instinct the facul¬
ty of judging whether it is leading them to their prey or
from it.
The great perfection of modern harriers is the head
they carry over a country, the result of the pains now
taken in breeding them of the same size and character;
whereas, upon the old system, which was all for the pot,
the chief dependence was upon a few couples out of the
whole pack, the rest being wheresoever they liked or
were able to be in the chase. On the other hand, it may
be said modern harriers have not the nose and patience
of the old sort, which perhaps they have not; but what
they may lose in those respects, they more than gain in
another, viz. by being nearer to their game in chase, and,
HUNTING. 751
gi ing. by pressing her, not allowing her to make more than half
w the work she was able to do when pursued by slow hounds.
In fact, the want of speed, and tedious exactness, of the
southern hound, rendered the warmest scent, after a short
time, cold ; which may be proved from the fact of an hour
being the average time of killing a hare, in former days,
with a good scent, and from three to four with what is
called a “ fair,'1 a “ holding,” or a “ half scent.” For our
own part, speaking as fox-hunters, yet abandoning all
prejudices against a sport it is too much the fashion to
hold cheap, we consider that, to any man who is a real
lover of hunting, that is, of seeing hounds do their work,
and do that work well, a twenty minutes burst over a
good country, with a well-bred pack of harriers of the
present stamp and fashion, affords a high treat. To see
them to advantage, however, it should be over a country
in which the fields are large, and the fences stone walls,
like those of Oxfordshire or Gloucestershire ; for harriers,
being for the most part obliged to meuse, strong hedges
prevent their carrying a head in chase, which is the chief
beauty in all hunting.
Somerville has these appropriate lines on the adapta¬
tion of hounds to their game :—
“ A different hound for every chase
Select with judgment; nor the timorous hare
O’er matched, destroy ; hut leave that vile offence
To the mean, murderous, coursing crew, intent on blood and
spoil.”
Harriers should not be too large, certainly not more than
eighteen inches high, or, by their speed, and, if good with¬
al, they will much overmatch their game ; but in a good
and open country there should never be less than from
eighteen to twenty couples in the field. A strong pack
not only adds to the respectability of the thing (at all
events, a small one greatly detracts from it), but, in our
opinion, more hounds are wanting to pursue an animal
that runs short, than one which, like the fox, generally
makes for a distant point. The opinion of Mr Beckford
is in opposition to us here. He says, “ the few^er hounds
you have, the less you foil the ground, which you will find
a great hindrance to your hunting ;” but it must here be
remarked, that in the preceding sentence, this eminent
sportsman speaks of the difficulty of getting a strong pack
of harriers to run well together; a difficulty which no
doubt existed in his day, but is totally overcome in the
best hare-hunting establishments of ours. Indeed, we once
heard a sportsman declare, and he was a sportsman who
had hunted in all the best countries in England, that he
had never seen a chase quite complete from end to end,
not a single hound being out of place, until he saw it with
a pack of harriers over the Cotswold Hills.
The following passage from Beckford is worthy of his
pen, and should be strictly observed by all masters of har¬
riers :—“ Harriers, to be good, must be kept to their
own game. If you run fox with them, you spoil them.
Hounds cannot be perfect unless used to one scent and to
one style of hunting. Harriers run fox in so different a
style from hare, that it is of great disservice to them when
they return to hare again. It makes them wild, and teaches
them to skirt. The high scent which a fox leaves, the
straightness of his running, the eagerness of the pursuit, and
the noise that generally accompanies it, all contribute to
spoil a harrier.” We conclude that the writer here alludes
to hunting wild foxes, which is now very rarely done with
a pack of harriers, at least in a country near to which fox¬
hounds are kept. No master of harriers would do it, who
wishes his pack to be perfect; and there are other reasons
for his not doing it, which it is unnecessary to mention.
But the very best understanding now generally exists be¬
tween masters of fox-hounds and masters of harriers ; and
it is a common practice of such of the latter as reside in a
fox-hunting district, to await the publishing of the fox- Hunting,
hunting fixtures before they make their own. '^-y***)
The following hints may be useful in hunting the hare.
First, respecting the hare herself; hares breed from Feb¬
ruary to the end of harvest, and are said to live seven
years. The buck affords the best sport, particularly in the
spring, when, after one or two rings, he often goes straight
on end for several miles. Hence the proverb, “ as wild as
a March hare.” Some persons pretend to distinguish the
sex upon the seat; at all events, the head of the buck is
shorter, the shoulders redder, and the ears redder, than
those of a doe; he is also larger, and his hind parts are of
a lighter colour. If the claws are smooth and sharp, and
the ears tear easily, the hare is young.
The difficulty of finding a hare by the eye is well known.
It is an art greatly facilitated by experience, although not
one person in ten who attempts it succeeds in it. But
here we recognize the Hand that furnished her with such
means for her security; as, from the delicacy of her flesh,
she is the prey of every carnivorous animal, and her means
of defence are confined only to her flight. In going to her
form, she consults the weather, especially the wind, lying
always, when she can, with her head to face it. After har¬
vest, hares are found in all situations; in stubble fields,
hedgerows, woods, and brakes; but when the leaves fall,
they prefer lying upon open ground, and particularly on a
stale fallow, that is, one which has been some time ploughed;
as likewise after frost, and towards the spring of the year.
In furze, or gorse, they lie so close as to allow themselves
nearly to be trodden upon, rather than quit their form.
The down or upland-bred hare shows best sport; that
bred in a wet, marshy district, the worst, although the scent
from the latter may be the stronger. If a hare, when not
viewed away, runs slowly at first, it is generally a sign that
she is an old one, and likely to afford sport; but hares never
run so well as when they do not know where they are.
Thus, trapped hares, turned out before hounds, almost in¬
variably run straight on end, and generally till they can
run no longer ; and they generally go straight in a fog.
The chase of the hare has been altered, and rendered
less difficult in some degree, by the improvement of the
hound used in it. In the first place, she is now so press¬
ed by the pace at which she is hunted, that she has not
time, when first started, to visit the works of the preced¬
ing night; nor is she, from the same cause, so likely to run
her foil. But when making out her foil, hounds are now
not let to puzzle over it as formerly, but, if it be not quick¬
ly done, are rated forward by a whipper-in, to make good
the head; and if that do not succeed, to make it good
round the fences. Formerly, when hounds were at fault,
the cast was made in a small circle to begin with, and then
their huntsman tried wide; whereas they now generally,
and especially if the game is supposed to be not far before
them, make a wide cast at first, and then contract the
circle if the wide cast fails. There is reason in this; for
if the hare is on, the wide cast will cross her; and if she
is not, she has most likely squatted. The old system
was, “ avoid a view, if possible.” The modern one rather
encourages a view, but no holloaing; for as hares regu¬
late their speed in great measure by the cry of hounds,
they are less apt to have recourse to shifts when the cry
bursts upon them at once. In fact, to suit the taste of
the day, which is to have every thing that moves, fast, it
was necessary that the greater part of the system of hunt¬
ing the hare should be changed. It used to be insisted
upon, that harriers should never be lifted as long as they
can possibly carry a scent; and,Beckford says, “ a hare is
not fairly hunted unless the pack be left almost entirely to
themselves; that they should follow her every step she
takes, as well over greasy fallows as through large flocks
of sheep ; nor should they be cast, but when nothing can
HUNTING.
752
Hunting, be done without it.” This may have been all very well
when gentlemen followed hounds on foot, or were content
to be some hours killing one hare; or for Mr Beckford
himself, who (although he admits having bred an infinity
of harriers before he could get a pack to please him)
thought hare-hunting should be taken as a ride after break¬
fast, to get an appetite to dinner.
But we have reason to believe, if a master of harriers of
the present day wished to show his pack to advantage,
and could have a choice of a run to display them, he would
say, “ Give me twenty-five minutes in all; the first fif¬
teen a severe burst; then a fault, well hit off; and the re¬
maining ten without a turn.” But, it may be asked, where¬
fore the fault ? We reply, because, although the speed of
well-bred harriers, for a certain time, if not quite equal to
that of fox-hounds, is too much for most hares, as well as
for most horses that follow them, yet, after that certain time,
say fifteen minutes, wind and power begin to fail, and a
short check is useful. Besides, the ability of a pack, in
quickly recovering a fault, is more than a counterbalance
to their coming to a fault at all, which, with a short-run¬
ning animal, as the hare is, it is often difficult to avoid,
nay, rather to be looked for indeed in every field.
The difference in the terms used in hare-hunting and
fox-hunting is comprised in a few words:—Harriers are
cast off, in the morning; fox-hounds throw off. The hare
is found by the quest or trail; the fox by the drag. The
hare is on her form or seat; the fox in his kennel. The
young hare is a leveret; a fox a year old is a cub. The
view holloa of the hare is, “ Gone awayof a fox,
“ Tallyho.” The hare doubles in chase; the fox heads
back, or is headed. The harrier is at fault; the fox-hound
at check. The hare is pricked by the foot; the fox is ball¬
ed or padded. The hare squats ; the fox lies down, stops,
or hangs in cover; the “ who-whoop” signifies the death of
each.
Our ideas of a complete pack of fox-hounds are very
soon expressed. For four days’ hunting in the week there
should be not much less than sixty couples of working
hounds; nor do we think more are necessary, as hounds,
like horses, are always better and sounder when in regular
work. For three days in the week, forty couples are
enough. They should have at their head not only a hunts¬
man, but also a master, each of whom knows his business,
and one clever whipper-in, and another as clever as you
can get him. It is not necessary, because it is not feasi¬
ble, that they should all be good drawers of covers ; but it
is absolutely necessary to perfection that they should all
get to work as soon as a fox is found, and prove them¬
selves true on the line their game has gone. As to their
being quite free from riot on all days, and on all occasions,
the man is not yet born ivlio can say with truth, “ my
hounds never run riot.” Nature is seldom extinguished ;
and as Jilsop’s damsel, turned to a woman from a cat, be¬
haved herself very well till the mouse appeared, so will
hounds occasionally break away upon riot, particularly
when out of sight of the servants, in large covers, or when
disappointed by a long blank draw^. We conceive a pack
of fox-hounds entitled to be called “ steady from riot,” if
they will bear being put to the following test:—If, when
at fault for their fox, in the middle of a large field, a hare
gets up in view, and not a hound stirs, nor attempts to
break away after her; and this without a word being said
to caution them. But it is in chase, with only a holding
scent, that a pack of fox-hounds display their excellence.
In such a case as this there must be checks ; and it being
ten to one against their fox running straight, because they
cannot press him, now is the time to see them work. Do they
carry a good head when the scent is a-head and serves
them well ? Are they cautious when it does not ? And
do they turn short when the game has turned right or left,
or is gone back ? Are they careful not to overrun the Hunting,«
scent, and will they stand pressing to a certain degree by t
the horsemen ? But having overrun it, do they stop di¬
rectly, and make their own cast ? Should that fail, do they
come quickly to horn or holloa—to their huntsman’s cast ?
Do they fling for a scent when their huntsman lifts them
to points, and not attempt to flash, or break away, without
a scent ? When the scent serves well, do they not only
carry a good head over a country, but, as their game is
sinking, does the head become better ? If they do all this,
and have speed and stoutness withal, they are equal to any
fox in any country, and are worth a thousand sovereigns
to a sportsman.
The number of fox-hounds taken into the field depends
chiefly upon country ; more being required in that which
is woodland, than for an open champaign, or for our en¬
closed grass districts, such as Leicestershire. Eighteen
couples are generally considered as sufficient for the latter;
and the strongest woodlands do not require more than from
twenty-two to twenty-five couples; and we consider the
latter the more common number, in the field, of any pack
in any country.
The average speed of fox-hounds is estimated at ten miles,
point blank, over a country, with a good scent, in one hour;
that is to say, making allowance for deviations from the
straight line, hounds seldom go more than ten miles, from
point to point, in that space of time. Mr Beckford has a very
judicious remark on this part of his subject. “ That pack,”
he writes, “ may be said to go the fastest that can run ten
miles the soonest, notwithstanding the hounds separately
may not run so fast as many others. A pack of hounds,
considered in a collective body, go fast in proportion to
the excellence of their noses and the head they carry; as
that traveller gets soonest to his journey’s end who stops
least upon the road. Some hounds that I have hunted
with would creep all through the same hole, though they
might have leaped the hedge ; and would follow one ano¬
ther in a string, as true as a team of cart-horses. I had
rather see them, like the horses of the sun, all abreast?'
There is nothing in the history of our domestic sports
and pastimes to inform us correctly as to the date of the
first regularly-established pack of fox-hounds kept in Eng¬
land. Neither the holy prioress of St Alban’s, Dame Ju¬
liana Bannes, Markham, nor any of the very old writers on
such subjects, are able to satisfy us on this point; but, on
the authority of the Rev. William Chafin, in his Anecdotes
respecting Cranbourn Chase, the first real steady pack of
fox-hounds established in the western part of England
was by Thomas Fownes, Esq. of Stepleton, in Dorsetshire,
about the year 1730. “ They were,” says the author, who
wrote in 1818, “as handsome, and fullyas complete in every
respect, as the most celebrated packs of the present day.
The owner, meeting with some worldly disappointments,
was obliged to dispose of them; and they were sold to Mr
Bowes, in Yorkshire, the father of the late Lady Strath¬
more, at an immense price for those days. They were
taken into Yorkshire by their own attendants, and, after
having been viewed and much admired in their kennel,
a day was fixed for making trial of them in the field, to
meet at a famous hare-cover near. When the huntsman
came with his hounds in the morning, he discovered a
great number of sportsmen, who were riding in the cover,
and whipping the furzes as for a hare ; he therefore halt¬
ed, and informed Mr Bowes that he was unwilling to throw
off his hounds until the gentlemen had retired, and ceased
the slapping of whips, to which his hounds were not accus¬
tomed, and he would engage to find a fox in a few mi¬
nutes, if there was one there. The gentlemen sportsmen
having obeyed the orders given by Mr Bowes, the hunts¬
man, taking the wind of the cover, threw off hie hounds,
which immediately began to feather, and soon got upon a
HUNTING. 753
Hu ing. drag into the cover, and up to the fox’s kennel, which
^ ^ went off close before them, and, after a severe burst over
a fine country, was killed, to the great satisfaction of the
whole party. They then returned to the same cover, not
one half of it having been drawn, and very soon found a
second fox, exactly in the same manner as before, which
broke cover immediately over the same fine country; but
the chase was much longer; and, in course of it, the fox
made its way into a nobleman’s park, I believe Lord Dar¬
lington’s, which was full of all sorts of riot, and it had been
customary to stop the hounds before they could enter it,
which the best-mounted sportsmen attempted to do, but
in vain ; the hounds topped the highest fences, ran through
herds of deer and a number of hares, without taking the
least notice of them ; ran in to their fox, and killed him
some miles beyond the park; and it was the unanimous
opinion of the whole hunt that it was the finest run ever
known in that country. An ample collection of field-
money was made for the huntsman, much beyond his ex¬
pectation ; and he returned to Stepleton in better spirits
than he left it, and told his story as above related, in which
we must allow for some little exaggeration, very natural
on such an occasion. This pack was probably the proge¬
nitors of the very fine ones now in the north. Before this
pack was raised in Dorsetshire, the hounds which hunted
in the chase hunted all the animals promiscuously, except
the deer, from which they were necessarily made steady,
otherwise they would not have been suffered to hunt at all
in it.” We have good reason to believe Lord Yarborough’s
fox-hounds, at Brocklesby Hall, Lincolnshire, were es¬
tablished as far back as the year 1700. The present
huntsman and his late father hunted them more than fifty
years.
The Fox.
The fox makes a conspicuous figure in the natural his¬
tory of animals; still, in some respects, his character has
been over-rated and exaggerated. He is a native of all
temperate regions; and although we read of the cur, the
greyhound, and the mastiff fox, we consider a fox as a fox,
the difference in size, colour, &c. being dependent on either
climate or food. It is true, they are larger in some parti¬
cular parts of England than in others; and it is generally
believed, that such as are what sportsmen call “ stub-bred
foxes,” that is, bred above, and not below ground, are the
largest. It is in^this sole instance that the habits of the
fox differ from those of the wolf, to whose genus he be¬
longs ; the she wolf never bringing forth her young, as the
fox does, under ground. But although the general con¬
formation of the fox is the same as that of the wolf, his
external form has a greater resemblance to the dog, with
whose character also he closely assimilates, when domesti¬
cated, in expressions of affection, of anger, or of fear.
When minutely examined, and particularly in relation to
his predatory life, and, consequently, the dangers to which
he is exposed, he will be found to be abundantly endowed
by nature with the instinctive faculties requisite for such
a life, in addition to the most elegant form an animal of
his size is capable of. Foxes copulate in the winter months,
and of course bring forth in the spring, on an average
perhaps half a dozen cubs at a litter, born blind like the
dog; but the period of each depends on the mildness or
severity of the winter. Excepting during the season of
sexual desire, the fox is a solitary, not a gregarious ani¬
mal, for the most part passing the day in sleep, and the
night in prowling after food.
The food of the fox is extremely variable ; indeed, very
few things that have or have had life come amiss to him:
but we have reason to believe that rabbits, hares, poultry,
partridges, and pheasants, wdth their eggs, are his favourite
repasts; and when these are not to be had, he contents
VOL. XI.
himself with field-mice, black-beetles, snails, and frogs. Hunting.
That he can even exist solely on the latter, was proved a v'—-y—'
few years ago, by the circumstance of a fox-hound and a
fox having been found at the bottom of a dry well, into
which they had fallen; the hound had perished from hunger,
but the fox had supported his life on frogs. Of those ani¬
mals and birds which we call game they are without doubt
destroyers—of pheasants, it is asserted, twenty-five per
cent.; but how it happens that they have been charged
with feeding on grapes, we are, as far as our own expe¬
rience directs us, quite at a loss to determine. The fact,
however, is stated by several accredited writers, and has
given birth to the fable of the fox and the grapes, the mo¬
ral of which is a severe rebuke to an envious person who
“ hates the excellence he cannot reach.” Aristophanes,
in his EquiteSy compares soldiers devastating a country
to foxes destroying a vineyard; and Galen ( De Aliment.
lib. iii. c. 2) tells us, that hunters ate the flesh of foxes in
autumn, because they were grown fat with feeding on
grapes. There are also two lines in Theocritus {Idyl. E.
v. 112) which admit of the following version:—
I hate those brush-tailed foxes, that each night
Spoil Micon’s vineyards with their deadly bite.
He is likewise accused of eating human flesh, and, we have
reason to believe, accused justly. In addition to the sen¬
tence pronounced by David, in the sixty-third psalm, that
the enemies of God and himself should be “ a portion for
foxes,” we have the following interesting historical anec¬
dote. When the famous Messenian general Aristomenes
was thrown into the Ceadas (a deep chasm into which cri¬
minals wrere hurled) by the Lacedaemonians, his life is
said to have been preserved by following a fox that was
feeding on a dead body, to the aperture at which he had
entered, and through which, after enlarging it with his
hands, he himself escaped.
But although the subtilty of the fox has been proverbial
from the earliest times; so much so, that our Saviour him¬
self called the tetrarch Herod “ a fox,” by way of signify¬
ing the refinement of his policy ; we do not perceive that,
with the exception of a timid prudence on breaking cover,
he shows more sagacity in his endeavours to baffle his pur¬
suers than the hare is known to do, if indeed so much.
To “ catch a w easel asleep,” is a typical designation of
an impossibility; but foxes are frequently surprised in
their naps by hounds drawing upon them, up wind, parti¬
cularly when gorged with food. In the faculty of natural
instinct, however, they are vastly superior to hares, and
equal in this respect to the dog ; there being well-attested
instances of their being sent, marked, upwards of fifty
miles in a bag, and, having escaped being killed by hounds
before which they were turned out, being retaken in then-
native woods. But it is in his last moments, when seized
by hounds, that the superiority of character in the fox over
the hare exhibits itself. He dies in silence ; but he sells
his life dearly; for, revengefully seizing upon the first
hound that approaches him, he only relinquishes his hold
with the last gasp.
When first the fox was hunted in Great Britain, he was
considered merely as a beast of prey, and killed in any way
in which he could be got at, generally by being caught in
nets and pitfalls, or killed at earth by terriers; his scent
not being considered favourable to hounds by our forefa¬
thers. Although they admitted it to be hotter at hand
than that of the hare, their favourite object of pursuit,
they believed it to be sooner dissipated ; but perhaps the
real cause of their objection was* in the general inequality
of speed and endurance in the hounds of their days and a
really wild fox; and foxes then were undoubtedly stouter,
and able to run much greater distances from point to point,
than they now do, when they have comparatively so short
5 c
t
HUNTING.
754
Hunting, a distance to travel for their food, as well as being often
over-fed. These animals, then, being always destroyed
when an opportunity offered, were of course generally
scarce ; which, added to the great extent of woods and
other fastnesses with which England then abounded, ac¬
counts for the fact of hunting the fox, unless as a beast of
prey, not being in vogue until these objections were re¬
moved. But the fox was ever considered as a mischievous
animal, and, in one signal instance, is said to have been
made an engine of mischief to a vast extent, in carrying
fire and flame into the standing corn of the rebellious Phi¬
listines. A solution of this account, however, on natural
principles, being difficult, it is pretty generally admitted
that a mistake in the translation has given rise to it.
As the preservation of the fox is now more an object in
Great Britain than his destruction, it may not be amiss to
observe, that a few links of an iron chain, such as an old
plough-trace, or a small piece of red cloth, suspended
near to the spot on which a hen-pheasant sits, is a certain
protection from foxes, of herself, her eggs, or her brood.
It is asserted by sportsmen of experience, that the scent
of foxes varies with the animal; and that a vixen fox
which has laid up (brought forth) her cubs is nearly de¬
void of scent.
Huntsman.
ing our conviction, that if to the attributes here given Hunting
him are joined a comprehensive mind and a humane heart,
nothing is wanting to make it complete. As the chase is
said to be the image of war, “ but without its guilt,” •
let us suppose Mr Beckford had been drawing the charac¬
ter of a soldier, and not a huntsman. Could he have given
him higher qualifications than a clear head, nice observa¬
tion, a good constitution, undaunted courage, a power¬
ful voice, an accurate ear, and a lynx’s eye, together with
a quick perception, endowed with quick impulses for act¬
ing, so necessary to each ? That he should' be “ fond of
his profession,” and “ indefatigable in the pursuit of it
“ sober and exact,” “ sensible,” and “ good tempered ?” It
is not necessary that either a huntsman or a soldier should
be a man of letters; some of the best among the former
have been scarcely able to read ; and there have been but
few Caesars who could fight and write; but a good un¬
derstanding is put to the test by both the one and the
other; and although we do not mean to place the servile
situation of a huntsman on a level with the honourable
profession of the soldier, each requires, in a high degree,
a good, sound understanding, and a manly exertion of ta¬
lent.
But the office of huntsman to fox-hounds is not always
intrusted to servile hands. It has long been the ambition
of masters of packs to hunt their own hounds; and al¬
though the fashion has become more prevalent within the
last thirty years than it was in the earlier days of fox¬
hunting, yet we could bring forward some instances of
what are called gentlemen-huntsmen of pretty long stand¬
ing. His Grace the Duke of Cleveland, and Sir Richard
Puleston, Bart, each hunted his own hounds for nearly
forty years; and the late William Leche, Esq. of Car-
den-Hall, Cheshire, was his own huntsman for an equal¬
ly long period. Coming next to them in chronologi¬
cal order, stand Messrs Half Lambton, Musters, Thomas
Assheton Smith, Lord Segrave, Sir Bellingham Graham,
Bart., Mr Osbaldeston, Mr Nicoll, the Earl of Kintore,
Mr Smith, late of the Craven, the Honourable Grantley
Berkeley, and several more of a more recent date. There
can be no doubt that no man enjoys hunting to perfec¬
tion equally with him who hunts his own hounds; nor can
there be any reason assigned why an educated gentleman
should not excel, in any ardent and highly scientific pur¬
suit, an uneducated servant; nevertheless, we do not think
that, throughout the fox-hunting world in general, gentle¬
men-huntsmen have been so popular as might have been
expected; and in some countries that are hunted by sub¬
scription, an exception is taken against the master of the
pack being the huntsman. That it is a very laborious of¬
fice when efficiently executed, both in the kennel and the
field, is well known to those who have filled it; but, labor
ipse voluptas, we have seen a pains-taking zeal displayed in
the master which we have too often seen wanting in the
servant ; and we could name a nobleman who used fre¬
quently to tell his huntsman, when drawing for his second
fox, that he was “ thinking more of his dinner than of hunt¬
ing.”
In the earliest days of English hunting, gentlemen
huntsmen were in high estimation; and a reference to
Domesday-book will show that Waleran, huntsman to Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, possessed no less than fifteen manors
in Wiltshire, eight in Dorsetshire, together with several in
Hampshire; and his name occurs on the list of tenants in
capite in other counties. The same venerable record of
antiquity describes the extensive possessions of other
huntsmen, bearing the names of Croc, Godwin, Williel-
mus, gentlemen of consideration in those times, in which,
according to Froissart, the ardour of the chase was carried
to a pitch since unequalled by the Norman lords, some of
them having kept sixteen hundred dogs, and a proportion-
In the lower ranks of life there are callings which re¬
quire the exercise of skill and judgment to the very ut¬
most of their extent; and we know of none that comes
more directly within this class than that of a huntsman
does, of whom it may be said, that in all his operations he
has not only to exercise his mental faculties at every step
he goes, when unravelling the intricacies of the chase, but
actually to tread a path nearly unknown to human reason.
Fimus oratores, nascimur poetce, is a good definition of
the constitutional qualifications of a first-rate poet, at all
events of the difficulty of becoming one ; and really when
those of a huntsman are all summed up, if the life of man be
not too short, years of toilsome labour appear to be scarcely
sufficient to evince, even to a man of talent, a perfect know¬
ledge of his art. Let us first hear what Beckford says of
him, and then we will offer our own sentiments on the
subject, which vary little from those entertained by this
great authority on all matters of the chase. “ A good
huntsman,” says he, “ should be young, strong, and active,
bold and enterprising; fond of the diversion, and indefa¬
tigable in the pursuit of it; he should be sensible and good
tempered ; he ought also to be sober ; he should be exact,
civil, and cleanly; he should be a good horseman, and a
good groom ; his voice should be strong and clear; and he
should have an eye so quick as to perceive which of his
hounds carries the scent, when all are running; and should
have so excellent an ear, as always to distinguish the fore¬
most hounds when he does not see them.- He should be
quiet, patient, and without conceit. He should let his
hounds alone when they can hunt, and he should have
genius to assist them when they cannot!’ It is scarcely
necessary to observe, that Mr Beckfbrd is here speaking
of a huntsman to fox-hounds, his demands on the hare-
hunter being somewhat more moderate; and yet the dif¬
ficulties he has to combat with are more than obscurely
acknowledged. Aware that practice is the key to excel¬
lence in every art, and that experience is the great mis¬
tress of all human knowledge, he requires age, with its ex¬
perience, to fit the hare-huntsman for his office, and to be
a match for the wiles of the hare ; very ludicrously adding,
that, “ for patience, he should be a very Grizzle.”
W e do not think we exaggerate when we say, that the
picture here drawn of a clever huntsman may, in one de¬
gree (of bodily endowments at least), be termed a near
approach to human perfection; nor do we hesitate in add-
HUNTING.
Ht ing. able number of horses, for the chase.1 But we may go still
^ farther back, to a very barbarous age, for the respect in
which huntsmen have been held by kings and legislators.
The temperate but brave Agesilaus, and even the luxury-
destroying Lycurgus, provided for the bountiful entertain¬
ment of their huntsmen on their return from the chase; a
pursuit which they believed to be so agreeable to the gods,
that they offered the first fruits of their sports to Diana.
The Duties of a Huntsman.
The situation of huntsman to a pack of fox-hounds is
one of great responsibility, and, if the breeding as well as
hunting of them be left to him, a very arduous undertak¬
ing. Nor does it end here. There is" great call for judg¬
ment in feeding hounds to answer every purpose, such as
long draws, severe days, and at the same time to go the
pace without showing distress, and to come home at night
with their sterns up, and looking fresh. Here variety of
constitution increases the difficulty ; for, to please the eye,
hounds should look level in their condition, as well as even
in point of size. One hound will not bear to have his
belly more than half filled; another will not fill his when
he may; and still each must be made equal in strength and
wind to the other, to stand hard work and go the pace
without distress. A huntsman must have a very watchful
eye over their condition, which will be effected by work
and weather; and he must be pathologist enough to fore¬
see and provide against the alterations which such circum¬
stances produce. He has need also to be a physiologist,
to enable him to exercise a sound judgment in breeding
his hounds after a certain form and fashion, which are ab¬
solutely essential to their doing well, and at the same time
pleasing the eye. Then look at him in the field, with a
hundred eyes upon him, and a hundred tongues to canvass
all his acts. Here he should be a philosopher.
In the Field.
A huntsman is expected to bring his hounds to the cover
side in a high state of condition, at all seasons of the year.
They should be seen quietly grouped about his horse’s
heels, when he is waiting for the hour of throwing off,
without a whip stirring, or even an angry word said to
them. This is a time when they are often subject to the
inspection of strangers, and a first impression goes a great
way. When the master gives the word to draw, they
should approach the cover at a gentle trot, one whipper-in
riding in their front; and when within about a stone’s
throw, they may dash into it with as much spirit as they
like. Not a word need be said by way of caution, unless
it appears to be especially called for, when “ gently, there,”
by the first whipper-in, and one smack of his whip, will ge¬
nerally have the desired effect. But we like to see the
huntsman alive at this moment, as well as his hounds.
Homer compares hounds cheered by their huntsman, to
troops encouraged by a skilful general; and doubtless
there is a similarity in the effect. Putting hounds out of
the question, there is something very cheering to the field
in the “ cheering holloa” of a huntsman, when encourag¬
ing his hounds to draw ; and it also answers two good pur¬
poses. Should a hound get wide of the pack, or hang be¬
hind in the cover, or should any of the field be at a loss,
which often happens in woodlands, the “ pipe” of the hunts¬
man is an unerring guide to all. How necessary is it, then,
at all events how desirable, that, like Ajax, he should be
6or,v ayaObg, “ renowned for the strength of his voice,” and,
we may add, for the melodiousness of it. He should like¬
wise blow a horn well; and if he varies the blast, to make
himself more intelligible to his hounds, he will find his ad¬
vantage in it. We wonder this is not more practised than Hunting,
it is. Independently of the common recheat, why not
have the “ view horn” as well as the “ view holloa ?” But
too much horn, like vox et preeterea nihil, is bad, making
hounds apt to disregard it ; yet a huntsman would be sadly
at a loss without it, not only in getting hounds away from
cover and in chase, but in drawing large covers, in which
they will occasionally get wide. Here a twang of the horn
saves a huntsman’s voice in bringing them over to him.
One short blast is sufficient.
  “ He gave his bugle-horn a blast,
That through the woodlands echoed far and wide.”
The following observations on holloaing are from the
pen of an old sportsman. They contain hints that it would
often be advisable to profit by ; and they apply not only to
huntsmen, but to the field. “ A general rule as to hallooing
is, never to halloo unless you can give a good reason for
so doing. A constant and indiscriminate use of the voice
is blameable in a huntsman; his hounds, by constantly hear¬
ing his voice, will soon learn to pay no more attention to
it than they do to the singing of the lark, and they will
not come to him when they are called. Some huntsmen,
in making a cast, try that part of the ground where they
can most conveniently ride, instead of that where it is most
likely the fox is gone. Others ride on hallooing, without
regarding their hounds, while making their cast; their own
noise then prevents them from hearing their hounds, who
often take the scent without their being aware of it.”
“ No person should halloo that is not well forward. It
signifies little what words you use, as a hound’s knowledge
of language is confined to a view halloo, a call, and a rate:
it is the tone of the voice, and not the words, that they un¬
derstand ; and hounds will always draw to the voice, if it
be not a rate. This shows the impropriety of hallooing be¬
hind hounds. In running with good scent, if you are up
with the pack, a cheering halloo does no harm ; the hounds
will not attend to it, and it is expressive of the pleasure of
the hallooer. Never cap hounds with loud halloos to a bad
scent; capping makes them wild and eager, and should
never be done but when the scent is high. Hounds should
be brought up gently to a cold scent.” Holloaing to hounds
is often necessary, and highly useful when done with judg¬
ment ; but the word “ tallyho ” loses many a good run;
as, unless a fox is gone clear away from his cover, it occa¬
sions him to turn back often into the mouth of the hounds.
Dog Language.
It is true, no correspondence can subsist between beings
whose natures are separated by a chasm so wide as that be¬
tween rational and irrational animals ; and it is with a view
of adapting our meaning to the level «*f their understand¬
ings, that we generally address or converse with brutes in
a silly unmeaning manner; which gave rise to the remark,
that children, or men who act like children, have animals
more immediately under t'heir control than the philoso¬
pher who is replete with wisdom. But we may look far¬
ther into the subject than this. If the Almighty had not
manifested some portion of his attributes by means which
are on a level with the capacity of the human race, man
must have remained for ever ignorant of his Maker. The
power of language, however, between man and man, is
prodigiously increased by the tone in which it is convey¬
ed. The vagrant when he begs, the soldier when he gives
the word of command, the senator when he delivers an ora¬
tion, and the lover when he whispers a gentle tale to his
mistress, all differ in the key in,which they speak; and it
is thus that huntsmen and whippers-in make themselves
1 See Froissart, tom. iv. c. 27.
756
HUNTING.
Hunting, intelligible to hounds. They do not speak to them in an
unmeaning manner, or after the manner of children; but
in short and pithy sentences, every word of which is law.
The method of doing this, however, admits of several de¬
grees of excellence ; but the huntsman who is endowed by
nature with a> clear, sonorous voice, in a well-pitched key,
and knows when to use it with effect, contributes greatly
to the enthusiasm of fox-hunting, and no doubt to the suc¬
cess of it.
Without entering again into the wide range of hunting,
we cannot do more than add a few maxims which may be
observed by a huntsman in the field. In drawing for your
fox, don’t be persuaded always to draw up wind. In the
first place, you are in danger of chopping him; secondly,
he is sure then to go down wind at starting; and, third¬
ly, you may drive him into a worse country, or from his
point. When found, get after him as quickly as possible
if you have a bod)' of hounds with you; if not, you will
have a better chance of sport if you can wait till the body
come up. This is easily done by a twang of the horn, or
a false holloa, if hounds are under good command, and the
convenient opportunity be seized upon. Keep near to
them in chase, with your eye on the body of the pack, as
well as on such hounds as may be leading; the body are
more certain to be right. Next to knowing where a fox is
gone, is knowing where he is not gone ; therefore, in your
cast, always make good the head. This you will do for your
satisfaction; but hounds are seldom at fault for the scent
a-head, when the chase has been at all warm, that is, on a fair
scenting day ; for if the fox be gone forward, wherefore the
fault? Good hounds will seldom or never leave a scent a-
head, unless the ground be stained by sheep or cattle, or
when the chase leads over dry ploughed land, hard and dry
roads, &c. It is high odds that your fox has turned to the
right or to the left; but although his point may be back,
he cannot well run his foil, from the number of horsemen
that are generally in the rear of fox-hounds. Recollect
your first check is generally the most fatal to sport, and
for these reasons: Your hounds are fresh, and perchance
a little eager; they may have overrun the scent for some
distance, owing to their being pressed by the horses, which
are also at this time fresh; nor will they always get their
heads down as soon as they should do, from the same ex¬
citing causes. Again, your check now generally arises
from a short turn, the fox having been previously driven
from his point, which he now resolves to make ; and he
will make it at all hazard at certain times. When your
hounds first “ throw up” (i. e. check), leave them alone if
they can hunt; but, disregarding what the “ old ones” say
on this subject, as inapplicable to these fast times, don’t be
long before you take hold of them, and assist them, if they
cannot. We would not go from scent to view ; yet hounds
in these days that will not bear lifting are not worth hav¬
ing. But do all this quietly as well as quickly. Turn
your horse’s head towards the line you think your fox is
gone ; and the first moment you see all their heads up,
that is, if they do not hit him off, put your horn to your
mouth for one blast or two, and trot away to still more
likely points. If your pack will divide when casting, so
much the better; but if they are good for any thing, they
will be making their own cast whilst you are making yours,
by not keeping at your horse’s heels, but spreading as
they go.
When you have hit upon his point, if a single hound goes
off with a good scent, get the body to him as quickly as you
can ; but not so if the scent be not warm. In the latter
case, your hounds will be in expectation of a fresh fox, and
will be in a hurry ; the hound that is forward will be lifted,
and in all probability you will have to seek for the scent
again. Go gently, and your hounds, if steady, will settle
to it. Likewise, if, when at check, you are holloaed to a
spot where a fox has been viewed, stand still, and say no- Hunting W'?
thing at the moment the first two or three hounds throw -v-C *
their tongues. If you hurry the body on immediately, the
scent will often be lost if the fox has been a few minutes
gone. If it can be done, give your hounds the wind at a L
crisis like this. Again, when a fox has been viewed, and
you go directly to holloa, do not take your hounds to the
extreme distant point at which he was viewed, but a hun¬
dred yards behind it; and for this reason. If you take
them to the extreme point, and they do not take up the
scent at once, you have then to make your cast at a ven¬
ture ; whereas, if you lay them on at that distance behind
it, you have somewhat of a guide to that extent, as to the
line towards which you should draw them.
The following further hints may be serviceable, or at all
events they relate to hounds at check. In trying back,
hounds have this advantage. It is evident the fox has come
the line, up to the point where the check occurred; and
he must be gone either to the right or the left of it, or back.
We make this observation, because so much has been said
about the straight running of foxes, which is far from true ;
and the necessity of persevering in the cast a-head with
the fox, and back, on the foil, with the hare. The more
hounds spread, within reason, in this backward cast, the
better will be the chance of making the check a short one.
Again, if at check on a road, or foot-path (the latter not
often run over by foxes), when you observe some of your
best hounds failing to make it good, on one side of either,
it is reasonable to suppose the fox is gone on the other.
If your hounds check in a cover in the middle of a run, and
the fox is viewed away from it, try and get your hounds
together as much as you can in the short time that can be
allowed for it, before you cap them to the scent. It gene¬
rally ensures a good finish, from two obvious causes. First,
hounds get fresh wind; and, secondly, they will have a
better chance to carry a good head, which generally ends
in blood, and in blood well earned; for the fox is more
likely to stand longer, and go straighter, for not having
been viewed by hounds when he broke. But the most
difficult point for a huntsman to decide upon promptly is,
when his pack divides, which division is on the hunted
fox. If it happen in cover, his ear is his surest guide, as
the cry is louder and stronger on a fresh-found fox, than
on one which has been for some time on foot. If when out
of cover your pack should split on two separate scents, you
should get as near as you can to what you imagine to be
the chase, giving view holloas every yard you go ; also
sending one of your whippers-in to stop the other hounds.
Your choice will doubtless be directed by several circum¬
stances. You will first look for your truest and best line-
hunting hounds, and next, to the points your first fox would
be likely to make for; and if your choice fall upon the lot
that are going farthest up the wind, the other will be more
likely to hear them running; and, should they come to a
check, to join cry again perhaps before a whipper-in can
get to stop them.
To the above we add a few general rules. Don’t be
dispirited at a succession of bad sport, for it is not within
your control, good hounds and sport not being naturally
co-existing circumstances. Be as zealous as you please in the
field, but temper your zeal with judgment, and don’t weary
your hounds by long draws, on days which bid defiance to
sport. It was once justly observed, that those who seek
pleasure from the chase must ask permission of heaven ;
and the case still remains the same. Hounds without a scent
resemble a man running in the dark; neither can make head
against such fearful obstructions ; and on stormy days, with
a very high wind, if you have influence with your master,
persuade him to let you go home after the first failure. It
is not generally known what mischief even one such day
does to some hounds. Don’t set too high a value on blood,
HUN
HUN
757
Hui"
do
I
Hun
dons!
ig- unless well earned; it is the result of want of reflection alone
that has set any value whatever upon it, when otherwise
obtained. Mob a bad fox in a cover if you like; but never
dig out a good one, unless your hounds have almost viewed
^ him into a spout, and you can bolt him before the excite¬
ment subsides. Never break ground in a country belong¬
ing to another pack of hounds, nor dig for a fox in a moin
earth in your own. Many a bitch fox, heavy with young,
has been killed by this means in the spring, instead of the
one that was hunted and marked to ground ; and be as¬
sured that sportsmen in general do not estimate the good¬
ness of a pack of hounds by the noses nailed against the
kennel door. Lastly, keep your field back from pressing
on your hounds in chase, and still more so when in diffi¬
culties, as well as you can ; but don’t suffer your zeal to
carry you too far on this point. Remember the apostolic
precept, “ be courteous.”
The modern annals of sporting contain the names and
characters of several very eminent huntsmen, whose con¬
duct and abilities would have done credit to any other si¬
tuation of life to which it might have been their lot to have
been called. Considering the responsibility of their office,
the severity of their work, and the risks they run, they are
not supposed to be too highly paid in wages, say on the
average L.100 per annum, besides their board ; but, from
perquisites, such as annual presents from gentlemen who
attend the hounds which they hunt, and drafted hounds
sold to other packs, they may realize the like sum in ad¬
dition.
The office of whipper-in is, in our opinion, thought more
lightly of by the sporting world in general than it deserves to
be; and, as we shall show, we have the great Beckford on
our side. We never saw a steady pack of hounds without at
least one good whipper-in, and we are quite sure we never
shall; but we have seen many of these red-coated youths
who might have been better employed at the plough-tail—
who, like Cicero’s lawyer, belonged rather to the profes¬
sion than the science. “ If he has genius,” says Beckford,
“ he may show it in various ways; he may clap forward
to any great earth that may by chance be open; he may Hunting-
sink the wind to holloo, or mob a fox when the scent fails; denshire,
he may keep him off his foil; he may stop the tail hounds,
and get them forward; and has it frequently in his power
to assist the hounds without doing them any hurt, provid¬
ed he has sense to distinguish where he is wanted most.
Besides, the most essential part of fox-hunting, the making
and keeping the pack steady, depends entirely upon him, as
a huntsman should seldom rate, and never flog a hound.
In short, I consider the first whipper-in as a second hunts¬
man ; and, to be perfect, he should be as capable of hunt¬
ing the hounds as the huntsman himself. He should not
be conceited, but contented to act an under part, except
when circumstances may require that he should act other¬
wise ; and the moment they cease, he must not fail to re¬
sume his former station.”
To the above excellent remarks we have very little to
add. We only recommend, when a huntsman is casting
his hounds, that a whipper-in should turn them to him al •
ways as gently as he can, and with little noise ; by which
means they will draiv towards him, trying for the scent as
they go; whereas loud and repeated rates and cracks of
the whip make hounds fly to their huntsman at this time
with their heads up. When they are drawing properly to¬
wards him, not a word should be said ; a whipper-in riding
outside of them will be sufficient.
It is scarcely necessary to say, a whipper-in, to be per¬
fect, should be an accomplished horseman, as nothing re¬
quires a much firmer and nicer hand than the act of follow¬
ing a hound over open ground to flog him. A whipper-in,
however, should always hit a hound first, and rate him af¬
terwards, and be able to hit hard when occasion requires
it. A riotous fox-hound cannot be trifled with, if he is to
be cured of his evil ways; and let the lash fall heavily when
necessary, but at no other time. Above all, let the whip¬
per-in have an eye to a skirter : skirting is the least par¬
donable fault a hound can possess, because he is then de¬
viating from his nature, and has not the force of impulse to
plead, which the hound that runs riot has. (b. b. b. b.)
HUNTINGDON, a market-town, the capital of the
county of that name, sixty-four miles from London by
Buckden, and fifty-nine by Royston. It stands on a level
plain on the river Ouse, which is navigable for barges to
Bedford, and by which a supply of coals and other heavy
articles is conveyed. It contains two parish churches,
and a good county-hall, where the assizes are held ; and it
has a good market, especially for corn, on Saturday. It is
governed by a mayor, twelve aldermen, and a common
council, and returns two members to parliament by
about 380 voters. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
2035, in 1811 to 2397, in 1821 to 2806, and in 1831 to
3267.
HUNTINGDONSHIRE, an inland county of Eng¬
land, and, except Rutlandshire, the smallest of the whole.
It is bounded on the north-east and east by Cambridge¬
shire, on the north-west and west by Northamptonshire,
and on the south by Bedfordshire. Its greatest breadth is
twenty-three miles, and its greatest length thirty miles,
and its square contents are 350 miles.
The county has four hundreds, with six market-towns,
and 104 parishes, the total population of which amounted in
1801 to 37,568, in 1811 to 42,208, in 1821 to 48,771, and
in 1831 to 53,100. The occupiers of land employing la¬
bourers were 857, of land employing no labourers 397, of
labourers employed in agriculture 5967, of persons em¬
ployed in manufactures 290, of those employed in retail
trade and handicraft 3488, of capitalists, bankers, &c. 401,
of labourers not agricultural 971, of male servants 454,
other males twenty years of age 649, and female servants
1941.
The principal towns, and their population, are,—
Huntingdon 3267
St Ives 3314
Ramsey   3006
St Neots 2617
Godmanchester 2146
Kimbolton 1584
The county returns two members to the House of Com¬
mons, the voters are about 3200, and the places for poling
are Huntingdon and Stilton. The borough of Hunting¬
don also returns two members.
The appearance of the county is of three descriptions.
In the south-east it is an extensive plain of rich meadow
land, the middle varying in its surface with gentle undula¬
tions, and without many enclosures or many woods; the
higher part was anciently a forest, and still contains a great
extent of woodland, the foliage of which gives beauty to the
scenery. On the north-eastern side a portion of the county
is fine land, comprising a part of what is commonly called
Bedford level, comprehending nearly one fifth of the whole
county.
The two most considerable rivers are the Ouse and the
Nen. The Ouse enters from Bedfordshire, and crossing
the whole of the county, passes into Cambridgeshire in its
way to the German Ocean. It is navigable in its whole
extent through Huntingdonshire, and forms an important
means of intercourse. The Nen enters from Northamp-
HUN
HUE
Hunting- tonshire, and runs to the marshes ; it is also navigable along
denshire, the greater part of its course. Besides these, the Cam passes
through a part of the county. There are three lakes, viz.
Whittlesea-mere, Ramsey-mere, and Ugg-mere; the first
of these is the largest, and covers an area of several miles
in extent. It affords Excellent fishing, and pleasant sail¬
ing, which induces many parties of pleasure to visit it in
the summer season. Projects for draining this lake have
been formed, as the water is not deep, and the soil excel¬
lent ; but they have not yet een carried into execution.
The county of Huntingdon scarcely contains any manu¬
factures, excepting some spinning, performed by the fe¬
males ; but the improvements of machinery in other dis¬
tricts have much diminished that mode of employment.
The only trade is that of corn, cattle, and the wool of the
few flocks of sheep.
Agriculture is the principal pursuit of the district. The
marshes and meadows are highly productive, and many
oxen are fattened on them, without any other food than
their natural grass. Much of this land is under the plough,
and produces most abundant crops of oats and cole-seed ;
the mills for making the latter into oil are numerous. The
hay produced from these fens is very considerable, but on
the banks of the rivers they are subject to great floods,
which sometimes destroy the harvest of the year. Though
these lands are very valuable, yet the expense of draining
them causes a great deduction from their value.
The soils in the upland parts of the county are various,
but consist principally of a tenacious clayey loam, or of a
deep gravelly loam with some clay. Much of this is in
open common fields, where each occupier is compelled to
follow a rotation like that of his neighbours. On the best
of these lands the usual course of cropping is a year’s fal¬
low, then wheat or barley, next beans, and then barley
or wheat. On the land of a quality somewhat inferior, a
three-course rotation of fallow, wheat, and peas or beans,
is pursued. In those fields which are calculated for turnips,
that root is succeeded by barley and wheat, or by wheat
and barley. The average produce of the lands is stated
at five quarters of barley, four of oats, and three and a half
of wheat, to the acre. The excellent practice of sowing
clover between two corn crops is followed to a very small
extent. The farms are generally small; few rentals exceed
L.20Q per annum.
The sheep of Huntingdonshire are a mixed race, com¬
posed of crosses of the Lincolnshire and Leicestershire
breeds with the native kinds. They are without horns, and
of very imperfect shape, but are found profitable from the
quantity of wool they produce, their fleeces usually weigh¬
ing from seven to eight pounds each. The sheep of the
original race of the county are much inferior to those pro¬
duced by the crossing with the better kinds; many of
these are still found in the open commons, and their fleeces
seldom exceed four pounds in weight. The cows are bred
with little attention, and are a compound of many races.
Very little butter or cheese is made, the principal object
being the suckling of calves to supply veal for the London
markets. Many horses are bred in the lower part of the
county, but without much attention to their races. From
this practice of breeding, it has become very general to
execute all the agricultural work with mares.
The remains of antiquity in this county are principally
of Roman origin; amongst them are the vestiges of the
three roads which were constructed by that people across
the country. The remains of Ramsey Abbey and Castle,
the seat of the family from which Oliver Cromwell, a na¬
tive of this county, sprung, are of venerable date. The
monks who formerly occupied it were highly celebrated for
their knowledge of the Hebrew language. The churches
of Bluntisham, St Ives, and St Neots, and the Castle of
Kimbolton, exhibit marks of high antiquity.
The most remarkable noblemen and gentlemen’s seats Huntsp
are, Kimbolton, Duke of Manchester; Bucden Palace, I
Bishop of Lincoln ; Connington Castle, J. Heathcote, Esq.; Hurd.
Elton, Earl of Carysfort; Hinchinbroke, Earl of Sand-
wich; Overton Longueville, Harl of Aboyne ; Gains Hall,
Sir James Duberly ; Paxton Place, P. Stanley, Esq.; Ram¬
sey, William Henry Fellowes, Esq.; Stirtloe, Launcelot
Brown, Esq.; Stoughton, Earl Ludlow ; and Upwood, Sir
Richard Bickerton. (See Brayley’s Beauties of England
and Wales, Stone’s General View of Huntingdonshire, and
Population Returns.)
HUNT SPILL, a town of the county of Somerset, in
the hundred of North Petherton, 155 miles from London.
It stands on an estuary at the mouth of the river Parret,
which there falls into the Bristol Channel. The inhabit¬
ants amounted in 1801 to 1012, in 1811 to 1119, in 1821
to 1337, and in 1831 to 1503.
HURD, Richard, an eminent and learned English
prelate, was born at Congreve, in the parish of Penkrich,
Staffordshire, on the 13th of January 1720. He was the
second son of John and Hannah Hurd, whom he describes
as “ plain, honest, and good people, farmers, but of a turn
of mind that might have honoured any rank and any con¬
dition and they appear to have been solicitous to give
their son the best and most liberal education. Young
Hurd received his elementary education at the grammar^-
school of Brerewood, and, in 1733, was admitted of Em¬
manuel College, Cambridge, though he did not go to re¬
side there until a year or two afterwards. He took the
degree of bachelor of arts in 1739, and that of master in
1742; the same year he was elected a fellow, and ordain¬
ed deacon in St Paul's Cathedral, London; and in 1744
he was admitted into priest’s orders at Cambridge. Dr
Hurd’s first literary production was Remarks on Weston’s
Inquiry into the Rejection of the Christian Miracles by the
Heathens, published in 1746 ; and, in 1748, upon the con¬
clusion of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, he contributed
some verses to the university collection for 1749. In the
same year he took the degree of bachelor of divinity, and
published his Commentary on the Ars Poetica of Horace,
in which be laboured to prove that the Roman poet has
treated his subject with systematic order and the strictest
method ; an idea which has been strenuously combated by
several eminent critics. In the preface to this Commen¬
tary he took occasion to compliment Warburton in a man¬
ner which won him the favour of that learned dogmatist,
and procured for him a return in kind in the bishop’s edi¬
tion of Pope’s works, where Hurd's Commentary is spoken
of in terms of the highest approbation. This commerce
of flattery gave rise to an intimacy between these persons,
which continued unbroken during their lives, and is sup¬
posed to have exercised considerable influence on the opi¬
nions of Hurd, who was long considered as the first scho¬
lar in what has been termed the Warburtonian school.
This Commentary was reprinted in 1757, with the addition
of two Dissertations, one on the drama, the other on poe¬
tical imitation, and a letter to Mr Mason on the Marks
of Imitation ; in 1765, a fourth edition, corrected and en¬
larged, was published in three vols. 8vo, with a third Dis¬
sertation on the idea of universal poetry; and the whole
was again reprinted in 1776. This work fully established
the reputation of Hurd as an elegant and acute, if not al¬
ways a sound and judicious critic. In May 1750, he was
appointed by Sherlock, bishop of London, one of the White¬
hall preachers. About this period the university of Cam¬
bridge was disturbed by internal divisions, occasioned by
an exercise of discipline against some of its members
who had been wanting in respect towards those invested
with authority. The delinquents having refused to sub¬
mit to the punishment awarded, and appealed from the
vice-chancellor’s jurisdiction to that of the senate, the
r*
H U R
Hi|i> right of the university, and those to whom its power was
'**~l'*J delegated, became thus a subject of discussion, and seve¬
ral pamphlets appeared on both sides of the question.
Amongst those who signalized themselves on this occasion
may be mentioned Hurd, who wrore The Opinion of an
eminent Lawyer (the Earl of Hardwicke) concerning the
Right of Appeal from the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge
to the Senate, supported by a short historical account of
the Jurisdiction of the University ; in answer to a pamph¬
let, entitled An Inquiry into the Right of Appeal from the
Vice Chancellor, 1751, inSvo; a production which passed
through three editions, and was defended in a Letter to
the Author of a Further Inquiry, 1752, in 8vo, by whom it
had been attacked. In 1751, he published a Commentary
on the Epistle to Augustus ; in 1753, a new edition of both
commentaries, with a dedication to Warburton ; and the
same year two occasional sermons, one preached at the
Norwich assizes, and the other in behalf of the charity
schools at Cambridge, but neither of which has been re¬
tained in his works. The friendship he had formed with
Warburton continued to increase by mutual good offices;
and, in 1755, Hurd eagerly embraced an opportunity which
offered of evincing the warmth of his attachment. Dr
Jortin having, in his Dissertations, spoken of Warburton
with less deference and submission than the exactions of
an overbearing and insolent superiority could easily tole¬
rate, Hurd wrote a bitter satire, entitled the Delicacy of
Friendship, a seventh Dissertation, addressed to the au¬
thor of the sixth, 1755, in 8vo ; a production in which he
was betrayed into too close an imitation of Warburton’s
manner, and displayed a degree of warmth far beyond
any thing that the supposed offence could either call for
or justify. Hurd accordingly took pains to suppress the
pamphlet; but, in 1788, it was republished in a volume
entitled Tracts by Warburton and a Warburtonian. Hurd
continued to reside at Cambridge, in learned retirement,
if not learned ease, until 1756, when, on the death of Dr
Arnold, he succeeded, as senior fellow of Emmanuel Col¬
lege, to the rectory of Thurcaston, to which he was insti¬
tuted in 1757, and where, having entered into residence, he
continued to prosecute his studies, which were principally
confined to subjects of elegant literature. The Remarks
on Hume’s Essay on the Natural History'of Religion ap¬
peared soon afterwards. But Warburton appears to have
had the chief hand in the composition of that tract, which,
accordingly, we find republished by Hurd in the quarto edi¬
tion of that prelate’s works, and enumerated in the list of
them. It appears to have occasioned some uneasiness to
Hume, who, in the account of his own life, notices it with a
degree of acrimony quite unusual in his compositions. In
1759, Hurd published a volume of Dialogues on Sincerity,
Retirement, the Golden Age of Elizabeth, and the Consti¬
tution of the English Government; and this was followed
by his Letters on Chivalry and Romance, which, with his
Dialogues on Foreign Travel, were republished in the year
1765, with the author’s name, and a preface on dialogue writ¬
ing. In the preceding year, he published another of those
zealous tracts in vindication of Warburton, which have add¬
ed little to his fame as a writer, and procured him the re¬
putation of an illiberal and discourteous polemic. It was
entitled a “ Letter to the Reverend Dr Thomas Leland,
in which his late Dissertation on the Principles of Human
Eloquence is criticised, and the Bishop of Gloucester’s idea
of the nature and character of an inspired language, as de¬
livered in his Lordship’s Doctrine of Grace, is vindicated
from all the objections of the learned author of the Disser¬
tation.” This, with Hurd’s other controversial tracts, has
been republished in the eighth volume of the authorized
edition of his works, where we find prefixed to it, by way
of advertisement, the following lines, written by the author
not long before his death: “ The controversial tracts
H U R 759
which make up this volume were written and published Hurd,
by the author at different times, as opportunity invited, or
occasion required. Some sharpness of style may be ob¬
jected to them, in regard to which he apologises for him¬
self in the words of the poet:
  Me quoque pectoris
Tentavit in dulci juventa
Fervor 
  nunc ego mitibus
Mutare quaero tristia.”
In 1762, the sinecure rectory of Folkton was con¬
ferred on him by Lord Chancellor Northington; in 1765,
he was chosen preacher of Lincoln’s Inn ; and in August
1767, he was collated to the archdeaconry of Gloucester by
Bishop Warburton. In July 1768, he was admitted doc¬
tor of divinity at Cambridge; the same day he was ap¬
pointed to open the lecture founded by Warburton for the
illustration of the prophecies ; and the Twelve Discourses
which he preached there were published in 1772, under
the title of an Introduction to the Study of the Prophecies
concerning the Christian church, and in particular con¬
cerning the church of Papal Rome. This volume drew
from Gibbon, under a fictitious name, a private letter to
the author respecting the book of Daniel, which Dr Hurd
answered ; but it was not until the appearance of the his¬
torian’s Miscellaneous Works, in which Dr Hurd’s answer
was printed, that the latter knew the name of his corre¬
spondent. In 1769, he published the Select Works of
Abraham Cowley, with a preface and notes, in twTo vols.
8vo ; an edition which has been condemned as interfering
with the totality of Cowley’s works, and which certainly
is not the most judicious of Dr Hurd’s undertakings. In
1775, he was, by the recommendation of Lord Mansfield,
promoted to the bishopric of Lichfield and Coventry, con¬
secrated early in that year, and, soon after entering on the
episcopal office, he delivered a charge to the clergy of the
diocese, as well as a Fast Sermon for “ the American re¬
bellion,” which was preached before the House of Lords.
In May 1781, Bishop Hurd received a gracious message
from his majesty, conveying to him an offer of the see of
Worcester, with the clerkship of the closet, both of which
he accepted. Nor did his majesty’s kindness stop here.
For, on the death of Dr Cornwallis, in the year 1783, he
was offered the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury, with many
gracious expressions, and even pressed to accept it; but
he humbly begged leave to decline it, “ as a charge not
suited to his temper and talents, and much too heavy for
him to sustain in these times,” alluding, we presume, to
the distractions arising from the conflict of political par¬
ties. In 1788, Hurd published a complete edition of the
works of Warburton, in seven vols. 4to; but the Life did
not appear until 1795, when it came forth under the title
of a Discourse by way of General Preface to the quarto edi¬
tion of Bishop Warburton’s works, containing some account
of the Life, Writings, and Character of the Author. This
work excited considerable attention, and the style is equally
remarkable for its purity and elegance ; but the stream of
panegyric is too uniform not to subject the author to the
suspicion of long-confirmed prejudices. Even the admir¬
ers of Warburton would have been content with less labo¬
rious efforts to magnify him at the expense of all his con¬
temporaries ; and, conscious that imperfection is the com¬
mon lot of all men, they conceived that age and reflection
should have abated, if not wholly extinguished, the unworthy
animosities of times gone by. But in all this they were disap¬
pointed. Hurd was a true disciple of the great dogmatist;
and hence it was with regret they observed the worst cha¬
racteristics of Warburton, his inveterate dislikes, his fierce
contempt, and his sneering rancour, still employed to per¬
petuate his personal antipathies, and employed too against
such men as Seeker and Lowth. If these were the feelings
760 H U R HUS
Hurdle of the friends who venerated Warburton and esteemed
II Hurd, others, who never had much attachment to the
Hurd war. j^jg^Qp 0f Gloucester or his school, found little difficulty in
accumulating against his biographer charges of gross par¬
tiality and illiberal abuse. The remainder of Hurd’s life
appears to have been spent in the discharge of his epis¬
copal duties, and in studious retirement. He died on
the 28th of May 1808, being then in his eighty-ninth year.
As a writer, his taste, learning, and talents have been uni¬
versally acknowledged; and though, like his master, con¬
temptuous and intolerant, he was nevertheless shrewd, in¬
genious, and original. In his private character he is said
to have been in all respects amiable ; nor were the rela¬
tions of life in any degree embittered by the gall and
wormwood which so frequently flowed from his pen. (a.)
HUR D A, a town and small fort of Hindustan, in the
Mahratta territories, in the province of Khandesh, situated
in a country generally open and well cultivated. Long.
77. 18. E. Lat. 22. 24. N.
HURDLE is the name of a sledge used to draw trai¬
tors to the place of execution. The Romans had a kind
of military execution for mutineers, called putting to death
und£r the hurdle. The manner of it was this : The crimi¬
nal was laid at his length in shallow water, under an hurdle,
upon which v/ere heaped stones, and so pressed down until
he was drowned.
HURDLES, in Fortification, are made of twigs of wil¬
lows or osiers interwoven together, and sustained by long
stakes. They are made in the figure of an oblong square,
the length being five or six feet, and the breadth three and
a half. The closer they are wattled together the better.
They serve either to render the batteries firm, or to con¬
solidate the passage over muddy ditches, or to cover traver¬
ses and lodgments for the defence of the workmen against
fireworks or stones thrown against them.
, Hurdles, in Husbandry, certain frames made either of
split timber, or of hazel-rods wattled together, to serve as
gates in enclosures, or to make sheep-folds, &c.
HURD WAR, or Haredwara, a town of Hindustan,
province of Delhi, a great mart of commerce, and a cele¬
brated place of Hindu pilgrimage, situated on the west
side of the Ganges, where it issues from the northern hills.
The town is not large, having only one street about fifteen
feet in breadth, and one furlong and a half in length. Pil¬
grims of both sexes resort annually thither from all parts
of India to perform their ablutions in the sacred Ganges.
The month of April is the time appointed for this con¬
course of pilgrims; and great numbers of merchants also
attending, one of the largest fairs known in Hindustan is
held here. It is calculated that in general about 300,000
persons are collected on this occasion ; but once in twelve
years, when particular ceremonies are observed, the number
is increased to a million. In April 1809, it was computed
that two millions of strangers were assembled. The chief
articles brought thither for sale are horses, mules, camels, to¬
bacco, antimony, assafoetida ; dried fruits from Cabul, Can-
dahar, Moultan, and the Punjab ; shawls, cloaks, &c. from
Cashmere and Amritsir; spotted turbans, looking glasses,
toys, v/ith various manufactures in brass and ivory, from
Jeypoor ; shields from Rohilcund, Lucknow, and Silhet;
bows and arrows from Moultan and the Doab ; rock-salt
from Lahore; baftas and piece-goods from Rahn, a large
city in the Punjab ; many camels, and a species of flannel,
from the Marwar country ; and from the Company’s pro¬
vinces Kharwa muslins, sarsnet, cocoa nuts, and woollen
cloths of a coarse quality. The merchants who frequent
this fair travel in large caravans, and are frequently in¬
fested on the roads by freebooters, who watch their oppor¬
tunity and cut off stragglers. During the Mahratta domi¬
nion, a poll tax and heavy duties were imposed on all the
cattle. But these have all been repealed by the British,
and every encouragement is now held out to merchants. In Hurlv i;
such a vast concourse of people from all quarters, disputes Burl} r
were formerly very frequent. But, owing to the strict po- i:
lice maintained by the British, these fairs have lately end- HusL
ed without bloodshed, to the surprise and satisfaction of “n'
the vast multitude, who were accustomed to see bloody
quarrels at the Hurdwar fair. The stream divides itself
into three channels at Hurd war, the principal of which is
on the western side, running along a bank named Chand-
nee Ghaut. At the foot of the pass into the mountains is
a Goorkah fort, belonging to Nepaul, to which many hun¬
dreds of slaves are annually brought down from the hills
and exposed to sale. The travelling distance from Calcutta
by Moorshedabad is 1080 miles, by Birbhoom 975 miles,
from Delhi .117 miles, and from Lucknow 311 miles.
Long. 78. 2. E. Lat. 29. 57. N.
HURLY-Burly, in vulgar language, denotes confusion
or tumult, and is said to owe its origin to two neighbour¬
ing families, Hurleigh and Burleigh, which filled their
part of the kingdom with contest and violence.
HURON, a vast lake of North America, situated be¬
tween the 80th and 84th degrees of west longitude, and
between the 43d and 46th degrees of north latitude ; from
which the country contiguous to it is called the country
of the Hurons, a people whose language is spoken over a
great extent of America.
HURREEPORE, in Hindustan, the capital of a dis¬
trict of the same name belonging to the Sikhs, which is
situated between the 32d and 33d degrees of north la¬
titude, and is intersected by the Beyah river. The town
is situated in the province of Lahore, 100 miles east-
north-east from the city of Lahore. Long. 75. 31. E. Lat.
24. 19. N.
HURRIAL, a town of Bengal, district of Rajesky, where
the East India Company have a commercial residency for
the purchase of cloths. The adjoining country is under
water during the rainy season, and the town can only at
that time be approached in boats. Long. 89. 17. E. Lat.
24. 19. N.
HURRICANE, a general name for any violent storm
of wind, but commonly applied to those storms which hap¬
pen in the warmer climates, and greatly exceed the most
violent storms known in Europe.
HURST, Hyrst, or Herst, are derived from the Saxon
hyrst, meaning a wood, or grove of trees. There are many
places in Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire, which begin and
end with this syllable; and the reason may be, because
the great wood called Andreswald extended through these
counties.
HUSBANDRY, as defined by some, includes not only
agriculture, but several other branches connected with it,
such as the rearing of cattle, the management of the
dairy, making butter and cheese, raising flax, timber, and
so forth. See Agriculture.
HUSKISSON, Right Honourable William, a dis¬
tinguished statesman, was born at Birch Moreton, in Wor¬
cestershire, on the 11th of March 1770. After receiving
a liberal education, he was sent to Paris for instruction in
physic, the profession to which he was originally destined.
Whilst in the French capital, however, circumstances oc¬
curred which induced him entirely to alter his course of
life. On the breaking out of the French revolution, he
espoused the popular side, and became an active mem¬
ber of the London Corresponding Society, but not, as has
been sometimes asserted, of the Jacobin Club of Paris.
Through the influence of a friend he was introduced to
Lord Gower, then British ambassador at Paris, and was
afterwards appointed his private secretary. On his return
to England, the talents of Mr Huskisson attracted the at¬
tention of Mr Pitt and Mr Dundas, and in 1795 he was ap¬
pointed chief clerk in the office of the latter, at that time
H U S
Husl on. secretary of state for the war department. In the following
s year he succeeded to the office of under secretary; and
being found a valuable man of business, he was brought
into parliament for the borough of Morpeth. In his subor¬
dinate connection with the ministry, Mr Huskisson shared
the varying fortunes of those in power, retiring from office
and returning to it with his superiors. During the early
part of his parliamentary career he did not speak much, but
he was exceedingly useful to the ministry in matters of bu¬
siness, particularly of a financial nature. On the return of
Mr Pitt to power in 1804, he was appointed one of the joint
secretaires to the treasury. During Mr Fox’s short admi¬
nistration he was in opposition, but he returned with Mr
Percival, and resumed his secretaryship. As a politician
Mr Huskisson belonged to that party of which Mr Canning
was the head, and which first assumed a distinct character
in 1809, when the latter statesman proclaimed his differ¬
ence from Lord Castlereagh, and left the ministry. Mr
Huskisson retired along with him, and continued to follow
in that middle course which Mr Canning pursued, voting
with ministers upon questions of general policy both foreign
and domestic, but contending, with the opposition, for the
necessity of retrenchment in the public expenditure. Being
placed on the celebrated Bullion Committee, Mr Huskis¬
son published an able pamphlet on the subject, entitled
The Question concerning the Depreciation of our Currency
stated and examined. In this tract Mr Huskisson defend¬
ed the principles embodied in the report of the commit¬
tee, and showed the necessity of the bank resuming cash
payments. He afterwards took a prominent part in va¬
rious debates on finance, in all of which he was listened to
by the house with the greatest attention. In 1812 he obtain¬
ed the lucrative situation of colonial agent for Ceylon; and
in 1814 he was sworn a privy councillor, and appointed the
first commissioner of woods and forests. His subsequent
efforts in parliament were characterized by that middle
course of policy which he had hitherto followed. On Mr
Canning’s appointment as secretary of state in 1822, and
his declining to be re-elected for Liverpool, Mr Huskisson
was chosen as his successor. In the following year he was
appointed treasurer of the navy, and afterwards president
of the board of trade. The part which Mr Huskisson took
in the great questions brought before parliament from the
year 1820 till the close of his life, will be found fully de¬
tailed in the article Britain. In the ministry of Lord
Goderich he became secretary for the colonies, which post
he retained under that of the Duke of Wellington; but
having voted against government on a question of import¬
ance, he placed his office at the duke’s disposal, and his
resignation was accepted. His death took place on the
15th of September 1830. Being present at the opening of
the Liverpool and Manchester railway, he came inadvert¬
ently in the line of one of the carriages, moving at a
rapid rate, and the vehicle having passed over one of his
legs, lacerated it in such a dreadful manner that he died
soon after. The speeches of Mr Huskisson are charac¬
terized by little of that which in ordinary language is called
eloquence. They are distinguished for clear, distinct state¬
ment, lucid arrangement, close adherence to the matter in
hand, continuous reasoning, and a thorough knowledge of
the subject discussed, in all its bearings and details. The
strength of his oratory lay in the soundness and comprehen¬
siveness of his views, particularly in all questions of political
economy and commercial legislation. On such subjects he
rose far above the majority of his pai'liamentary contempora¬
ries, both in the extent of his information, and in the scien¬
tific character of his reasoning. He was, indeed, one of the
few practical statesmen who could deal alike with matters of
detail and the principles of the science by which they are
illustrated. No debater ever came better prepared with
facts and details bearing directly upon his subject, of which
VOL. XI.
HUS 76L
he always made himself completely master. His speeches Hussars
are therefore exceedingly instructive, as well for their facts II
as for their reasonings. A collection of them was pub- Hussites,
lished in 1831, in three vols. 8vo. (r. r. R.) ^
HUSSARS, a term which originally signified the na¬
tional cavalry of Hungary and Cx-oatia, a species of light
horse, which acted as irregular troops, and in that capacity
were found highly serviceable. Hussars were first intro¬
duced into the French service in 1692, when they were
formed on the model of the Hungarian cavalry, which had
been subsidised by France before the reign of Louis XIII.
In ail the European armies of the present day, hussars
are light horse, and differ from light dragoons only in
some peculiarities of dress and equipment.
HUSSEINPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Delhi and district of Bareily, sixty-five miles east
from Delhi. Long. 78. 13. E. Lat. 28. 44. N.
HUSSENABAD, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Khandesh, and belonging to the Mahrattas. It is situ¬
ated on the south side of the Nerbuddah, sixty miles south
from Bilsah. Long. 77. 53. E. Lat. 23. 40. N.
HUSSITES, in Ecclesiastical History, a party of reform¬
ers, the followers of John Huss. The person from whom
the Hussites take their name was born in a little village
in Bohemia, called Huss, and lived at Prague in the high¬
est reputation, both on account of the sanctity of his man¬
ners and the purity of his doctrine. He was distinguish¬
ed by his uncommon erudition and eloquence, and dis¬
charged at the same time the functions of professor of di¬
vinity in the university, and of ordinary pastor in the
church of that city. He adopted the sentiments of Wick-
liffe, and the Waldenses; and in the year 1407 began
openly to oppose and preach against various errors in doc¬
trine, as well as corruptions in point of discipline, which
then prevailed in the church. Huss likewise endeavoured
to the utmost of his power to withdraw the university of
Prague from the jurisdiction of Gregory XII., whom the
kingdom of Bohemia had hitherto acknowledged as the
true and lawful head of the church. This occasioned a
violent quarrel between the incensed Archbishop of Prague
and the zealous reformer, which the latter inflamed and
augmented from day to day by his pathetic exclamations
against the court of Rome, and the corruptions that pre¬
vailed amongst the sacerdotal order.
But there were other circumstances which contributed
to inflame the resentment of the clergy against him. He
adopted the philosophical opinions of the realists, and
vehemently opposed and even persecuted the nominalists,
whose number and influence were considerable in the
university of Prague. In the year 1408 he also increas¬
ed the bitterness of his enemies, by procuring a sentence
in favour of the Bohemians, who had disputed with the
Germans concerning the number of suffrages which their
respective nations were entitled to in all matters that
were carried by election in this university. In conse¬
quence of a decree obtained in favour of the former,
which restored them to their constitutional right of three
suffrages, usurped by the latter, the Germans withdrew
from Prague, and, in the year 1409, founded a new'aca-
demy at Leipsic. This event had no sooner happened
than Huss began to inveigh with greater freedom than
he had before done against the vices and corruptions of
the clergy, and to recommend, in a public manner, the
writings and opinions of Wickliffe, as far as these related
to the papal hierarchy, the despotism of the court of
Rome, and the corruption of the clergy. Hence, in the
year 1410, an accusation was brought against him be¬
fore the tribunal of John XXIII.‘by rvhom he was solemn¬
ly expelled from the communion of the church. Not¬
withstanding this sentence of excommunication, he pro¬
ceeded to expose the errors and vices of the Roman Ca-
762 HUS
Hustings tholic church, with a fortitude and zeal that were almost
li universally applauded.
This eminent man, whose piety was equally sincere and
fervent, though his zeal was perhaps too violent, and his
prudence not always circumspect, was summoned to ap¬
pear before the council of Constance. Secured, as he ap¬
prehended, from the rage of his enemies by the safe-con¬
duct granted him by the Emperor Sigismund for his jour¬
ney to Constance, his residence in that place, and his re¬
turn to his own country, John Huss obeyed the order of
the council, and appeared before it to demonstrate his in¬
nocence, and to prove that the charge of his having de¬
serted the church of Rome was entirely groundless. How¬
ever, his enemies so far prevailed, that by a scandalous
breach of public faith he was cast into prison, declared
a heretic because he refused to plead guilty, in obedience
to the orders of the council, and burned alive in 1415; a
punishment which he endured with unparalleled magna¬
nimity and resignation.
The same unhappy fate was reserved for another refor¬
mer, Jerome of Prague, his intimate companion, who at¬
tended the council in order to support his persecuted
friend. Jerome, indeed, was terrified into temporary sub¬
mission ; but he afterwards recovered his fortitude, and
maintained the opinions, which he had for a while desert¬
ed through fear, amidst the flames, in which he expired in
1416.
The disciples of Huss adhered to their master’s doc¬
trine after his death with a zeal which broke out into an
open war, that was carried on with the most unparalleled
barbarity. John Ziska, a Bohemian knight, in 1420 put
himself at the head of the Hussites, who had now become
a considerable party, and threw off the yoke of Sigismund,
who had treated their brethren in the most cruel and
barbarous manner. In the year 1424, Ziska was succeed¬
ed by Procopius. The acts of barbarity committed on
both sides were shocking and horrible ; for notwithstand¬
ing the irreconcilable opposition between the religious
sentiments of the contending parties, they both agreed
in this one detestable principle, that it was innocent and
lawful to extirpate by fire and sword the enemies of the
true religion; and as such they reciprocally considered
each other. But, by the interference of the council of
Basil, in the year 1433, these commotions in a great mea¬
sure subsided, and peace was at length restored. The
Hussites, who were divided into two parties, viz. the Ca-
lixtines and Taborites, spread over all Bohemia and Hun¬
gary, and even Silesia and Poland; and some remains of
them still subsist in those parts.
HUSTINGS (from the Saxon word hustinge, meaning
concilium or curia), a court held in Guildhall before the
lord mayor and aldermen of London. This court is very
ancient, as appears by the laws of Edward the Confessor.
Some other cities have likewise had a court bearing the
same name, as Winchester and York. But this term is now
applied to those temporary structures where the business
of elections is conducted.
HUSTNAPORE, or Hustinagara, formerly one of
the most ancient and famous cities of Hindustan, in the
province of Delhi, and for ages the capital of a powerful
Hindu dynasty, of which the remote history is involved in
obscurity. It was founded by Rajah Hasti, and is much
celebrated in the Hindu mythological poems. This city
has long been in ruins, and is now covered with large
ant-hills. It is about twenty miles south-west from Da-
ranagur, on a branch of the Ganges, formerly the bed of
that river. Long. 77. 56. E. Lat. 29. 7. N.
HUSUM, a city of Denmark, in the province of Sleswick,
the capital of a bailiwick of its own name, at the mouth
of the river Hever. It contains several public buildings,
800 houses, and 3700 inhabitants, and was, during one
HUT
period of the revolutionary war, from being neutral, con- Huszk f"'
verted into a place of great trade in colonial produce, ||
which was conveyed from the stores in Heligoland, and Hutche.
distributed over the continent by smugglers. Long. 9., S011, n*
6. E. Lat. 54.32. N. J
HUSZK, a market-town of the circle of Marmaros, in
the province of Hither Theiss, in Hungary, composed of
two parts, Koszeg and Boryana, containing a Catholic, a
Unitarian, and a Reformed church, and 4200 inhabitants.
Long. 23. 42. 42. E. Lat. 43. 9. II. N.
HUTCHESON, Dr Francis, an eminent philosopher,
was the son of a dissenting minister in the north of Ire¬
land, and was born on the 8th of August 1694. He early
discovered a superior capacity ; *and having gone through
a school education, began his course of philosophy at an
academy, whence he removed to the university of Glas¬
gow, where he applied himself to the study of literature,
in which his progress was commensurate with his uncom¬
mon abilities.
He then returned to Ireland, and having entered into
the ministry, was just about to be settled in a small con¬
gregation of dissenters in the north of Ireland, when some
gentlemen near Dublin, who knew his great abilities and
virtues, invited him to open a private academy in that
city. He complied with this invitation, and met with
entire success. He had been established but a short time
in Dublin, when his singular merits and accomplishments
made him generally known; and his acquaintance was
sought by men of all ranks who had any taste for litera¬
ture, or any respect for learned men. Lord Viscount
Molesworth is said to have taken great pleasure in his
conversation, and to have assisted him with his criticisms
and observations upon his Inquiry into the Ideas of Beau¬
ty and Virtue, before it was published. He received the
same favour from Dr Synge, bishop of Elphin, with whom
he also lived in close friendship. The first edition of this
work appeared without the author’s name, but the merit of
the performance was such that he could not long remain
concealed. So great was the reputation of the work, and
the ideas it had raised of the author, that Lord Granville,
who was then lord lieutenant of Ireland, sent his private
secretary to inquire at the bookseller’s for the author, and
when he could not learn his name, he left a letter to be
conveyed to him ; in consequence of which Hutcheson
soon became acquainted with his excellency, and was
treated by him, all the time he continued in the govern¬
ment, with distinguished marks of favour and esteem.
From this time his acquaintance began to be still more
courted by men of distinction, whether for station or for
literature, in Ireland. Archbishop King, the author of
the well-known book De Origine Mali, held him in high
esteem; and the friendship of that prelate was of great
use to him in screening him from two different attempts
made to prosecute him for daring to take upon him the
education of youth, without having qualified himself by
subscribing the ecclesiastical canons, and obtaining a li¬
cense from the bishops. He also enjoyed a large share
in the esteem of the primate Boulter, who through his
influence made'a donation to the university of Glasgow,
of a yearly fund for an exhibitioner, to be bred to any of
the learned professions. A few years afrgr the publi¬
cation of his Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Vir¬
tue, his Treatise on the Passions was published. Both
these works have often been reprinted, and always ad¬
mired for the sentiment and language, even by those who
have not assented to the philosophy they teach, nor allow¬
ed it to have any foundation in nature. About this time
he wrote some philosophical papers accounting for laugh¬
ter, in a way different from that suggested by Hobbes, and
more honourable to human nature; which papers were
published in the collection called Letters of Hibernicus.
Hut in-
sc
Hut iy.
«»✓
HUT
After he had taught in a private academy at Dublin for
seven or eight years with great reputation and success, he
was in the year 1729 called to Scotland to become pro¬
fessor of ethical philosophy in the university of Glasgow.
Several young gentlemen came along with him from the
academy, and his high reputation drew many more thither
both from England and Ireland. Here he spent the re¬
mainder of his life, in a manner highly honourable to him¬
self, and ornamental to the university of which he was a
member. His time was divided between his studies and
the duties of his office, except wh'at he allotted to friend¬
ship and society. A firm constitution, and a pretty uni¬
form state of good health, except some few slight attacks
of the gout, seemed to promise a long life; yet he did
not survive the fifty-third year of his age. He was mar¬
ried, soon after his settlement in Dublin, to Mrs Mary
Wilson, a gentleman’s daughter in the county of Long¬
ford, by whom he left one son, Francis Hutcheson, doc¬
tor of medicine, who published, from the original manu¬
script of his father, A System of Moral Philosophy, in
three books, by Francis Hutcheson, LL. D. Glasgow, 1755,
in two volumes 4to. See the Dissertations prefixed to
this Work by Mr Dugald Stewart and Sir James Mac¬
kintosh.
HUTCHINSON, John, a philosophical writer, whose
notions have made no inconsiderable noise in the world,
was born in 1674. He served the Duke of Somerset in
the capacity of steward, and in the course of his travels
from place to place employed himself in collecting fossils.
We are even told that the large and noble collection be¬
queathed by Dr Woodward to the university of Cambridge
was actually made by him, and even unfairly obtained
from him. When he left the duke’s service to indulge
his studies with more freedom, the duke, then master of
the horse to George I. made him his riding surveyor, a
kind of sinecure place of L.200 a year, with a good house
in the Meuse. In 1724 he published the first part of
Moses’s Principia, in which he ridiculed Dr Woodward’s
Natural History of the Earth, and attacked the doctrine
of gravitation established in Newton’s Principia. In 1727
he published a second part of Moses’s Principia, contain¬
ing the principles of the Scriptural Philosophy. From
this time till his death he published a volume every year
or two, which, with the manuscripts he left behind him,
were published in 1748, in twelve vols. 8vo. On the
Monday before his death, Dr Mead urged him to be bled,
saying pleasantly, “ I will soon send you to Moses,” meaning
to his studies ; but Mr Hutchinson taking it in the literal
sense, answered in a muttering tone, “ I believe, doctor,
you will,” and was so displeased that he dismissed him
for another physician, but he died in a few days after¬
wards, on the 28th of August 1737. Singular as his no¬
tions appear, they are not without some defenders, who
have obtained the appellation of Hutchinsonians. The
reader may find a distinct and comprehensive account
of the Hutchinsonian system in a book entitled Thoughts
concerning Religion, printed at Edinburgh in 1743; and
in a letter to a bishop, annexed to it, first printed in
1732.
HUTTANY, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta
territories, and province of Bejapoor. It is large and po¬
pulous, and has an extensive commerce with Bombay,
Surat, Rachore, &c. It possesses a small stone citadel,
and is enclosed with a rampart and a ditch. It has also
a large and excellent place of accommodation for travel¬
lers, built of free stone, which is capable of lodging 500
travellers. It formerly belonged to the Mahommedan
king of Bejapoor, but was taken by the Mahrattas about
the middle of the seventeenth century. It was retaken
by the Mahommedans in 1679, when many of the inhabi¬
tants were carried into captivity and sold as slaves. Af-
HUT 763
ter the death of Aurungzebe it again fell into the hands Hutton,
of the Mahrattas. Long. 75. 20. E. Lat. 16. 59. N. <**~i~**/
HUTTON, Dr James, physician and naturalist, was
the son of Mr William Hutton, a respectable merchant in
Edinburgh. He was born on the 3d of June 1726, and hav¬
ing lost his father while he was very young, the charge of
his education devolved on his mother, who determined that
it should be very liberal. Having finished his grammar-
school education at the high school of Edinburgh, he en¬
tered the university at the age of fourteen, in the year
1740. He always considered himself as greatly indebted
to Professor Stevenson’s lectures on logic, not because
they made him a logician, but because they accidentally
gave him a predilection for chemistry, which he retained
and cherished to the close of life. As an illustration of
some particular doctrine, the professor observed, that
whilst the acids can singly dissolve the baser metals, they
must unite their strength before they can have any influ¬
ence upon gold; that metal is only to be dissolved by
nitro-muriatic acid, formerly denominated aqua regia.
From this remark he found his thirst for chemical know¬
ledge daily increase, and sought for information from every
quarter.
He always evinced talents sufficient to encourage the
prosecution of his studies ; but it was the wish of his
friends that he should turn his attention to business, and
with this he complied, though contrary to his own inclina¬
tions. In 1743 he was put as an apprentice to Mr George
Chalmers, writer to the signet, where he soon discovered
the ruling propensity of his mind; for when he should
have been transcribing law papers, he was amusing his
fellow apprentices with experiments in chemistry. Mr
Chalmers perceiving this, generously freed him from his
obligations to serve him, desiring him to turn his attention
to some other employment more congenial to his views.
He fixed his choice on the study of medicine, as nearly
related to his favourite pursuits ; and after spending about
three years at Edinburgh, he studied two years at Paris ;
and returning home by the Low Countries, took his de¬
gree of doctor of medicine at Leyden, in September 1749.
The subject of his thesis was, De Sanguine et Circulations
in Microcosmo.
When he arrived in London, about the end of 1749, he
conceived the design of settling in the world. He justly
conjectured that Edinburgh did not hold out for him any
flattering prospects in the capacity of physician, as the
principal practice was in the hands of a few eminent phy¬
sicians who had been long established. He accordingly
wrote to his friends in Edinburgh with much anxiety as
to the subject of his future prospects in life. To Mr
James Davie, a young man of nearly his own age, with
whom he contracted a friendship which death only could
extinguish, he also communicated the perplexed state of
his mind. Their mutual knowledge of the nature of sal-
ammoniac led them to establish this manufacture, which
afterwards became a most lucrative concern to both. The
sentiments of Mr Davie were communicated to Dr Hutton
while yet in London, which probably was the chief reason
why he resolved to abandon entirely the practice of physic.
On his return to Edinburgh, in the year 1750, he re¬
solved to devote all his attention to agriculture, which
might probably be occasioned by his having succeeded to
a small property in Berwickshire on the death of his father.
Professor Playfair of the university of Edinburgh has as¬
cribed it, and we apprehend with great propriety, to the
native simplicity of his character, and the moderation of
his views, which were always free from ambition. His
attachment to the life of a farmer was increased by his
acquaintance with Sir John Hall of Dunglass, a gentle¬
man who was very ingenious, a friend and lover of science,
and one who well understood agriculture. Determined
'64
H U T
Hutton, to make himself master of rural economy, Dr Hutton
went into the county of Norfolk, where he continued for
some time in the house of a farmer, who was at once his
preceptor and his host. The farmer’s name was John
Dybold, whose practical knowledge of agriculture Dr
Hutton always mentioned in terms of the highest respect.
During his residence in this county, which was to him
a paradise, he made frequent excursions into different
parts of England; and although information respecting
rural economy was the great and primary object of his
pursuit, yet it was here that he first commenced the study
of mineralogy, to serve him as an amusement on the road.
He acquainted his friend Sir John Hall that he had be¬
come remarkably fond of studying the surface of the earth,
and was narrowly examining every pit, or ditch, or bed
of a river that fell in his way. The agricultural know¬
ledge he acquired in Norfolk increased his desire to pay
a visit to Flanders, the only place in Europe where hus¬
bandry can boast of very great antiquity. He set out
accordingly in the spring of 1754, and returned to Eng¬
land during the summer of the same year. Soon after his
arrival in London he observed, in a letter to Sir John Hall,
“ had I doubted of it before I set out, I should have re¬
turned fully convinced that they are good husbandmen in
Norfolk.”
About this time he returned to his native country, and
was for some time at a loss what place to fix upon for the
purpose of carrying into effect his agricultural improve¬
ments. His own farm at length became his choice, and
a ploughman whom he had brought with him from Nor¬
folk gave the first specimen of excellent tillage ever exhi¬
bited in that part of Scotland. To Dr Hutton the coun¬
try is indebted for the introduction of the new husbandry
into a county where it may be said to have made more
astonishing progress than in almost any other part of the
Liitish empire. In the year 1764 he made an excursion
into the north of Scotland, in company with Commission¬
er, afterwards Sir George Clerk, a man of singular worth
and abilities. They proceeded to Crieff, Dalwhinnie, Fort
Augustus, and Inverness, and returned along the coast by
Aberdeen to Edinburgh. To increase his knowledge of
geology was Dr Hutton’s chief aim in this tour, to which
he had now determined to pay the most unremitting at¬
tention. About the year 1768 he devoted his whole time
to scientific pursuits, and having met with a favourable
opportunity of letting his farm to advantage, he took up
his residence in Edinburgh. He now turned his attention
very much to the study of chemistry, and we believe he
v as the first who discovered that mineral alkali is contain¬
ed in zeolite. The same fact has since been confirmed
by the experiments of that celebrated mineralogist M.
Klaproth, as well as by those of Dr Kennedy, which have
led to others of a similar nature.
Dr Hutton gave to the world his first publication in 1777,
which was a small pamphlet of thirty-seven pages, entitled
C onsiderations on the nature, quality, and distinctions of
Coal and Culm. It was designed to answer a question
which began to be much agitated, whether the small coal
of Scotland is the same with the culm of England ; and
whether it ought to be carried coastwise free of all duty.
4his created a keen contest between the proprietors and
revenue officers, the one insisting that it should, and the
other that it should not pay any duty. It was discussed
before the board of customs in Scotland, and even occu¬
pied the attention of the privy council. The small coal
of Scotland was finally exempted from the payment of
duty, to which the pamphlet of Dr Hutton greatly con¬
tributed.
During a period of thirty years the attention of the doc¬
tor was turned towards geological studies, to qualify him
lor writing on his favourite topic, a new theory of the
HUY
earth. Kong before that theory made its appearance in u,,.
the world, he had completed the outline of it, which, how- l|' |
ever, was shown only to a few confidential friends. He was Huiis!
first induced to publish it by communicating an abrid^-
ment of it to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Of the
merits or defects of this celebrated theory this is not the
place to speak. It found a very able advocate in Profes¬
sor Playfair, whose Illustrations must ever be regarded
as one of the finest specimens of philosophical writing that
our language can boast^of.
A theory of rain from the same author appeared in the
first volume of the Edinburgh Transactions. He had
made meteorology his study for a considerable time ; and
his theory has been pronounced one of the few to be met
with in that department of knowledge which is deserving
of consideration. Soon after this publication, Dr Hutton
gave the world, in three volumes quarto, An Investigation
of the Principles of Knowledge, and of the Progress of
Reason from Sense to Science and Philosophy. This
work never attracted any notice. His elements of agricul¬
ture, the result of much study and long experience, was
the last work which he seemed anxious to publish ; but it
1797left ^ manuscriPt at his death, which took place in
To the name of philosopher Dr Hutton was most justly
entitled, by reason of his natural talents, acquisitions, and
temper. The direction of his studies was rather uncom¬
mon and irregular; but for that very reason it was pecu¬
liarly fitted to develope that quick penetration and origi-
ntil.ity of thought, by which his intellectual character was
strikingly marked. The greatest acquisitions of wealth and
fortune never excited more lively sensations of pleasure
in the minds of men, than those which arose in the mind
of Dr Flutton on hearing of a new invention, or on being
made acquainted with a new truth. This pleasure, which
appeared almost ridiculous to those who could not enter
into his views, was not confined to any one branch of
science; for, in the language of Professor Playfair, “ he
would rejoice over Watt’s improvements on the steam-en¬
gine, or Cook’s discoveries in the South Sea, with all the
warmth of a man who was to share in the honour or the
profit about to accrue from them.” Dr Hutton was not
exclusively attached to the company of men of letters,
whose conversation was entirely directed to subjects of
literature ; for he could occasionally unbend himself, and
enjoy the innocent hilarity of promiscuous company, when
he freely indulged in the gratification of his native plea¬
santry. An admirable account of his life, written by Pro¬
fessor Playfair, was published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
HUY, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of
Liege, the capital of a circle of the same name. It has a
very strong fortress, commanding the passage over the river
Meuse, to which the great road leads. It is surrounded
with vineyards, and is the seat of some manufactures,
and it contains 800 houses, with 5647 inhabitants. Lon«-.
4. 12. E. Lat. 50. 31. N. &
HUYGENS deZuylichem, Christian, lord of Zeel-
hem, was the second son of Constantine Huygens, secre¬
tary and counsellor to the princes of Orange, and born at
the Hague on the 14th of April 1629. He was one of those
rare men who, from the most subtile theories, know how
to deduce the most useful applications, and vvjiom admi¬
rable inventions in the arts, as well as the sciences, place
on the same level with the Archimedeses and the New¬
tons. His family, originally from Brabant, was rich and re¬
spected ; and the important post which his father held un¬
der three successive princes of Orange had been filled by
his grandfather, as it subsequently was by his elder bro-
ther Constantine, who in this capacity attended King
\» illiam in the celebrated expedition to England, which
H U Y
H gens, issued in the Revolution of 1688. His father, a distin-
«*-• guished man of letters, whose poetical compositions had
attained much celebrity, was not slow in remarking the
happy qualities of his genius, and, full of paternal solici¬
tude for his improvement, became his first instructor.
He early taught his son music, arithmetic, and geography;
and, about the age of thirteen, initiated him in the know¬
ledge of mechanics, for which young Huygens showed a
surprising aptitude. At fifteen he received the assist¬
ance of a master in the mathematics, a geometer of Am¬
sterdam named Stampioen, of whom Descartes has left an
unfavourable impression, but who in a short time enabled
his pupil to make great progress. At the age of sixteen
he was sent to Leyden to study law under the learned
jurisconsult Vinnius, who dedicated to him his Commen¬
tary on the Institutions ; but he did not permit jurispru¬
dence to divert him from his mathematical studies, which
he prosecuted at this place, as well as afterwards at Breda,
where an university had been erected, and where, being
placed under the direction of his father, he resided from
1646 to 1648. In these two cities he had as masters two
very able geometers, Francis Schooten and John Pell;
and his first essays were so successful that they attracted
the notice of Descartes, to whom the author had commu¬
nicated them. The genius of this great man divined in¬
stinctively that of Huygens. “ It is some time,” said he,
in a letter written at this period, “ since Professor Schoo¬
ten sent me a writing by the second son of M. de Zuyli-
chem touching a mathematical invention which he had
attempted to make ; and although he has not yet found
his account in the pursuit (which is not wonderful, see¬
ing he sought a thing which no one has ever been able to
find), yet he has taken such a bias towards geometry, that
I feel assured he will become excellent in that science, of
which I scarcely see any one who knows any thing.” On
his part, the young geometer was filled with admiration of
the great philosopher; and he wrote to Father Mersenne
that, for ages, no one comparable to him had appeared.
Nevertheless, Huygens had not the good fortune to see
him. Descartes had quitted Holland, and when, in 1649,
Huygens, having left the university, travelled with Henry
Count de Nassau, he regretted much not having it in his
power to pass from Denmark to Sweden, whither Descartes
had repaired, out of complaisance to the imperious Chris¬
tina. After this tour, he settled in his native country;
and it was then that he commenced that series of inven¬
tions which have rendered his name so justly celebrated.
In 1651 he published at Leyden his Theoremata de qua-
dratura Hyperboles, Ellipsis, et Circuli, ex dato portionum
gravitatis centra ; a work which afforded a favourable spe¬
cimen of his genius for mathematics, and gave promise of
still greater excellence. In 1655 he travelled into France,
and took the degree of doctor of laws at Angers. In 1658
he published at the Hague his Horologium oscillatorium,
sive de motu pendulorum- In a preceding work, entitled
Brevis Institutio de usu Horologiorum ad inveniendas lon-
gitudines, he had exhibited a model of a newly-invented '
pendulum ; but as some persons, envious of his reputation,
laboured to deprive him of the honour of the invention, he
wrote his Horologium oscillatorium to explain the con¬
struction of his pendulum, and to show that it differed
from the astronomical pendulum invented by Galileo. In
1659 he published his Systema Saturninum, sive de causis
mirandorum Saturni phcenomenon, et comite ejus planeta
novo. Galileo had endeavoured to explain some of the
appearances exhibited by the planet Saturn; he had at
first perceived two attendant stars, but some time after¬
wards was surprised to find that they had disappeared.
Huygens, desirous to account for these changes, laboured
with his brother Constantine to improve the construction
of telescopes; and having at length made an instrument
H U Y
765
of this kind, possessing greater power than any which had Huygens,
yet been contrived, he proceeded to observe the phases of
Saturn, and to record all the different aspects of that pla¬
net. The results were of equal interest and importance
to the science of astronomy. He discovered a satellite
of that planet, which had hitherto escaped the notice of
astronomers; and, after a long course of observation, he
showed that the planet is surrounded with a solid and per¬
manent ring, which never changes its situation. In 1660,
he took a second journey into France, and the year fol¬
lowing he visited England, where he communicated the
art of polishing glasses for telescopes, and was admitted as
a member of the Royal Society. The air-pump, then re¬
cently invented, he materially improved; and about the
same time he also discovered the laws of the collision of
elastic bodies, as did afterwards our own countrymen,
Wallis and Wren, who disputed with him the honour of
the discovery. After a stay of some months in England,
Huygens returned to France, where, in 1663, his merit
became so conspicuous, that Colbert resolved to bestow
on him such a pension as might induce him to establish
himself at Paris. But this resolution was not carried into
effect until 1665, when letters written in the king’s name
were forwarded to the Hague, where he then resided, in¬
viting him to repair to Paris, and offering him a consider¬
able pension, with other advantages. Huygens accepted
the proposal of the French minister, and, from 1666 to
1681 resided at Paris, where he was admitted as a member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences. During this period
he was occupied with mathematical pursuits; he wrote
and published several works, which were most favourably
received; and he invented and perfected some useful in¬
struments and machines. But, by continued application,
his health began to be impaired; and although he had
twice had recourse to his native air, and on both occasions
derived benefit from the change, the improvement was
only temporary, and he at length found it necessary to
quit France and return to his own country. It is not im¬
probable that his departure was accelerated by the revo¬
cation of the edict of Nantes; for although he had receiv¬
ed an assurance that he would be permitted to enjoy the
same liberty as before, without being molested on account
of his opinions, he had but little encouragement to remain
in a country where his religion was proscribed, and those
who professed it subjected to the most cruel persecution.
He accordingly left Paris in 1681 ; passed the remainder
of his life in his own country, occupied with his usual pur¬
suits ; and died at the Hague on the 8th of June 1693, in
the sixty-seventh year of his age, whilst his Cosmotheoros, a
treatise on the plurality of worlds, was passing through the
press. The Opera Varia of Huygens were published in
1700, 4to, and his Opuscula Posthuma appeared soon af¬
terwards, Leyden, 1703, in 4to. The former collection,
which is generally bound in four volumes, contains the
greater number of the pieces which he published sepa¬
rately, and is divided into four parts ; the first comprising
the pieces relating to mechanics; the second, those re¬
lating to geometry; the third, those relating to astrono¬
my; and the fourth, miscellaneous productions, which
could not be arranged under any of the preceding heads.
’sGravesande had the care of this edition, in which he in¬
serted various additions to the different pieces extracted
from the manuscripts of Huygens. The same individual
also superintended the publication of his Opera Reliqua,
which appeared at Amsterdam in 1728, in two vols. 4to,
and contain, 1. his Treatises on Light and Gravity; and,
2. his Opuscula Posthuma, originally printed in 1703. For
a masterly account of the genius and labours of Huygens,
the reader may consult the Dissertations by Professors
Playfair and Sir John Leslie, prefixed to this work. This
illustrious man gave his whole time to science; he loved a
766
Huysum
H
Hyacin-
thus.
H Y A
H Y D
quiet studious life, and found sufficient enjoyment in pur¬
suing curious and useful researches. He was modest,
amiable, cheerful, and in all respects as estimable in pri¬
vate life as he was eminent in science. It is not a little
singular, that the discovery of the real nature, or at least
of the true figure, of the luminous belt or ring which en¬
compasses the planet Saturn should have been made by
the same individual who invented the pendulum clock and
the micrometer. (a.)
HUYSUM, the name of several Dutch painters. The
most celebrated of these was John, whose subjects were
flowers, fruit, and landscapes. He was born at Amster¬
dam in 1682, and was a disciple of Justus van Huysum,
his father. He set out in his profession with a most com¬
mendable principle, not so much to paint for the acquisi¬
tion of money, as of fame ; and therefore he did not aim
at expedition, but at delicacy, and strove, if possible, to
arrive at perfection in his art. Having studied the pic¬
tures of Mignon, and all other artists of distinction who
had painted in his own style, he tried which manner
would soonest lead him to imitate the beauties of each
flower, fruit, or plant, and then fixed upon a manner pe¬
culiar to himself, and which seems almost inimitable. His
pictures are finished with inconceivable truth ; for he
painted every thing after nature, and was so singularly
exact as to watch even the hour of the day in which his
model appeared in its greatest perfection. By some per¬
sons he was thought to paint with greater freedom than
Mignon or Breughel; with more tenderness and nature
than Mario da Fiori, Michel Angelo di Campidoglio, or
Segers ; with more mellowness than De Heem ; and with
greater force of colouring than Baptist. At length his re¬
putation rose so high, that he fixed immoderate prices on
his works; so that none but princes, or those possessed
of princely fortunes, could pretend to become purchasers.
The large sums which Van Huysum received for his
works caused him to redouble his endeavours to excel;
no person was admitted into his room whilst he was paint¬
ing, not even his brothers; and his method of mixing the
tints, and preserving the lustre of his colours, he kept an
impenetrable secret. From the same principle, he would
never take any disciples, excepting one lady, named Ha-
verman; and he even grew envious of her merit. By se¬
veral domestic disquiets his temper became changed, and
he grew morose, fretful, and apt to withdraw himself from
society. There were many who envied his fame, but he
continued to work, and his reputation never diminished.
It is universally agreed that he excelled all who painted
fruit and flowers before him, by the superiority of his
touch, the delicacy of his pencil, and an amazing skill in
finishing; nor does it appear probable that any future ar¬
tist will ever become his competitor. Besides his merit as
a painter of flowers, he also painted landscapes with great
applause. They are well composed; and although he
had never seen Rome, he adorned his scenes with the
noble remains of ancient magnificence preserved in that
city. His pictures in this style are well coloured, and
every tree is distinguished by a touch that is proper for
the leafing. The grounds are well broken, and disposed
with taste and judgment; the figures are designed in the
manner of Lairesse, highly finished, and touched with a
great deal of spirit; and through the whole composition
the scene represents Italy, in the trees, the clouds, and the
skies. He died in 1749, at the age of sixty-seven.
HYACINTHUS, a son of Amyclas and of Diomede
(Apollodor. iii. 10, 3), or of Pierus and of Clio (i. 3, 3),
beloved by Apollo and Zephyrus. He gave the prefer¬
ence to the former, and whilst they were amusing them¬
selves at quoit, Zephyrus in revenge blew the quoit which
Apollo had thrown, on the forehead of Hyacinthus, and
he was killed by the blow. Apollo was so disconsolate
at the loss of Hyacinthus that he changed his blood into Hyades
a flower of the same name, and on the petals engraved ||
the exclamation Aj, alas. (Paus. iii. 19, 1.) Hyde.
HYADES, nymphs, daughters of Atlas and ./Ethra
(Ovid), of Erechtheus, king of Athens (Eurip.), of Hyas
and Baeotia (Hygin.) Their number and names are uncer¬
tain, but generally they are either seven or six, and they
are called, Cisseis, Nysa, Erato, Eriphia, Bromie, Poly-
hymno; or, if they are seven, Ambrosia, Eudora, Phaesole,
Coronis, Polyxo, Phaeo, Thyone. At their death they
were changed into stars, and placed on the head of Tau¬
rus, one of the twelve signs of the zodiac. They were
supposed to preside over rain (hence the name, from lu,
to ram), because the rising and setting of the Hyades was
always attended with much rain. (Ovid.5, ,465;
Cic. de Nat. Deor. 43.) The Latins called them sucidce,
swine, because they were so ignorant of the Greek lan¬
guage that they imagined the Greek word to be derived
from us, a sow. (Gell. xiii. 9. Plin. ii. 39.; xviii. 26.)
HYBLA, in Ancient Geography, called also Megara,
which last name it took from the Megareans, who led
thither a colony. In Strabo’s time Megara was extinct;
but the name Hybla remained on account of the excellent
honey which takes its name from this place. It was situ¬
ated upon the east coast of Sicily, between Syracuse and
the Leontines. The Hybloei colles, small eminences at the
springs of the Alabus, near this place, were famous for
their variety of flowers, and especially thyme ; the honey
gathered from which was by the ancients reckoned the
best in the world, excepting that of Hymettus in Attica.
HYBRIDA Planta, a monstrous production of two
different species of plants, analogous to a mule amongst
animals. The seeds of hybrid plants will not propagate.
HYBRISTICA(of u%g, injuria), in Antiquity, a solemn
feast held amongst the Greeks, with sacrifices and other
ceremonies, at which the men attended in the apparel of
women, and the women in that of men, to do honour to
Venus in quality either of a god or a goddess, or both.
But, according to the account given by others, the hybris-
tica was a feast celebrated at Argos, in which the women,
being dressed like men, insulted their husbands, and treat¬
ed them with all marks of superiority, in memory of the
Argive dames having anciently defended their country
with singular courage against Cleomenes and Demaratus.
Plutarch speaks of this feast in his treatise of the great
actions of women. The name, he observes, signifies in¬
famy, and is well accommodated to the occasion, in which
the women strutted about in men’s clothes, whilst the men
were obliged to dangle in petticoats.
HYDE, Edward (afterwards Earl of Clarendon), was
born at Dinton, in the county of Wilts, on the 18th of Fe¬
bruary 1609. He was the third son of Henry Hyde, the
descendant of a family of that name, which had resided
from a remote period at Norbury, in Cheshire. Edward,
after receiving his first education under his father’s roof,
was sent, at the age of thirteen, to Magdalen Hall, at
Oxford. He was originally intended for the church ; but,
in consequence of the death of his last surviving elder
brother, his destination was changed, whilst he was at the
university, from the profession of the church to that of
law, and in 1625 he was entered at the Middle Temple.
A severe ague with which he was attacked that year caused
a suspension of his studies, and temporary removal from the
Middle Temple, to which he returned in 1626. In 1628,
when riding the Norfolk summer circuit with his uncle,
Sir Nicholas Hyde, chief-justice of the King’s Bench, who
died in 1631, he caught the small-pox; and his legal stu¬
dies were again for a long time interrupted. He married,
in 1629, a daughter of Sir George Ayliffe, who died of the
small-pox six months afterwards. He married a second
time in 1632, in which year he lost his father. His se-
H:-
-
HYDE.
767
cond wife was a daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Bart,
master of requests; and by her he had many children.
Hyde now applied himself to the study of the law with
a diligence which he had not shown before, and his suc¬
cess soon surpassed the expectations of his contempora¬
ries. Meanwhile he lived little with lawyers ; but be had
many associates of political and literary celebrity, Lord
Falkland, Selden, Chillingworth, Waller the poet, Ben
Jonson, May the historian, Hales, Sheldon, Earles, and
Morley. To these may be added a few men of high rank,
as the Marquis of Hamilton, the Earls of Pembroke, Hol¬
land, and Manchester, and Lord Coventry. In 1635,
through an accidental circumstance, he also obtained the
notice of Archbishop Laud. In the course of an inquiry
into the state of the customs instituted by the primate in
his capacity of commissioner of the treasury, Hyde was
mentioned to him as one who had been much consulted
by some aggrieved merchants, and could afford the infor¬
mation desired. From this time Laud saw him frequent¬
ly, employed him upon many occasions, and caused him
to be noticed and employed by others. From 1635 till
1640 may be regarded as the most fortunate period of
Hyde’s life. He was successful in his profession, posses¬
sed a competent private fortune, and was happily married.
In 1640 he was elected member of parliament for Woot-
ton-Basset and for Shaftesbury, and took his seat for the
former. The parliament met on the 13th of April, and
was dissolved on the 5th of May. Hyde’s first brief parlia¬
mentary career was characterized by activity and an ho¬
nest zeal in the correction of abuses, from which not all
the friendship of Laud and the favour of the court was
able to divert him. In his first speech he denounced the
earl marshal’s court, which, in its protection of the pri¬
vileges of the titled classes, had been intolerably vexa¬
tious and oppressive ; and he showed himself a true and
practical friend of rational freedom. During this very
short session, he served in seven committees. He foi'e-
saw the evil consequences of the hasty dissolution, and
endeavoured in vain to prevail on Laud to employ his in¬
fluence with the king to prevent it. In the next parlia¬
ment, which met in November 1640, Hyde sat for Salt-
ash. He recommenced his proceedings against the earl
marshal’s court, of which he procured the suppression.
He was also chairman of a committee of inquiry into
the abuses of the council of York, and the court of the
council of the marches ; and he conducted the impeach¬
ment of three of the barons of the exchequer for illegal
exactions at the bidding of the crown. But Hyde, though
zealous for the redress of grievances, was opposed to the
encroachments of parliamentary authority, which began to
assume a formidable aspect. Strongly attached to episco¬
pacy, he also disliked the attempts of the parliament to re¬
model the government of the church ; and boasts that as
chairman of the committee on that question, he interposed
so many delays that the project was suspended. He ve¬
hemently protested against the Commons’ remonstrance,
his opposition to which was the occasion of his first intro¬
duction to Charles I. He had written an answer to it,
which he showed in confidence to Lord Digby. Digby
made it known to the king, who sent for Hyde, requested
the paper, approved, and published it as the reply of the
king with the advice of his council. Soon afterwards the
king offered to Hyde the office of solicitor-general, which
the latter declined, alleging that he could better serve his
sovereign in an unofficial capacit}'. To this the king as¬
sented; and meanwhile committed to him, to Lord Falk¬
land, and to Sir John Colepepper, the entire management
of his affairs in the House of Commons, assuring them
that he would take no step therein without their concur¬
rence. Notwithstanding this assurance, Charles, without
apprizing these chosen councillors, not long afterwards had
recourse to the ill-timed measure of attempting to seize
the five members in the House of Commons. Though v<
the consequences of this rash act were irretrievable, and
the royal cause was almost hopeless, Hyde continued
courageously to support it. During many months he was
secretly employed in writing answers for the king to the
declarations of the parliament, and had frequent inter¬
views with him by stealth; but he was at length sus¬
pected, and narrowly escaped committal to the Tower by
flying to the king at York. Though Hyde had thus be¬
come openly an adherent of the king, he long refused of¬
fice. He declined the proffered post of secretary of state ;
and it was not till March 1643 that, on the promotion of
Sir John Colepepper to the mastership of the rolls, he ac¬
cepted the chancellorship of the exchequer. He was one
of the commissioners at the negotiations at Uxbridge,
where, as on other occasions, he fruitlessly laboured to
effect peace between king and parliament, as far as was
compatible with a preservation of the royal prerogative
and the rights of the established church.
In 1644, after the battle of Naseby, Hyde was appoint¬
ed, together with Sir John Colepepper and Lords Capel
and Hopton, to form a council to attend, watch over, and
direct the Prince of Wales. After hopelessly witnessing
for many months a course of disastrous and ill-conducted
warfare in the west, they fled with him, first to Scilly, and
thence to Jersey; from which, at the entreaty of the
queen, but against the opinion of Hyde and others of the
council, the prince, in 1646, repaired to his mother at
Paris, attended only by Sir John Colepepper, and leaving
Hyde at Jersey. In this retreat Hyde remained till the
spring of 1648, engaged in the composition of his history
of the rebellion. He also wrote, during this period, an
answer to a declaration of the parliament, in which they
charged the king with all the evils which had happened,
and justified the discontinuance of all further addresses
to him. In May 1648, he was summoned to attend the
prince, who, at the head of a fleet which had espoused
the royal cause, was blockading the Thames. Hyde, after
encountering sundry difficulties, and amongst others seizure
by privateers off Ostend, did not meet the prince till his re¬
turn to the Hague, about the end of August, from his fruit¬
less expedition. Hyde found dissensions in the prince’s
little court at the Hague, especially between Prince Ru¬
pert and Lord Colepepper. The news of the death of
Charles I. for a while afflicted and appalled them ; but
their animosities soon broke out afresh, and disturbed the
councils of the new sovereign. In 1649, at the sugges¬
tion of Lord Cottington, Hyde and that nobleman were
sent as ambassadors to the court of Spain for the purpose
of soliciting its assistance. They were coolly received, and
had the mortification of perceiving that the Spanish court
was more inclined to cultivate the friendship of the com¬
monwealth of England ; and to the memorial which they
presented to the king of Spain in a private audience,
they obtained only a cold and ambiguous reply. The
treatment they experienced from the Spanish govern¬
ment was meanly time-serving, and varied with the for¬
tune of Charles’s affairs. On his determining to proceed
to Scotland, upon the invitation of the Scotch council and
parliament, the ambassadors were treated with more re¬
gard. Upon the news of Cromwell’s victory over Argyll’s
army, they were desired to depart. Accordingly, Hyde
quitted Spain, unaccompanied by his colleague Lord Cot¬
tington, who chose to remain as a private person, though
not permitted to reside at Madrid. On Hyde s return
from Spain in 1651, he met-at Paris the king, returned
from the ill-fated expedition which terminated in his de¬
feat at Worcester ; which rash interference, and the king’s
negotiation with the Scotch, and acceptance of the cove¬
nant, Hyde severely censured. He found himself expos-
Hyde.
I
768 jj Y
Hjde. ed to the enmity of many, especially of the queen. Sun-
dry calumnies were circulated against him, and two peti¬
tions were prepared, one from presbyterians, the other
from papists, praying his removal from Charles’s councils.
But Charles’s confidence in Hyde was not shaken by these
intrigues; and he appears to have seen their groundless¬
ness, and properly appreciated the valuable services of so
honest, able, and zealous a minister. Extreme poverty
was amongst the evils which, in a greater or less degree,
since Hyde’s departure from Jersey, he and his family had
been compelled to bear. His family resided principally
at Antwerp, and he and they were almost reduced to want
the most common necessaries of life ; yet his courage and
integritynever faltered, andhe would not even (as many had
done) compound for his estates in England, lest thereby
he should seem to acknowledge the existing government.
Year after year, too, the hope of relief to the royalist par¬
ty from foreign aid was waning away ; and neither foreign
war nor domestic conspiracy seemed to avail against the
power of Cromwell. In 1658 Cromwell died, but the
protectorate passed, like an inheritance, into the hands of
his son ; and though the hopes of the royalists were na¬
turally excited, the prospects of restoration were still
found to be dark, vague, and distant. Hyde, who was
now lord chancellor, corresponded much with those whom
the weakness of Richard Cromwell and the distracted
state of England had rendered favourable to the royal
cause, and proved instrumental in forwarding that Resto¬
ration which was at length more ostensibly effected by the
powerful agency of Monk.
The period immediately following the Restoration was
that of Hyde’s greatest power. He was the first minis¬
ter, presiding over a cabinet in which the principal offices
were filled by his friends (for such were Sir Edward Ni¬
cholas, the Earl of Southampton, and the Marquis of Or¬
monde), and the principal measures of the government were
peculiarly his. The first great measure of his administration
was the act of indemnity. This was in accordance with the
king’s declaration from Breda, in which he promised par¬
don to all his subjects, save such as should be excepted by
parliament, by which was intended the exclusion of those
who had been instrumental to his father’s death. The
lord chancellor was on the side of mercy, and urged the
speedy adoption of this healing measure on a reluctant and
vindictive parliament. In the settlement of property under
the act of indemnity some apparent injustice was unavoid¬
ably committed, by the necessity of dealing differently,
not according to the merits of persons, but the nature of
the property to be dealt with, and the title by which it
was held. Transactions between individuals could not be
reached ; but grants to or purchases by individuals from
the usurping state became subject to revision from defect
of title ; and crown and church lands were recovered from
their holders, whilst the impoverished royalist who had sold
his property to support the cause of the king was doomed
to see the sale confirmed, and himself debarred from com¬
pensation. The royalists consequently murmured loudly.
They called the statute an act of “ indemnity for the king’s
enemies, and of oblivion for his friends;” and they hated
the chancellor for the part he took in framing this act,
and his steady adherence to the principles of it. The next
important measure was the settlement of the revenue. It is
asserted by several authorities, that the chancellor might
have obtained for the king from the parliament, in the first
fervour of their revived loyalty, an annual revenue of
L.2,000,000. But it was not his wish to render the so¬
vereign independent of the aid of his parliament, and he
therefore sought for him only L.1,200,000, a sum scarce¬
ly sufficient for the exigencies of the state, unless admi¬
nistered with due economy. This sum the parliament
readily granted. Military tenures, and the oppressive
D E.
privileges of wardship, purveyance, and pre-emption, were
abolished, and the excise on liquors was granted in their wLl
stead. The restoration of the bishops to the House of
Lords, the statute against tumultuous petitioning, the vest¬
ing of the supreme command of the militia solely in the
crown, and the repeal of the triennial acts, were measures
promoted by the chancellor for the purpose of strength¬
ening the prerogative of the crown. In the regulation
of the judicature he deserved high praise. He showed
a rare impartiality and discernment in his appointments
and eminent integrity and diligence in the administration
of his own office. His conduct in ecclesiastical matters
was less liberal and judicious. He believed episcopacy
to be the only form of church government suitable to mo¬
narchy, and was too little tolerant towards other sects.
Under his administration several oppressive acts were
passed; the act of uniformity, compelling clergymen, on
pain of abandoning their livings, to subscribe to the forms
of the church of England, and to the doctrine of passive
obedience, by which two thousand were ejected; the act
against conventicles, imposing fines on all present at any
meeting for religious worship at which five assisted besides
the family; and the five-mile act, by which dissenting
teachers who had not taken the oath of passive obedience
were forbidden to approach within five miles of a place
where they had preached since the act of indemnity. But
the sin of such oppressions lies chiefly with the parlia¬
ment. In that which succeeded the convention parliament
there were a great majority of high churchmen. Venners’
insurrection had strengthened the prejudices against sec¬
tarians ; and it is by no means certain that Clarendon could
have stemmed the torrent of intolerance, even if he had
wished or attempted to do so.
In 1660, on the 3d of September, his daughter Anne
was secretly married to the Duke of York; an union
which, after much opposition from the mother and sister
of the duke, and the calumnies of profligate courtiers, was
acknowledged about the end of the year. The discovery
was received by the chancellor with violent demonstra¬
tions of indignation and grief. He seems to have been
solicitous to repel the imputation of having secretly pro¬
moted an alliance so flattering to his ambition, and to
have dreaded the effects of the jealousy it might excite.
He had in the following year a share in negotiating a
marriage for the king with Catherine of Portugal; a mar¬
riage which, when it proved unfruitful, was groundless¬
ly supposed to have been promoted by Clarendon under
that expectation, and with a view that his son-in-law or his
descendants might inherit the throne. Such suppositions
would have beln far fetched, even if an incapacity in the
princess to bear children had really existed ; and it must
fall to the ground when the contrary is known. Differ¬
ence of religion was the only obvious objection to this al¬
liance ; but there was no Protestant princess to whom
Charles would ally himself; and amongst Catholics the
princess of Portugal was perhaps least objectionable, and
conferred the advantages of a dowry of L.500,000, Tan-
giers, Bombay, and free trade with Portugal and its colo¬
nies. The profligacy of Charles, and the malign influence
of Lady Castlemaine, afterwards Duchess of Cleveland,
which Clarendon vainly endeavoured to resist, were the
main causes of the unhappiness of this marriage.
Hyde showed no avidity for emoluments or distinctions.
After the Restoration, when Monk was created a duke,
and Montague an earl, Hyde declined a proffered peer-
age, resting his refusal on unwillingness to excite disaf¬
fection amongst the new supporters of monarchy by an ap¬
parent eagerness on the part of the king to load with ho¬
nours his old adherents. When the marriage of his daugh¬
ter with the Duke of York became known, this objection
ceased ; a public mark of the king’s unaltered regard be-
H Y
. came desirable, and Hyde accepted the barony of Hindon.
J A further elevation took place in 1661, at the coronation,
on the request of the Duke of York; and the chancellor
was created Earl of Clarendon, and took his seat as such
on the 11th of May. At the time when he was made a
baron he accepted a present of L.20,000 from the king;
but he had declined at an earlier period the more valuable
grant of ten thousand acres of crown land, which Charles
was willing to bestow.
One of the measures of his administration which has
exposed him to most reproach, was the sale of Dunkirk
in 1662. Yet it cannot be shown that the motive was
corrupt, or the measure indefensible. Money was wanted;
large arrears had been due to the army; and large sums
had been necessarily expended in military and naval
stores. The revenue settled by the parliament was in¬
sufficient in amount, and with difficulty collected; and
subsidies were granted by the parliament in 1661 as an
additional aid. The wants of the state were still urgent.
Dunkirk was a source of expense to the yearly amount of
L.120,000. France was willing to purchase ; and after
much negotiation between Clarendon andD’Estrades, Dun¬
kirk was sold to France for 5,000,000 livres. A more
truly censurable act of Clarendon’s administration was sanc¬
tioning the acceptance of money for Charles from Louis
XIV. though he had the honesty to refuse it for himself,
and laying the foundation of that secret correspondence
which at length rendered the king of England almost the
pensioned servant of France. The sale of Dunkirk tended
to weaken the popularity of Clarendon with the nation.
He soon began to lose the favour of the king, by his op¬
position, in July 1663, to a measure Charles had much at
heart, namely, a bill to invest the king with a discretionary
power of dispensing, for a fine, penal laws against all sects,
by which Charles hoped to favour the Catholics, though
this purpose was necessarily cloaked under a promise of
toleration, including all Protestant dissenters. Clarendon,
who knew and disapproved of the motive, vehemently op¬
posed this bill, and caused it to be laid aside; and Charles
from that time began to entertain a dislike of his minis¬
ter, which the enemies of Clarendon sedulously fostered.
The Duke of Buckingham and other chosen associates of
the king tried to undermine the influence of Clarendon by
mimicry and taunts, representing him as a churlish peda¬
gogue, and inciting the king to emancipate himself from
restraint. His influence as a minister was also lessened
by the substitution of Bennet for his firm friend Sir Edward
Nicholas, and by the reviving power of Coven try and Ashley.
He also paid the penalty of power, in bearing the load of
whatever calamities befel the nation. Even the plague,
and the fire of London, and the disastrous issue of the
Dutch war (a war to which the public was favourable, and
he was adverse), concurred to weaken his popularity. The
defenceless state of the Thames, which enabled the Dutch
to invade it successfully, and the conclusion of a peace
which the people disliked, were imputed to the chancellor.
Anxious to pursue a middle course, and careless of the
public favour, he had gained the friendship of no party
alike able and willing to support him. The Protestant dis¬
senters disliked him as the promoter of the measures
against non-conformists; the Catholics as having frustrat¬
ed the king’s endeavour to grant them indulgence; the
Royalists as the supporter of the act of indemnity and
oblivion ; the populace because he had built a large house,
which, it was already rumoured, was the ostentatious re¬
sult of secret bribes from France or Holland. 1 he pro¬
fligate and ambitious court disliked him as a reprover of
their license, and an obstacle to their advancement; and
Charles, who, aided by the high-church party, might have
supported him against these assailants, had recently en¬
tertained a fresh ground of dislike. He knew that Cla-
VOL. XI.
D E. 769
rendon opposed his infamous plan of obtaining a divorce ; Hyde,
and he believed him to have promoted the marriage of
Miss Stewart, whom, after obtaining such divorce, Charles
had intended to espouse. The discontented nation cla¬
moured for a victim ; and the ungrateful king was glad to
sacrifice to popular vengeance the minister whose stub¬
born honesty was opposed to the gratification of his will.
He sent a message to Clarendon, then in affliction from
the recent death of his wife, advising him to resign, with
a view of saving himself from impeachment. Clarendon
refused to take so humiliating a step; and Charles de¬
prived him of the great seal on the 13th of August 1667.
Clarendon, whom the impeachment preferred by Lord
Bristol four years before had left unshaken, was now again
exposed to this attack under circumstances which render¬
ed it more powerful against him. Urged by the Dukes
of Buckingham and Albemarle, the Commons drew up, on
the 6th of November, an impeachment, consisting of se¬
venteen articles, which, after several days’ debate, was on
the 12th carried up to the Lords. He was accused of de¬
signing to govern by a standing army^ and advising the
king to discontinue parliaments; of saying that the king
was in his heart a Papist; of receiving money for illegal pa¬
tents ; of imprisoning in remote garrisons ; of unjust sale of
offices: of corruptly procuring the customs to be farmed
at low rates, pretended debts to be paid by the king, and
the company of vintners to obtain undue advantages;
of procuring grants to be made to himself and his rela¬
tions; of introducing arbitrary government in the colo¬
nies ; of frustrating a proposal for the preservation of
Nevis and St Christopher’s ; of advising and effecting the
sale of Dunkirk ; of unduly causing the king’s letters-pa-
tent to Dr Croucher to be altered; of arbitrary conduct
in the council; of having caused quo warrantos to be
issued against corporations, with the intent of extorting
money; of having corruptly procured the bill of settle¬
ment for Ireland ; of having deceived the king in his ad¬
ministration of foreign affairs, and betrayed his councils
to the enemy; and of having counselled the division of
the fleet in June 1666. To these flimsy charges Lord
Clarendon replied by the mouth of his son, that if any
one was proved, he would submit to the rest. His ac¬
cusers were ashamed to make any one of them the speci¬
fic ground of an impeachment; and accordingly he was im¬
peached of high treason in general terms, and his impri¬
sonment demanded, until the Commons, “ in convenient
time,” shall exhibit “ articles against him.” The Lords
refused to imprison him on this general accusation. Much
controversy ensued between the two houses, during which,
in compliance with the entreaties of his friends, and the
intimated wishes of the king, Clarendon dosed the dis¬
pute by withdrawing himself from the kingdom on the
29th of November 1667, and retiring to France. He left
on his departure a vindication of his conduct, addressed
to the House of Lords, which address was communicated
to the Commons, by whom it was voted that it was scan¬
dalous and seditious, and should be burned by the hang¬
man. The Commons then attempted to obtain his attainder,
but were opposed by the Lords; and the two houses finally
concurred in an act of banishment and incapacity, unless
he appeared and took his trial before the 1st of February,
which act was passed on the 18th of December 1667.
Fresh persecutions awaited Clarendon. The court of
France, in order to gain the favour of England, wished to
expel him from their dominions; and it was not till their
hopes of alliance were dispelled by the triple league, that
they showed kindness to the distinguished exile, and Cla¬
rendon received a special permission to reside in any part
of France. He abode principally at Montpellier, where, re¬
suming his literary labours, hecompleted his celebrated His¬
tory, and the Memoir of his own Life. From thence he re-
770 H Y D
Hyde, paired to Rouen, where, in the year 1674, he addressed to
Charles II. a fruitless prayer for permission to spend the
short remainder of his life in England. A few months
afterwards he died at Rouen, on the 9th of December
1674, in the sixty-fifth year of his age.
The character of Lord Clarendon has been much ex¬
posed to undeserved extremes of praise and of censure.
He has been made the idol of the high-church party, and
bitterly assailed by their opponents. As a minister he
appears to have been incorrupt, indefatigable, zealous for
the public service, and anxious to hold an even balance
between the liberties of the subject and the privileges of
the crown, and to secure to the restored king only the
constitutional powers of limited monarchy. His chief
faults were harshness towards the non-conformists, and
acquiescence in the king’s clandestine acceptance of pe¬
cuniary aid from France. His merits cannot be fairly
estimated, without considering the difficulties of his posi¬
tion, the profligacy and corruption of the times in which
he lived, to which he boldly and honourably opposed
himself, and comparing his administration with the dis¬
graceful epoch by Which it was succeeded. He was up¬
right and uncompromising, and neglectful of the arts of
popularity, both towards men of high and of humble sta¬
tion. His abilities were very great, but consisted per¬
haps rather in quickness than in depth and comprehen¬
siveness of mind. He was ready and powerful as an orator,
and prompt and able in the despatch of business, of which,
in spite of frequent illness, he bore by far the greatest
share during the period of his administration. In private
life he was unimpeachable. As a writer he will ever oc¬
cupy a high place. His history, as characterized by a dis¬
tinguished modern historian, is “ a monument of power¬
ful ability and impressive eloquence.” Its remarkable
beauties are its masterly delineation of celebrated cha¬
racters, the occasional eloquence of its descriptive pas¬
sages, and the frequent interspersion of luminous reflec¬
tions. Its chief faults are diffuseness of style, and the
want of accuracy and arrangement. Its fidelity as a his¬
tory cannot be upheld ; a defect attributable partly to the
circumstance of his having trusted much to recollection
in the absence of requisite materials, partly to that desire
to render it serviceable to the cause of the royalists, with
which he professed to have commenced it.
His principal works are, his History of the Rebellion ;
A short View of the State of Ireland; and The Life of
Edward Earl of Clarendon, in which is included a Conti¬
nuation of his History of the Grand Rebellion. Of these
three works, a complete edition, containing the passages
suppressed by former editors, was published for the first
time at Oxford in 1826. Brief View and Survey of the
Dangerous and Pernicious Errors to Church and State
in Mr Hobbes’ Book entitled the Leviathan, Oxford,
1676 ; A Collection of Tracts, fol. London, 1727, con¬
taining, A Vindication of Himself; Reflections on several
Christian Duties, Divine and Moral, by way of Essays;
Contemplations and Reflections upon the Psalms of Da¬
vid ; A Dialogue of the Want of Respect due to Age;
and A Dialogue concerning Education.
(See Life of Clarendon, by himself, and his History of the
Rebellion; Clarendon’s State Papers; Wood’s Athence-
Oxonienses ; Whitelocke’s Memorials; Burnet’s History
(f his Own Times ; Memoirs of James II.; Pepys’s Dia¬
ry ; Evelyn’s Diary; Parliamentary History; and State
Trials.) (y. y.)
Hyde, Thomas, professor of Arabic at Oxford, and one
of the most learned writers of the seventeenth century,
was bom at Billingsley, near Bridgenorth, Shropshire, in
1636. He studied first at Cambridge, and afterwards at
Oxford. Before he was eighteen years of age, he was
sent from Cambridge to London to assist Mr Brian Wal-
H Y D
ton in the great work of the Polyglott Bible; and about Hy J3
the same period he undertook to transcribe the Penta- b a*
teuch out of the Hebrew characters, in which it was first J
printed at Constantinople, into the proper Persian charac¬
ters. After he had happily succeeded in this, he assisted
in correcting several parts of Mr Walton’s work, for which
he was perfectly qualified. “ Nec praetereundus est D.
Thomas Hyde,” says the editor, “ summae spei juvenis,
qui in linguis orientalibus supra setatem magnos progres-
sus fecit, quorum specimina dedit turn in Arabibus, Syria-
cis, Persicis corrigendo, turn in Pentateucho Persico cha-
racteribus Persicis describendo, quia antea solis Hebrai-
cis extitit, ejusque versionem Latinam concinnando.” He
was made archdeacon of Gloucester, canon of Chris t-chureh,
head keeper of the Bodleian Library, and professor of He¬
brew and Arabic in the university of Oxford. He was inter¬
preter and secretary of the oriental languages during the
reigns of Charles II. James II. and WJlliam III.; and he
was perfectly qualified to fill this post, as he could con¬
verse in all the languages which he understood. There
never was an Englishman in his situation of life who made
so great progress ; but his mind was so engrossed by his
beloved studies, that he is said to have been but ill qua¬
lified to appear to any advantage in common conversation.
This distinguished orientalist died on the 18th of Feb¬
ruary 1702. Of all his writings, the very catalogue of
which is a curiosity, the most celebrated is his Religio
Veterum Persarum, a work of profound and various eru¬
dition, and abounding with many new lights and ingenious
conjectures concerning the theology, history, and learn¬
ing of the eastern nations. Amongst his other works may
be mentioned, 1. A Latin translation of Ulug Beig’s ob¬
servations on the longitude and latitude of the fixed stars;
and, 2. A Catalogue of the printed books in the Bodleian
Library. Dr Gregory Sharpe, master of the Temple, col¬
lected and republished some of Dr Hyde’s pieces former¬
ly printed, under the title of Syntagma Dissertationum
et Opuscula, in 2 vols. 4to, 1767; to which is prefixed, a
life of the author, containing a very judicious estimate of
his labours and acquisitions. At the time of his death,
Dr Hyde had planned, and partly prepared for the press,
no less than thirty-one different works, some of greater
and other of less importance, a list of which will be found
in Chalmers’s Biographical Dictionary, article Hyde.
HYDERABAD, an extensive province of Hindustan,
in the Deccan, which is situated principally between the
16th and 19th degrees of north latitude. The name is now
applied generally to all the territories of the nizam, so that
it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain its exact limits. This
territory composed a considerable portion of the ancient Se-
lingana. The country is hilly, but not mountainous, being
for the most part an elevated table-land, in consequence of
which the climate is colder than might be expected from
the latitude. During three months of the year the ther¬
mometer at the city of Hyderabad, and in the country to
the north, is often as low as 45°, 40°, and even 35° of Fah¬
renheit. The country is fertile, and, under proper ma¬
nagement, would yield abundantly. But the whole ter¬
ritory is principally rented to powerful zemindars, or is
granted in jaghires to the officers of government. This
distribution of the landed property, which, with the ex¬
ception of some portions set aside for charitable purposes,
and the estates of the nizam and the different branches of
his family, is in the hands of a few individuals, is suppos¬
ed to be injurious to agriculture, and of course to the in¬
terests of the revenue. The cultivators are wretchedly
poor, and are much oppressed by their superiors the hold¬
ers, who are subject to little or no restraint from their
nominal sovereign. Where they qre properly cultivated,
die fields yield excellent crops of wheat, which is trans¬
ported by the inland carriers to the sea-coast, whence
H Y D
jl ira- salt is brought in return. The districts acquired by the
|i| nizam are particularly rich and fertile. But as agricul-
^ ture is discouraged by the oppression of the cultivators,
commerce is obstructed by heavy and injudicious internal
taxes. In 1801 the custom-duties on importation amount¬
ed to 15 per cent., which formed the principal revenue of
the state ; and when the British remonstrated against the
impolicy of these internal duties, the nizam evinced the
most decided aversion to reduce them, and still more to
abolish them, which was the counsel of the British go¬
vernment. It was at length agreed that the tax should
be reduced to two and a half per cent. But even the
levying of this duty was attended with such oppressions
and vexation, that it greatly impeded commerce. At pre¬
sent, the principal trade carried on between the nizam’s
dominions and those under the British government, con¬
sists in the exportation of cotton to Berar and to the
Northern Circars, and also to the markets at Vellore, Ar-
nee, and the vicinity. They bring back salt and salted
fish, cloths manufactured in the Northern Circars, Arnee
muslins, and European manufactures; the latter princi¬
pally for the supply of the British forces subsidised by
the nizam, and for clothing his army. The chief towns
of this kingdom are Hyderabad, Golcondah, Warangole,
Aurungabad, Beder, and Ellichpore. The majority of the
people are Hindus ; but having been long the seat of a
Mahommedan government, a considerable portion of the
inhabitants are of that religion.
This country was formerly subject to the rajahs of Te-
lingana and Bijanagur; but being afterwards conquered
by the Mahommedans, was formed into a separate king¬
dom in the year 1512, under the name of Golcondah, by
Mahommed Kooly, originally a Turkish adventurer. In
1687, it was brought under the dominion of Aurungzebe,
and was converted into one of the provinces of the Mogul
empire, and, with the other five southern provinces, was
formed into a viceroyalty, under an officer appointed by
the court of Delhi, called the soobahdar of the Deccan.
In 1719, a Mogul officer, Cheen Khilij Khan, being appoint¬
ed to this government, with the title of Nizam al Moolk,
or superintendent of the kingdom, collected a large army,
and got possession of all the strongholds of the Deccan;
and setting up for independence, he overawed the empe¬
ror Mahommed Shah and his ministers. After the inva¬
sion of Nadir Shah in 1739, he left to the Mogul nothing
but the name of sovereign ; and having made Aurungabad
his capital, he died at Boorhanpore in the year 1748, aged
104 years. He was succeeded by his second son, who
was assassinated in 1750, and succeeded by his nephew
Muzuffer Jung, who was assassinated the following year,
and succeeded by his cousin Salabut Jung. He had been
confined for ten years by his brother Nizam Ali, who for
nearly twenty years was engaged in wars with Hyder
Ali, the British, and the Mahrattas, during which his ter¬
ritories were greatly contracted. On the 12th of October
1800, he concluded a treaty offensive and defensive, by
which he became a dependent and ally of the British.
He agreed to receive into his territories a British force
of 8000 infantry and 1000 cavalry ; to relinquish to the
British the management of all his foreign relations; and,
for the regular payment of the troops stationed in his
country, to cede certain portions of territory to the Bri¬
tish. By a commercial treaty concluded in 1802 with
the British, it was agreed, in lieu of all local duties, that
a duty of five per cent, should be levied on all articles re¬
spectively imported into the territories of each. In 1804,
after the conclusion of the war with Scindia and the rajah
of Nagpoor, the nizam acquired a large accession of ter¬
ritory. At present the nizam’s dominions comprehend
the greater part of Berar, the whole of Hyderabad, Nan-
dere, and Beeder, and part of Aurungabad and Bejapoor.
H Y D 771
Towards the Nagpoor territories their limits are marked Hydera-
by the course of the Wurda river, and on the one side of bad.
the British by the Krishna and Toombuddra. This ter-
ritory may be estimated in length at 420 by 220 miles,
and contains 8,000,000 of inhabitants.
Hyderabad, the capital of the above-mentioned pro¬
vince of Hyderabad, and of the nizam’s dominions. It
is situated on the south side of the Musa river, which
runs rapidly during the rains, but in the dry season has
scarcely two feet of water. It is said to have been found¬
ed about the year 1586 by Sultan Mahommed Kootub
Shah, who, thinking the air of Golcondah did not agree
with his constitution, gave orders for building a new city,
which continued to be the residence of the Kootub Shah
dynasty till the year 1687, when it was taken by Aurung¬
zebe. The late Nizam Ali was the first of the nizams
who made it his residence, and he spent considerable
sums in improving it. It is now a large and populous
place, about seven miles in circumference, and is sur¬
rounded by a stone wall, with towers at the angles and
gates, which, though incapable of defence against artille¬
ry, is a good protection against the incursions of cavalry.
It contains two palaces and some elegant mosques, this
having long been the seat of Mahommedanism in the
Deccan; and between it and Golcondah there are some
handsome tombs. This city possesses large magazines,
in which are deposited the presents received at various
times from the different native and European powers,
consisting of bales of woollen, cases of glass, glass-ware.
China-ware, clocks, watches, &c. of European manufac¬
ture. These presents have accumulated during a course
of seventy or eighty years, having been received by the
father and grandfather of the present nizam as far back
as the time of Dupleix and Bussy. Since the late Nizam
Ali transferred his residence to Hyderabad, it has ex¬
perienced no disturbance ; and being the residence of the
court, has rapidly increased in wealth and population. At
present it is estimated to contain 120,000 inhabitants, in¬
cluding the suburbs. The travelling distance from Cal¬
cutta by the Northern Circars is 902 miles, by Nagpoor
1043 miles, from Madras 352, from Bombay 480, from
Delhi 923, from Poonah 387, from Seringapatam 406.
Long. 78. 42. E. Eat. 17. 15. N.
Hyderabad, a city of Hindustan, in the province of
Sinde, of which it is the capital. The fortress of Hydera¬
bad, which is appropriated solely to the residence of the
princes and their families, is situated on a rock the foot
of which is washed by a branch of the river Indus, here
named the Fulalee. It is of an irregular pentagonal fi¬
gure, suited to the natural form of the rock, and is defend¬
ed by round towers, and a high brick wall perforated with
loop-holes. The situation is remarkably strong ; the sides
of the hill being in many places so steep as to render the
ascent to the fortress difficult, even though a breach were
made in the walls. The weakest point is towards the
south-east, opposite a break in the rock from the Fulalee.
A dry ditch twelve feet broad protects the northern side.
The position is good, and the fortifications adequate to re¬
sist any attack of native tooops, though it would not stand
a siege of three days against Europeans. There is a good
bazar and several handsome mosques within the fort;
and although little encouragement is given to industry,
the artisans are numerous and skilful. The Ameers, as
mentioned by Dr Burnes, who went on a mission to Hy¬
derabad in 1828, pride themselves greatly in the brilliant
collection which they possess of jewels and armour. A
great part of their treasure consists in rubies, diamonds,
pearls, and emeralds, with which their daggers, swords,
and matchlocks are adorned, and many of which they
wear as rings and clasps on different parts of their dresses.
The arts connected with this pursuit are encouraged by
772
H Y D
H Y D
Hyder-
bunge
li
Hydra.
them. One or two Persian goldsmiths are engaged at
court, where they work in enamel, and contrive expedients
to display the jewellery of their masters. They have
i brought to great perfection the art of inlaying letters of
gold on steel. They acknowledge the superiority of the
English in the manufacture of gun-locks; and the dress of
their princes and nobles consists partly of English cloths.1
Hyderabad is situated 130 miles from the sea, on the east¬
ern side of the main stream of the Indus, with which it is
connected by the Fulalee at the distance of three miles.
The country around Hyderabad rises into hills, although
it is level till within a few miles of that city. The Indus
is a perpetual source of fertility, affording an inexhaus¬
tible supply of water for the irrigation of the fields. The
flat country of Sinde is intersected by branches from the
main stream, and by canals; and the transition from the
parched deserts of Cutch to such a scene of fertility is de¬
scribed by Dr Burnes as affording a very striking con¬
trast. The Fulalee in the month of August is from two
and a half to three fathoms deep at Hyderabad, and is co¬
vered with boats laden with heavy goods. The population
is 20,000. Long. 68. 41. E. Lat. 25. 22. N.
HYDERBUNGE, a populous village of Hindustan, in
the province of Lahore, dependent on Attack, and situat¬
ed at a short distance from the Indus. Long. 71. 25. E.
Lat. 33. 20. N.
HYDERGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the nabob of
Oude’s territories, thirty-two miles south-east from Luck¬
now. Long. 81. 23. E. Lat. 26. 37. N.
HYDERSHY, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the
nizam, in the province of Hyderabad, sixty miles east from
the city of Hyderabad. Long. 79. 35. E. Lat. 17. 24. N.
HYDRA, in fabulous history, a serpent in the marsh
of Lerna, in Peloponnesus, represented by the poets with
many heads, one of which being cut off, another imme¬
diately succeeded in its place, unless the wound was in¬
stantly cauterized. Hercules attacked this monster; and
having caused lolaus to hew down wood for flaming brands,
as he cut off the heads he applied the brands to the Hydra
wounds, by which means he destroyed the hydra. This gogue?
hydra with many heads is said to have been only a mul- II |
titude of serpents, which infested the marshes of Lerna H?dro«|
near Mycene, and which seemed to multiply as fast as they ^halu^ |
were destroyed. Hercules, with the assistance of his com-
panions, cleared the country of these reptiles, by burning
the reeds in which they lodged.
, Hydra, in Astronomy, a southern constellation, con¬
sisting of a number of stars, imagined to represent a water
serpent.
H YDR AGOGUES, amongst physicians, remedies which
evacuate a large quantity of water in dropsies. The word is
formed from udug, water, and ayuv, to draw or lead; but the
application of the term proceeds upon a mistaken suppo¬
sition that every purgative had some particular humour
which it would evacuate, and which could not be evacuat¬
ed by any other. It is now, however, discovered that all
strong purgatives will themselves prove hydragogues, if
administered in large quantity, or to persons of weak
constitutions. The principal medicines recommended as
hydragogues are, the juice of elder, the root of the iris,
soldanella, mechoacan, jalap, &c.
H YDR ARGYR UM, a name given to mercury or quick¬
silver. The word is formed from Ibuo, aqua, water, and
dpyu^ng, argentum, silver, water of silver, on account of its
resembling liquid or melted silver.
HYDRAULICS, the science of the motion of fluids,
and the construction of all kinds of machines relating
thereto. See Hydrodynamics.
# HYDRENTEROCELE, in Surgery, a species of her¬
nia, in which the intestines descend into the scrotum, to¬
gether with a quantity of water.
HYDROCEPHALUS, a preternatural distension of
the head by a stagnation and extravasation of the lymph,
which, when collected in the inside of the cranium, is
termed internal, as that collected on the outside is termed
external. See Medicine, Index.
1 See Vint to the Court of Sinde, by J. Burnes, p. 92.
END OF VOLUME ELEVENTH.
Printed by Thomas Allah & Co. and Neill & Co-
and Stereotyped by Thomas Allan & Co.
t TT XI \1 A W T V l
or i 'i1f'S'iwi
Eng4by 6
GUN MAKING
J’LATE CCLXX1U.
GUNNERY
PLATE CCLXXJ\
Fuji.
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF IRON GUNS.
24 FOUNDER.
GUNNERY
PLATE (II.\\l\
J2 POUNDER BRASS HOWITZER .
Charqe F4 Lbs Pouiier.
IO INCH IRON HOWITZER.
Fic/. 2.
GENERA L CONSTRUCTION OF BRASS GUNS.
3 POUNDER .
Fig. 4.
/
WS
Length 6 Calibres.
Weight 10 Qvt.
To contain 7 Lbs.
6S POUNDER CARBONADE.
J 2 4 4 4 6 7 S 9 lO 11 12 14 14 IS 16 17 IS
Fiq. 6
/.eiiiil/t G net.2 inches.
Weiqht Jo' Cut.
Section oCthe 24 Inch MORTAR,used at ANTWERP, 1S32.
\4 Fill In.,
24 POUNDER CARBONADE.
13 INCH LAND-SERVICE MORTAR.
Seen in. a verbal! position.
Fig. 9.
Section of the S/i£lL
with Charge & Figze..
A GARRISON GIN ON A TRAVERSING PLATFORM.
Fig. 15.
‘‘‘t.Shuu, Roy1 Arte Del
Fig. 16
yj-
Frig* by G.ALhruin.,Kdinr.
S
fi'k'o,
-v<-.
HELMINTHOLOGY.
PLATE CCLXXV.
Spitorbis p/mtU/)ides.
Spirorbis nautiloides
Amp fa trite
auricoma Ont .
SerpuJa conlo rtup h'atta
Sabdla, vesiculosa
mphitrite aurimma Gm
Terebelta nebulosa
Head of
Eunice antesinata
Tule
bcntnh 'um en tt /lis
Nereis
nuntia
Sipbostomu
^ diplochaitos.
Eunice tubico/u
Branchue of a ■ t • *
, . , Aremcola piscatonun
ciiphrosine. laurealu.
Siphostonia diplorhaitos.
Chloda on,
.Aibnan, Kdm\
II ELM I NTHOLOGY
PLATE C(LXX\ 1
Syllis monilaris.
Spio crenaticornis
Hesione. splendida
CirrhatuLus tenJuadaius
Head o f
folynoe impatiens.
Epps ofLiunbriais terrestris
or common Earth worm.
Clpmenc amphistomn
Eqe/s of Liunhrlcus terrestris.
Sanquisupa offidmxUs
Sanquisupa officinalis
Clepsincu crenata
^wu/msuqa medidnalis
Mouth of
I homo pis sanpulsorba.
Mouth of 16.
BdMu nilotica
Etuf d by 0 r I ihnati, /'. din'.
II.
HERALD RY.
PLATE
CCLXXV11.
USES, DIFFERENCES, &<■.
N?l. Eru.)railed. 8,The Bancette.
i \aaaa>-a-a-aaaj VWWWWWWWW
2, Inverted.
4, The Embattled.
pjTrLTLnj-
5, Th e. Xebide.
maaan
6, The Regide.
.W
7, The Indented.
/VWWWA/V\
.9, The Dovetail. 10, The Grafted..
rn d'  d*’
11, The Embattled aronde..
12, Battled Embailled.
13, the Dovetail.
14, The Champaine.
2, Crescent.
3, Mullet. 4, Martlet. 5, Annulet.
6, Fleur de Its.
7 Rose.
8, Cross Moline. 9, Cautre foil.
4
HERALDRT
PLATE (CL XXIX.
Fig. 2.
Engd'by G Axkman ,£.din '
r
II ERALDRY.
PLATE CCLXXX.
.
XTJ.
Fig. 1.
LIONS, Sc.
H K RAM) HY
Fiq. 2.
4N1MALS, Sc.
PL A TF (CLXXXi.
Fig. 3.
An.
Fiq. 4.
BJRDS, &-c.
ARTIFICIAL FIGURES.
Enq ^ by &. A ik/ruut, Edin f
.
5.
6.
FLA G S.
AMERICA.
ROTAL ARMS OF BRITAIN.
Settled Nov. l&OO.
H K HAL DRY.
PLATE C< LXXXW.
Fig.J. A R MS MARSHALLED.
L.
A CHIE YEMEN TS
KAR1. OF
FARJ. OF
I.OTOOM.
FART, OF
SEAPORT]]
FAR], OF
EGLINT ON.
EARL OF
dunffrmlineB
MASTER OF
LORDON.
[DUNFERM LINE |
EARL OF
ROTH E S
GUTHRIE OF
LUNEN.
LORD
COLVILLE
EARL OF
Li n i.iTiroow.
ROSS OF '
RAJ.NAGOWAN.
LORD
DRUMMOND.
EARL OF
WIGTO N,
1,0 R D
DRUMMOND.
Enp ^ by G., liknwn
HIEROGLYPHICS
Aet
I RN1TV
, . IORTA
NS V\t
fOY
OT'pAa '
VvrER
- ‘ ABILITY
VpD
{TABUS H
VPKIT
1A2J
s <;hty
' : LENDODR
OT.OYCUJIVf
m: RING
Li-USTRlorS
iiUOT
UiSRErTAlJf i
ixn&
* NERABfi.K
’4*f ?NUVV '
TE
PLATE CCLXXXTV.
[ P “A ■
H * £
! v^
t £
rY sacred
f,r, r
21. MOTHER
jASa
t, -
22 SON
2»Dpi
23 ATTENDANT
o„r
rljfi ft? 9^
' T /V?
ATTENDANT | JV* „ „
JUK-^.'ppl ^ ^ ^
24. DAUGHTER
iyrpi
25 SONS
N<y»Hp)
2B. CHILD
v
44. l AM TCL
OD.HI
Ai
27. DIRECTOR q
l>€Q(OTTeN?L ^
28 STEERSMAN, Qa
ptQ8€AU , ■■«■
45. <4»OD
N&N4
. BESTOWING
et1 rvaaioT
y
»
4. MUNIFICENT
pfQNJlNeQ
4.C7
^ M o?
30. KING
ovpo
Uf
r
d.d nil 31-‘;^tmT',,N
JS- 4- 32 • -&lN<Sl>OM
rovpo
48. GREAT
N«y»T. NA&
19. OTHJ.itS
: KlNWOVSi
50 CAJ LED
tTxo;
<d tn
33 . I. HUT I ON
tv T -1\ ViloA
f 34. CEREMONY
IIJ <*.‘W
~tu, iso
z ^:5Ko?
'77* .-»!.. Dt.EI ’.KM ION* f f----.W
1
>*
52. MANIFEST
f Gff ■ //r> ctcotin
53 NAME
DAN
... a? > 35. PRIEST ?S*\ vT| EMi- infNiNG w ft V
Itujf orh4.20nt C I 1 1 V. ',epo>aoM f t
inut£r
. Si\( 5.!' i • .. ;
v.r N. •• ■ \ r5 . '.r' "'?f • i:
z PRIESTHOOD
—WFTOTHZl
d »-
T 120 'ifpui
V'
50. PREPARE
Ct^TF
r7f ••■2-
HIERO GLYPHIC S.
PLATE CCLXXX1V,
AT TRIBUTE S AND ACTIONS.
1. LIFE
CD Me*, &8I
2 . ETERNITY
ENE2
3. IMMORTAL
ETDNS ENE2
4. JOY
ejucoT^pNiyi?
5. POWER
3CDJA
6. STABILITY
TAXpO
7. ESTABLISHED
TAXpKOYT
8. STRENGTH
<USl£21
O,
yfrf'MK i i ■
1,0 q-
Cr.r
^ /^1i
n
19. WORPSHIP
lyAAcsye
20. FATHER
I COT
21. MOTHER
JAM
<%
£
22. ■ SON O ^
iHHpi
23. ATTENDANT ! ^
Ja K’iUdJHp? L
24. DAUGHTER
iyE\)f
25. SONS „
NPilHpi Q O ?
26. CHILD
^>OT /*5V
27. DIRECTOR
pEQCOYTEIV ?
38. ASSEMBLY
I9AI
39. SACRED
DTAi
/ywc
40. CONSECRATEdH] ±(
GOTCUT?
41. GIVE
A
42. OFFER
E IN, INI
43. DEDICATE
T£20?
44. LAWFUL
-©•JU.HI
45. GOOD
' N&NE
I
46. BESTOWING
ETtivmOT
foul
ft? <fo)
/y?
lift/
fvo
V
ifiS
V
9. MIGHTY
-xop
10. VICTORY
G'PO
H. FORTUNE
12. SPLENDOUR
tOOT.DYCUINI
13. BEARING
QSJ
14. ILLUSTRIOUS
<^EpiU)OT
15. HONOUR
T&IO
16. RESPECTABLE
JA?iEniyA?
li <B»
2r*-
o?
e>,d n,u
tlmm, '
id in
f
11 J.ujijr
28. STEERSMAN
PEQSEMI
29. ROWER
pEC^-OCEp ?
m; y
30. KING
D\pO
X
u/
y
31. CONDITION ^
JHET. . . |
<n
32. KINGDOM
JAETDTpo
47. MUNIFICENT
peqNANeq
48. GRE AT
(Nivyv, NAS.
49. OTHERS
KENCEOTNI
50. CALLED
ETNCC
<o)“Ca/
<Shi 41QIl > *
^0; Ou, nn
C-i f' 1^52222111®^
S .^ 3 Kj ?
? S T o,
w
33. LIBATION ,ts
COTEN V^OA
34. CEREMONY
35. PRIEST %& I
OYI (.4.1*0,Vi feC 1
//r*
\
51. DECLARATION I
CCiD,2«m
52. MANIFEST ^
ETC OXEN _ ||f|
o
53. NAME
pAN
K
^ Q a3 54. ENLIGHTENING
II ^ I PECEPOTOJINI /i\
17. VENERABLE C
.MiyT'NAi vr :*
18. RITE
n ETC in E
ij s
36. PRIESTHOOD,
jaetoyhA
37. . SACERDOTAL*
NTE NI20NT
pEqepi
55. LOVING
M&I.UENpMT
O
n>
,G C/'V * 56. PRESERVER f5, f Y
\ , I E-0-N02EJA 1 , [ , I, I
57. SET UP
TA3 0 Ep&T
Hj[H]]|niiLnnng«
e*1
58. PREPARE
CEATE
il'.illlluiilS,
mV?
;. , «■ , - f ^
" U 'A C I YPHICS.
PLATE CCLXXXV.
Eruf^by G.Aikman.Edui
Doubtful. Probable. Certain,.
HIEROGLYPHICS.
PLATE CCLXXXV.
PHONETIC ALPHABET.
Eng* by f.Aikman.Edin.r
PLATE PCLXTCTVI'
O
cO
PLATE CCLXJTVM.
HORS K
PLATE
CCLXXXVIIT.
4
13, THIGH.
14, HO CK.
15, SHANK, OR CANNON.
IS. FETLOCK.
17, EASTERN.
18, SHOULDER BONE, OR SCAPULA
19, ELBOW.
20, FORE THIGH, OR ARM.
21, KNEE.
22, CORONET.
23, HO OF.
24, POINT OF THE HOCK.
25, HAM STRING.
THE HORSE,
WITH HIS POINTS MARKED.
.. MUZZLE, PARTS ABOUT
THE MOUTH.
GULLET.
. WIND PIPE.
CREST.
WETHERS.
CHEST, OR COUNTER.
GIRTH.
BACK.
LOINS.
HIP OR, ILIUM.
CROUP.
HAUNCH, OR QUARTERS.
H O R S 1
PLATE rCLXXXJX.
THE HACKNEY.
PLATE CCLXXXTX.
Eng d by GAifcman
FROM A PAINTING BY A. CO OPER,RA_.
' j
C. II. J. SmtUL. 2*Ia/mt’r, Del ?
HORTICULTURE.
PLATE CCXCI.
HORTICULTURE.
PLATE CCXC11.
Smith. Planner. JJeJ*
PLATE C CAT III.
HORTICULTURE.
'
n
HOUND. PLATE CCXCIY.
FOXHOUND.
“Noseguy',’ tlie property of Tlte Earl of Kmtore.